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Skeletal
Biological
Variation
Analyzing Skeletal Remains
Television shows like The First
48 and Forensic Files motivated me
to pursue an education in Administrative
Justice and hopefully, a career in
forensics. I want to solve crimes,
understand trauma and blood spatter
patterns, be able to identify key
components of a crime scene, including
facts on the victim(s) surrounding their
death(s). Forensics would include
DNA analysis, biological variation and
human anatomy. These aspects
alone persuade my choice to acquire my
education in Criminal Justice.
Focused Fields of
Study
Bioarchaeologists and forensic anthropologists tend to work alongside
one another when piecing together an individual’s life through the
analyzation of skeletal remains. The two fields are similar in oriented
goals but differ in process. Both can determine cause of death but for
contrasting reasons. One examines (mostly) the outer surface of the
bones to generate how the individual died and if foul play was involved.
The other may extract fragments or DNA from inside the bone(s) for
cause of death but not for criminal investigation, rather for research.
Field of Study:
Bioarchaeology
Bioarchaeologists paint the details of a person’s life with
intricate examinations of bones, specifically their marrow
and DNA extractions, according to advanced research
techniques. I am intrigued with this field particularly because
the research on the bones breathes life back into whomever’s
remains are found. Studies in bioarchaeology have brought
forth detailed lifestyles, diets, diseases, injuries, even causes
of death. The fossils give glimpses into the lives of how life
was before our own time. With advancing antemortem
pathology research, we can develop vaccines, dietary
changes and technology for preventable health
and environmental issues with the use of accurate
cataloguing.
Professor Kaare Lund Rasmussen, University of Southern Denmark, claims skeletal remains age
back to the Viking Age into the Middle Ages to now. Within the researched aged of a 1000-year
period, it is said that copper was consumed daily due to regular exposure.
“The bones show us that people consumed tiny portions of copper every day
throughout their lives,” (Rasmussen, 2020).
• Professor Kaare Lund Rasmussen of the
Antemortem
Pathology
University of Southern Denmark and her
team performed multiple extractions of
bones that came from Northern Europe and
Germany. Their research supplies proof of
copper ingestion observed by the aged 200 to
1200-year-old fossils. Rasmussen believes the
consumption of copper was not intentional
but rather acquired from the use of storage
and eating utensils made from copper. This
example is a practice of antemortem
pathology because it provides dietary facts
of past inhabitants based off the examination
of their skeletal remains.
Field of Study: Forensic
Anthropology
Forensic anthropology assists in the field of crime solving when human
remains are discovered using perimortem pathology. This subfield is
quite interesting in the sense that a victim’s story, including cause of
death, can be told through their skeletal remains by identifying grooves,
cracks, holes and/or other abnormalities found on the bones. I find the
process of constructing a bridge to create a timeline in order to solve
criminal cases fascinating. Forensic analysis can help bring closure to
families, justice to the victims and catalogue patterns all while
progressing with newer techniques to produce less error and fewer
unsolved crimes. I hope to one day work in a field that entails forensics
because even the deceased are entitled to tell their side of what led to
their untimely death.
“
“The Terry Collection has also contributed to the
construction of the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank
(FDB), which is a large digital database of skeletal
measurements taken from various cases since its
establishment in 1986,” (Wikipedia, 2005).
”
The Terry Collection
In Washington University Medical School in St. Louis, Missouri, Professor and Department
Head of Anatomy Robert J. Terry established what is known as The Terry Collection. Over a
period of 42 years, Professor Terry collected unclaimed skeletal remains from institutional
morgues and local hospitals for research and educational purposes that took place in his
anatomy classes. The collection involves intricate details for every individual skeleton such as
dental charts, anthropometric and anthroposcopic forms, bone inventory/identification,
morgue and data records, photographs and some skin and hair samples. The collection was the
foundation of introducing new research methods to actuate biological profiling.
Perimortem Pathology
Examines traumatic injury indicated on bones
Indentations, depressions, marks, holes, cracks, fractures are visible
evidence of injury severity
Damage to the bone(s) can identify the weapon involved, its size, the
angle and manner it was used in
Previous injuries during life would be evident if bone(s) appear offset,
healed with scar tissue or extra bone formation
Humans vs. Animals
The pre-step before scanning for biological variation of a skeleton is the
remains must first be examined to determine the species of the deceased.
Humans and animals have similar bones and at first glance, can confuse
an investigator or researcher. It is important to know which bones to
look for to certify unmistakable differences between human remains and
other species such as size or an opposable thumb. Fragment findings may
prove difficult for this process based off eye-examination alone, but
advanced techniques have popularized DNA extraction as a next step to
confirm results.
