Social

Discuss the development of political and social structures that produced a strong sense of community and cultural unity among Greeks during the Archaic Age.

Your response should be at least 200 words in length. You are required to use at least your textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.

Levack, B., Muir, E., & Veldman, M. (2011). The west encounters & transformations. (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 76-84 ). Upper Saddle: Pearson. DOI: www.pearsonhighered.com

(Levack, Muir & Veldman, 2011)

No wiki, dictionary.com or plagarism

Greek Civilization
I Greece R e b u i l d s , 1 1 0 0 – 4 7 9 B . C . E . s T h e G r e e k E n c o u n t e r w i t h

t h e P e r s i a n E m p i r e • T h e C l a s s i c a l A g e o f G r e e c e , 4 7 9 – 3 3 6 B . C . E .

I N 4 8 0 B.C.E. XERXES, THE GREAT KING OF PERSIA

(R. 4 8 5 – 4 6 5 B.C.E.), launched a massive invasion of
Greece by leading 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 troops across the Helle

–

spont, the narrow strait known today as the Dard-
anelles that separates Asia from Europe. Xerxes’
intention was to conquer Greece and make it part of
the largest and most powerful empire the world
had ever known. Against all odds 31 Creek city-
states, which had formed an alliance to repel the
invaders, prevailed. In September of that yea

r

the highly maneuverable Athenian navy defeated
the Persian fleet off the coast of the island of
Salamis, forcing Xerxes to withdraw most of his
forces to Anatolia for the winter. At the Battle of
Plataea early the next year the combined Creek
armies, led by Sparta, routed the troops that Xerxes
had left behind. The surviving Persians were driven
out of Greece, never to return.

The victories of the Greeks over the Persian
colossus at Salamis and Plataea mark a milestone in
the history of the West. They gave Greece, most
notably the city-state of Athens, the security within
which it could develop its political institutions as well
as its philosophy, science, literature, and art. The
resulting achievements of Creek civilization, which
continued to interact with those of other states in the
Mediterranean region, became the bedrock of West-
ern civilization.

It would be misleading, however, to celebrate
the Creek victory over Persia as a triumph of the West
over the East. The location of Greece in Europe and
Persia in Asia suggests such a contrast. But as we

have seen, the terms the West and the East refer to
more than geography; they also designate a constel-
lation of cultural traditions. Some of the political,
religious, and scientific traditions that we identify as
Western can be traced back to the Persian Empire;
many of them were the products of cultural encoun-
ters between Greece and Persia.

This chapter will discuss the growth of Greek civ-
ilization in the context of its relationship with the Per-
sian Empire and will describe both the Persian and
the Greek role in the making of the West.

GREECE R E B U I L D S ,
n 0 0 – 4 7 9 B . C . E .

E H o w d i d G r e e k c i t y – s t a t e s d e v e l o p t h e i r
c u l t u r e a n d p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s d u r i n g t h e
A r c h a i c A g e ?

A s w e s a w i n C h a p t e r 2 , G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n
e n t e r e d a p e r i o d o f e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l
d e c l i n e a t t h e e n d o f the i n t e r n a t i o n a l B r o n z e
A g e . T h e years f r o m a b o u t 1 1 0 0 t o 7 5 0 B . C . E ,
k n o w n as t h e D a r k A g e , w e r e f o l l o w e d b y a
p e r i o d o f e c o n o m i c g r o w t h at h o m e a n d
e n c o u n t e r s w i t h P h o e n i c i a n s a n d Persians
a b r o a d . T h e r e v i v a l o f Greece d u r i n g t h e
A r c h a i c A g e , w h i c h l a s t e d u n t i l 4 7 9 B . C . E , set
t h e stage f o r Greece’s c u l t u r a l a

c h i e v e m e n t s

d u r i n g i t s C l a s s i c a l A g e .

T H E B A T

4 8 0 . B . C

This victor)
Persia ends
independe
century pa
rately depi
engageme

D u r i
n o m i c , p
trasted ^
M y c e n a e
Bronze i
fished on
appearec
the econ< Because r e c o r d ir A seriot decrease

7 6

East refer to
ate a constel-
the political,
y/e identify as
rsian Empire;
tural encoun-

of Greek civ-
with the Per-

? Persian and
;t.

o p t h e i r
. d u r i n g t h e

T H E B A T T L E O F S A L A M I S ,

4 8 0 . B . C . E .

