week 5 Discussion Question EDU525

Week 5 Discussion Question

“Programs, Services, and Activities” Please respond to the following:

o Research volunteer organizations within your community. (I’m in Tennessee) is my community

o Select one (1) organization of interest to you and discuss why you would volunteer at this organization and its primary focus.

o If you were provided funding, how would you expand this organization?

o Your organization should not be one already selected by another student. Provide the website link to the organization.

Need to provide reference as well as the link of the organization you use

Week 5 Discussion Question

“Programs, Services, and Activities” Please respond to the following:

. Research volunteer organizations within your community. (I’m in Tennessee) is my community

. Select one (1) organization of interest to you and discuss why you would volunteer at this organization and its primary focus.

. If you were provided funding, how would you expand this organization?

. Your organization should not be one already selected by another student. Provide the website link to the organization.

Need to provide reference as well as the link of the organization you use

RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

Adult Literacy Programs
Adult Education > Adult Literacy Programs

Abstract

This article presents information on adult literacy programs
in the U.S. Literacy is defined as a skill base that includes
numeracy acquisition, problem solving, and hinges upon one’s
functionality. The concept has evolved from the mere acquisition
of reading and writing skills to a broader, more encompassing
view of literacy that is based on an understanding of how adults
function in today’s society and the increasingly complex skill
base required to perform successfully.

Overview

At one point in time, on a basic level, adult literacy was simply
considered the acquisition of reading and writing skills that
mature individuals needed in order to function in a developed
society. However, according to the National Assessment of Adult
Literacy, literacy today “is not a single skill or quality that one
either possesses or lacks. Rather, it encompasses various types
of skills that different individuals possess to varying degrees”
(“National Assessment,” 2007, p1). The Workforce Investment
Act of 1998 determined that those types of skills might include
“an individual’s ability to read, write, speak in English, compute,
and solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary to func-
tion on the job, in the family of the individual, and in society”
(“Workforce,” p. 127).

National Institute of Literacy
However, the National Institute for Literacy (NIL) recognizes
that there are also “different levels and types of literacy, which
reflect the ability to perform a wide variety of tasks using writ-
ten materials that differ in nature and complexity” (White &
Dillow, 2005, p. 3). For example, using the National Assess-
ment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) instrument, the NIL was able
to probe three specific literacy areas in adults: prose, document,
and quantitative. Thus, the NAAL tasks reflect “a definition of
literacy that emphasizes the use of written materials to function
adequately in one’s environment and develop as an individual”
(White & Dillow, 2005, p. 3). Based on the premise that all
adults in this country must perform certain literacy tasks in order
to “adequately function,” the NAAL measures “the ability of a
nationally representative sample of adults to perform literacy
tasks similar to those that they would encounter in their daily
lives” (White & Dillow, 2005, p. 3). That task might well be
the replication of one’s ability to read a map, pay the telephone
bill, balance a checkbook, or read and understand a few lines of
poetry.

Defining Literacy

This broader view of literacy is a more balanced approach and
integrates the increasing technology demands of society today,
where the skills needed to function include, but far surpass, mere
reading and writing. Adult literacy entails a certain proficiency
that includes daily problem-solving and perhaps a level of matu-
rity displayed by dialectical thinking or interpersonal savvy. In

Abstract

Overview
National Institute of Literacy

Defining Literacy

Adult Literacy

Applications

Purposes & Practices

Texts & the Context of Learning

Formal & Informal Setting for Learning

Activities & Real Life Scenarios

Teaching “Alphabetics”

Developing Fluency

Developing Vocabulary

Further Insights

In Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

Adult Literacy Programs

order to be considered even minimally ‘literate,’ a person has
always needed to maintain a basic level of reading and writing
proficiency. Yet, now that the concept itself is much broader in
scope, as the world changes and advances, the issue is less one
of definition, but more of a consensus as to how literacy might
be measured in adults.

While the aforementioned definitions view literacy as one’s abil-
ity to perform certain tasks in order to achieve certain goals, to
develop self and, ultimately, to make one’s way in society, these
definitions would also seem to indicate that the skills needed to
be literate can be readily acquired. Certainly, literacy in a tra-
ditional sense is basically about one’s ability to read, write and
function, but these skills are not acquired acontextually. Literacy
is a set of skills required for one to successfully maneuver in
society, and this type of successful maneuvering becomes ever
more a complex notion, given our global economy and the
impact of technology.

Adult Literacy
Researchers involved with the Literacy Practices of Adult
Learners Study (1998), focused on and studied those literacy
programs that best enabled adult students to read and write.
These researchers want to categorize programs throughout the
nation whose outcomes feature an adult learner who is encour-
aged to write and read consistently and with greater complexity.
Consistency of the reading material and complexity of the
matter become focal points and serve as a gauge or measure of
literacy success.

The NIL also focuses on reading ability alone as a key com-
ponent of literacy acquisition, but not the sole component.
This organization’s Adult Reading Components Study (ARCS)
has produced an assessment tool based on 11 components that
contribute to one’s total reading and comprehension ability. A
pattern or level of reading component is then revealed, since
the overarching goal of one’s reading is comprehension of that
which was read.

Ultimately, literacy may be defined as a skill base that includes
numeracy acquisition and problem solving for daily living, but
also hinges upon functionality. This is akin to the NIL’s three
literacy categories mentioned previously: prose, document, and
quantitative literacy. Prose literacy refers to the skill set needed
to read and comprehend “continuous texts,” such as editorials,
news stories, and brochures. Document literacy refers to the
knowledge required to use “noncontinuous texts” in various
ways, such as maps, job applications, or payroll forms. Quantita-
tive literacy would be required for prose or document literacy.
It refers to the numbers embedded in certain printed matter, and
the numeracy skills that may be required to determine how these
numbers fit into the general scheme of the text. Thus, the liter-
ate individual is one who is able to meet literacy demands at
home, in the workplace, and in the society by performing prose,
document, and quantitative tasks (National Assessment of Adult
Literacy, 2007).

Applications

Certain organizations, such as the Council for Adult and Expe-
riential Learning (CAEL), a national non-profit organization
that focuses on creating effective learning strategies for work-
ing adults, view literacy development through the dual lens of
labor and access to postsecondary education. The Council, via its
Adult Learning Focused Institution, seeks to help learning adults
improve their literacy skills by helping to improve the colleges,
universities, and employers who support these adult learn-
ers. The Council focuses on the distinct needs of today’s adult
learner who is unwilling or unable to emulate traditional-aged
students either inside or outside the classroom. Adult students
have unique needs, especially if they are employed (CAEL,
2006). One of these distinct needs is the recognition of and need
for experiential and informal learning methods within the class-
room, including assignments that draw upon skills adults use
every day, such as composing a shopping list, reading a map, or
partnering for mock interviews.

For several years, the concept of lifelong learning has entered
the arena of adult literacy development, as well as popular cul-
ture. It has been embraced by many as the hallmark of maturity
because, in our increasingly complex and layered society with
its competitive economy and workforce, learning can never truly
end. Thus, lifelong learning is critical for any adult who wishes
to become and remain a knowledgeable and viable member of
the expanding labor market and a democratic society. To be a
literate adult becomes a dynamic concept.

According to the National Center for the Study of Adult Literacy
and Learning (NCSALL), “More than 40 percent of working-age
adults in the United States lack the skills and education needed to
succeed in family, work, and community life today” (NCSALL,
2005, p1). Moreover, the Longitudinal Study of Adult Learning
(LSAL) states that nontraditional adult students “with limited
formal education, who left high school for whatever reason, are
most in need of opportunity and encouragement for continued
learning” (LSAL, 2007).

Yet, how are adult students provided with the opportunity to
develop their literacy skills? Researchers with the 1998 Literacy
Practices of Adult Learners Study focus on the kinds of literacy
programs that best motivate adult students to read and write often
and with greater complexity. However, the purpose or end result
of literacy development is not always a simple matter with a
single, common bottom line. Some adult program developers and
educators view learning as an end unto itself, while others focus
on learning as a path to social justice or personal transforma-
tion. Adult literacy then becomes a term with special interest and
meaning for various groups with their distinct aims and methods.

Purposes & Practices
The purpose for most adult literacy programs be they formal or
informal, is to encourage and develop the skills necessary for
adults to function in society. The term ‘function’ has been used

Adult Literacy Programs

frequently, but adult learners engaged in literacy development
courses are expected to use what they have learned outside of the
classroom in ways that will better themselves, their families, and
ultimately the community. Thus, the concept of being “function-
ally literate” comes into use.

Issues of pedagogy often inform an educator’s practice. Bra-
zilian educator Paulo Friere viewed education as a socially
charged undertaking. Such educators view social justice as a
goal of literacy development in adults. They believe that adult
education programs should mirror a critical pedagogy that is
focused on the individual, relevant to his or her cultural back-
ground, and yet is also socially empowering (Degener, 2001).
This understanding of the purpose for adult literacy shapes the
educator’s practice.

Some educators and researchers, such as Mezirow (2003), view
literacy education as primarily a personal, transformative experi-
ence that could ultimately lead to social action, but social action
is not necessarily the aim. Other philosophies around adult edu-
cation and adult literacy include the liberal school with its roots
in the Greek philosophers and focus on the western canon; the
humanist philosophy with its emphasis on humanistic or Freud-
ian psychology; the progressive school of social reform; the
behaviorist philosophy with its emphasis on scientific methods
and measurable outcomes; as well as social action theory, a
derivative of Marxist or socialist thinking.

Texts & the Context of Learning
Teaching adults to read and write or just function in society
is quite different from teaching children. There are issues that
adults must contend with in order to begin the process that chil-
dren or younger adults may not have. Emotional factors come
into play, as well as developmental or maturity issues. Other
factors related to adult literacy also must be considered because
they impact one’s readiness for development, as well as the
assessment of adult literacy performance. These factors include
the demographics of the adult (age, race/ethnicity), social and
economic factors, as well as income and education.

Readiness for the teaching-learning transaction is dependent
upon many variables, including social and cultural cues. The
teaching of literacy skills becomes a challenging undertaking
and there is not a single theory or philosophy to explain exactly
how this should occur with adults. One framework, the con-
cept of andragogy, introduced in 1968 by the educator Malcolm
Knowles, focuses on the adult learner and his or her context.
Andragogy, meaning “the art and science of helping adults learn”
(Merriam & Caffarella, 1999) makes five core assumptions
about the nature of learning for adults, contrasted with the way
children learn. Based on these assumptions about the context of
learning for adults, Knowles made several conclusions about the
design and evaluation of adult learning programs. There must
be a certain “adult landscape” or climate present in the formal
classroom. However, because of their particular life situations

and responsibilities, quite often, when adult students are pre-
pared to develop literacy skills in a formal setting, they can only
attend classes or work on their skills for a few hours per week.
This includes those who enroll in a basic education program or
independent adult education program. These are often grassroots
efforts and include literacy groups and for-profit schools.

Formal & Informal Setting for Learning
While the context for learning is often in a formal setting, it may
also occur in an informal setting, such as a church-based or com-
munity center literacy group, often spearheaded by volunteers.
The focus for these groups is often literacy development for
the betterment of the individual and ultimately, the community.
However, some formal postsecondary institutions have been
established exclusively for the adult learner with a mission that
incorporates and accommodates a broad range of educational
philosophies.

What we do know in regard to formal and informal literacy
development, as well as adult learning in general, is that the
context in which the learning takes place influences how adults
are able to learn. Certain literacy programs and practices engage
adult learners more so than others; however, when the text is life
itself, drawing on the experiences of the adult learners, the adult
learner thrives in his or her literacy development. The process of
learning by drawing on this ‘text of life’ or on past experiences
and making connections to current and even future experiences,
cannot be defined outside the scope of the literacy learner’s
experience. Thus, understanding the nature of one’s experi-
ence becomes paramount. This emphasis on experience harkens
back to educator John Dewey, who said, “All genuine education
comes about through experience” (Dewey, 1938, p. 13).

