writing journals

have to write journals by observing the lectures

MKTG-6018 Rubric for Journal Writing
Task Description:

Criteria
w

ei
gh

t Exemplary
Yes (4-5)

Accomplished
Yes, but (2-3)

Developing
No, but (1)

Beginning
No (0)

Retelling of
Experience

20%

 Detailed explanation of
experience

 Specific descriptors of
observations during
experience

 Writing is highly
organized with logical
sequence

 Clear explanation of
experience

 Objective observation of
experience

 Organization is clear and
easy to follow

 Somewhat clear
explanation of
experience

 Somewhat objective
observation of
experience

 Minimal organization

 Vague explanation of
experience

 Non-objective
observation of
experience

 No organization evident;
confusing

Reflections/
Personal
Response

20%

 Reflects well on own
work

 Provides many
examples

 Reflects on own work
 Provides examples

 Some reflection on own
work

 Provides few examples

 Little reflection on own
work

 Provides very few or no
examples

Relevance
to Course
Concepts or
Personal
Experience

20%

 Student listens well in
different contexts;
relates observations to
classroom concepts
and/or personal
experiences

 Student ; relates some
observations to
classroom concepts
and/or personal
experiences

 Makes minimal
reference to what is said
in class or to personal
experience

 Makes no reference to
what is heard in class or
personal experiences

Analysis of
Experience

20%

 Makes many inferences
 Comprehends deeper

meanings
 High level of critical

thinking expressed

 Makes inferences most
of the time

 Usually comprehends
deeper meanings

 Some critical thinking
expressed

 Some inferences are
made

 Comprehends surface
level meaning

 Minimal critical thinking
expressed

 Few or no inferences are
made

 No comprehension or
reflection on assignment

 Little or no evidence of
critical thinking

Effort on
Assignment

20%
 Obvious, detailed effort

on assignment
 Neat, legible handwriting

 Acceptable effort on all
parts of the assignment

 Legible handwriting

 Some effort on
assignment

 Readable handwriting

 Little or no effort on
assignment

 Illegible handwriting

Assignment Score __________/25____ + Holistic score __________/10____ = Final Score

MKTG-6018

OBSERVATION JOURNAL (15%)
V I A

D I S C U S S I O N B O A R D

What is it?

• An academic journal is a place for self-examination, speculation, and discussion of ideas—your
own and those of others. It is an opportunity for dialogue with yourself. Your academic journal
should be focused toward this course.

• Use the journal to record responses to reading and preparation for class each week. Make
summaries or analyze some specific texts. Try making connections between the ideas from
class/readings and related experiences.

• The point of keeping a journal in a college course is to find a way to engage the subject matter
of the course over the progress of the semester—in essence, to build on your own encounters
with subject matter over an extended period of time.

What and when to write

• You should write on a regular basis (at least once a week) and as preparation for class each
week.

• Field observations should be clearly labeled with the date, the location, and the focus of the
observation.

• Include your experiences, list in this journal — including people’s name, location of observation,
and date of observation.

• Be ambitious! Ponder thoughtfully; then write.
• You may include sketches, photos, interviews, etc.

Writing style

• I will be concerned with your ability to explain and present your ideas rather than with the
formality or technical precision of your writing.

• Entries should be legible (at minimum)
• Develop your thoughts as fully as possible.
• And remember class members will read your observations and you might have an impact upon

their lives.

Evaluation

• Entries will be evaluated for their quality of communication.
• If you deal regularly and effectively with the materials for class in the journal (including the

assigned topics), you will receive a B on the journal. If entries show strong evidence of grappling
with issues, of a quest for understanding, and/or of effort to develop and support views, you will
receive an A on the journal.