This victory of the Athenian navy over
Persia ended a major threat to Creek
independence. This nineteenth-
century painting of the battle accu-
rately depicts the closeness of naval
engagements in ancient times.

c i v i h z a t i o n
n d p o J i t i c a l
o n a l B r o n z e
o 7 5 0 B . C . E ,

llov/ed b y a
h o m e a n d

i d Persians
d u r i n g t h e

79 B . C . E , set

c h i e v e m e n t s

D u r i n g tiie D a r k Age, Greece endured eco-
n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , a n d c u l t u r a l s t a g n a t i o n t h a t c o n –
trasted w i t h the w e a l t h a n d splendor o f the
M y c e n a e a n states t h a t h a d f l o u r i s h e d d u r i n g the
Bronze Age. Few new settlements were estab-
lished o n the Greek m a i n l a n d , a n d u r b a n life dis-
appeared. M a r i t i m e trade declined sharply a n d
the economies c o n t r o l l e d by the palaces collapsed.
Because there was n o longer a need f o r scribes t o
r e c o r d inventories, Linear B w r i t i n g disappeared.
A serious decline i n agriculture led t o a steep
decrease i n f o o d p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o p u l a t i o n .

A s l o w e c o n o m i c r e c o v e r y began i n t h e
G r e e k w o r l d a b o u t 8 5 0 B . C . E . , w h e n the p o p u –
l a t i o n began t o g r o w a n d t r a d e became brisker.
Because o f the h a r s h l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e
m a i n l a n d d u r i n g the D a r k A g e , m a n y Greeks
m o v e d t o a r e g i o n c a l l e d I o n i a o n the coasts
a n d islands o f w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a . R e l a t i v e l y i s o –
lated f r o m o t h e r G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s , these p i o –
neers d e v e l o p e d t h e i r o w n d i a l e c t o f the G r e e k
l a n g u a g e . By 8 0 0 B . C . E . the I o n i a n Greeks w e r e
r e g u l a r l y i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h the P h o e n i c i a n s i n the
eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n .

77

7 8 CHAPTER 3 Creek Civilization

Wilting and Poetry during
the Archaic Age
B e t w e e n a b o u t 7 5 0 a n d 6 5 0 B . C . E . , f r e s h ideas
p o u r e d i n t o Greece f r o m the N e a r East t h r o u g h
c o n t a c t w i t h the P h o e n i c i a n s a n d o t h e r peoples.
E n c o u n t e r s w i t h N e a r E a s t e r n poets, m e r c h a n t s ,
a r t i s a n s , refugees, d o c t o r s , slaves, a n d spouses
b r o u g h t i n n o v a t i o n s t o Greece. These i n c l u d e d
n e w e c o n o m i c practices (such as c h a r g i n g i n t e r –
est o n l o a n s ) , n e w gods a n d goddesses (such as
D i o n y s o s , t h e g o d o f w i n e ) , a n d i n v e n t i o n s o f
c o n v e n i e n c e (such as parasols t o p r o v i d e shade).

T h e m o s t v a l u a b l e i m p o r t f r o m the P h o e n i –
cians w a s t h e a l p h a b e t . A s w e saw i n C h a p t e r 2 ,
the P h o e n i c i a n s , w h o h a d been u s i n g a n a l p h a b e t
o f 2 2 letters f o r at least t h r e e c e n t u r i e s , i n t r o –
d u c e d t h e system t o Greece a r o u n d 7 5 0 B . C . E .
T h e a d o p t i o n o f the a l p h a b e t , t o w h i c h t h e
Greeks a d d e d v o w e l s , w a s one o f the d e v e l o p –
m e n t s t h a t m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e A r c h a i c
A g e . Because a n a l p h a b e t r e c o r d s s o u n d s , n o t
w o r d s , i t c a n be a d j u s t e d easily f o r a n y l a n g u a g e .
Greeks s o o n r e c o g n i z e d the p o t e n t i a l o f the n e w
system a n d l e a r n e d t o w r i t e a n d r e a d , f i r s t f o r

u
“c
v
0

X

M

u
“c
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X

o
S!
u
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–

O
T3 u
1

c
i

c
UJ

c
•o 0. lU

A A A A
B B B

1 1 r C C
D D

E E E
C H A R T O F T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E
A L P H A B E T

This chart shows how the first five letters of the
Phoenician alphabet developed into the first
five letters of the English alphabet.

business a n d t h e n f o r p l e a s u r e . T h e y began t o
r e c o r d t h e i r o r a l t r a d i t i o n s , legends, a n d songs.
A t t h e same t i m e , they began t o c o m p o s e a n e w
l i t e r a t u r e a n d w r i t e d o w n t h e i r l a w s .