Activities & Real Life Scenarios
Adult literacy learners are in need of texts and activities that use
real-life scenarios. Perhaps more than any other groups of learn-
ers, adult literacy learners need to make immediate connections
between what they are learning in the classroom and what they
are learning or doing in their world of work and family. They
seek “authenticity” in the texts, which is why choosing reading
matter and topics becomes so crucial for the educator. Studies
suggest that those adult literacy learners, who find themselves
in classes where they are actively engaged by the texts, the dis-
cussions, and the instructor, read and write more often and with
greater fluency and comfort.

This type of interaction and motivation on the part of the
learner is also significantly impacted by the degree and nature
of teacher-learner interaction. Studies suggest that adult literacy
education is greatly impacted by the degree to which there is
instructor-learner interaction (Donaldson, 1999; Matus-Gross-
man & Gooden, 2002). Generally, successful adult participants
in any type of literacy program consider their interactions with
faculty, staff, and/or administrators to be positive and an impor-
tant component of their development.

Adult Literacy Programs

Teaching “Alphabetics”
Some current literacy practices in the formal classroom include
the teaching of alphabetics to adult students. The process of
“alphabetics” entails the use of the alphabet to represent spoken
words (Curtis, 2005) and includes phonemic awareness, as well
as word analysis. Some are able to manipulate the sounds of
the English language; others are able to understand that a cer-
tain string of letters represents actual words and even sounds.
They are then able to blend sounds and develop a more complex
awareness of the letters and sounds. Since alphabetics is assessed
orally, illiterate adults are not as intimidated by the process.

Developing Fluency
For the more literate adult, fluency development is more appro-
priate. Fluency is simply the ability to read and write with ease
and understanding. This entails greater accuracy and comfort
with the language and its nuances. Fluency also entails a more
sophisticated understanding of alphabetics, or the decoding pro-
cesses one may utilize. Fluency is an issue for all adult literacy
learners, from the beginner to those at advanced levels. Gen-
erally, it can be measured with standardized tests, but reading
fluency can also be assessed orally, with the experienced educa-
tor gauging the accuracy of the reading, when or if a student
pauses, and the number of words pronounced correctly. Com-
prehension is inferred or more accurately assessed via a written
inventory.

Developing Vocabulary
The teaching of vocabulary is another component of fluency.
Many adult literacy learners have a limited reading and writing
vocabulary, but a much larger speaking vocabulary. This is often
the case with English language learners and beginning literacy
learners. Obviously, the teaching of vocabulary helps in terms of
comprehending what is read or written, but it also helps in terms
of understanding the language decoding process. Literacy learn-
ers must learn not only individual words, but how to decode an
entire sentence as they read texts.

Further Insights

Intergenerational and family literacy, or the impact that the par-
ents’ level of literacy has on the children, is a growing field with
implications for practice and research. In the 1980s, literacy
research began to focus on the family when considering the
context of one’s learning. Already, there was an understanding
of one’s sociolinguistic and cultural milieu in terms of literacy
acquisition skills, but researchers also began to look at the family
in terms of understanding this influence on reading and children’s
early literacy development. Parental involvement and family
literacy became an important field for understanding how indi-
viduals developed (Gadsden, 2002). Family literacy, however,
focused most prominently on children’s literacy issues – particu-
larly poor and ethnic minority children – and, although linked
theoretically to adult literacy, studies exploring implications for

adult learning and literacy have been limited. Yet, family lit-
eracy has been linked to and impacted by adult literacy issues
through various governmental policies and programs. The pri-
mary limitation in this field is that much of the research has not
only focused on poor families, but on mothers and their children.

Critical pedagogy in literacy education has existed in many
forms and is most significant to practice because of its empha-
sis on education for political empowerment. Therefore, because
there is not a focus on teaching specific academic skills, this
type of literacy training has often occurred in community-based,
faith-based, or independent adult education organizations. Social
activism, transformation, and personal empowerment are the
ultimate goals. Literacy development was viewed as the means
to these ends. Students learned to read and write in order to
function in society and improve the lives of themselves, their
families, and their communities.

In Conclusion
The U.S. Adult Education and Literacy System (AELS) – an
adult education delivery system supported by federal dollars, as
well as by state and local government – has witnessed consider-
able growth in the last decade, disputing the widely held belief
that those with the most education tend to be the ones who seek
out yet more. Instead, “from 1992 through 1999, 7.9 million (of
the enrollees in the AELS) were the working poor, more than 3.3
million were welfare recipients, 9.3 million were unemployed,
and 2.2 million were incarcerated…More than two-thirds of
the 15 million enrollees during 1992-1996 had not completed
twelve years of education or received a high school diploma, and
more than 3.4 million were immigrants…” (Sticht, 2002, p. 1).
Thus, regardless of how adult literacy is viewed in practice, and
regardless of the context, studies conclusively reveal an increase
in the numbers of adults who are seeking literacy skills.

Terms & Concepts

Alphabetics: Alphabetics is the process of using the written let-
ters in an alphabet to portray important words when verbalized.
It includes phonemic attentiveness and word analysis.

Andragogy: Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults
learn, as opposed to the concept of pedagogy, which derives
from a work with children.

Authenticity: Authenticity in literacy development refers to
those literacy activities and tasks that are actually applicable in
one’s everyday life.

Balanced Literacy: Balanced literacy is a concept that estab-
lishes a balance between reading and writing instruction,
allowing students to work at their own pace and receive the lit-
eracy instruction they need. Its premise is that all can read and
all can write.

Adult Literacy Programs

Continuous Texts: Continuous texts refer to those documents
one might encounter on a daily basis, along with the prose lit-
eracy skills required to comprehend them.

Critical Pedagogy: Critical pedagogy, as opposed to noncritical
pedagogy, takes into account the distinct social, historical, and
cultural backgrounds and needs of individuals involved in lit-
eracy skill acquisition. According to critical theorists, noncritical
programs place a primacy on skills acquisition.

Dialectical Thinking: Dialectical thinking is viewed as logical
argumentation, often characterized by an ability to acknowledge
the inherent contradictions and ambiguities in life.

Experiential Learning: Experiential learning is a concept that
positions experience and learning in a mutual interplay. Learning
does not merely derive from experience, but rather, education,
experience and life become intertwined. The concept has its
roots in the work of John Dewey.

Informal Learning: Informal learning is that learning which
occurs from daily living experiences. It may often be unplanned
or incidental, and generally occurs outside of a formal educa-
tional setting.

Literacy Acquisition: Literacy acquisition is the attainment of
those basic skills needed to function in society, including read-
ing, writing, and numeracy skills.

Noncontinuous Texts: Noncontinuous texts are documents that
might require one’s attention on an irregular basis.

Nonformal Learning: Nonformal learning is the learning that
occurs outside of formal educational settings, such as a class-
room. However, this type of learning may be the product of
formal or planned activities.

Quantitative Literacy: Quantitative literacy refers to numeracy,
or an understanding of the role of numbers embedded in certain
printed matter.

Bibliography

Alamprese, J.A., MacArthur, C.A., Price, C., & Knight, D.
(2011). Effects of a structured decoding curriculum on
adult literacy learners’ reading development. Journal of
Research on Educational Effectiveness, 4(2), 154-172.
Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=597
02618&site=ehost-live

Council for Adult and Experiential Learning. Retrieved June
17, 2007, from http://www.cael.org/

Curtis, M. & Kruidenier, J. (2005). Teaching adults to read.
Washington, DC: The National Institute For Literacy.

Degener, S. (2001). Making sense of critical pedagogy in adult
literacy education. Review of Adult Learning and Literacy,
2(2). Boston: NCSALL.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York:
Collier Books.

Donaldson, J. F. (1999). A model of college outcomes for
adults. Adult Education Quarterly, 50, 24 – 40.

Gadsden, V. (2002). Current areas of interest in family liter-
acy. Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 3(7). Boston:
NCSALL.

Kruidenier, J. (2002). Literacy education in adult basic educa-
tion. Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 3(4). Boston:
NCSALL.

Matus-Grossman, L. & Gooden, S. (2002). Opening doors:
students’ perspectives on juggling work, family, and col-
lege. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research
Corp.

Merriam, S., & Caffarella, R. (1999). Learning in adulthood.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mezirow, J. (Ed.) (2000). Learning as transformation: criti-
cal perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

Miller, B., Esposito, L., & McCardle, P. (2011). A public
health approach to improving the lives of adult learners:
Introduction to the special issue on adult literacy interven-
tions. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness,
4(2), 87-100. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO
Online Database Education Research Complete. http://
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A
N=59702620&site=ehost-live

National Assessment of Adult Literacy. Retrieved June 17,
2007, from http://nces.ed.gov/naal/

National Center for the Study of Adult Literacy and Learning.
Retrieved June 17, 2007, from http://www.ncsall.net/index.
php?id=17

Purcell-Gates, V., Degener, S., Jacobson, E. & Soler, M.
(2001). Affecting change in literacy practices of adult
learners. NCSALL Research Brief. Boston: NCSALL.

Sticht, T. (2002). The rise of the adult education and literacy
system in the United States: 1600 – 2000. Review of Adult
Learning and Literacy, 3(2). Boston: NCSALL.

Adult Literacy Programs

Straubhaar, R. (2013). North American adult literacy pro-
grams and Latin American immigrants: How critical
pedagogy can help nonprofit literacy programming in the
United States. Critical Studies In Education, 54(2), 190-
202. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=876
66293&site=ehost-live

White, S. & Dillow, S. (2005). Key concepts and features of
the 2003 national assessment of adult literacy. National
Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: US
Department of Education.

Workforce Investment Act of 1998. Public Law 203.12.
Retrieved June 17, 2007, from http://www.doleta.gov/
usworkforce/wia/wialaw

Suggested Reading

Council for Adult and Experiential Learning. (2000). Serving
adult learners in higher education: principles of effec-
tiveness. Chicago: Council for Adult and Experiential
Learning.

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York:
Continuum.

Gadsden, V. (2002). Resources on family literacy. Review of
Adult Learning and Literacy, 3. Boston: NCSALL.

Gillen, J. (2006). Adult literacy as social practice: more than
skills by Uta Papen. Literacy, 40 (3). Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing.

Gillespie, M. (2001). Research in writing: implications for
adult literacy education. Review of Adult Learning and
Literacy, 2 (3). Boston: NCSALL.

Jarvis, P. (1987). Adult learning in the social context. London:
Croom Helm.

Long, R. (2013). Literacy and the manufacturing sector:Why
600,000 jobs go begging. Reading Today, 30(5), 26-27.
Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=870
64639&site=ehost-live

National Institute for Literacy. http://www.nifl.gov

Terry, M. (2006). The importance of interpersonal relations in
adult literacy programs. Educational Research Quarterly,
30 (2), 30-43. Education Research Quarterly. Retrieved
June 17, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education
Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp
x?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23343977&site=ehost-live

Essay by Pamela Tolbert-Bynum, Ed.D.

Dr. Pamela Tolbert-Bynum received her Doctorate from Columbia University Teacher’s College in 2007. She currently lives in New
York and is a lecturer at Hostos Community College of CUNY.

Copyright of Adult Literacy Programs — Research Starters Education is the property of Great
Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a
listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print,
download, or email articles for individual use.

RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

GED Programs
Adult Education > GED Programs

Abstract

General Educational Development (GED) programs are the most
widely recognized form of secondary-level adult education in
the United States and Canada. GED programs give high school
dropouts of all ages the opportunity to earn a General Equiva-

lency Degree by passing the GED certification exam. The GED
exam is produced and administered by the American Council on
Education’s (ACE) GED Testing Service. Though most states do
not require test-takers to undergo any formal preparation, many
local community colleges, secondary schools, and other com-
munity centers offer preparation courses. Books and practice
tests can also help students study on their own. Those who pass
the test can benefit from improved employment and postsecond-
ary educational opportunities, as well as greater self-confidence.
Critics of the test claim that its availability increases the high
school dropout rate, and that a GED certificate is not as valuable
as a high school diploma. Educators and lawmakers are currently
debating the feasibility of offering the GED in Spanish.

Overview

General Educational Development (GED) programs are the most
widely recognized form of secondary-level adult education in
the United States and Canada. GED programs give individuals
of all ages who did not graduate high school the opportunity
to earn a General Equivalency Degree, or GED certificate, by
demonstrating sufficient cognitive skills and mastery of key
high school curriculum subject areas. GED program participants
demonstrate these skills not through classroom attendance and
participation, but by passing the GED exam. Those who pass the
GED test are no longer counted as dropouts, but are considered
high school graduates in state, local, and federal educational sta-
tistics (Smith, 2003).

