theory paper

1. Theory/Concept Application Paper : For this assignment, each individual will apply an organizational theory and relevant concepts from the text to your own personal work experiences. This paper is your opportunity to (1) analyze what you have learned (2) integrate concepts from class/text to elaborate on your explanation of your experiences, and (3) illustrate your growing communication competency through your analysis and your written communication. Each paper is to be turned in on the date listed in the course schedule. Proper grammar and language rules must be followed for you to receive a desirable grade.

 

A PR major student. needs to refer to PR internship work. Have more links if you need more information to write the paper

COM 314

Davis

Chapter 2

· Machine metaphor principles
– organization is like a pizza; people=flour; communication=water; goals=yeast.
Aspects:
1) Specialization: like a car engine, every part of the engine has a specific function.
2) standardization (includes replaceability): machines are designed that the parts in one machine are the same as those in a
similar machine n can be easily replaced.
3) Predictable: rules that govern the way a machine is built and how it operates.

· Henri Fayol’s Theory of Classical Management

· Elements of Management

Five Fundamental elements:
1) Planning: involves looking to the future to determine the best way to attain organizational goals.
2) Organizing: arrangement of human resources (employees) and the evaluation of those employees.
3) Command: managers set tasks for employees in order to meet organizational goals.
4) Coordination: the separate activities of an organization must be harmonized into a single whole
5) Control: comparison between goals and activities to ensure that the organization is functioning in the
manner planned.

· Basic Principles of Management

· Structure, power, reward, attitude

1) Principles of Organizational Structure
a) Scalar chain: propose that an organization should be arranged in a vertical hierarchy.
b) Unity of command: employees should receive orders to a particular task from only 1 supervisor.
c) Unity of direction: activities having similar goals should be placed under a single supervisor.
d) Division of labor: work can be accomplished if employees are assigned to a limited # of
specialize tasks.

e) Order: there should be an appointed place for each employee and task within the organization;
f) Span of Control: managers will be most effective if they have control of a limited # of
employees. 20-30 employees for first-level manager and 6 employees for
higher-level managers.
2) Principles of Organizational Power (deal with power relationships within the organization)
a) Centralization: organizations will be most effective when central management has control over
decision-making and employee activities.. But Fayol proposes that firm size
and personal characteristics of the managers and employees could influence the
optimal level of centralization.
b) Authority and responsibility: managers should hold authority that derives from both their position in the
organization and their personal characteristics (intelligence and experience).
c) Discipline: all organizational members should be obedient to the rules of the organization and to the
managers who enforce them.

3) Principles of Organizational Reward (appropriate rewards in organizations)
a) Remuneration of personal: employees should be rewarded for their work with appropriate salaries and
benefits.
b) Equity: Employees should be treated justly.
c) Tenure stability: the organization should guarantee sufficient time on the job for employees and achieve
maximum performance.
4) Principles of Organizational Attitude (consider the proper feelings and attitudes of employees)
a) Subordination of individual interest to general interest:
– organization can be effective only when the interests of the whole take
precedence over the interests of individuals. Individuals must consider
organizational goals first.
b) Initiative: managers should value and direct an employee efforts to work in the best interest of the
organization.
c) Esprit de corps: there should be no dissension in the organizational ranks.

· Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy – Six facets

· Functioning of authority, hierarchy, division of labor, centralization, closed systems, importance of rules
**Hierarchy, division of labor and centralization are very similar to elements of Fayol’s theory.
1) Functioning of authority:
a) Traditional authority: based on long standing beliefs about who should have control.
ex: the queen of England has traditional authority that is based on age old traditions.
b) Charismatic authority: power based on an individual’s personality and ability to attract and interact with
followers.
c) Rational-legal authority: power based on the rational application of rules developed through a reliance on
information and expertise.
2) Close System: a bureaucracy will shut itself off from influences of the outside environment because
environmental interruptions could prevent its smooth functioning.
ex: in the doctor’s office, the technical core is the interaction between the doctor and patient.
but the technical core is buffered from the environmental interruption by receptionists,
rules about appointment and nurses who monitor the flow of patient.
3) importance of rules: rules should be rationally established and there should be a rule for all possible
contingencies in the organizations. And it should be in written form

· Components of Scientific Management
1) There is one best way to do every job.
– can be determined through time and motion studies.
ex: taylor might analyze a dozen different methods of bricklaying to determine which method is the most
efficient.
2) proper selection of workers
3) training workers
– workers should be scientifically selected and trained for each job and that only “first-class workers”
should be keep.
4) inherent difference between management and workers

· Impetus for the Theory of Scientific Management

· Rate-busting, systematic-soldiering <

· Communication flow and style of each approach
– Communication can be flow vertically up and down with the supervisors talking to subordinates and vice versa
– or horizontally with employees at the same level of the organization talking to each other
– or free flowing in which all organizational members are encourages to talking with all other members.