T w o o f the greatest w o r k s o f W e s t e r n l i t e r a –
t u r e , t h e Iliad a n d the Odyssey, w e r e s o o n w r i t –
ten d o w n i n the n e w a l p h a b e t . A G r e e k poet
n a m e d H o m e r , w h o p r o b a b l y l i v e d a r o u n d 7 5 0
B . C . E . , is c r e d i t e d w i t h c o m p o s i n g these p o e m s ,
b u t t h e y w e r e n o t e n t i r e l y his i n v e n t i o n . I n w r i t –
i n g the p o e m s . H o m e r d r e w o n o r a l tales a b o u t
the l e g e n d a r y T r o j a n W a r t h a t w a n d e r i n g poets
h a d been r e c i t i n g f o r c e n t u r i e s . T h e poets h a d
e l a b o r a t e d o n the stories so m a n y times t h a t they
lost t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l accuracy. N e v e r t h e l e s s , m a n y
details i n t h e p o e m s , especially a b o u t w e a p o n s
a n d a r m o r n o l o n g e r used i n H o m e r ‘ s day, sug-
gest t h a t the earliest versions o f t h e p o e m s w e r e
f i r s t recited i n the B r o n z e A g e a n d m a y be
l o o s e l y based o n events o f t h a t t i m e .

T h e Iliad a n d the Odyssey w e r e p a r t o f a
larger b o d y o f stories t h a t t o l d h o w a n a r m y o f
G r e e k w a r r i o r s sailed t o T r o y , a w e a l t h y c i t y o n
the n o r t h w e s t coast o f A n a t o l i a , t o recover a
b e a u t i f u l G r e e k p r i n c e s s , H e l e n , w h o h a d been
a b d u c t e d by a T r o j a n p r i n c e . A f t e r t e n years o f
savage f i g h t i n g , the Greeks f i n a l l y s t o r m e d T r o y
a n d w o n the w a r , t h o u g h t h e i r greatest f i g h t e r s
h a d d i e d i n b a t d e . W h e n t h e s u r v i v i n g heroes
r e t u r n e d t o Greece, t h e y w e r e m e t w i t h t r e a c h e r y
a n d b l o o d s h e d .

H o m e r ‘ s genius lay i n his r e t c h i n g o f these
o l d stories. H e d i d n o t relate t h e e n t i r e saga o f
the T r o j a n W a r because he k n e w t h a t his a u d i –
ences w e r e f a m i l i a r w i t h i t . I n s t e a d , he selected
c e r t a i n episodes, a n d i n fresh w a y s he e m p h a –
sized aspects o f h u m a n c h a r a c t e r a n d e m o t i o n i n
the m i d s t o f v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t . I n the Iliad, f o r
e x a m p l e , he describes h o w the h e r o A c h i l l e s , the
m i g h t i e s t o f a l l t h e Greeks f i g h t i n g at T r o y ,
g r o w s a n g r y w h e n his c o m m a n d e r i n c h i e f ,
A g a m e m n o n , steals h i s f a v o r i t e c o n c u b i n e . I n a
rage, A c h i l l e s w i t h d r a w s f r o m the b a t t l e a n d
r e t u r n s t o f i g h t o n l y t o avenge his best f r i e n d ,
w h o h a d been k i l l e d b y H e c t o r , the m a i n T r o j a n
h e r o . A c h i l l e s e v e n t u a l l y slays H e c t o r , b u t does
n o t r e l i n q u i s h his f u r y u n t i l H e c t o r ‘ s f a t h e r .