The GED exam is produced and administered by the American
Council on Education’s (ACE) GED Testing Service and Pearson,
an education publisher. The 2002 version of the exam was really
a battery of five standardized tests made up of nearly 300 mul-
tiple choice questions and one essay, and taking slightly less than
8 hours to complete. The 2014 test has four sections: Reasoning
Through Language Arts, Science, Social Studies, and Mathe-
matical Reasoning and is aligned with Common Core Standards.
Even though the tests are geared towards specific areas of study,
each portion of the exam is designed to test for the same “set of
basic cognitive skills” (Boesl, Alsalam, & Smith, 1998, p. ix).
Test takers must be able to recall some factual knowledge, but
it is far more important that they exercise fundamental critical
thinking skills. In the math section, for example, test takers do

Abstract
Overview

Preparing for & Taking the GED Exam

The Origins of the GED Program

Applications

What are the Benefits to Earning a GED?

Stimulus to Human Capital Investment

The GED as Sorting Procedure

The GED & Post-secondary Educational
Opportunities

The GED as a Self-Confidence Booster

Viewpoints

Does the GED Raise the High School Dropout
Rate?

An Alternative to High School?

Is the GED Really Equivalent to a High School
Diploma?

Spanish Language GED

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

GED Programs

not need to memorize mathematical formulas, but they do need
to know how to use the formulas (provided in the exam) to solve
math problems (Boesl et al., 1998).

Besides creating the GED exam, ACE also sets its minimum
passing requirements. In the early years of the GED, exams
were fairly easy to pass. In the years between 1954 and 1960, for
example, between 76% and 80% of test-takers passed the exam
each year (Boesl et al., 1998, p. 8). This is because, in order to
pass the test, test-takers simply had to beat the chance factor,
or choose more correct answers than could be accounted for
by chance (Smith, 2003). ACE’s standards have become more
stringent over the years, and currently test-takers must score at
more than double the chance factor in order to pass the GED
exam. Additionally, state assemblies are free to legislate pass-
ing requirements that exceed those set by ACE, and many states
choose to do so (Smith, 2003).

Approximately once every decade, ACE designs an entirely new
GED test. These overhauls change not only the content but also
the actual form of the test in order to reflect general changes
in high school curriculum. In 1988, for example, the essay sec-
tion was added to what had theretofore been an entirely multiple
choice exam (Smith, 2003). Over the years, the trend in these
overhauls has been away from the recall of factual knowledge
and towards the testing of overall critical thinking abilities
(Smith, 2003). The latest GED exam was introduced in 2014,
amending not only the content but also the mean of taking the
test. Paper tests were eliminated in 2013, with fully online tests
being implemented in January 2014.

Preparing for & Taking the GED Exam
The GED exam is administered locally, and is usually given at
local secondary schools, community colleges, or other educa-
tional community centers. Each state sets its own policies as to
who is eligible to take the GED exam. Many states require test
takers to be 18 years of age or older, but offer special exemptions
for test-takers as young as 16 years of age. Some states require
test-takers to pass a practice test before they sit for the GED;
others do not. States also decide what type of credential is given
to those who pass the test. Most states issue either an equiva-
lency certificate or an adult education diploma (Miller, 2006).

In most states, no type of formal preparation is required in
order to take the GED exam (Smith, 2003). However, test-tak-
ers utilize a variety of preparation methods. Test preparation
courses and adult education courses are offered at many local
community colleges, secondary schools, and other community
educational centers (Pluviose, 2006). If test-takers cannot attend
such a course, or prefer to study on their own, books and prac-
tice tests are available. Many cable and publicly supported TV
stations also offer programming geared towards GED test prepa-
ration (Smith, 2003). Finally, a significant number of GED test
takers prepare for the test while incarcerated. The Department of
Correctional Services offers evening classes, Adult Basic Educa-
tion (ABE) literacy programs in both Spanish and English, and

additional instruction for inmates at all primary and secondary
educational levels. Most prisons run both pre-GED programs for
inmates whose cognitive and reading abilities are below the 9th
but above the 5th grade level, and GED programs for inmates
with abilities above a 9th grade level (Nuttal, Hollmen, & Staley,
2003).

The Origins of the GED Program
The General Educational Development program was conceived
during World War II as an alternative way to enable returning vet-
erans to resume high school educations that had been interrupted
by military service (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). The Roosevelt
administration intended the GED exam to prevent the return of
veterans into the civilian population from causing an economic
depression. If veterans could quickly and easily earn GED cer-
tificates, then they could seek higher education with the help of
the GI Bill instead of flooding the job market. The administration
also hoped that the existence of the GED certificate would quell
public opposition to the drafting of teenagers (Smith, 2003).

At this early stage, the GED certification exam was available
only to veterans. Colleges and universities looked upon a Gen-
eral Equivalency Diploma favorably, as they were pre-disposed
to admit veterans whose education would be funded by the GI
Bill (Smith, 2003). Even as ACE began exploring the use of the
GED among non-veterans, making it available to civilians in
1947, most states continued to prohibit civilians from taking part
in GED programs (Miller, 2006; Smith, 2003). By 1959, how-
ever, most GED test-takers were non-veterans; and by 1974 all
50 states awarded all GED test-passers, regardless of military or
civilian status, high school equivalency diplomas (Smith, 2003).
Currently, the majority of GED test-takers are both civilians and
relatively recent high school dropouts.

Applications
What are the Benefits to Earning a GED?
The U.S. Department of Education, working in concert with the
National Library for Education, has identified several beneficial
effects of participating in a GED program and earning a GED
certificate:

Stimulus to Human Capital Investment
Human capital theory holds that individuals who invest in
themselves through education increase their productivity in
the workforce as well as the range of professional opportuni-
ties available to them (Georges, 2001). The time and money that
GED program participants spend in preparing for and taking the
GED exam represent a significant human capital investment, and
a GED certificate should accordingly result in higher work wages
and increased job and educational opportunities. Most research-
ers have found that while earning a GED can result in higher
wages, the certificate is most valuable as a means of opening
further educational opportunities (Brown, 2000). Some experts
believe that test-takers would benefit more from the exam if they

GED Programs

were rewarded for higher scores, and thus had an incentive to
invest more time and money in preparing for it (Boesl et al.,
1998).

The GED as Sorting Procedure
GED programs offers high school dropouts the opportunity to
differentiate themselves from other dropouts. By taking and
passing the GED exam, dropouts demonstrate a level of motiva-
tion and cognitive ability not associated with the larger pool of
high school dropouts (Boesel et al., 1998). This self-selective
process demonstrates a level of personal motivation and commit-
ment to employers and associates and may correspondingly lead
to increases in wages and professional responsibilities.

The GED & Post-secondary Educational Opportunities
Research has shown that the GED certificate is perhaps most
valuable not as stimulus to revenue growth, but as a stimulus to
higher education (Brown, 2000). High school dropouts cannot
enroll in college and university courses without a GED certifi-
cate. Two-thirds of GED program participants indicate that they
are in fact taking the GED in order to become eligible for higher
education programs (Smith, 2003). In addition, GED certificate
holders tend to participate in vocational and other non-college
or university-affiliated educational programs more often than
other high school dropouts (Baycich, 2003). While GED certifi-
cate holders are more likely than other dropouts to earn a college
degree, they are still less likely than high school graduates to
earn one (Smith, 2003).

The GED as a Self-Confidence Booster
Many high school dropouts develop low self-esteem. Low self-
esteem has been shown to contribute to negative behaviors such
as poor work performance and even crime. Participating in a GED
program can help break this cycle by boosting self-confidence
and serving as the first step in improving the circumstances of a
high school dropout’s life. Anecdotal evidence strongly supports
this conclusion (Boesel et al., 1998).

Viewpoints
Does the GED Raise the High School Dropout Rate?
Currently, nearly 50% of GED test-takers are age 19 or younger.
In 2001, GED certificates constituted 19% of all high school
credentials awarded by state departments of education (Smith,
2003). Many experts believe that these trends towards more and
younger GED test-takers indicate a troubling conclusion: The
GED may actually encourage students to drop out of high school
(Rachal & Bingham, 2004). In many U.S. states and throughout
Canada, dropouts must be aged 19 or older in order to take the
GED exam. This rule is intended to prevent students from drop-
ping out of high school in order to earn a GED sooner than they
could earn a high school diploma. However, most states offer
exemptions so that students as young as 16 years of age often
take the exam (Miller, 2006). The fact that a steadily increasing
percentage of GED test-takers are of high school age suggests

that dropouts may leave high school with a predetermined inten-
tion of earning a GED. Some students choose to do this because
they see a GED program as an easier path than high school
(Rachal & Bingham, 2004). If a student is struggling in school
and perceives a GED as having equal status with a traditional
high school diploma, then it would make sense for that student
to drop out of high school and sit for the GED exam. After all,
passing the exam requires much less time and energy than does
completing high school (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). In some
states, such as Florida, high-stakes testing – whereby students
must pass certain standardized exams in order to earn a diploma –
exacerbates this situation. Students in these states who may have
trouble passing state exams drop out of school in order to take
and pass the less rigorous GED exam (Fratt, 2004).

In terms of human capital theory, the GED may thus offer a
disincentive to invest in education (Boesel et al., 1998). Com-
pleting a GED program takes only a fraction of the classroom
time associated with a traditional high school diploma (Smith,
2003; Georges, 2001). If students who would otherwise stay in
school choose to dropout because of the availability of the GED,
then the GED is encouraging students to invest less time and
energy – less human capital – in their futures.

An Alternative to High School?
Some high school administrators take a different approach to
this issue. They tout GED programs as a welcome alternative
for problem students who cause disruptions among the gen-
eral school population (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). Sylvia E.
Robinson, the executive director of the General Educational
Development Testing Service, shares this view. She wants to
explicitly market the GED exam to high school students as an
alternative path for students who are having a difficult time in
school and contemplating dropping out (Pluviose, 2006). This
strategy is viewed as an effective practice because GED cer-
tificate holders are counted as graduates in state and federal
educational statistics. So long as dropouts earn GED certificates,
schools can remove disruptive students without raising the over-
all high school dropout rate. In addition, schools do not have to
fund their own night courses for problem students if they move
these students directly into GED courses (Smith, 2003).

Critics charge that marketing the GED as an alternative to high
school “amounts to administrative collusion in the dropout cul-
ture” (Rachal & Bingham, 2004, p. 38). Adult educators are
especially frustrated by this approach because it contributes to
the trend towards younger GED test-takers. GED programs have
historically been the cornerstone of U.S. adult education, and
when recent high school dropouts enroll in such programs, fed-
eral money earmarked for adult education is in effect subsidizing
youth education (George & Schaefer, 2002; Rachal & Bingham,
2004).

Still others argue that the availability of the GED exam to young
high school dropouts has not raised the dropout rate. While it is
true that younger dropouts are taking the GED exam, they may

GED Programs

not be dropping out of high school expressly to do so. Instead,
they may be dropping out of school for different reasons and then
taking the exam simply because it is available. The changing
economy may contribute to this as well. With many manufactur-
ing jobs moving overseas, dropouts have a more difficult time
finding high-paying work and see earning a GED certificate as a
way to raise their earning potential (Fratt, 2004).

Is the GED Really Equivalent to a High School
Diploma?
Much recent research has focused on the value of a GED certifi-
cate in comparison to that of a high school diploma. The general
consensus on this issue is that GED certificate holders fare better
on the job market and in higher education than high school drop-
outs but fare worse in these areas than high school graduates
(Smith, 2003; Miller, 2006; Georges, 2001; Boesel et al., 1998).