• Journals will be collected and evaluated throughout the semester.
o Completeness on an ongoing basis
o Quality of presentation
o Depth of observation and insight
o Evidence of reflection on class topics

Via Discussion Board

Chapter 2

Motivation

, Ability, and
Opportunity

Learning Objectives

1. Show how motivation influences high-effort
behavior, high-effort information processing and
decision-making, and felt involvement

2. Discuss the four types of influences that
determine the consumer’s motivation to process
information, make a decision, or take an action

Learning Objectives (continued)

3. Explain how financial, cognitive, emotional,
physical, and social and cultural resources, plus
age and education, can affect the individual’s
ability to engage in consumer behaviors

4. Identify the three main types of influences on
the consumer’s opportunity to process
information and acquire, consume, or dispose of
products

Motivation

Inner state of activation that provides energy
needed to achieve a goal
Consumers can be motivated to acquire, use,
or dispose of an offering

Consumer Motivation
and Effects

High-effort behavior
– Drives that bring a goal closer and creates a

willingness to spend time and money
High-effort information processing and
decision-making

Motivated reasoning: Processing
information in a way that allows consumers to
reach the conclusion they want to reach

Consumer Motivation
and Effects (continued 1)

Felt involvement
– Consumer’s experience of being motivated

with respect to products or services, or
decisions and actions regarding these

– Types of involvement
• Enduring
• Situational (temporary)
• Cognitive
• Affective
• Response

Consumer Motivation
and Effects (continued 2)

Objects of involvement
– Product or retail category
– Experiences
– Brands
– Ads
– Medium

Drivers of Motivation

• Something that has direct bearing on self that has
potentially significant consequence or implication

Personal relevance

• Mental view of who one is

Self-concept

• Abstract, enduring beliefs about what is right or wrong,
important, or good or bad

Values

• Internal state of tension experienced as a
discrepancy between current and ideal state
(physical or psychological)

Need

• Outcome one would like to achieve
• Can be concrete or abstract and promotion-

focused or prevention-focused

Goal

Drivers of Motivation (continued)

Exhibit 2.3 – Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs

Exhibit 2.4 – Categorizing Needs

Types of Need Conflicts

• About acquiring or consuming an offering that fulfills one need
but fails to fulfill another

Approach-avoidance conflict

• About which offering to acquire when each can satisfy an
important but different need

Approach-approach conflict

• About which offering to acquire when neither can satisfy an
important and different need

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Goals and Emotion

Appraisal theory
– Proposes that emotions are based on individuals’

assessment of a situation or an outcome and its
relevance to his or her goals

– Posits that emotions are affected by the
normative or moral compatibility, certainty, and
agency

Positive and negative emotions experienced
during or after consuming a product or
service change in time or get satiated

Goals and Emotion (continued)

Self-control conflicts arise when individuals
face decisions about actions related to goals
that are in conflict
– Self-control: Regulates feelings, thoughts,

and behavior in line with long-term goals
– Ego depletion: Outcome of decision-making

effort that results in mental resources being
exhausted

Marketing Implications
of Needs and Goals

Enhancing motivation to process
communications
Product development and positioning
Encouraging specific behaviors

Perceived Risk

Extent to which the consumer anticipates:
– Negative consequences of an action to emerge
– Positive consequences to not emerge

Tends to be high because of:
– New offering
– High price
– Complex technology
– Brand differentiation
– Little confidence or experience in evaluation
– Opinions of others and fear of judgment

Types of Perceived Risk

Performance
Financial
Physical or safety
Social
Psychological
Time

Inconsistency with Attitudes

Motivation to process information is:
– High when information is moderately

inconsistent with one’s attitude
– Low when information is highly inconsistent

with one’s prior attitude

Consumer Ability and
Opportunity

Ability
– Factors that affect consumers’ ability to

process information and make decision
• Financial, cognitive, emotional, physical, social,

cultural resources, education, and age
Key influences in consumer opportunity
– Lack of time, distraction, and the amount,

complexity, repetition, and control of
information

Marketing Implication of
Enhancing Information Processing

Repeating marketing communications
Reducing time pressure
Reducing time needed for purchase and learn
about a product or service
Providing information

Consumer Motivation �and Effects
Consumer Motivation �and Effects (continued 1)
Consumer Motivation �and Effects (continued 2)