P r i a m , the k i n
son’s corpse f o
a n d weeps, his
k i l l i n g . I n H o r n
anger becomes
h u m a n a l i e n a t i (

Political Dev
the Archaic
Greeks i n the A
n e w f o r m s o f s< o p e d a n e w st; ( p l u r a l poleis), g o v e r n i n g c o m i ter w i t h a defe a n d a l l the surr the p o l l s . Gree square miles t s i m i l a r i n s t i t u t i citizens o f the < i n some instanc o f m a l e elders o n p u b l i c m a n temples t o go( w h o s e g o o d v d e p e n d e d ; a n d called a n agor place f o r i n f o r

L i v i n g i n
s t r o n g sense c
c i t i z e n o f o n l ;
e x p e c t e d t o
above a l l o t h f
w e r e citizens
p u b l i c l i f e , f e l
o n l y citizens
e n j o y i n g the
greatest respc
zens f r o m o
n o n c i t i z e n s h
whereas slave

T H E O L V M P S C

the A r c h a i c /
sense o f Gree

Greece Rebuilds, 1100-479 B.C.E. 7 9

P r i a m , the k i n g o f T r o y , begs h i m t o r e t u r n his
son’s corpse f o r p r o p e r b u r i a l . A c h i l l e s relents
a n d weeps, his h u m a n i t y r e s t o r e d after so m u c h
k i l l i n g . I n H o m e r ‘ s h a n d s , the s t o r y o f A c h i l l e s ‘
anger becomes a p r o f o u n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o
h u m a n a l i e n a t i o n a n d r e d e m p t i o n .

Political Developments during
the Archaic Age
Greeks i n the A i x h a i c Age also e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h
n e w f o r m s o f social a n d p o l i t i c a l l i f e . T h e y devel-
o p e d a n e w style o f c o m m u n i t y called the p o l l s
( p l u r a l poleis), o r city-state. A p o l i s was a self-
g o v e r n i n g c o m m u n i t y c o n s i s t i n g o f a n u r b a n cen-
ter w i t h a defensible h i l l t o p , called a n a c r o p o l i s ,
a n d a l l the s u r r o u n d i n g l a n d f a r m e d b y citizens o f
the p o l i s . Greek cities v a r i e d i n size f r o m a f e w
square miles t o several h u n d r e d . A l l c o n t a i n e d
s i m i l a r i n s t i t u t i o n s : an assembly i n w h i c h the m a l e
citizens o f the c o m m u n i t y gathered t o discuss a n d
i n some instances decide p u b l i c business; a c o u n c i l
o f male elders ( u s u a l l y aristocrats) w h o advised
o n p u b l i c m a t t e r s a n d i n m a n y cities m a d e l a w s ;
temples t o gods w h o p r o t e c t e d the p o l i s a n d o n
w h o s e g o o d w i l l the c o m m u n i t y ‘ s p r o s p e r i t y
depended; a n d a n o p e n area i n the center o f t o w n
called an agora, w h i c h served as a m a r k e t a n d a
place f o r i n f o r m a l discussions.

L i v i n g i n a p o l i s p r o v i d e d a n e x t r e m e l y
s t r o n g sense o f c o m m u n i t y . A p e r s o n c o u l d be a
c i t i z e n o f o n l y one p o l i s , a n d every c i t i z e n w a s
expected t o place the c o m m u n i t y ‘ s interests
above a l l o t h e r c o n c e r n s . E v e n the w o m e n , w h o
w e r e citizens b u t n o t p e r m i t t e d t o p l a y a r o l e i n
p u b l i c l i f e , f e l t p o w e r f u l ties t o t h e i r p o h s . W h i l e
o n l y citizens h a d f u l l m e m b e r s h i p i n a p o l i s ,
e n j o y i n g t h e greatest r i g h t s a n d b e a r i n g the
greatest r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , every c i t y h a d n o n c i t i –
zens f r o m o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s . Some o f these
n o n c i t i z e n s h a d l i m i t e d r i g h t s a n d o b l i g a t i o n s ,
whereas slaves h a d n o r i g h t s at a i l .

T H E O L Y M P S C G A M E S A N D GREEK U N I T Y D u r i n g

t h e A r c h a i c A g e Greeks also began t o d e v e l o p a
sense o f G r e e k u n i t y t h a t h a d been absent d u r i n g

