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Simple homeowork question for my Communications class. Around 400 words. No need to do research, references provided (see uploads).
Performatives
and Maxims!
Dr. Sean Rintel!
School of Journalism and Communication!
COMU1010 2013!
The Art of Communication!
A “red herring” is a colloquial reference
to a distraction!
When you see the “red herring”, I am
asking you to question an assumption!
Assumptions about messages!
A: Hello!
B: Hello!
How can we explain this talk?!
• Communication is the transmission and
reception of information!
– But what ‘information’ is contained in “Hello”?!
• Statements describe information with a true or
false valence!
– What does “Hello” describe and can it be ‘true’ or
‘false’?!
• Statements make sense in terms of grammar!
– “Hello” can be a ‘sentence’, but who cares?!
Assumptions about messages!
We!
do!
things!
with words!
Speech Acts (“Performatives”)!
• Greeting: Hello!
• Commanding: Make the bed!!
• Marrying: I do • I now pronounce
you…!
• Promising: I’ll never drink again!!
• Naming: I name this ship the HMAS
Rambo Amadeus!!
• Betting: Wanna bet? • You’re on!!
Words that change the world!
Speech Act: “Commanding”!
• Performatives are not just verbs!
• They have three layers:!
– Layer 1: The locutionary act!
– Layer 2: The illocutionary act!
– Layer 3: The perlocutionary act!
Three layers of Speech Acts!
• Layer 1: The locutionary act!
– The words used to express the action!
• I bet you… versus Ten to one…!
– provide the base sense and strength of the action!
• E.g. Suggesting versus ordering!
• Make the bed!!
– Make the bed!
– Intonation and volume can provide strength, but
so can added words (e.g. I order you to…) !
Three layers of Speech Acts!
• Layer 2: The illocutionary act!
– The direct and intentionally proposed action!
• E.g. Assertives; directives; commissives; expressives;
declarations (From Searle, 1979)!
– Have conventional or expected force!
– Have a scale of failure to success!
• Make the bed!!
– Illocution: A directive (a command or order)!
– Conventional force: Directive will be followed!
Three layers of Speech Acts!
• Layer 3: The perlocutionary act!
– The indirect psychological or social expectations
or effects of the action!
• E.g. Persuading; impressing; antagonising!
– May be intentional or unintentional!
• Make the bed!!
– Perlocution: Intimidation!
– Intentional (Establishes the chain of command)!
Three layers of Speech Acts!
• Explicit performatives (some talk)!
– Action named in the utterance, felicity is assumed!
• I order you… or I bet you…!
• Military talk (from The Hurt Locker): Beginning a
question with Interrogative…!
Explicitness and Implicitness !
The Value of Explicitness!
• Implicit performatives (most talk)!
– Action and felicity circumstantially determined.!
• There’s a bull in the field (Could be an
order not to go in or a report about the field)!
• I’ll be there (You or I might take it as a promise)!
Explicitness and Implicitness !
• Felicities!
– What needs to be/occur for a performative to
work/count!
• Infelicities!
– The things that can be wrong and/or do go wrong
with performatives, so that they don’t work/count!
Making Speech Acts Work!
• Misfires (Act not achievable or achieved)!
– Not accepted conventional procedure!
– Not appropriate persons and circumstances!
– Not executed correctly!
– Not executed completely!
• Abuses (Act botched or void)!
– Not executed faithfully (‘not believed in’)!
– Post-act conditions do not persist!
Austin: Six problems of infelicity!
Meaning!
is!
cooperative!
Grice: Implicature and Cooperation!
A: What’s the time?!
B: Sorry, I don’t !
have a watch!
How can we explain this talk?!
• Understanding goes beyond language.!
– What a speaker says may be distinct from what
they meant!
– What is said is rarely all that is meant!
– Literal meaning may be/seem irrelevant!
– Some utterances may have more than one
meaning!
– Meaning is not always the same!
Grice: Implicature!
• Conventional implicature!
– Meaning that is in the language itself, without
considering the context!
• Even KEN knows it’s unethical!
– Entails (‘Base meaning’): Ken knows it’s
unethical !
– Conventionally implicates: Ken is the least likely
to know that it’s unethical!
– You do not need to know Ken, or anyone else, to
understand the meaning!
Grice: Implicature!
• Conversational implicature!