Drivers of Motivation

Slide Number 9
Exhibit 2.3 – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Exhibit 2.4 – Categorizing Needs
Types of Need Conflicts
Goals and Emotion
Goals and Emotion (continued)

Marketing Implications �of Needs and Goals

Perceived Risk
Types of Perceived Risk
Inconsistency with Attitudes

Consumer Ability and Opportunity
Marketing Implication of Enhancing Information Processing

Chapter 3

From

Exposure

to Comprehension

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss why marketers are concerned about
consumers’ exposure to marketing stimuli and what
tactics they use to enhance exposure

2. Explain the characteristics of attention and how
marketers can try to attract and sustain consumers’
attention with products and marketing messages

3. Describe the major senses that are part of perception
and outline why marketers are concerned about
consumers’ sensory perceptions

4. Discuss the process of comprehension, and outline how
marketing-mix elements can affect consumer inferences
about products and brands

Exposure

Consumer comes into physical contact with a
stimulus
Marketing stimuli: Information about
offerings communicated by the marketer or
by nonmarketing sources
Factors of influence
– Position of an ad within a medium
– Product distribution
– Shelf placement

Selective Exposure

Zipping: Fast-forwarding through
commercials on a program recorded earlier
Zapping: Switching channels during
commercial breaks
Cord-cutting – Choosing streaming services
over cable television

Focal and Nonfocal Attention

Focal attention – Consumers focus on a
stimulus
Nonfocal attention – Consumers are
simultaneously exposed to other stimuli
Preattentive processing: Non-conscious
processing of stimuli
– Leads to liking a brand name

• Appealing to one’s needs, values, emotions, or goals

Personal relevance

• Using attractive models, music, and humor

Pleasantness

Characteristics of Stimulus That
Attract Consumer Attention

• Using novelty, unexpectedness, and puzzles

Element of surprise

• Prominence and concreteness of stimuli
• Limited number of competing stimuli
• Contrast with competing stimuli

Easy to process

Characteristics of Stimulus That
Attract Consumer Attention (continued)

Perception

Determining the properties of stimuli using
vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch
Factors in visual perception
– Size and shape
– Lettering
– Image location on package
– Color
– Appearance of being new or worn

Consumers’ Stimuli
Perception

• Minimal level of stimulus intensity needed to detect stimulus

Absolute thresholds

• Intensity difference needed between two stimuli before they are
perceived to be different

• Weber’s law: Stronger the initial stimulus, greater the additional
intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different

Differential thresholds (just noticeable difference)

• Activation of sensory receptors by stimuli presented below the
perceptual threshold

Subliminal perception

Perceptual Organization

Process by which stimuli are organized into
meaningful units
Figure and ground: People interpret stimuli
in the context of a background
Closure: Individuals’ need to organize
perceptions so that they form a meaningful
whole

Perceptual Organization
(continued)

Grouping: Tendency to group stimuli to form
a unified picture or impression
Preference for the whole: Perceiving more
value in a whole than in combined parts that
make a whole
– Even if the parts have the same objective

value as the whole

Knowledge to Understand:
Comprehension

Extracting higher-order meaning from what
individuals have perceived in context of what
is already known
Source identification: Determining what
perceived stimulus actually is and what
category it belongs to

Knowledge to Understand:
Comprehension (continued 1)

• Extent to which the consumer accurately
understands the message the sender intends
to communicate

Objective comprehension

• What the consumer understands from the
message, regardless of whether it is accurate

Subjective comprehension

Consumer Inference

Brand names and symbols
– Create subjective comprehension and

inferences
Product features and packaging
− Product attributes
− Country of origin
− Package design

Consumer Inference (continued)

Price
– Culture can influence perceptions of price

and quality
Message wording
Retail atmospherics, display, and distribution

Characteristics of Stimulus That Attract Consumer Attention
Characteristics of Stimulus That Attract Consumer Attention (continued)