Chapter 3

· Understand the components of Maslow’s Hierarchy
1) Physiological needs: food, water, sleep ( “living wage” to allow purchase of food, clothing)
2) Safety Needs: free from danger and environmental threats ( physically safe working conditions)
3) Affiliation needs: love (social relationships with coworkers)
4) Esteem needs: feel a sense of achievement and accomplishment ( internal: rewarding work; external: bonus pay)
5) Self-Actualization: desire to “become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of
becoming” ( work allowing the exercise of creativity)

· Know the importance and “findings” of the Hawthorne studies
– how changes in the work environment would affect the productivity of factory workers.
1) The illumination studies: determine the influence of lighting level on worker productivity
2) The relay assembly test room studies:
3) The interview program: conduct a series of interviews with thousands of employees in order to learn more about the
impact of working conditions on productivity, interviewers found workers more interested in talking about their
feelings and attitudes.
4) The Bank Wiring Room Studies: involved non-experimental observation of a group of men in the bank wiring room.
Slow workers were pressured to speed up and speedy workers were pressured to slow down.
Findings:
1) productivity increases were often associated with changes in the work environment, such as work hours, temperature,
lighting, and breaks.
2) In the relay assembly test room studies, productivity also increased when pay incentives were offered to workers.
They concluded that
1) the worker output increased as a direct result of the attention paid to workers by the researchers – more attention to individuals causes changes in behavior. – HAWTHORNE EFFECT
2) worker output was increased through the working of informal social factors.
3) management style – based on the impact of open communication between workers and managers in the relay assembly test room portion of the studies.

· Understand the difference between Herzberg’s “motivators” and “hygiene factors”
– hygience: cleanliness, technical supervision, salary, reward system, benefit, policies (if absent: unhappy AU)
– motivation: responsibility, achievement, recognition, challenging (if present, happy, PH)

· Know the basic characteristics of Theory X and Theory Y???????????
– represent the divergent assumptions that managers can hold about organizational functioning.
Theory X:
– representative of a manager influenced by the most negative aspects of classical management theories.
– it argues that management is responsible for organizing money, material, and people for economic ends,
and people must be controlled and motivated to fit organizational needs.
– managers assume to have a strong and forceful hand, essential for harnessing the efforts of basically unmotivated workers.
Theory Y:
– manager is one who stick to the precepts of the human relations movement.
– assume that the worker r highly motivated to satisfy achievement and self actualization needs and that the job of the manager is to bring out the natural tendencies of these intelligent and motivated workers.

· Communication flow and style of each approach

· Impetus for the Human Resources Approach??????????
– first link is between aspects of the work environment and the satisfaction of higher order needs.
– various job characteristics can serve as motivational factors, although aspects of the job that motivate may vary
considerably by person and situation.
– then linked to job satisfaction.
– third link is job satisfaction and performance.
– employees who are more satisfied will also be more productive. But it’s still hard to say even though with years of
research.
– moreover, recent research has suggested that the relationship between satisfaction and performance might depend on
cultural factors.

· Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid
– tools for training managers in leadership styles that would enhance organizational efficiency and effectiveness and stimulate the satisfaction and creativity of individual workers. (concern of people, concern for production)
1) impoverished management: low people n low production – such managers cares little for either the goals of the
organization or the people in it.
2) Country Club management: high people n low production- concentrate efforts on establishing a pleasant workplace
with friendly and comfortable human relations.
3) Authority Compliance: high production, low people – endeavor to arrange all components of the workplace including
people, maximize efficiency and attain goals
4) Team management: high for both- believes that the best way to achieve organizational goals is through the
interdependent action of committed, talented, and satisfied individuals. Managers
tries to maximize both productivity goals and employee needs
5) Middle of the road management: manager who attempts to balance concern for people and production without going
too far for either goal.
They prefer team management because it can maximize concern for both production and people.
Likert’s System IV
1) Exploitive authoritative organization
– characterized by motivation through threats and fear, downward and inaccurate communication…
– it includes all the worst features of classical and scientific management
2) benevolent authoritative organization
– characterized by motivation through economic and ego rewards, limited communication, decision-making at the top, goal setting through orders and comments…similar to 1)<< they believe this style is best for the workers. 3) Consultative organization: totally different than 1,2 - decisions are still made at the top and control still rests primarily at the upper levels of the hierarchy. - before decision decisions are made, employees are consulted and their views are taken into consideration. - goals are set after discussion, there is a high level of communication moving both up and down the hierarchy. 4) participative organization: totally different than 1,2,3 - decision making is performed by every organizational member, and goals are set by complete work groups. - control is exercised at all levels of the organization, and communication is extensive (upward, downward, horizontal. Employees are rewarded thru the satisfaction of a wide variety of needs

Chapter 5

· Impact of prescriptive cultural approaches to org comm.