– Meaning can be contextually dependent!
• A: What’s the time?
B: I don’t have a watch!
– Entails: Person B does not have a watch
available!
– Conversational implicature: Lacking a watch
means that I can not tell you the time!
– But how do we get from A to B?!
Grice: Implicature!
• Conversational implicatures arise because
we tend to be cooperative and expect
cooperation in meaning!
– A: What’s the time?
B: I don’t have a watch!
• Cooperation in this case: !
– I am not fulfilling your request!
– BUT!
– I am explaining why I can not do so!
Grice: The cooperative principle!
• Conversational implicatures arise because
we tend to be cooperative and expect
cooperation in meaning!
• Cooperation does not mean getting along
with the other person or having shared goals!
• An argument requires cooperation of
meaning but not cooperation of goals!
Grice: The cooperative principle!
• Supermaxim: Make your contribution true.!
1. Do not lie. So, NOT!
– A: What’s the time?
B: Five o’clock (at seven o’clock)!
2. Do not respond without evidence. So, NOT!
– A: What’s the time?
B: Five thirty-five, twenty-seven
seconds (when you have an analogue
watch)!
Grice: Four maxims: Quality!
1. Give enough information!
2. Do not give too much information!
– A: What’s the time?
B: Five fifteen!
– NOT!
– A: What’s the time?
B: Five 35 and 27 seconds on April
28 2010, Year of the Tiger, Age
of Aquarius.!
Grice: Four maxims: Quantity!
1. Fit utterances to the situation!
– A: What’s the time?
B: Five (May be no need to specify AM or
PM)!
– NOT!
– A: What’s the time?
B: In what language?!
Grice: Four maxims: Relevance!
• Sub-supermaxim: Be clear!
1. Avoid obscurity!
2. Avoid ambiguity!
3. Be brief!
4. Be orderly!
Grice: Four maxims: Manner!
Grice: Four maxims: Manner!
• A response can follow (“observe”) all
maxims!
• A: Where can I get petrol?
B: There’s a garage just around the
corner.!
– Cooperative: Quality: Assume truth!
– Cooperative: Quantity: Informative but not
overdone!
– Cooperative: Relevance: Garages have petrol,
around the corner is close!
– Cooperative: Manner: Clear, short, orderly!
Three kinds of cooperation!
A response can violate one or more maxims,
troubling the meaning!
• A: Where can I get petrol?
B: From a dinosaur?!
– Violating Relevance: Response does not deal
with the practical issue and thus is not helpful!
– Not cooperating still has meaning: Humour
(the light side); lying (the dark side). Can be
deliberate/non-deliberate, known/unknown by
hearer!
Three kinds of cooperation!
A response can flout one or more maxims,
requiring inference to find meaning!
• A: Can we play on the Wii?
M: Is your homework done?!
– Flouting of Relevance: Response does not
respond to the proposal to play!
– But assume cooperation: “Read between the
lines” to find a meaning that shows the response
to be cooperative. In this case, the proposal to
play is being made contingent upon completion
of homework!
Three kinds of cooperation!
We!
do!
things!
with words!
Speech Acts (“Performatives”)!
Meaning!
is!
co-operative!
Grice: Implicature and Cooperation!
2. The Locutionary, Illocutionary and Perlocutionary Acts
The locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts are, in fact, three basic components with the help of which a speech act is formed. Leech (Leech,
1
983: 199) briefly defines them like this:
locutionary act: performing an act of saying something
illocutionary act: performing an act in saying something
perlocutionary act: performing an act by saying something
The locutionary act can be viewed as a mere uttering of some words in certain language, while the illocutionary and perlocutionary acts convey a more complicated message for the hearer. An illocutionary act communicates the speaker’s intentions behind the locution and a perlocutionary act reveals the effect the speaker wants to exercise over the hearer.
This can be demonstrated on a simple example:
4. Would you close the door, please?
The surface form, and also the locutionary act, of this utterance is a question with a clear content (Close the door.) The illocutionary act conveys a request from the part of the speaker and the perlocutionary act expresses the speaker’s desire that the hearer should go and close the door.
But the individual elements cannot be always separated that easily. Bach and Harnish say that they are intimately related in a large measure (Bach and Harnish, 1979: 3). However, for better understanding of their function within a speech act, I am going to treat them individually first.