In terms of human capital theory, the GED represents a substan-
tially smaller investment than a high school diploma. While high
school students spend an estimated 410 hours every year study-
ing core curriculum subjects, most GED test-takers spend less
than 100 hours studying for the exam (Smith, 2003; Boesel et al.,
1998). On average, high school graduates have spent 861 more
hours completing core curriculum subject work than GED cer-
tificate holders (Smith, 2003). Most GED test-takers never make
up for the number of hours they missed by dropping out of high
school (Boesel et al., 1998). Even if GED test-takers spend a
significant amount of time studying for the exam, they still expe-
rience less classroom time than high school graduates (Georges,
2001). Because GED certificate holders have invested less time
and energy in their secondary school education, they tend to reap
fewer rewards from it.

There is another important way in which a GED certificate is not
comparable to a high school diploma. Unlike a diploma, a GED
certificate does not indicate the internalization of institutional
norms (Smith, 2003). In order to earn a high school diploma,
students must adapt to and follow certain normative behaviors
associated with school. They must respect teachers, come to class
on time, complete homework, and follow myriad other rules. In
contrast, GED certificate holders do not need to surmount any
of these “institutional barriers” – they only need to pass an exam
(Smith, 2003, p. 376). Many GED test-takers dropped out of
high school not because they lacked the cognitive skills needed
to complete their coursework, but because they were unable to
assume acceptable attitudes and behaviors at school (Brown,
2000). Evidence shows that prospective employers are aware of
this situation and value a GED less than a high school diploma
precisely because it signals unsuitability to a structured work-
place environment (Smith, 2003). This perceived lack of a strong
work ethic makes some GED certificate holders less employable
than high school graduates (Brown, 2000).

The United States Armed Services has come to exactly this
conclusion. Due to higher attrition rates associated with GED
certificate holders, the military does not view a GED as equiva-

lent to a high school diploma (George & Schaefer, 2002). Military
researchers have found that GED certificate holders have attri-
tion rates double those of high school graduates and comparable
with those of high school dropouts (Boesel et al., 1998). Accord-
ingly, in its three tier system, the military rates GED certificate
holders as more desirable recruits than high school dropouts but
less desirable recruits than high school graduates. The military
has also decided that no more than 10% of new recruits each year
can have a GED certificate rather than a high school diploma
(George & Schaefer, 2002).

The GED also appears to be less valuable than a high school
diploma in the realm of higher education. There is evidence that
GED certificate holders who pursue higher education earn lower
grades and have lower graduation rates than do high school grad-
uates (Boesel et al., 1998). The rate at which GED certificate
holders complete postsecondary educational programs is low for
all but vocational programs (Smith, 2003).

Spanish Language GED
Some recent immigrants and Spanish-speaking youth choose to
take the GED because their English skills are too poor to make
finishing high school and earning a diploma feasible (Zehr,
2006). One study has shown that 44% of Hispanic high school
students were expected to drop out of school in 2006 alone
(Pluviose, 2006). The Spanish language version of the test was
released in 2013; however, it was available only in conjunction
with the computerized test. This meant that the Spanish test was
only available in states that offered the online GED (Adams,
2013). Some of these students may choose to take the GED exam
in Spanish. Many GED test-takers who choose to take the exam
are undocumented immigrants who hope to use the skills they
gain through GED programs and continuing education in order
to build a case for legal residence (Zehr, 2006). Some lawmak-
ers have raised controversy over this issue, arguing that federal
funds should not finance education that takes place in the Span-
ish language. Instead, critics argue, this money should be used
to help improve Spanish-speakers’ English skills so that they can
pass the exam in the English language (Zehr, 2006).

Terms & Concepts

American Council on Education (ACE): The major coordinating
body for all institutions of higher education in the United States.
Creates and administers the GED exam through its GED Testing
Service.

GED Certificate: Earned by passing the GED exam, the exact
nature of the certificate varies from state to state. In some states
it is referred to as an Adult Education Diploma, in others it is
called an Equivalency Certificate.

General Educational Development (GED): One of the meanings
denoted by GED; used to refer to the entire GED program as
well as to the GED exam.

GED Programs

General Equivalency Degree (GED): One of the meanings
denoted by GED; refers to the certificate earned by those who
pass the GED exam.

High School Diploma: Credential given to students who com-
plete all of the curricular and extracurricular requirements
mandated by state and local educational agencies.

High School Dropout: A student who leaves high school before
completing the requirements for a diploma.

Human Capital: The knowledge and skills that allow a person to
engage in productive labor in return for payment.

Vocational Training/Education: Non-academic education that
prepares students for careers that require manual or technical
skills.

Bibliography

Adams, C. (2013). High school equivalency test gets a make-
over. Education Week, 32(34), 8-9. Retrieved December
15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education
Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp
x?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88000710&site=ehost-live

Baycich, D. (2003). GED grads in college: Building aware-
ness. Adult Learning, 14 (3), 5-7. Retrieved March 28,
2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=21924109&site=ehost-live

Boesel, D., Alsalam, N., & Smith, T. (1998). Research syn-
thesis: Educational and labor market performance of
GED recipients. Retrieved March 31, 2007, from U.S.
Department of Education http://www.ed.gov/pubs/GED/
index.html

Brown, B. (2000). Is the GED a valuable credential?
Myths and Realities no. 10. Washington, DC: Office of
Education Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED448291). Retrieved March
31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research
Database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/eric-
docs2sql/content_storage_01/00000
19b/80/16/ba/11

Fratt, L. (2004). GED rates rise. District Administration, 40
(8), 10. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=140
10996&site=ehost-live

George, C. & Schaefer, L. (2002). General academic achieve-
ment of adult high school dropouts. Retrieved March

31, 2007, from American Council on Education http://
www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search
&section=Research2&template=/CM/ContentDisplay.
cfm&ContentFileID=2308

Georges, A. (2001). The GED certificate and the poverty sta-
tus of adult women. Journal of Children & Poverty, 7 (1),
49-61. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=427
3117&site=ehost-live

Miller, P. (2006, June 22). GED battery no substitute for
diploma. Education Week, 25, 8-9. Retrieved March 28,
2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=21669998&site=ehost-live

Nuttal, J, Hollmen, L., & Staley, M. (2003). The effect of earn-
ing a GED on recidivism rates. Journal of Correctional
Education, 54 (3), 90-95. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from
EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e
hh&AN=10824093&site=ehost-live

Pluviose, D. (2006). New GED chief faces sagging testing
rates despite high minority dropout numbers. Diverse:
Issues in Higher Education, 23 (12), 6-7. Retrieved March
28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education
Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp
x?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21764603&site=ehost-live

Rachal, J. & Bingham, M. (2004). The adolescentizing of the
GED. Adult Basic Education, 14 (1), 32-44. Retrieved
March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education
Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp
x?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=13020493&site=ehost-live

Rose, M. (2013). Second chances: The value of adult education
and the GED. Phi Delta Kappan, 94(6), 45-49. Retrieved
December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=86025483&sit
e=ehost-live

Smith, T. (2003). Who values the GED? An examination of
the paradox underlying the demand for the general educa-
tional development credential. Teachers College Record,
105 (3), 375-415. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO
Online Database Education Research Complete. http://
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A
N=9353378&site=ehost-live

Thompson, C. (2013). NY considering alternatives to new
GED exam for adults. Community College Week, 25(16),
5. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online

GED Programs

Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=864
58693&site=ehost-live

Tuck, E. (2012). Repatriating the GED: Urban youth and the
alternative to a high school diploma. High School Journal,
95(4), 4-18. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO
Online Database Education Research Complete. http://
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A
N=87048865&site=ehost-live

Zehr, M. (2006, June 7). For some students, GED test in
Spanish is best alternative. Education Week, 25 (39), 1-23.
Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21178353&sit
e=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Cao, J., Stromsdorfer, E., & Weeks, G. (1996). The human
capital effect of the GED on low income women. Journal
of Human Resources, 31 (1), 206-228. Retrieved April 3,

2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=9603150513&site=ehost-live

King, C. (2002). Barriers affecting GED participation among
recent high school dropouts. Adult Basic Education, 12
(3), 145-156. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO
Online Database Education Research Complete. http://
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A
N=10760555&site=ehost-live

Kist, W. (2003). Non-academic challenges faced by GED
scholars: A report of the GED scholars initiative. Adult
Learning, 14 (3), 11-13. Retrieved April 3, 2007 from
EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e
hh&AN=21924111&site=ehost-live

Sessons, D. & Taylor, R. (1997). Predicting student success
in a community GED program. College Student Journal,
31 (3), 423-428. Retrieved April 3, 2007 from EBSCO
Online Database Education Research Complete. http://
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A
N=9710031712&site=ehost-live

Essay by Ashley L. Cohen;
Edited by Karen A. Kallio, M.Ed.
Ms. Kallio earned her B.A. in English from Clark University and her Master’s in Education from the University of Massachusetts at
Amherst. She lives and works in the Boston area.

Copyright of GED Programs — Research Starters Education is the property of Great Neck
Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a
listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print,
download, or email articles for individual use.

RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

Industrial & Work-Based Education
Adult Education > Industrial & Work-Based Education

Abstract

Work-based education can be formal training, informal train-
ing, and embedded learning. Most consider formal training to
be scheduled instruction presented by a trainer in a classroom or
other setting either in the workplace or off site. Informal train-
ing can be considered unscheduled instruction or assistance that
is provided by coworkers or supervisors during regular work
time. Embedded learning does not involve interaction between
employees and trainers, which formal and informal training do.
Instead, embedded learning is solitary in nature and can take
the form of written manuals, computerized training, and online,
interactive materials available through public or private websites
(Stern et al., 2004).

Overview

Work-based education is big business in America. According
to the American Society for Training & Development, in 2006
companies in the United States spent almost $130 billion on
employee education and development, which roughly equates to
$1,040 per employee. In 2012 the figure was $164.2 billion —
and this after a prolonged nationwide downsizing of the U.S.
workforce (Miller, 2013). These figures represent direct costs,
such as training staff salaries, administrative costs, delivery
costs, and workshop costs (ASTD, 2007a).

Work-based education can be formal training, informal train-
ing, and embedded learning. Most consider formal training to
be “scheduled instruction delivered by a designated trainer in a
classroom or similar setting, whether in the workplace or else-
where. Informal training has referred to unscheduled instruction
or coaching provided by co-workers or supervisors during work”
(Barron et al, 1997; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1996a,b, as
cited in Stern, Song & O’Brien, 2004). Embedded learning does
not involve interaction between employees and trainers, which
formal and informal training do. Instead, embedded learning is
solitary in nature and can take the form of written manuals, com-
puterized training, and online, interactive materials available
through public or private websites (Stern et al., 2004).

Trainer Strategies

When funds are short, training is usually one of the first budget
items to be cut. Trainers need to be able to provide effective train-
ing and be able to show management that the training offered is
effective and will pay off in the long run. According to Caudron
(2000), some strategies that can be used include:

• Linking training objectives to the company’s strategies.
Trainers can look at the company’s annual report, ask for
the top few objectives of each department, and gain an
understanding of the company’s goals and strategies. By
understanding the company’s specific objectives, they can
help assure that employees are all moving in the same
direction.

• Addressing the company’s culture. Many times simply
presenting the information to employees is not enough.
There may be cultural barriers that affect employees’

Abstract
Overview
Trainer Strategies

Applications

Developing a Training Program

Types of Training Approaches

Evaluating Training

Training Techniques for Adult Learners

Outsourcing

Viewpoints

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

Industrial & Work-Based Education

ability to learn and their willingness to be empowered and
take risks if the company’s culture has traditionally been
the opposite. An effective trainer needs to understand the
company’s climate and address any issues that may get in
the way of the training objectives.

• Focusing on training outcomes. Before beginning the pro-
cess of developing the training, trainers should determine
the results the company wants to see come from the train-
ing. If there are clear objectives that need to be met, it is
easier to develop the appropriate training and how those
objectives will be measured if trainers know what the end
results of the training sessions should be.

• Willingly embrace different learning methods. The
traditional style of training, which is usually standing
up in front of a room and instructing, is only one way
employees can learn. Trainers should be willing to look at
alternative, proven ways adults learn and be willing to in-
corporate different strategies into their training program.

• Allowing employees enough time to process what they
have been taught. Higher-order skills, such as creativity
and critical thinking, require more time to learn; so it is
important for trainers to find a way to give employees
more time to process the information and gain an under-
standing of the concepts being presented.