Perception

Consumers’ Stimuli Perception

Perceptual Organization

Perceptual Organization (continued)
Knowledge to Understand: Comprehension
Knowledge to Understand: Comprehension (continued 1)

Consumer Inference
Consumer Inference (continued)

Chapter 3

How Under Armour Gets Noticed

The Nike [http://bi.galegroup.com/essentials/company/306325?u=tlearn_trl] swoosh may be one

of the most recognized logos in the world of sports, but the Under Armour

[http://bi.galegroup.com/essentials/company/956606?u=tlearn_trl] logo (an interlocking U and

A) is increasingly in the spotlight as the company gets noticed on and off the field. Founded in

1996 by Kevin Plank, once a member of the University of Maryland’s football team, Under

Armour designs apparel and gear to help athletes feel and do their best in hot or cold weather, in

sports arenas or on the track. How can a latecomer to a fast-growing industry dominated by

global giants such as Nike get noticed?

A little-known brand name was only one of Under Armour’s early challenges. Another was

that many of its first products (such as undershirts that wick away moisture) were not actually

visible to onlookers. In contrast, the logos of competing brands were visible and often prominent

on athletic shoes, shirts, and caps. So the company initially positioned itself as “a brand for the

next generation of athletes.” Whereas Nike was sponsoring well-known, established athletes,

Under Armour’s sponsorships went to up-and-comers known for their dedication and athleticism.

Its first endorsement deal was with a Dallas Cowboys football player who had been at University

of Maryland with Under Armour’s founder. More recently, the company’s performance apparel

has been spotted on endorsers such as Heather Mitts (soccer), Cam Newtown (football), and

Derrick Williams (basketball).

As its sponsored athletes do well, and their teams win games and even championships, Under

Armour’s brand gains attention and visibility. Although not every rising star becomes a sports

http://bi.galegroup.com/essentials/company/306325?u=tlearn_trl

http://bi.galegroup.com/essentials/company/956606?u=tlearn_trl

legend, the brand still gets exposure as these athletes receive media coverage, become

established in their sports, and appear in Under Armour ads. Now that the company rings up

more than $1 billion in yearly revenue from the sale of clothing, footwear, and accessories for

men, women, and children, it can also afford some high-profile deals, such as being endorsed by

Tom Brady of the New England Patriots.

The Under Armour website features the brand mission—“Make all athletes better”—and

puts its “Universal guarantee of performance” in a conspicuous position, offering a full refund if

customers are ever dissatisfied with a product for any reason. The diversity of models and

athletes on the Under Armour site and in its ads, often shown participating in a sport, invites a

broad range of consumers to identify with the brand.

The close ties between Under Armour and the University of Maryland have led to additional

opportunities for brand and product exposure. To grab attention and sell more team merchandise,

college and professional football teams are switching to more fashionable uniforms and gear,

with flashier colors and styles. As part of this trend, Under Armour has designed 32 different

items for football players at the University of Maryland to wear. Fans, competing teams, and the

media can’t help but notice the eye-catching combinations of shirts, pants, and helmets worn by

team members on different days—with Under Armour’s now-familiar logo on each item.

What’s ahead for Under Armour? The company is expanding into Europe and beyond, relying

on distribution and marketing communications to reach more consumers, both casual and serious

athletes. It is using social media such as YouTube [https://www.youtube.com/user/underarmour],

Twitter [https://twitter.com/UnderArmour], and Facebook

[https://www.facebook.com/Underarmour/] to engage consumers, showcase its sports endorsers,

https://www.youtube.com/user/underarmour

Tweets by UnderArmour

https://www.facebook.com/Underarmour/

and increase brand and product visibility. Just as important, new products are in the pipeline,

along with new technology that enhances Under Armour’s differentiation.i

i Chris Sorenson, “An Underdog with Attitude,” Maclean’s, September 12, 2011, p. 46; Rosemary
Feitelberg, “Under Armour’s Unofficial All-Star Team,” WWD, December 1, 2011, p. 12c;
Andrea K. Walker, “Under Armour’s Rookie Strategy for Endorsement Deals,” Baltimore Sun, July
25, 2011, www.baltimoresun.com; and “Football or Fashion Show?” New York Times, October
24, 2011, p. 4.