2.1. Locutionary Acts
This component of the speech act is probably the least ambiguous. Bach and Harnish (Bach and Harnish 1979: 19), commenting on Austin’s work, point out that Austin distinguishes three aspects of the locutionary act.
Austin claims that to say anything is:
A. always to perform the act of uttering certain noises (a phonetic act)
B. always to perform the act of uttering certain vocables or words ( a phatic act)
C. generally to perform the act of using that [sentence] or its constituents with a certain more or less definite ‘sense’ and a more or less definite ‘reference’, which together are equivalent to ‘meaning’ (rhetic act)
From this division it follows that the locutionary act comprises other three “sub-acts”: phonetic, phatic and rhetic. This distinction as well as the notion of locutionary act in general was often criticized by Austin’s followers. Searle even completely rejects Austin’s division and proposes his own instead (Searle, 1968: 405). Searle (Searle, 1968: 412) warns that Austin’s rhetic act is nothing else but a reformulated description of the illocutionary act and he therefore suggests another term, the so-called propositional act which expresses the proposition (a neutral phrase without illocutionary force). In other words, a proposition is the content of the utterance.
Wardhaugh offers this explanation. Propositional acts are those matters having to do with referring and predicating: we use language to refer to matters in the world and to make predictions about such matters (Wardhaugh, 1992: 285). Propositional acts cannot occur alone since the speech act would not be complete. The proposition is thus expressed in the performance of an illocutionary act. What is essential to note here is that not all illocutionary acts must necessarily have a proposition (utterances expressing states such as ‘Ouch!’ or ‘Damn!’ are “propositionless” as Searle observes (Searle 1976:30)). Having defined the proposition and propositional acts, Searle modifies Austin’s ideas and states that there are utterance acts (utterance acts are similar to Austin’s phonetic and phatic “sub-acts”, Searle (1976:24) defines them as mere uttering morphemes, words and sentences), propositional acts and illocutionary acts.
Utterance acts together with propositional acts are an inherent part of the theory of speech acts but what linguists concentrate on the most is undoubtedly the issue of illocutionary acts.
2.2. Illocutionary Acts
Illocutionary acts are considered the core of the theory of speech acts. As already suggested above, an illocutionary act is the action performed by the speaker in producing a given utterance. The illocutionary act is closely connected with speaker’s intentions, e.g. stating, questioning, promising, requesting, giving commands, threatening and many others. As Yule (Yule, 1996: 48) claims, the illocutionary act is thus performed via the communicative force of an utterance which is also generally known as illocutionary force of the utterance. Basically, the illocutionary act indicates how the whole utterance is to be taken in the conversation.
Sometimes it is not easy to determine what kind of illocutionary act the speaker performs. To hint his intentions and to show how the proposition should be taken the speaker uses many indications, ranging from the most obvious ones, such as unambiguous performative verbs, to the more opaque ones, among which mainly various paralinguistic features (stress, timbre and intonation) and word order should be mentioned. All these hints or let’s say factors influencing the meaning of the utterance are called Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices, or IFID as Yule, referring to previous Searle’ s work, calls them (Yule, 1996: 49).
In order to correctly decode the illocutionary act performed by the speaker, it is also necessary for the hearer to be acquainted with the context the speech act occurs in. Mey (Mey, 1993: 139) says that one should not believe a speech act to be taking place, before one has considered, or possibly created, the appropriate context.
Another important thing, which should not be forgotten while encoding or decoding speech acts, is that certain speech acts can be culture-specific and that is why they cannot be employed universally. Mey shows this on French and American conventions. He uses a French sentence to demonstrate the cultural differences.
5. Mais vous ne comperenez pas! (literally, ‘But you don’t understand!’)
While a Frenchman considers this sentence fully acceptable, an American could be offended if addressed in similar way as he could take it as a taunt aimed at the level of his comprehension or intelligence (Mey, 1993: 133). The interpretation of speech acts differs throughout the cultures and the illocutionary act performed by the speaker can be easily misinterpreted by a member of different cultural background.
From this it also follows that ‘the illocutionary speech act is communicatively successful only if the speaker’s illocutionary intention is recognized by the hearer. These intentions are essentially communicative because the fulfillement of illocutionary intentions consists in hearer’s understanding. Not only are such intentions reflexive. Their fulfillment consists in their recognition’(Bach and Harnish, 1979: 15).