the D a r k A g e . A t h l e t i c contests c a l l e d p a n h e l –
lenic games, so c a l l e d because t h e y d r e w p a r t i c i –
p a n t s f r o m the e n t i r e G r e e k w o r l d , became o n e
o f the means b y w h i c h Greeks c u l t i v a t e d t h i s
n e w sense o f Greek i d e n t i t y . T h e p a n h e l l e n i c
games became a m a i n s t a y o f a r i s t o c r a t i c G r e e k
c u l t u r e i n the A r c h a i c A g e . A s m a n y as 150 cities
r e g u l a r l y o f f e r e d a r i s t o c r a t i c m e n the chance t o
w i n g l o r y t h r o u g h c o m p e t i t i o n i n c h a r i o t – r a c i n g ,
d i s c u s – t h r o w i n g , w r e s t h n g , f o o t r a c i n g , a n d o t h e r
f i e l d events. T h r o u g h s p o r t s the Greeks f o u n d a
c o m m o n c u l t u r e t h a t a l l o w e d t h e m t o express
t h e i r G r e e k i d e n t i t y a n d h o n o r the gods at t h e
same t i m e because the games w e r e also r e l i g i o u s
festivals.

T h e O l y m p i c Games, w h i c h o r i g i n a t e d i n
7 7 6 B . C . E . , c a r r i e d the m o s t prestige. E v e r y f o u r
years G r e e k athletes f r o m s o u t h e r n I t a l y t o the
B l a c k Sea g a t h e r e d i n the sacred g r o v e o f
O t y m p i a i n the c e n t r a l Peloponnese t o t a k e p a r t
i n games d e d i c a t e d t o Z e u s , the c h i e f G r e e k g o d .
T h e rules r e q u i r e d the poleis t o c a l l truces t o a n y
w a r s , even i f t h e y w e r e i n the m i d d l e o f b a t t l e ,
a n d a l l o w safe passage t o a l l athletes t r a v e l i n g t o
O l y m p i a . R eco r d s s h o w the n a m i n g o f c h a m p i –
ons at O l y m p i a f r o m 7 7 6 B . C . E t o 2 1 7 C . E . T h e
R o m a n e m p e r o r T h e o d o s i u s I , w h o w a s a C h r i s –
t i a n , a b o l i s h e d the games i n 3 9 3 C . E . because
t h e y i n v o l v e d the w o r s h i p o f G r e e k g o d s .

C O L O N I Z A T I O N AMD T H E S E T T L E M E N T OF N E W L A N D S

A p o p u l a t i o n b o o m d u r i n g the A r c h a i c A g e
f o r c e d Greeks t o e m i g r a t e because the r o c k y s o i l
o f t h e m a i n l a n d c o u l d n o t p r o v i d e e n o u g h f o o d .
F r o m a b o u t 7 5 0 t o 5 5 0 B . C . E . , cities such as
C o r i n t h a n d M e g a r a o n the m a i n l a n d a n d M i l e –
tos i n I o n i a established m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 c o l o n i e s
a r o u n d the M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d B l a c k Seas.

G r e e k e m i g r a n t s sailed t o f o r e i g n shores.
M a n y c o l o n i s t s settled o n the A e g e a n coast n o r t h
i n t o t h e B l a c k Sea r e g i o n , w h i c h o f f e r e d p l e n t i f u l
f a r m l a n d s . T h e i m p o r t a n t s e t t l e m e n t a t B y z a n –
t i u m c o n t r o l l e d access t o the a g r i c u l t u r a l w e a l t h
o f these B l a c k Sea c o l o n i e s . Greeks established
m a n y n e w cities i n Sicily a n d s o u t h e r n I t a l y as
w e l l as o n the s o u t h e r n coast o f France a n d the
eastern coast o f S p a i n . By 6 0 0 B . C . E . G r e e k s h a d

8 0 CHAPTER 3 Creek Civilization

f o u n d e d c o l o n i e s i n N o r t h A f r i c a i n the r e g i o n o f
m o d e r n L i b y a a n d o n the islands o f C y p r u s a n d
C r e t e . G r e e k m e r c h a n t s also set u p a t r a d i n g
c o m m u n i t y o n the S y r i a n coast a n d a n o t h e r i n
t h e E g y p t i a n d e l t a , w i t h the p h a r a o h ‘ s p e r m i s –
s i o n . (See M a p 3.1.)

A l t h o u g h a l l Greek colonies m a i n t a i n e d f o r –
m a l r e l i g i o u s ties w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r c i t y – s t a t e s , o r
metropoleis, t h e y w e r e s e l f – g o v e r n i n g a n d inde-
p e n d e n t . Some c o l o n i e s g r e w r i c h a n d p o p u l o u s
e n o u g h t o establish t h e i r o w n c o l o n i e s . Because

the G r e e k c o l o n i s t s seized t e r r i t o r y b y f o r c e a n d
s o m e t i m e s s l a u g h t e r e d t h e l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t s ,
r e l a t i o n s w i t h the p e o p l e a l r e a d y l i v i n g i n these
lands w e r e o f t e n tense.