Determining the Deceased By Bone Trait
Similar Bone Traits
Differing Bone Traits
• Opposable thumbs are a feature other non-
• Humans have chins and foreheads
• Animals have longer snouts
• Humans have larger cranial capacities than
human primates possess
• The femur bone can appear similar
• Humans have similar molars to the OldWorld primates
• Lack of tail for both human and non-human
primates
that of an animal
• Dental structure and the number of teeth
differ. Humans get two sets of teeth over
their lifetime. Whereas, some animals have
multiple sets or one-single set throughout
their lifespan
• The pelvic bone can be a distinct feature
between human and animal
Determining MNI from
Assemblage
After concluding the recovered skeletal remains are human, it
is then the job of the forensic anthropologist and/or
bioarchaeologist to determine the minimum number of
individuals (MNI) that the bones belong to. Due to the
amount of bones humans have, this process is the steppingstone toward figuring out precisely how many individuals in
total were discovered. This technique takes knowledge in
human anatomy. Researchers must be able to identify whole
and fragmented bones, the location of where the bones
would appear in the body and how many counterparts that
bone may have. Instead of assuming every bone may belong
to different skeletons, basing a minimum number will give a
more accurate amount of how many persons’ remains were
indeed found.
Age and Height at Death
✓ Age determination for juveniles is
based on developmental stages of
growth and bone maturity.
✓ Bone fusion (ossification) is a
critical indicator for the aging technique.
Estimations are more accurate when
looking at the fusion progress of bone
joints in a skeleton, particularly the
arms and legs.
✓ Different bones can be examined
to determine age. The collar bone, for
example, will fuse in a person in their
late twenties. Bones surrounding
the cranial suture closer can disclose
evidence of age range
depending on unfused/fusing suture
lines.
➢ The arms and legs are
ideal when determining height of the
deceased. These would be referred to
as “the long bones.”
➢ The maximum length of long bones
are measured with
an osteometric board, which can
determine an overall stature of a
person.
➢ The measurement is
then calculated with the sex and
ancestry of the skeleton.
➢ The concluding numbers are a rough
but close estimate. The formulas vary
depending on sex, regions, climates
and ancestry.
Due to evolution within
the past 100 years, the
skeletal measurements
from the Terry
Collection and
Smithsonian may not
provide accuracy
when applied to today’s
forensic research.
“There are some issues with stature estimation…; many of the formulas were
developed using museum collections of skeletons from people that died in the
1900’s (such as the Terry Collection and Smithsonian),” (Agarwal & Soluri, p. 198).
Measuring bone mineral
density is not a
new skeletal agedetermining technique
but specifically using the
femur to do so may
produce more accurate
results. Bone density will
increase with growth
into adulthood, then
begin to decrease, giving
forensic researchers a
more rigorous margin
of age at the time of
death.
“Specifically, the researchers found that assessing
bone mineral density at the neck of the femur
provided the best sampling data for determining
age,” (Paschall & Ross, 2018).
Bones Can Tell a Skeleton’s Sex
Sexual dimorphism is the variance in traits discerning adult male
from adult female. This technique is not used for juvenile or infant
bones due to their underdevelopment before hormones and puberty
have the chance to occur. Concerning the skeleton, size and shape
of precise bones will identify the skeleton’s sex. The most overt
bones examined for this process are the skull, pelvic bone and
scapula. Features of the cranium differ between male and female by
attributes such as: the brow ridges, mandible bone, forehead shape,
mastoid process and overall size. The structure of the pelvis differs
in the wideness of the pelvic opening and subpubic angle, depth
of the greater sciatic notch, and positioning of the coccyx. The
length and height of the scapula from its superior and inferior
margins are another way to determine sex of a skeleton.
Bioarchaeology and Forensic
Anthropology (Lab 7)
The components of this chapter sum up
the interest of my pursuit in education
and career choice. I understand I have
much more to learn and I will assert
myself with aspiration, excitement and the
inclination to build my experience and
knowledge of the subject. Human
anatomy, biological variation and forensics
are intriguing studies that are continuously
advancing. Paired with technology, there is
no limit to what we can discover in the
future.
Bone analyses tell about kitchen utensils in the Middle Ages. (2020, May
5). ScienceDaily.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/03/200319125212.htm
Forensic researchers find more accurate way to estimate age of deceased. (2020, May 5).
ScienceDaily.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/release/2018/01/180123112536.htm
References
Terry collection. (2005, December 5). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Retrieved May 6, 2020, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Collection
Soluri, K. E., & Agarwal, S. C. (2019). Laboratory manual and workbook for
biological anthropology (2nd ed.).