• Being discriminating of training suppliers. When looking
to select prepackaged lessons or bring in outside assis-
tance for training, it is important to make sure that the
outside vendors adhere to the same principles addressed
above to help ensure that employees are getting relevant,
effective training (Caudron, 2000, p. 36-37).

Applications
Developing a Training Program
Chang (1994) suggests the following steps to develop an effec-
tive training program:

• Conduct a needs analysis, determine if and how training
may help improve job performance, and create training
outcomes.

• Select the training approach or approaches that can best
support the training outcomes and improve job perfor-
mance.

• Produce all necessary training tools, such as handouts,
visual aids, etc.

• Use appropriate training techniques to present the materi-
als.

• Conduct assessments to determine whether the training
did help improve job performance and redesign or tweak
the training as necessary.

• Report assessment results to all stakeholders.

• Continue to follow through with assessment to make sure
participants are still using what they learned in training
(Chang, 1994).

A needs analysis should be completed in order to identify train-
ing needs, to make sure that training addresses the need and that
it is, in fact, necessary. Once training has been determined to be
necessary, it is then necessary to create training objectives and
design a training approach, taking into consideration who the
participants will be.

Types of Training Approaches
There are different learning approaches that can be used either
separately or in conjunction with each other:

• Training by lecture, in which the trainer delivers the
material to the class. This is the most frequently used
method.

• Structured discussion: conversations between participants
facilitated by the trainer.

• A panel discussion, which is short lectures or a discussion
by a variety of trainers or experts in the field, rather than
just one person.

• Case studies, which are written descriptions of relevant
situations that contain enough details so participants can
discus specifics and come to conclusions.

• Skill application reenacts specific situations so that partic-
ipants can create their own on-the-job situations of issues
and get input from the trainer and other participants.

• Simulation gives a detailed description of a situation
that contains programmed decision points that teams of
participants can discuss (Chang, 1994).

Producing the necessary training tools includes determining
what can be produced based on budget restrictions; making
sure that the materials are appropriate for the audience, such as
making sure that materials for new employees are not laden with
industry jargon or are too technical in nature; and making sure
that that all materials are accurate and up to date.

Using appropriate training techniques means making sure that
effective delivery skills are used, including proper nonverbal and
verbal skills, so that participants are able to understand what is
being presented, are actively engaged in their own learning, and
are able to retain what has been presented.

Assessment can be accomplished by conducting pre- and post-
tests, having participants demonstrate the skills they have
learned, and conducting follow up assessments to determine if
the company as a whole achieved positive results because of the
training. Assessment should be ongoing to make sure that par-
ticipants are still using what they have learned long after training
is complete and also to ascertain whether follow-up sessions or
additional training is necessary (Chang, 1994).

Industrial & Work-Based Education

Evaluating Training
The participants’ response to the training should be measured.
Trainers should try to determine whether participants found
the program design and materials appropriate, interesting, and
usable and if they found the trainer knowledgeable and helpful.
Trainers should also try to assess if participants learned what
they were supposed to learn from the training. Sometime after
training has been completed, or after a suitable time for ongoing
training, it should be determined if participants are actually using
it on the job, making the training useful and effective. Company-
focused results should also be evaluated to be able to show the
link between training and the results desired by the organization.
This can be difficult to prove in some cases because other inter-
nal and external factors can also contribute to something like an
increase in sales-a competitor goes out of business, prices were
lowered, etc. The overall organizational impact should also be
measured by looking at pre-training data and post-training mea-
surements. All of these measurements can help show the benefit
of training (Wade, 1998).

In evaluating company-focused results, the results can be gen-
erally broken down into two categories: hard skills and soft
skills. Saving time, increasing production, lowering cost, and
increasing quality are examples of hard skills. Soft skills are
more difficult to measure and can include improved work prac-
tices, better management or team skills, increased initiative,
and improved company climate or culture. There are four kinds
of measures that can be used in analyzing hard skills (Wade,
1998):

• Time. Is there a decrease in the amount of overtime, an
improvement of on-time deliveries, a decrease in turn-
around time, an increase in the number of commitments
completed on time, etc.

• Output. Has there been an increase in the number of
sales, the percentage of new clients, the number of prod-
ucts produced, etc.

• Quality. Is there a decrease in the amount of work that
had to be redone, a decrease in the number of production
problems, an increase in the number of jobs successfully
completed, etc.

• Cost. Has there been a decrease in inventory costs,
replacement costs, overtime costs, additional employee
costs, etc.

Soft skills are more difficult to measure because they are usu-
ally based on employees’ behaviors and attitudes, but they can be
measured to some degree. There are four kinds of measures that
can be used in analyzing soft skills (Wade, 1998):

• Work Practices. Is there an improvement in attendance,
a decrease in the number of safety violations, a decrease
in employee tardiness, an increase in the number of
people willing to work overtime, etc.

• Management/Team Skills. Is there an improvement in
the use of active listening skills, an increase in the num-
ber of conflicts successfully handled, an increase of team
decision-making opportunities, etc.

• Promotion Potential and Initiative. Is there an increase
in the number of new ideas implemented, the number
of training sessions or conferences attended, number of
projects successfully completed, etc.

• Climate/Culture. Is there a decrease in the number of
discrimination complaints filed, number of employee
grievances filed, employee turnover rate, etc.

Training Techniques for Adult Learners
Adults learn differently than children. For many adults, they
must want to learn in order to learn. It has also been contended
that adults only learn what they feel they need to learn, which can
really put pressure on trainers to make sure participants under-
stand the relevance of the training. Adults also learn by doing,
by being able to solve practical, real-life problems, by applying
what they have already done and know and by having the trainer
use a variety of training methods (Wilson, 1994).

First and foremost, trainers must be knowledgeable about the
subject matter they are going to present, especially since they are
going to be presenting to people who may already be familiar
with the subject matter and have difficult questions to ask. Train-
ers must also be adept at verbal and nonverbal delivery because
it does not make any difference if they are the most knowledge-
able person in the world on the subject if they cannot express
their ideas and thoughts in a way that participants can under-
stand and relate to. Nonverbal skills, such as hand gestures, body
movements, facial expressions, and the amount of eye contact
made can affect how a trainer is perceived and accepted by the
participants.

Since most adults prefer visuals and handouts for reference, it
is important to create effective program materials. When pro-
ducing visuals for display in the room, it is important that they
be visible and easy to read by everyone in the room. Visuals
should also be kept simple with just keywords or phrases and
not full sentences and paragraphs, which are difficult to read and
remember. All information presented should be updated and fac-
tual. Even one piece of outdated material can reflect poorly on
the entire presentation and cast doubt about the accuracy and rel-
evance of everything else being presented. Materials should also
be interesting in order to command participants’ attention and
keep them engaged; and practical so that participants are able
to easily relate to them and know what they represent (Wilson,
1994).

When training adult employees, it can be helpful to use different
adult learning principles. One study found that the most effective
type of training for adults was relevant, similar to the job, pro-
vided objectives, and allowed trainees to participate. Relevance

Industrial & Work-Based Education

is an important component of any training program because
adults need to easily be able to see for themselves why they are
there, which can help keep them engaged. If training is similar
to what occurs on the job, it makes it a lot easier for participants
to transfer what they have learned in training to the job. This can
partially be accomplished by presenting the information so that it
closely resembles actual workplace conditions, presenting in the
workplace if possible, or having participants help with similarity
by bringing materials with them or freely sharing the knowledge
they have in training through discussion, participation, and role
playing.

By providing objectives to participants at the beginning of train-
ing, participants are able to see the overall picture of what they
are expected to learn and know what will be covered and in what
order. Having the objectives also allows them to judge for them-
selves if they are learning, which also gives them an opportunity
to do some follow up if necessary. Active participation allows
participants to interact with coworkers and the trainer. This helps
create an atmosphere where participants feel free to share their
thoughts and ideas and ask questions. By keeping these prin-
ciples in mind, adults are more likely to be engaged, actively
learn, and transfer what they have learned in class to their jobs
(Gaibraith & Fouch, 2007).

Outsourcing
In larger organizations where it is necessary to implement sys-
tem-wide training programs, outsourcing is popular as a means
of producing quick, cost-effective training. As of 2006, train-
ing outsourcing was about $1 billion business and is expected
to grow. For companies that provide training, companies that
are geographically far flung and do not have training programs
already in place can provide them with rather lucrative business
contracts in the millions of dollars. A few examples of training
outsourcing contracts for 2006 and 2007 include an $18 mil-
lion multi-year contract, a $67 million five-year contract, a $127
million five-year contract, and a $340 million ten-year contract
(“Training Outsourcing to Exceed $1 Billion,” 2007). Mergers
are also making outsourcing of training more popular. When a
merger occurs, there are a lot of people who need to be trained
about the new company, what its values and vision are, and what
new skills they will be expected to know (“Mergers Transform-
ing Outsourced Training,” 2006).

Viewpoints

Some issues that corporate trainers have to deal with are that
the people who need the training most are not the ones sent or
the ones who voluntarily come; that management often wants
a course to be shortened, which does not afford enough time
needed to meet all the course objectives and effectively present
the training; and that sometimes trainers are even undermined by
managers who tell their employees that they may be being taught
to do something one way but they want them to do it a different
way. With these potential obstacles in mind, Ketter (2006) sug-

gests there are a few ways that trainers can get management’s
support for employee training and development programs:

• Trainers should link the training to the company’s busi-
ness plan and goals to show why the training can be
useful to employees.

• Trainers can also involve participants’ managers during
the needs analysis portion of training development. This
will show managers that their employees will be learning
competencies that can help improve the way business is
done.

• Trainers should report the results of the needs analysis
and send managers a proposed course outline so that they
can see how the training can help their employees and
take any comments received by managers into consider-
ation when fine tuning the course.

• Trainers can also gather the managers together for a brief
meeting a few weeks before the training begins to tell
them again about the course, hopefully get their buy-in,
and then they will encourage their employees to attend –
or require that they participate.

• Trainers can also have managers who are supportive of
the proposed training program come to a training session
and help present in their areas of expertise.

• Trainers should gather the participants together after a
few weeks so they can report on the benefits they have
received from the training and conduct a cost-benefit
analysis to show the practical success of the training
(Ketter, 2006).

The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that by 2010 the coun-
try will face a shortage of 10 million skilled workers (cited in
Gaibraith & Fouch, 2007), which means even more training may
be necessary than currently exists. By following sound training
techniques, adult learning theories, and conducting appropriate
follow up, training programs can satisfy even the most skeptical
person and prove that they can help improve a company’s bottom
line by helping employees become more productive and confi-
dent in their jobs, which can also help reduce employee turnover
rates.

Terms & Concepts

Assessment: Assessment is the act of judging the value of the
training.

Cost-Benefit Analysis: A cost-benefit analysis is a technique used
to weigh the benefits of a project against the cost of the resources
it requires to determine its feasibility.

Hard Skills: Hard skills are specific skills that are easy to
observe, quantify, and measure.

Industrial & Work-Based Education

Needs Analysis: Needs analysis is a way of identifying any gaps
in the skills a company requires and those the employees provide.
The analysis is a gathering of research that is used to identify
areas where employees should work on improving their skills
and performance. The analyses are usually performed through
surveys, observations, and meetings.

Outcomes: Outcomes are the results or consequences brought
about by a cause.

Soft Skills: Soft skills are often intangible and more a function of
personality characteristics.

Bibliography

ASTD (2007a). Industry statistics. Retrieved November 15,
2007, from http://www.astd.org

ASTD (2007b). Excellence in practice awards. Retrieved
November 18, 2007, from http://www.astd.org/ASTD/
aboutus/AwardsandBestPractices/excellenceInPrac-
ticeAwards/

Blaschke, L. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A
review of heutagogical practice and self-determined
learning. International Review of Research in Open &
Distance Learning, 13(1), 56-71. Retrieved December 15,
2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=71275487&site=ehost-live

Caudron, S. (2000). Learning revives training. Workforce,
79(1), 34. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO
Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=268
1520&site=ehost-live

Chang, R. (1994). Developing high-impact training. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer.