Chapter 5

Attitudes

Based on
High Consumer Effort

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss how marketers can apply various
cognitive models to understand consumers’
attitudes based on high-effort thought processes

2. Describe some of the methods for using the
communication source and the message to
favorably influence consumers’ attitudes in high-
effort situations

3. Identify the emotional foundations of attitudes
when consumers’ processing effort is high

Learning Objectives (continued)

4. Explain how and why a company might try to
change consumers’ attitudes by influencing their
feelings

5. Outline the three main factors that lead to a
positive overall consumer attitude toward an
advertisement

6. Discuss the various elements that can affect
whether a consumer’s attitudes will influence his
or her behavior

Attitudes

Relatively global and enduring evaluation of
an object, issue, person, or action
Influences thoughts, feelings, and behavior
– Cognitive function
– Affective function
– Connative function

Characteristics of Attitudes

Favorability Accessibility Confidence

Persistence Resistance Ambivalence

Exhibit 5.1 – Approaches to
Attitude Formation and Change

Cognitive Foundations
of Attitudes

Direct or imagined experience
Reasoning by analogy or category
Values-driven attitudes
Social identity-based attitude generation
Analytic processes of attitude construction

Cognitive Responses to
Communication

Cognitive response: Thought individuals have
in response to a communication
− Counterargument (CA): Thought that

disagrees with the message
− Support arguments (SA): Thought that agrees

with the message
− Source derogations (SD): Thought that

discounts or attacks the source of the message

Expectancy-Value Models

Explain how consumer attitudes form and
change based on:
– Beliefs or knowledge about an object or action
– Evaluations of these particular beliefs

Theory of reasoned action (TORA): Model
that provides an explanation of how, when, and
why attitudes predict behavior
– Normative influences play a significant role in

how people behave

Components of the TORA
Model

Behavior (B): What one does
Behavioral intention (BI): What one intends to
do
– Determined by:

• Attitude toward the act (Aact): How one feels
about doing something

• Subjective norms (SN): How others feel about
another person doing something

Marketing Implications on
Changing Consumer Attitudes

Strategies for changing attitudes, intentions,
and behavior
– Changing beliefs
– Changing evaluations
– Adding a new belief
– Encouraging attitude formation based on

imagined experience
– Targeting normative beliefs

• Source credibility – Trustworthiness, expertise, and status
• Company reputation
• Sleeper effect: Consumers forget the source of a

message faster than the message

Communication source

• Strong argument: Features the central merits of an
offering in a convincing manner

• One-sided messages: Only positive information
• Two-sided messages: Positive and negative information
• Comparative message: Direct comparisons with

competitors

Message

How Cognitively Based
Attitudes Are Influenced

Affective (Emotional)
Foundations of Attitudes

High affective involvement leads to
emotional engagement with a stimulus
Affective response: Generation of
feelings and images in response to a
message
Emotional appeal: Message designed to
elicit an emotional response

How Affectively Based
Attitudes Are Influenced

Source
– Attractiveness: Evokes favorable attitudes if a

source is physically attractive, likable, familiar,
or similar to the consumer

– Match-up hypothesis: Idea that the source
must match the product or service

Message
– Emotional appeals – Elicit emotions that

attract consumers

How Affectively Based
Attitudes Are Influenced (continued)
– Emotional contagion: Message designed to

induce consumers to vicariously experience an
emotion

– Fear appeals: Stress negative consequences
• Terror management theory (TMT): Deals with

how individuals cope with threat of death by
defending their worldview of values and beliefs

Attitude Toward the Ad (Aad)