· Deal/Kennedy

· argue that business success can be enhanced through the development of a “strong” culture.

· “strong culture will be a better place for individuals to work and will improve individual and organizational performance.

The four KEY COMPONENTS of a “strong” culture:

1. Values are the beliefs and visions that members hold for the organization. (eg: insurance represents value of stability)

2. Heroes are the individuals who come to exemplify an organization’s values. Heroes become known through the stories and myths of an organization. (eg: Steve Jobs is a hero exemplifies innovation and market savvy at Apple)

3. Rites and rituals are the ceremonies through which an organization celebrates its values. Used to reward the new ideas of employees (eg: picnic or an awards banquet)

4. Cultural network is the communication system through which cultural values are instituted and reinforced. Could consist of both formal organization channels, such as newsletters, and the informal interactions of employees.

· Peters/Waterman- identify “themes” for organizations

1. A bias for action: excellent organizations react quickly and do not spend excess time planning and analyzing.

2. Close relations to the customer: Excellent organizations gear decisions and actions to the needs of customers.

3. Autonomy and entrepreneurship: Excellent organizations encourage employees to take risks in the development of new ideas.

4. Productivity through people: Excellent organizations encourage positive and respectful relationships among management and employees.

5. Hands-on, value-drive: Excellent organizations have employees and managers who share the same core value of productivity and performance.

6. Stick to the knitting: Excellent organizations stay focused on what they do best and avoid radical diversification.

7. Simple form, lean staff: Excellent organizations avoid complex structures and divisions of labor.

8. Simultaneous loose-tight properties: Excellent organizations exhibit both unity of purpose and the diversity necessary for innovation.

· Schein’s model of culture

· Definition: A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid, and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.

· FIRST, Schein defines culture as a group phenomenon. An individual cannot have a culture because cultural formation depends on communication.

· An individual cannot have a culture because cultural formation depends on communication. However, cultural groups can exist on many levels, ranging from civilizations and countries to small organizational or social groups.

· Schein acknowledged that cultures are often fragmented, he believes that it is important to highlight the human need for stability, consistency, and meaning and thus the push of many cultural forms toward patterning and integration.

· SECOND, Schein defines culture as a pattern of basic assumptions, suggesting that the beliefs that make u culture are relatively enduring and difficult to change.

· He acknowledges that organizational culture also encompasses values, behaviors, rules, and physical artifacts.

· He believes that the core of culture is its basic assumptions and that values and behaviors are better seen as reflections of that culture.

· THIRD, Schein sees culture as an emergent and developmental process. Cultures are learned or invented as a group meets internal and external challenges.

· FINALLY, Schein’s definition highlights socializing aspect of organizational culture.

· When individuals enter an organization, a major part of “learning the ropes” consists of developing an understanding of the assumptions and values that make up that organization’s culture.

· Schien believes that “the new members” interaction with old members will be a more creative process of building a culture.

*Schien sets a model that sorts out various elements of culture into three distinct levels.*

· LEVEL 1 Artifacts (or things)- the most visible level of culture consists of the physical and social environment that organization members have created.

· Looking at artifacts: Such as architecture, furniture, technology, dress, written documents, and art.

· Looking at behaviors: communication patterns such as forms of address, decision-making styles, communication during meeting, use of technologies,etc.

· LEVEL 2 Espoused Values- composed of individual and group values.

· Values represent preferences or what “ought” to happen. (eg: a worker with a value for hard work will probably spend long hours at office) (eg: a manager who values innovativeness will reqard workers who come up with new and better ideas for getting the job done.)

· organizations do not have values, but individuals do. Not all values will hold equal “weight” in an organization.

· Schien labels that stated value and behavior not always match. (eg: a manager might say that she values the contributions of her employees in decision-making, but the manager might consistently make decisions without seeking employee input.)

· It is critical to look at the correspondence between the behaviors and artifacts of Level 1, and the values of Level 2.

· Strong match between the two levels, both behaviors and values are indicators of underlying cultural assumptions.

· If espoused values do not match artifacts and behaviors, it is possible that values are really “either rationalizations or only aspirations for the future”.

· LEVEL 3 Basic Assumption

· The core assumptions that individuals in a group hold about the world and how it works.

· Assumptions have become “taken for granted” because they have been reinforced time and time again as the group deals with internal and external problems.

· Schien believes that examination of the basic assumptions might reveal a coherent paradigm that guides a strong and united culture.