Freifeld, L. (2013). Solving today’s skill gaps. Training, 50(6),
52-57. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=919
83125&site=ehost-live

Gaibraith, D. & Fouch, S. (2007). Principles of adult learning.
Professional Safety, 52(9), 35-40. Retrieved November
15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=aph&AN=26502803&site=ehost-live

Ketter, P. (2006). Management’s commitment to training. T+D,
60 (10), 95. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO

Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=227
78062&site=ehost-live

Mergers transforming outsourced training. (2006). Workforce
Management, 85(24),70. Retrieved November 15, 2007
from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a
ph&AN=23544228&site=ehost-live

Miller, L. (2013). ASTD’s 2013 state of the industry report:
Workplace learning. T+D, 67(11), 40-45. Retrieved
December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91659526&sit
e=ehost-live

Stern, D., Song, Y. & O’Brien, B. (2004). Company train-
ing in the United States 1970-2000: What have been the
trends over time? International Journal of Training &
Development, 8 (3), 191-209. Retrieved November 15,
2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=14078994&site=ehost-live

Training outsourcing to exceed $1 billion in 2007. (2007).
Corporate Training & Development Advisor, 12 (5),
5-7. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online
Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebsco-
host.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=24954619
&site=ehost-live

Wade, P. (1998). Measuring the impact of training. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer.

Wilson, J. (1994). Applying successful training techniques. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer.

Suggested Reading

Ahlstrand, A., Bassi, L. & McMurrer, D. (2003). Workplace
education for low-wage workers. Kalamazoo, MI: W.E.
Upjohn Institute.

Forrester, K., Payne, J. & Ward, K. (1995). Workplace learn-
ing: Perspectives on education, training and work.
Brookfield, VT: Avebury.

Gray, K. & Herr, E. (1997). Workforce education: The basics.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Rojewski, J. (2004). Workforce education and development:
New views for a new century. Charlotte, NC: Information
Age Publishing.

Industrial & Work-Based Education

Essay by Sandra Myers, MEd

Sandra Myers has a Master’s degree in adult education from Marshall University and is the former director of academic and institutional
support at Miles Community College in Miles City, Montana, where she oversaw the college’s community service, developmental edu-
cation, and academic support programs. She has taught business, mathematics, and computer courses; her other areas of interest include
adult education and community education.

Copyright of Industrial & Work-Based Education — Research Starters Education is the
property of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple
sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Database:

Section:

Record: 1

I’ll Never Do It Again By: Clift, Elayne. Chronicle of Higher Education,

v55 n38 pA33 May 2009. (EJ847210)

ERIC

COMMENTARY

I’ll Never Do It Again

I trained for it, I tried it, and I’ll never do it again. While online teaching may be the wave of the future

(although I desperately hope not), it is not for me. Perhaps I’m the old dog that resists new tricks. Maybe I

am a technophobe. It might be that I’m plain old-fashioned.

This much I can say with certainty: I have years of experience successfully teaching in collegiate

classrooms, and online teaching doesn’t compare. So I’ll just chalk up my first and only venture to

experience and make my way back to the traditional academy. Here are five reasons why.

1. “Virtual community” is the ultimate oxymoron. It is an inherent contradiction in terms — like saying

one is “fresh from the tennis court.” While some people find the anonymity enabling and are able to bond

with their cybergroup and engage in true confessions, I find it extraordinarily difficult to communicate with

people for whom I have no face, no persona, no body language, no in-the-moment exchange. To me, virtual

anything is by definition not real. In the case of the classroom, it is a substitute for an actual space in which

people physically gather to explore, discuss, grapple, and grow together in the true spirit of learning and

meaningful exchange.

2. The lack of immediacy in communication is maddening. I met my British husband 38 years ago when

we both worked in Washington. When his job ended and he returned to London during a tenuous time in our

relationship, it took us at least seven days to have a conversation, let alone an argument. (Those were not

only pre-computer days; overseas phone calls were still considered a luxury.) I revisited that experience

every time I read and responded to students’ posts, waiting to see what they would say the next time I

heard from them, all the while worrying that my feedback might be misinterpreted and thus hurtful or

confusing. I can think of no more important place for immediate communication to occur than in a classroom

where difficult subjects are being discovered and debated. It is essential, in my view, that a teacher be able

to probe, clarify, comment in the moment. That moment is lost in a virtual community.

3. The quality of education is compromised in online learning. My first experience with “distance

learning” did not occur in an online course, but it did involve adult learners and minimal face-to-face time. I

taught in an adult degree program in which faculty members met with students only periodically — two

weeks a year or on selected weekends. The rest of the student-teacher dialogue occurred through the mail.

I never felt that the independent research that the students were undertaking completely matched what they

might have learned from a structured curriculum designed to expose them, in a systematic way, to theories

and key thinkers in their fields of interest. I can say unequivocally that students were given credit for

independent work that never would have passed muster in a traditional course of study.

Similarly, in online teaching, I was only able to introduce students to a limited amount of material outside of

the textbook readings; it is simply impossible to replicate a lecture online. Nor could I adequately help them

develop better writing and critical thinking skills or to foster original ideas because there simply wasn’t

enough time or a proper forum. For one thing, online courses, in my experience, are too big; I can’t give

Strayer University Library http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.libdatab.strayer.edu/eds/delivery?sid=7fd06fc…

1 of 2 3/9/2015 8:01 AM

each student enough attention. That load contributes to the poor quality of discourse — an interchange that,

in traditional classrooms, is not only my reward but a way for students to realize their own intellectual

growth.

4. Show me the money. I devoted at least three times as many hours and triple the energy to online

teaching than was necessary for traditional courses. But I received no additional compensation for that

effort. I considered that exploitation. Enough said.

5. Online teaching can be very punishing. In addition to the lack of financial incentive that one might

reasonably expect from such an endeavor, it would have been nice to feel that I had some down time and a

day off occasionally, as I did with classroom teaching. Sure, I had to plan interesting classes in that setting,

deliver them in a lively fashion for three hours at a time, and suffer the penalties of grading copious papers

and exams. But with my online course, I never had a day off. Never! I tried to confine my reading days to

twice, then three times per week, but I just couldn’t keep up with all the posts, replies, planning,

announcements, tracking, grading, and so on unless I visited the increasingly dreaded Blackboard almost

every day.

Then there were all the e-mail messages that I received from students. This one didn’t understand the

assignment. That one wanted to tell me why her assignment was late. Another felt that my feedback was

too negative. Yet another wanted to apologize for the way she had stated her position, and on and on.

Weary and obsessed, I began to feel that, despite my best efforts, I was not up to the task, not in control,

not meeting my own standards. On top of that, I suspected my students didn’t like me very much. That hurt.

I began to break out in rashes and suffer sleepless nights.

That’s when I knew that I would not do it again and would chalk it up to experience — even if that decision

meant hanging up my chalk altogether. Try to talk me down. Tell me I didn’t give it enough time. Call me

old-fashioned and out-of-date. Just don’t call me to teach online.

I’ll leave that to (younger?) teachers who like living in a virtual world of virtual students with virtual goals,

capacities, and ideas. Me? I’ll stick to the virtues of live human interaction — in the classroom and elsewhere