Nevertheless, as already pointed out in the previous example, there are cases when the hearer fails to recognize the speaker’s intentions and he therefore wrongly interprets the speaker’s utterance. This misunderstanding may lead to funny situations and hence it is often an unfailing source for various jokes.
I have chosen one illustrative example to comment on a bit more.
Figure 1.
This picture suggests that the speaker (the man in this case) has uttered a question asking how the woman’s day was. The context and other circumstances are not specified, but let’s suppose that their conversation takes place somewhere in the office and that they are colleagues. The man obviously meant his question just as a polite conventional formula with a rather phatic function, not wanting to know any other details. The woman takes him aback a bit since she starts giving him a lot of unsolicited information. She obviously did not catch the intentions behind his words and therefore the man, surprised at her extensive answer, carefully reminds her that she was only supposed to say ‘Fine.’ The communication is uncomfortable for him. The illocutionary act he uttered was not recognized by the woman. The question we should logically ask is ‘Why?’.
Talbot (1998: 140) declares that men and women happen to have different interactional styles and misunderstandings occur because they are not aware of them. She even compares the differences in the way men and women talk to already discussed cross-cultural differences. And thus it is possible to see this example as an analogy to that French-American interpretation of the ‘Mais vous ne comperenez pas!’ case. The woman is as if from different cultural milieu and she therefore misinterprets the man’s question.
It should be clear by now that the issue of illocutionary acts is sometimes quite complicated because one and the same utterance can have more illocutionary forces (meanings) depending on the IFIDs, the context, the conventions and other factors.
6. The door is there.
This simple declarative sentence (6) in the form of statement can be interpreted in at least two ways. It can be either understood literally as a reply to the question ‘Where is the way out?’ or possibly ‘Where is the door?’ or it can be taken as an indirect request to ask somebody to leave. The sentence has thus two illocutionary forces which, even if they are different, have a common proposition (content). The former case is called a direct speech act, the latter an indirect speech act. It depends on the speaker and on the contextual situation which one he will choose to convey in his speech.
Similarly, one illocutionary act can have more utterance acts (or locutionary acts according to Austin) as in:
7. a. Can you close the door?
b. Will you close the door?
c. Could you close the door?
d. Would you close the door?
e. Can’t you close the door?
f. Won’t you close the door? (Hernandez, 2002: 262)
All the utterances in (7) are indirect requests, they all have a common illocutionary force, that of requesting.
There are hundreds or thousands of illocutionary acts and that is why, for better understanding and orientation, some linguists proposed their classification. The classification which is the most cited in the linguistic literature is that of Searle who divides illocutionary (speech) acts into five major categories (to define them, I will use Levinson’s explanations (Levinson, )):
Representatives are such utterances which commit the hearer to the truth of the expressed proposition (e.g. asserting, concluding)
8. The name of the British queen is Elizabeth.
Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something (e.g. ordering, requesting)
9. Would you make me a cup of tea?
Commissives commit the speaker to some future course of action (e.g. promising, offering)
10. I promise to come at eight and cook a nice dinner for you.
Expressives express a psychological state (e.g. thanking, congratulating)
11. Thank you for your kind offer.
Declarations effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions (e.g. christening, declaring war)
12. I bequeath all my property to my beloved fiancee.
Searle’s classification is not exhaustive and according to Levinson (Levinson, 1983: 240), it lacks a principled basis. Yet, Searle’s classification helped to become aware of basic types of illocutionary acts and their potential perlocutionary effect on the hearer.
2.3. Perlocutionary Acts
Perlocutionary acts, Austin’s last element in the three-fold definition of speech acts, are performed with the intention of producing a further effect on the hearer. Sometimes it may seem that perlocutionary acts do not differ from illocutionary acts very much, yet there is one important feature which tells them apart. There are two levels of success in performing illocutionary and perlocutionary acts which can be best explained on a simple example.
13. Would you close the door?
Considered merely as an illocutionary act (a request in this case), the act is successful if the hearer recognizes that he should close the door, but as a perlocutionary act it succeeds only if he actually closes it.
There are many utterances with the purpose to effect the hearer in some way or other, some convey the information directly, others are more careful or polite and they use indirectness to transmit the message.
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