· “Unless we have searched for the pattern among the different underlying assumptions of group and have attempted to identify the paradigm by which the members of a group perceive, think about, feel about, and judge situations and relationships, we cannot claim that we have described or understood the group’s culture.”

· Schein model and definition represent culture as a complex pattern of assumptions, values, behaviors, and artifacts.

· The onion pattern, refer to P.93 graph

· Underlying assumptions can lead to dysfunctional or can fail to shift as the contingencies of the organizational environment change.

· High reliability organizations are those that are engaged in production or services that require extraordinary attention to avoiding major errors because errors could lead to destruction of the organization and/or a larger public.”

Chapter 6 –Critical Approaches

Ideology

“The taken-for-granted assumptions about reality that influence perceptions of situations and events.”

First, ideology refers to more than a set of attitudes or beliefs.

It “structures our thoughts and controls our interpretations of reality”

Therborn argues that ideology shapes our understanding about what exists, what is good, and what is possible

Second it involves assumptions that are rarely questioned or scrutinized.

Example: (deetz and kersten) they provided an example in considering our ideological beliefs about organizations structure.

Ex: most people assume that organizational hierarchy is a necessary and useful arrangement. When a person encounters superior-subordinate situations, he/she views them as normal, acceptable, and unproblematic.

Third by shaping our view of the world, an ideology can also influence our behaviors

Berstein observes “The power of ideologies is related to the way in which they are used to justify legitimate actions.

Critical theorists views of ideology

Ideology is not a neutral concept but is intimately tied to systems of power and domination.

Hegemony

· Developed by Gramsci. It is a process in which a dominant group leads to another group to accept subordination as the norm.

· It is “manufactured consent” in which employees willingly adopt and reinforce hierarchical power structures.

· “Hegemony does not refer to simple domination, but rather involves attempts by various to articulate meaning systems that are actively taken up by other groups.”

· Hegemonic control is typically accomplished by shaping ideology in such a way that the controlled group accepts and actively participates in the control process.

· Example: most organizational members accept the legitimacy of rules and may actively participate in formulating them. However, these rules serve as a source of managerial control over organizations members. This is an example of hegemonic control, in which the subjugated group becomes complicit in the control process.

· A study of the “Japanese model” of team participation in a U.S. automobile plant provides a telling illustration of hegemony in today’s organizations/ (Graham).

· Team-based management-workers will benefit from increase control on the floor and will be more satisfied with cooperative work place relationships.

· Worker selection, orientation and participative processes within these systems often serve as hegemonic devices to control workers. The Japanese model undermines existing union systems to future unionization efforts; workers in these “participative” systems may ultimately have little voice in the workplace.

Critical theorist

· Social structures and processes allow the dominant class to shape organizational ideology.

· Result of this ideological monopoly is a hegemonic relationship.

· Critical theorist next step is Emancipation of oppressed group. For the participants- activities of resistance.

· Emancipation-the liberation of people from unnecessarily restrictive traditions, ideologies, assumptions, power relations, identity formations and so forth that inhibit/distort opportunities for autonomy, clarification of genuine needs and wants and thus greater and lasting satisfaction.

· Emancipation is the process of emerging awareness and communicative action on the part of the oppressed.

The role of the critical theorist is to reveal the social structures and processed that have led to ideological hegemony.

Resistance-look at examples on pgs 109-110.

Means and Modes of production

Constitute the substructure of society it’s economic and production base.

Modes of production- refer to the economic conditions that underlie the protection process.

Ex: Marx argues that the capitalist mode of production is based on owners expropriating surplus labor from workers.

More examples on pg. 104.

Means of production– actual work processes-how products are made and services rendered. (Look at examples. 104-105)

Radical-critical approaches

The third approach to power.

Where the theorist is concerned with the “deep structures” that produce and reproduce relationships in organizational life.

The role of the radical-critical theorist is to explore the ways in which economic, social, and communicative relationships produce and maintain organizational power relationships.

Feminist approaches

· Organizations are inherently patriarchal (traditional and bureaucratic forms)

· Feminist scholars believe that women in organizations can become marginalized in organizational life because of dynamics of gender relationships within patriarchal organizational structures.

· Feminists usually associate with critical theory but not all.

· Feminist work with in organizational communication.

· Liberal feminists- believe remedies for female subordination should come from within the system and women should work to gain their fair share of control in institutes currently run by men.

· Radical feminists-believe emancipation for women can occur only through the deconstruction of male-dominated institutions of through separation of women from these institutions.

(Read examples on pg. 114).

Critical Theorist

· Technique they use is “deconstruction” which involves “taking apart” a text in order to reveal social and political meanings.

· Critical theorists attempt to show “how specific interests fail to be realized owing partly to the inability of people to understand or act on those interests”.