Whether the consumer likes or dislikes an ad
Dimensions
– Utilitarian (functional): When an ad provides

information
– Hedonic: When an ad creates positive or

negative feelings

What Do Attitudes Predict
Behavior
Factors

Level of involvement or elaboration

Knowledge and experience

Analysis of reasons

Accessibility of attitudes

Attitude confidence

Specificity of attitudes

Attitude-behavior relationship over time

Emotional attachment

Situational factors

Normative factors

Personality variables

Exhibit 5.1 – Approaches to Attitude Formation and Change
Cognitive Foundations �of Attitudes
Cognitive Responses to Communication

Expectancy-Value Models

Components of the TORA Model
Marketing Implications on Changing Consumer Attitudes
How Cognitively Based �Attitudes Are Influenced
Affective (Emotional) Foundations of Attitudes
How Affectively Based �Attitudes Are Influenced
How Affectively Based �Attitudes Are Influenced (continued)
Attitude Toward the Ad (Aad)
What Do Attitudes Predict Behavior

Chapter 7

Problem Recognition

and
Information Search

Learning Objectives

1. Describe how consumers recognize a consumption
problem and show why marketers must understand
this part of the decision-making process

2. Discuss what happens when consumers conduct an
internal search to solve a consumption problem and
identify some of the ways in which marketers can
affect internal searches

3. Explain why and how consumers conduct an
external search to solve a consumption problem,
and highlight the main implications for marketing
strategy

Problem Recognition

Ideal state
– Where individuals

want to be

Actual state
– Where individuals

are now

Internal Search

Searching for information from memory
Degree of internal search varies
Kinds of information recalled
– Brands
– Attributes
– Evaluations
– Experiences

Brand Recall

Consideration or evoked set: Subset of top-of-
mind brands evaluated when making a choice
– Varies in terms of:

• Size
• Stability
• Variety
• Preference dispersion

Brand Recall (continued)

Factors that increase the possibility of
consumers’ recalling a particular brand
– Prototypicality
– Brand familiarity
– Goals and usage situations
– Brand preference
– Retrieval cues

Attribute Recall

Accessibility/availability
Diagnosticity
Salience
Vividness
Goals

Is Internal
Search Accurate?

Confirmation bias
– Drawing attention to negatives of competition

Inhibition
– Consumers do not always consider key aspects
– Consumers recall other attributes that are more

accessible
– Mood

• Enhancing the recall of positive attribute
information through the use of humor or
attractive visuals

Sources of External
Information

Retailer Media and social media

Interpersonal Independent

Experiential Internet

Information Processing

Influenced by:
– Motivation
– Ability
– Opportunity

Motivation to Process
Information

Involvement and perceived risk
Perceived costs and benefits
Consideration set
Relative brand uncertainty
Attitudes toward search
Discrepancy of information

Ability to Process Information

Consumer knowledge
Cognitive abilities
Consumer affect
Demographics

Opportunity to
Process Information

Amount of information available
Information format
Time availability
Number of items being chosen

Information Acquired
in External Search

Brand name
Price
Other attributes that are salient and
diagnostic

Is Internal �Search Accurate?
Sources of External Information

Information Processing

Motivation to Process Information

Ability to Process Information

Opportunity to �Process Information
Information Acquired �in External Search

Chapter 8

Judgment and Decision-Making
Based on High Effort

Learning Objectives

1. Distinguish between judgment and decision-
making, and indicate why both processes are
important to marketers

2. Describe the types of decisions consumers face in
situations where motivation, ability, and
opportunity to process are high

3. Identify two types of cognitive decision-making
models and understand how consumers make
decisions based on brands, product attributes,
and gains and losses

Learning Objectives (continued)

4. Explain how affective decision-making models
differ from cognitive decision-making models, and
discuss the role of appraisals and feelings,
affective forecasting, and imagery in high-effort
decisions

5. Discuss why, in a high-effort situation, consumers
may delay a decision, and show how they make
decisions when alternatives cannot be compared

6. Outline the ways that consumer characteristics,
decision characteristics, and other people can
influence high-effort decisions

High-Effort Judgment
Processes

Judgment: Evaluation of an object or
estimation of likelihood of an outcome or
event
Decision-making: Making a selection among
options or activities
– Estimation of likelihood
– Judgment of goodness or badness