— in a world rapidly becoming, as some of my students might say, “totally unreal!”

~~~~~~~~

By Elayne Clift

Elayne Clift has been a lecturer at various colleges and universities since 1987. In 2005-6 she taught at

Payap University in Chiang Mai, Thailand. She is the author of ACHAN: A Year of Teaching in Thailand

(Bangkok Books, 2007).

The Chronicle of Higher Education: (http://chronicle.com) 1-800-728-2803 Copyright of Chronicle of Higher

Education is the property of Chronicle of Higher Education and its content may not be copied or emailed to

multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However,

users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Strayer University Library http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.libdatab.strayer.edu/eds/delivery?sid=7fd06fc…

2 of 2 3/9/2015 8:01 AM

RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

Volunteer Teaching Opportunities
Service Learning > Volunteer Teaching Opportunities

Abstract

Volunteer teachers are individuals with or without formal train-
ing in teaching or pedagogy who serve broadly in the roles of
“teachers” or instructional adjuncts to provide education inside

and outside of conventional classroom settings. The history of
volunteer teaching is the history of volunteer-teaching programs
such as the Peace Corps, Teach for America and Head Start.
Those serving in the roles of volunteer teachers include parents,
community members and professional workers from business
and industry. Capable volunteer teachers handle many duties and
responsibilities-individualized instruction and one-on-one tutor-
ing, small-group facilitation and enrichment-that relate directly
to school learning. Volunteers maximize teachers’ effectiveness
by reinforcing their instruction. The use of volunteer teachers
provides a means to involve the community in education and
promote closer school-community relationships. A variety of
pedagogical challenges must be overcome in the training of vol-
unteer teachers so they can effectively and successfully operate
within the constraints of volunteer-teaching delivery programs.

Overview

Thousands of people without formal training in education or
pedagogy serve as volunteer teachers in the U. S. It has been esti-
mated that one in five Americans volunteer some of their time to
help out in local schools. And yet, there is a need to explore ways
of increasing volunteerism in the public schools by developing
new volunteer programs in which community members can
further contribute to education (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Dean,
1987; Utah State Office of Education, 1988). Volunteer teachers,
teaching assistants, and teacher aides assume different types of
teaching duties and responsibilities both inside and outside of
the conventional educational system. The utilization of volun-
teer teachers generally improves the educational opportunities of
public school students by providing increased individualization.

The use of volunteer teachers is one successful way to stretch
the supply of teachers. Much of the work of bringing Ameri-
can education and U. S. schools back to “excellence” will be
due to hundreds of isolated local efforts involving thousands of
part-time volunteers. Real and positive change in education will
be brought about through local efforts, catalyzed by volunteers,
giving of their time, knowledge and personal resources to sup-
port and sustain young people in securing the education they
need to become responsible, well-rounded adults and succeed
in today’s high-tech, information-rich world (Cetron & Gayle,
1991; Wagener, 1996).

Abstract

Overview

History

Further Insights

Types of Volunteers

Programs

America Reads Challenge & Teach Baltimore

TESOL & ESL Programs

Cooperative Extension Service

Duties & Responsibilities

Viewpoints

Advantages

Public Schools

Involving the Community

Disadvantages

Organization & Training

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

Volunteer Teaching Opportunities

History

The history of volunteer teaching is very much the history of
the programs which have relied heavily on their use. For exam-
ple, in the U. S., volunteer teachers have been crucial in the
area of adult and general literacy education. Heavy immigra-
tion during the turn of the 20th century from countries whose
populations were not uniformly educated necessitated literacy
programs. During World Wars I and II, it was learned that many
adults had difficulty reading and writing and special attention
began to be paid to adult literacy. As a result of increased fed-
eral legislation during the 1950s and 1960s, literacy-education
programs were able to begin hiring and training professionals
(Cook, 1979).

One of the first programs to use volunteers as teachers was the
Peace Corps during the 1960s and 1970s. The Peace Corps’ roots
and mission can be traced to early 1960 when Senator John F.
Kennedy challenged students at the University of Michigan
to serve their country while working in developing countries.
Later, as President, Kennedy sent thousands of Peace Corps
volunteers into service overseas. Over 190,000 Peace Corps vol-
unteers have worked in 139 host countries across the globe on
issues ranging from environmental preservation to information
technology, business development and AIDS education. Today’s
Peace Corps’ volunteers are involved in teaching and addressing
the educational needs of children worldwide. Volunteers have
served as teachers of science, mathematics, computers, agricul-
ture and many other subjects (Adhikary, 1972; Blatchford, 1970;
Peace Corps, 2007).

Head Start is another government-sponsored program that has
actively promoted using volunteers and community resources
since its inception in 1965. Head Start programs promote school
readiness by addressing the social- and cognitive-development
needs of children and providing a variety of services-educational,
health, nutritional-to enrolled children and families. Head Start
parents are engaged as volunteers in their children’s learning and
in meeting their educational and literacy goals. Four out of five
parents of children in Head Start programs volunteer to serve
as teachers’ aides or to provide other needed services (Cetron
& Gayle, 1991; Head Start Bureau, 1989; Office of Head Start,
2007).

The past decade or two has seen the increased use of college
graduate volunteer teachers with the growth of the Teach for
America program. Teach for America’s first year of operation
was in 1990 when 500 men and women began teaching in six
low-income communities across the U. S. Teach for America
was founded by Wendy Kopp, a Princeton University college
senior, who proposed the teacher corps in her undergraduate
thesis. Teach for America has grown to become the nation’s larg-
est provider of teachers for low-income communities (Fenzel &
Flippen, 2006; Teach for America, 2006).

Further Insights
Types of Volunteers
Volunteer teachers are members of the larger, local community.
They are parents or other interested adults who offer themselves
as volunteers to work in schools and serve as valuable instruc-
tional resources, part-time teachers, teaching aides, teaching
assistants or special tutors and mentors. Many parents have the
desire to help with their children’s education and may initially
become involved in their preschool programs. Other volunteers
were actually teachers themselves before they started their own
families. Parents and others who want to act as volunteer teach-
ers can be recruited through the parent-teacher association or the
school newspaper (Acquafredda, 1993; Cetron & Gayle, 1991;
Lewis & Doorlag, 1987).

Corporate volunteerism is another avenue which can help to
meet public educational needs. Major corporations are becoming
involved and finding ways to revitalize local schools. Corpo-
rate philanthropists have even built and staffed schools in some
instances. Volunteers from local businesses are eager to back
up teachers, and industry workers can serve as a large supply
of potential volunteers. Professionals in business and industry
have knowledge of technical subjects and fields; more so than
graduates of teachers’ colleges. Corporate volunteer teachers can
provide education and training in careers, vocational programs
and cutting-edge disciplines like computer programming, bio-
medical technology and telecommunications (Cetron & Gayle,
1991).

Programs
In addition to the programs such as Head Start, Peace Corps and
Teach for America, there are a variety of other programs that
make use of volunteer teachers. Schools nationwide have created
volunteer programs for civilians or local-community individuals
who are eager to assist in education. The goal in many cases is
the implementation of model programs. Exemplars include pro-
grams in which volunteers from local industries regularly replace
teachers in the classroom to free up time for their professional
development. Parent Academy is a parental school-involvement
program which links schools, teachers and parent volunteers. In
addition, there are exemplary programs in which college seniors
serve as volunteer teachers in inner-city schools (Cetron &
Gayle, 1991; Comeaux, 1971; Education Development Center
Inc., 1994; Utah State Office of Education, 1988; World Future
Society, 1994).

America Reads Challenge & Teach Baltimore
Many parents serve as volunteer teachers, teacher aides and
vital participants in reading programs in schools. The national
America Reads Challenge initiative is a volunteer reading tutor-
ing program. University undergraduate and graduate students
also serve as volunteer teachers assisting elementary students
to improve their reading. Literacy Education Action (LEA) is

Volunteer Teaching Opportunities

another program developed as an instructional model for teach-
ing literacy to vocational students (Bond, 2002; Clymer, 1989;
Heimberger, 1978; Siddall, 1999). Volunteer teachers are used in
alternative urban middle schools for at-risk children from low-
income homes. Another after-school enrichment and prevention
activity program for middle-school students uses community
volunteers to provide instruction and support. Teach Baltimore
is a program using trained volunteer teachers to prevent summer
learning loss in low-income, public elementary-school students
(Borman, Rachuba, Hewes, Boulay, & Kaplan, 2001; Fenzel &
Flippen, 2006; Greaser, 1995).

TESOL & ESL Programs
Volunteer teachers have been widely used in language-learning
programs and courses such as TESOL-Teachers of English to
Speakers of Other Languages-and ESL-English-as-a-Second
Language. A Phoenix, Arizona program uses parent volunteers
to teach Spanish to fifth and sixth graders. In another program,
a cohort of working adults from a local area along the Arizona-
Mexico border serve as volunteer teachers, teacher interns and
teaching assistants to teach bilingual Spanish-English classes
for elementary special-education students. Other related volun-
teer language-teaching efforts include tutoring refugees to read
English, preparing young welfare mothers for their GED exams,
and teaching illiterate and near-illiterate youthful offenders how
to read (Acquafredda, 1993; Dean, 1990; Kutner, 1992; Murray,
1999; Snow, 2006; Ver Velde, Ver Velde, Prater, & Minner,
1999).

Cooperative Extension Service
Parents have been recruited and used as volunteer teachers
to teach practical living skills such as cooking, sewing, auto
mechanics and crafts to students. Senior-citizen homemak-
ers have been used as high-school volunteer home-economics
class teachers of areas such as canning and preserving foods.
The Cooperative Extension Service maintains a system of state-
wide volunteer teachers. Teens have also gotten into the act and
have served as volunteer teachers of a web-based 4-H extension
curriculum (Bolton, 2007; Gouse, 1979; Henry, 1974; Safrit,
Edwards, & Flood, 2004).

Schools have offered adult education as a community service
and have made use of volunteer teachers in teaching adult basic
education or ABE classes. A variety of other programs have used
volunteers to teach adults in an informal “free university” set-
ting. The YWCA also uses volunteer teachers in adult-education
programs (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Davies, 1976; Kutner, 1992;
Wu & Carter, 2001).

There are additionally various informal, nontraditional educa-
tional entities that make use of volunteer teachers. For example,
zoos, museums and parks use volunteer teachers called docents
to fulfill their educational missions (Albuquerque Biological
Park, 2007).

Duties & Responsibilities
Volunteer teachers, teaching assistants, teacher aides, and in-class
resource specialists face many of the same duties and responsi-
bilities as regular classroom teachers. For example, they may have
roles in curriculum development, instruction and assessment. They
may apply the same basic principles of teaching and learning, edu-
cational theory and different modes of teaching in various contexts
and environments. They must often address the same classroom
issues in planning and preparing for teaching. They confront
many similar problems in planning successful lessons, classes and
courses. They must develop practical and relevant teaching activi-
ties, teaching materials and instructional aids for classroom use.
They must decide on the instructional methods and classroom pro-
cedures to be implemented (Draves, 1976; Snow, 1996).

Capable volunteer teachers and tutors can handle many tasks
relating directly to school learning. They can provide specific
lessons, instructional assistance, special classroom presenta-
tions and one-on-one tutoring to problem students. In addition
to instructional support in certain subject areas, adult and parent
volunteers can perform clerical duties and housekeeping chores.
They can serve as members of curriculum development com-
mittees, participants in various extracurricular activities, and
as consultants for planning and improving the school physical
plant and facilities. Volunteers can be given increased roles and
responsibilities as they demonstrate competence inside and out-
side the classroom (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Fenzel & Flippen,
2006; Holleman, 1975; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987).

Volunteer teachers can assist in areas such as tutoring/mentoring,
enrichment, small-group facilitation, negotiation/conflict reso-
lution and student affirmation. Volunteers can usually specify
areas of interest such as working directly with individual stu-
dents, working with small groups, supervising activities outside
the classroom or performing clerical duties. Among the more
clerical duties are grading papers, providing library supervi-
sion, helping with non-routine events such as career days and
chaperoning field trips (Draves, 1976; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987;
Shifflett, 1994; Wagener, 1996).

The academic activities commonly taught by volunteer teach-
ers include the use of computers, study skills, science projects,
foreign languages, military history, drama and journalism. The
more general interest or elective courses and hobby-type activi-
ties taught by volunteer teachers may include such diverse areas
as board games, chorus, quilting, dance, aerobics, fashion,
investing, embroidery and jewelry making (Greaser, 1995).

Viewpoints
Advantages
The use of volunteer teachers in schools and related programs
offers a variety of associated benefits. It utilizes inexpensive

Volunteer Teaching Opportunities

teaching resources of an unpaid staff of volunteers made avail-
able at little or no cost. Volunteers play an important role in
encouraging appropriate changes in schools as outsiders with
insiders’ points of view (Powell, 1986; Utah State Office of Edu-
cation, 1988; Wagener, 1996).

Public Schools
In the public schools, the use of trained volunteer teachers
can help to remedy some of the difficulties students experi-
ence. The volunteerism model fosters active learning by using
a mentoring, coaching, facilitating and constructivist approach
to education. Volunteer teachers provide individual help and
assistance to students to stimulate their interests. The effective
use of volunteers improves students’ achievement and enables
them to become facilitators of their own learning (LeVine &
Schmitz, 1973; Murphy, Mahoney, Chen, Mendoza-Diaz, &
Yang, 2005; Utah State Office of Education, 1988; Wagener,
1996).

In addition, they can relieve teachers of “non-professional”
duties and free them up to spend more time giving individual
attention to students who need it most.

Parents as volunteers can be utilized within school settings to
enrich students’ experiences and educational opportunities. Par-
ents can act as role models and resource persons. Parents are in
a good position to discover children’s interests and to perceive
their emotional reactions to learning situations. At the same time,
the experience of working in school classrooms broadens par-
ent-volunteers’ knowledge and appreciation of the educational
process (Haimberger, 1978; Haley, 1985; Hollerman, 1975;
Powell, 1986).

Involving the Community
The use of volunteer teachers provides a means to involve the
community in education, increase intergroup involvement and
promote closer school-community relationships. Forming part-
nerships with homes, businesses and other organizations can
improve public relations among schools, teachers and the com-