• Anchoring and adjustment: Starting with
initial evaluation and adjusting it with additional
information

High-Effort Judgment Processes

(continued)

• Imagery: Imagining an event in order to make
judgments

– Mental accounting: Categorizing spending
and saving decisions into accounts mentally
designated for specific consumption
transactions, goal, or situations

– Emotional accounting: Intensity of positive or
negative feelings associated with each mental
account for saving or spending

Biases in Judgment Processes

Confirmation

Self-positivity

Negativity

Mood

Prior brand evaluations

Prior experience

Difficulty of mental calculations

High-Effort Consumer Decisions

Deciding which brands to consider
– Options fall under inept set, inert set, and

consideration set
• Attraction effect: Addition of inferior brands to a

consideration set increases the attractiveness of
dominant brands

Deciding what is important to the choice
– Goals
– Time
– Decision framing

High-Effort Consumer Decisions
(continued)

Deciding what brand to choose
– Cognitive decision-making model

• Consumers combine items of information about
attributes to reach a decision

– Affective decision-making model
• Consumers base their decision on feelings and

emotions
Deciding whether to make a decision now
Deciding when alternatives cannot be
compared

Exhibit 8.5 – Types of Cognitive
Choice Models

Brand versus Attribute Models

Brand processing Attribute processing

Multiattribute expectancy-value
model: Type of brand-based
compensatory model

Additive difference model: Brands
are compared by attribute, two
brands at a time

Conjunctive model: Sets minimum
cutoffs to reject bad options

Lexicographic model: Compares
brands by attributes, one at a time in
order of importance

Disjunctive model: Sets acceptable
cutoffs to find options that are good

Elimination-by-aspects model:
Similar to lexicographic model but
adds the notion of acceptable cutoffs

Decisions Based on Gains and
Losses

Prospect theory
– Losses have more influence than gains
– Endowment effect: Ownership increases the

value of an item
– Consumers have stronger reaction to price

increases than price decreases

High-Effort
Feeling-Based Decisions

Consumers tend to be more satisfied after
making a feeling-based decision
Emotions aid thought-based decisions
Brands can be associated with positive or
negative emotions

Affective Decision-Making

Appraisal theory explains:
– How one’s emotions are determined by how one

appraises the situation
– How and why certain emotions can affect future

judgments and choices
Affective forecasting: Predicts how one will
feel in the future
Imagery: Consumer imagines consuming a
product or service
– Plays a key role in emotional decision-making

Additional
High-Effort Decisions

Decision delay occurs if the decision is risky,
uncertain, or involves an unpleasant task
Noncomparable decision: Making decisions
about products or services from different
categories
– Alternative-based strategy: Choice based on

overall evaluation
– Attribute-based strategy: Choice based on

abstract representations of comparable
attributes

Consumer Characteristics and
Decisions

Expertise
– Detailed consumption vocabularies

Good mood
– Allows one to process information and more

time to make a decision
Time pressure
– Leads to consumers’ failure to make intended

purchases

Consumer Characteristics and
Decisions (continued)

Extremeness aversion: Options extreme on
some attributes are less attractive than those
with a moderate level of those attributes

• Compromise effect: Brand gains share as it is
an intermediate than an extreme option

• Attribute balancing: Picking a brand because
it scores equally well on certain attributes

Metacognitive experiences: How
information is processed beyond content of
the decision

Decision Characteristics
Affecting Decision Making

Information availability

Information format

Trivial attributes

Group Decision Making

Individual-alone goals – Goals attained by an
individual’s action alone
Individual-group goals – Goals achieved based
on actions of an individual and a group

High-Effort Judgment Processes (continued)

Biases in Judgment Processes
High-Effort Consumer Decisions

High-Effort Consumer Decisions (continued)
Exhibit 8.5 – Types of Cognitive �Choice Models