munity. Volunteer teaching programs use community resources
to enrich educational opportunities. They “mine” the expertise
of local community volunteers whose work experience is rel-
evant to teachers’ subject matter. They match the specific needs
of school teachers with the interests, skills, talents and time of
volunteers (Education Development Center Inc., 1994; Haley,
1985; LeVine & Schmitz, 1973; Utah State Office of Education,
1988).

Local community volunteers from businesses and industry can
support the professional development of classroom teachers
by contributing a resource that is otherwise difficult to obtain-
released time. This affords teachers the opportunity to meet
together during school hours without hiring costly substitute
teachers (Education Development Center Inc., 1994).

Disadvantages
Overall, few disadvantages are reported regarding volunteer
programs in schools. However, implementing a program neces-
sitates resources in oversight and organization.

Organization & Training
Volunteer teacher programs face bureaucratic hurdles and associ-
ated red tape. They need to be properly supported and maintained,
and require a structural organization and administrative over-
sight such as a volunteer coordinator, an advisory committee,
ongoing management and supervision. Program policies must
be implemented by program managers, volunteer coordinators
and staff. Teachers must supervise and monitor the performance
of volunteers. Evaluation components need to be developed and
administered. Before all of this happens, volunteers need to be
recruited, screened, interviewed and placed. In some cases, there
may be difficulties in matching volunteer teaching interests with
areas of volunteer needed in school districts (Fenzel & Flippen,
2006; Haley, 1985; LeVine & Schmitz, 1973; Lewis & Doorlag,
1987; Powell, 1986; Walker, Scherry, & Morrow, 1999).

Volunteers should be well-trained. Orientation and training
sessions normally need to be planned and conducted for instruc-
tional volunteer personnel in effective teaching and tutoring
strategies. Materials used in development workshops to train
volunteers need to be formulated and constructed. Various peda-
gogical challenges must be overcome in the training of volunteer
teachers. Additional training programs that focus on human-
relation skills among volunteers, teachers and students may be
necessitated. Despite the obvious need for training of volunteer
teachers and instructors, some receive very little or no training,
either in subject-matter content or in the process of teaching.
There are in actuality few state training regulations or require-
ments for volunteer teachers (Fenzel & Flippen, 2006; Haley,
1985; Kutner, 1992; LeVine & Schmitz, 1973; Lewis & Doorlag,
1987; Walker, Scherry, & Morrow, 1999).

There is typically very limited financial resources to meet volun-
teerism program costs. Although they are for the most part unpaid
volunteers, they may very well incur certain allowable expenses
in the course of their work. There is also a possible need for lia-
bility coverage for volunteers. For government record-keeping
regulations and taxation purposes, volunteer services may need
to be documented, valued and analyzed for matching require-
ments (Head Start Bureau, 1989; Kutner, 1992).

Conclusion

Research related to the use of volunteer teachers is generally
specific to the academic field or educational area-for example,
reading and literacy programs, English-as-a-Second Language,
adult-basic education or distance education (Bond, 2002; Kutner,
1992: Murphy et al., 2005).

Volunteer Teaching Opportunities

Research has determined that the training of volunteer teacher
associates should generally include observation, classroom ses-
sions, a public school practicum and two full days of work per
week at a local school (Wagener, 1996). The use of volunteer
teachers in a rural primary school has been found to increase reg-
ular classroom-teacher planning time, general instructional time
and individualized-instructional time (Shifflett, 1994). The use
of trained college student volunteers to prevent summer learning
loss of low-income, public elementary school students showed
consistent, although not statistically significant, positive effects
for high attendance participants (Borman et al., 2001). The use
of community volunteer ‘mentors’ to provide individualized sup-
port and guidance to gifted children in research techniques and
in conducting independent research studies has been found to be
efficacious (Cellerino, 1981).

Terms & Concepts

Clerical Duties: Tasks performed in support and assistance to a
professional such as a teacher in a school classroom.

Docents: Volunteer teachers which are used by zoos, museums,
parks and other informal educational programs to fulfill their
educational missions.

Enrichment: Offering additional, supplementary learning oppor-
tunities and activities of special interest to some students (e.g.,
gifted students) typically outside or beyond the normal or core
curriculum.

Extension Curriculum: An educational program or course of
study provided in the extended community-outside the conven-
tional school settings; includes distance education and web-based
courses.

Instructional Adjuncts: Individuals associated with and serv-
ing in auxiliary capacities to teachers in performing educational
duties and fulfilling related responsibilities; teaching assistants.

Practicum: An educational assignment offering practical, active,
“on-the-job” experience in a specific work setting (e.g., an intern-
ship in a public-school classroom).

Released Time: Time during normal school hours in which
teachers are freed from their regular duties in order to meet for
professional development.

Teacher Corps: An organized national, statewide or local group
of teachers serving together and performing roles toward a
common purpose under shared leadership.

Volunteerism: The practice of giving and performing voluntary
services without associated cost or obligation.

Volunteer Teachers: Teachers, and related instructional support
personnel, who provide varied educational services inside and
outside of traditional, conventional school classrooms on a vol-
untary or free-will, and usually no-cost, basis.

Bibliography

Acquafredda, M. (1993). A parent volunteer program for the
5th and 6th grades to teach Spanish: The Phoenix experi-
ment. Phoenix, AZ: Madison School District.

Adhikary, P. K. (1972). Instructional effect on question asking
behavior of prospective Peace Corps science and math-
ematics volunteer teachers. Ann Arbor, MI: University
Microfilms.

Albuquerque Biological Park. (2007). Rio Grande Zoo,
Albuquerque Aquarium and Rio Grande Botanic Garden:
Biopark education volunteer teacher job description 2007.
Retrieved November 07, 2007, from http://www.cabq.gov/
biopark/common/pdf/07VolunteerTeacher

Beckles, M. (1973). Teaching abroad. New York, NY: Institute
of International Education.

Blatchford, J. H. (1970). The Peace Corps: Making it in the
seventies. Foreign Affairs, 49 (1), 122-135. Retrieved
November 05, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database
Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5804767&site=eh
ost-live

Bolton, E. B. (2007). Orienting the extension volunteer
teacher to the institutions they represent. Tallahassee, FL:
University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural
Sciences. Retrieved November 07, 2007, from http://edis.
ifas.ufl.edu/HE105

Bond, S. (2002). Introductory guide for implementing and
evaluating volunteer reading tutoring programs: A
SERVE special report. Washington, DC: Office of
Educational Research and Improvement.

Borman, G., Rachuba, L., Hewes, G., Boulay, M., & Kaplan, J.
(2001). Can a summer intervention program using trained
volunteer teachers narrow the achievement gap?: First-
year results from a multi-year study. ERS Spectrum, 19
(2), 19-30.

Cellerino, M. B. (1981). Guiding the gifted: Mentor-volunteer
program.

Cellerino, M. B. (1981). Guiding the gifted: Mentor-volunteer
program. Washington, DC: Education Resources

Volunteer Teaching Opportunities

Information Center (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 239 475).

Cetron, M., & Gayle, M. (1991). Educational renaissance:
Our schools at the turn of the century. New York, NY: St.
Martin’s Press.

Clymer, C. (1989). Literacy education action. El Paso, TX: El
Paso Community College Literacy Education Action.

Comeaux, P. H. (1971). A follow-up study of 1967-70 coopera-
tive urban teacher education graduates. Washington, DC:
U. S. Office of Education (DHEW), Cooperative Urban
Teacher Education program.

Cook, W. D. (1979). An overview of literacy education in
the United States. Paper presented at the White House
Conference on Libraries and Information Services,
Reston, VA.

Dean, H. (1990). Volunteers-in-education: An orienta-
tion guide. St Louis, MO: International Institute of
Metropolitan St. Louis.

Dean, L. E. (1987). Partnering: A method of educating volun-
teer teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly, 14 (3), 82-92.

Draves, B. (1976). Teaching free: An introduction to adult
learning for volunteer and part-time teachers. Manhattan,
KS: The Free University Network.

Education Development Center, Inc. (1994). Industry volun-
teers in the classroom: Freeing teachers’ time for profes-
sional development. Sewickley, PA: Author.

Fee, J. F. (2011). Latino immigrant and guest bilingual teach-
ers: Overcoming personal, professional, and academic cul-
ture shock. Urban Education, 46(3), 390-407. Retrieved
December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=59824329&sit
e=ehost-live

Fenzel, L. M., & Flippen, G. M. (2006). Student engagement
and the use of volunteer teachers in alternative urban
middle schools. Paper presented at the annual meeting
of the American Educational Research Association, San
Francisco, CA.

Gouse, J. (1979). Mom’s the sewing teacher. Momentum, 10
(2), 50.

Greaser, T. C., Jr. (1995). A community-based volunteer
after-school activity program created for middle-school
students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nova
Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale-Davie, FL.

Haley, V. (1985). Redesigning and expanding the lower school
parent volunteer program to increase participation and
participant satisfaction. Unpublished practicum report,
Nova University, Ft. Lauderdale-Davie, FL. practicum
report, Nova University, Ft. Lauderdale-Davie, FL.

Head Start Bureau. (1989). Head Start volunteer policies.
Washington, DC: Administration for Children, Youth and
Families (DHHS).

Heimberger, M. J. (1978). Continued focus on families for
cultural appreciation, curriculum planning and tutoring
in reading. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
International Reading Association World Congress on
Reading, Hamburg, (West) Germany.

Henry, B. L. (1974). Preserving a lifetime of learning.
Extension Service Review, 45 (6), 3-5.

Holleman, I. T., Jr. (1975). The informal use of parents in
school public relations. Washington, DC: Education
Resources Information Center (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 119 317).

Kutner, M. (1992). Staff development for ABE and ESL teach-
ers and volunteers. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics.

LeVine, E., & Schmitz, P. (1973). Volunteers in action: Interim
evaluation report-July 1, 1972-June 30, 1973. Washington,
DC: Bureau of Elementary and Secondary Education
(DHEW/OE).

Lewis, R. B., & Doorlag, D. H. (1987). Teaching special
students in the mainstream. Columbus, OH: Merrill
Publishing Company.

Lyra, I., Fish, S., & Braga, W. G. (2003). What puzzles
teachers in Rio de Janeiro, and what keeps them going?
Language Teaching Research, 7 (2), 143-162. Retrieved
November 05, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database
Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9539038&site=eh
ost-live

Murphy, K. L., Mahoney, S. E., Chen, C-Y., Mendoza-Diaz, N.
V., & Yang, X. (2005). A constructivist model of mentor-
ing, coaching and facilitating online discussions. Distance
Education, 26 (3), 341-366.

Murray, D. S. (1999). Chronicles of a word-watcher at work.
Washington, DC: Education Resources Information
Center (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
434 321).

Volunteer Teaching Opportunities

Office of Head Start. (2007). About the Office of Head Start.
Retrieved November 07, 2007, from http://www.acf.hhs.
gov/programs/hsb/about/index.html#factsheet

Peace Corps. (2007). What is the Peace Corps? Retrieved
November 07, 2007, from http://www.peacecorps.gov/
index.cfm?shell=learn.whatispc

Perry, K. H. (2013). Becoming qualified to teach low-literate
refugees: A case study of one volunteer instructor.
Community Literacy Journal, 7(2), 21-38. Retrieved
December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89298899&sit
e=ehost-live

Powell, B. (1986). Volunteers in the schools: A positive
approach to schooling. NASSP Bulletin, 70 (494), 32-34.

Quinn, A. (1974). A manual for volunteer field aide program.
Hanover, NH: Regional Center for Educational Training.

Safrit, R. D., Edwards, H. C., & Flood, R. W. (2004). An ini-
tial assessment of an interactive web-based extension cur-
riculum to engage and prepare teens as volunteer teachers.
Journal of Education, 42 (3), n. pag.

Shifflett, D. M. (1994). What effects do volunteers have on
a rural primary school? Washington, DC: Education
Resources Information Center (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 373 945).

Siddall, J. L. (1999). America Reads: How one univer-
sity meets the challenge. Washington, DC: Education
Resources Information Center (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 434 325).

Snow, D. (1996). More than a native speaker: An introduction
for volunteers teaching abroad. Alexandria, VA: Teachers
of English to Speakers of Other Languages.

Snow, D. (Ed.). (2006). More than a native speaker: Revised
edition. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers
of Other Languages.

Teach for America Inc. (2006). History. Retrieved November
07, 2007, from http://www.teachforamerica.org/about/
our_history.htm

Utah State Office of Education. (1988). Master plan for imple-
menting a statewide volunteer system. Salt Lake City, UT:
Author.

Ver Velde, P., Ver Velde, R., Prater, G., & Minner, S. (1999).
School-based teacher education ‘en la Frontera’: Preparing
special education teachers on the Arizona- Mexico bor-
der. In Rural special education for the new millennium.
Proceedings of the American Council on Rural Special
Education (ACRES) Conference. Albuquerque, NM (19th,
March 25-27).

Wagener, J. W. (1996, April). Volunteer teachers’ associates as
school reformers Paper presented at the annual meeting
of the American Educational Research Association, New
York, NY.

Walker, B. J., Scherry, R., & Morrow, L. M. (1999). Training
the reading team: A guide for supervisors of a volunteer
tutoring program. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.

Walton, M. L. (1976). Utilization of retired teachers as vol-
unteers. Unpublished Ed. D. practicum report, Nova
University, Ft. Lauderdale-Davie, FL. World Future
Society. (194). Back to school for parents. Futurist, 28 (2),
56.

Wetzel, R. D. (2012). Contacting guest speakers. JOPERD:
The Journal Of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance,
51-53. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=784
18613&site=ehost-live

Wu, Y., & Carter, K. (2001). Volunteer voices: A model for
the professional development of volunteer teachers. Adult
Learning, 11 (4), 16-19.

Suggested Reading

Clemens-Brower, T. J. (1997). Recruiting parents and the com-
munity. Educational Leadership, 54 (5), 58-60. Retrieved
November 05, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database
Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9704152779&site=
ehost-live

Coeyman, M. (1992). Volunteer teacher takes on the unions.
Christian Science Monitor, 92 (19), 17. Retrieved
November 05, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database
Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=2606582&site=eh
ost-live

Volunteer Teaching Opportunities

Fox, C. (1999). The good woman of Nepal. UNESCO Sources,
116, 20-21. Retrieved November 05, 2007 from EBSCO
Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=267
7077&site=ehost-live

Waggoner, K., & Griffith, A. (1998). Parent involvement in
education. Journal for a Just & Caring Education, 4 (1),
65-77.

Essay by R. D. Merritt, PhD

Dr. R. D. Merritt has a Doctorate in education/curriculum & instruction with a specialization in science education from New Mexico
State University, Las Cruces. He has multiple degrees in both education and science and he has worked professionally in both fields.
In addition to serving as an educational consultant, he is also a freelance and contract writer and is the author of numerous publications
including refereed journal articles and resource books.

Copyright of Volunteer Teaching Opportunities — Research Starters Education is the property
of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users
may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Turn in your highest-quality paper
Get a qualified writer to help you with

“ week 5 Discussion Question EDU525 ”

Get high-quality paper

NEW! AI matching with writer

Still stressed with your coursework?

Get quality coursework help from an expert!

Order now