Brand versus Attribute Models

Decisions Based on Gains and Losses
High-Effort �Feeling-Based Decisions

Affective Decision-Making

Additional� High-Effort Decisions
Consumer Characteristics and Decisions
Consumer Characteristics and Decisions (continued)
Decision Characteristics �Affecting Decision Making

Group Decision Making

Chapter 10

Post-Decision Processes

Learning Objectives

1. Distinguish between the dissonance and the regret
that consumers may experience after acquisition,
consumption, or disposition

2. Explain how consumers can learn from experience
and why marketers need to understand this post-
decision process

3. Discuss what happens when consumers experience
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their decisions
about acquisition, consumption, or disposition

Learning Objectives (continued)

4. Outline the ways in which consumers may respond
to dissatisfaction, and highlight the importance to
marketers

5. Discuss whether customer satisfaction alone is
enough to maintain customer loyalty

6. Describe how consumers may dispose of something,
why this process is more complex for meaningful
objects, and what influences consumer recycling
behavior

Post-Decision Dissonance
and Regret

• Feeling of discomfort about whether or not the
correct decision was made

Post-decision dissonance

• Negative feeling that one should have made
another purchase, consumption, or disposition
decision than one actually did

Post-decision regret

Factors Affecting
Learning from Experience

Motivation

Prior knowledge or ability

Ambiguity of information or lack of opportunity

Processing biases

Marketing Implication of
Processing Bias

Top dog strategies Underdog strategies
Market leader or brand with a
large market share

Lower-share brand

Limitation on learning new
information during low motivation
is beneficial

Instigating learning through
comparison during low motivation

Blocking exposure to evidence to
avoid consumers from getting
new information

Creating expectations and using
promotion to provide actual
experience for consumers

Explaining experience by
reinforcing the messages and
encouraging consumers to try the
brand

Consumer Judgments

Consumers evaluate the outcomes after
making acquisition, consumption, or
disposition decisions
– Satisfaction: Decision meets or exceeds

one’s expectations
– Dissatisfaction: Decision falls short of one’s

expectations
Utilitarian and hedonic
– Dimensions on which consumers are satisfied

or dissatisfied

Thought-Based Judgments of
Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction

Can relate to:
– Whether consumers’ beliefs and expectations

about the offering are confirmed or
disconfirmed by its actual performance

– Thoughts about:
• Causality and blame
• Fairness and equity

Attribution Theory

Describes how individuals find explanations
for events
Based on stability, focus, and controllability
Ways to increase consumers’ positive post-
decision feelings
– Providing value-added services
– Using promotions and special deals

Equity Theory

Concerns about the fairness of exchanges
between individuals
Helps in understanding consumer satisfaction
and dissatisfaction
Perception of inputs and outputs are
exchanged between consumers and sellers
– Fairness in exchange: Perception that the inputs

and outputs of people involved in an exchange are
equal

Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction
Based on Feelings

Post-decision emotions: Emotions
experienced while using or disposing of the
acquired brands, products, or services
Dissatisfied consumers need to cope with
feelings of stress
Affective forecasting – Consumers tend to be
more dissatisfied when a product:
– Fails to perform as they thought it

would

– Makes them feel worse than they forecasted it

would

Responses to Dissatisfaction

Complaining
Responding to service recovery
Engaging in negative word-of-mouth
communication

Steps to Retain Customers

Caring about customers
Remembering customers between sales
Building trusting relationships
Monitoring service-delivery process
Providing extra effort

Disposing of Meaningful Objects

• Physical disposal of an item

Physical detachment

• Emotional disposal of a possession

Emotional detachment

Recycling Behavior

Depends on:
– Motivation
– Ability
– Opportunity

� Post-Decision Dissonance and Regret
Factors Affecting �Learning from Experience
Marketing Implication of Processing Bias

Consumer Judgments

Thought-Based Judgments of Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction

Attribution Theory
Equity Theory

Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction �Based on Feelings

Responses to Dissatisfaction
Steps to Retain Customers
Disposing of Meaningful Objects
Recycling Behavior

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