T h e Greek a d o p t i o n o f coinage s p u r r e d c o m –
m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y . C o i n a g e f i r s t replaced b a r t e r as a
m e d i u m o f exchange i n the k i n g d o m o f L y d i a i n
w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a a b o u t 6 3 0 B . C . E . M i n t e d f r o m
p r e c i o u s m e t a l s — g o l d , silver, copper, b r o n z e —
a n d u n i f o r m i n w e i g h t , coins helped people s t a n –
d a r d i z e the v a l u e o f g o o d s , a d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t

r

\\A ‘ )

Sea of Marmara

Troysf 0 so km
I 1— -̂1 ,

50 mi

i f e h a c i S i . ‘ .Delphi- f

„ , Piraeus; •.• v…,

Corinth* -^’^i^s’^-.’Athens
J . A T T I C A

•./Olympia

jMESSENIA .Sparta:

I \, LACONIA\

Delos

The Expansion of Greece in the
Archaic and Classical Periods

Sparta and Allies
‘ 5 * .

4^”
% ,.–“1

^ “Shod*
I i Anica
[ Z – Z ; Other Greek communities

MAP 3.1

T h e Expansion o f Greece i n the A r c h a i c and Classical Ages
During the Archaic and Classical Ages, Creek cities spread from Greece to the shores of the Black Sea and as far
west as Italy and southern France. This map shows the Creek heartland: the mainland, the islands of the Aegean
Sea, and Ionia. Although never unified politically in the Archaic and Classical Ages, the people in these cities spoke
Creek, worshiped the same gods, and shared a similar culture.

r e v o l u t i o i
t u r y B . C . I
G r e e k ms
E a c h p o l l
c u r r e n c y ,
e c o n o m i c
h a l f o f tf
coinage 1
Greek w o

G r e e l
s h a p i n g V
centers o f
M e d i t e r r a
h i s t o r i c a l
m a i n l a n d ,
the i m p r e
t i o n , l a n g
b e y o n d G
Sicily, f o r
c i t y i n G r
enced loc
i m p a c t o r
I t a l y , as w

T H E H O P L I

i n g t h r o n g
d u c t i o n of
h o p l i t e s . ‘
d r i l l e d i n i
massed ra.
c a l l e d a p
ments i n /
ize t h a t la
t h a n i n d i ‘
w a r f a r e re
r a c y c o u l d
t h e m f r o j
Because t l
e n o u g h t(
s w o r d s , he
r a n k s o f sc

I n h o
p r o t e c t i o n
p r o t e c t e d I
all-import£
s o l d i e r bee
g e n e r a t e d

Greece Rebuilds, 1100-479 B.C.E. 81

r e v o l u t i o n i z e d c o m m e r c e . D u r i n g the s i x t h cen-
t u r y B . C . E . , Greeks l i v i n g i n I o n i a a n d o n the
Greek m a i n l a n d began t o m i n t t h e i r o w n c o i n s .
Each polis used a d i s t i n c t i v e e m b l e m t o m a r k its
c u r r e n c y . W h e n A t h e n s became the d o m i n a n t
e c o n o m i c p o w e r i n the Aegean d u r i n g the second
h a l f o f the f i f t h c e n t u r y B . C . E . , A t h e n i a n silver
coinage became the s t a n d a r d t h r o u g h o u t the
G r e e k w o r l d a n d f a r b e y o n d .

G r e e k c o l o n i z a t i o n p l a y e d a c r i t i c a l r o l e i n
s h a p i n g W e s t e r n c i v i h z a t i o n b y c r e a t i n g w e a l t h y
centers o f Greek c u l t u r e i n I t a l y a n d the w e s t e r n
M e d i t e r r a n e a n . Sometimes o v e r s h a d o w e d i n the
h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d b y city-states o f the G r e e k
m a i n l a n d , such as A t h e n s , S p a r t a , a n d C o r i n t h ,
the i m p r e s s i v e n e w p o l e i s spread G r e e k c i v i l i z a –
t i o n , l a n g u a g e , h t e r a t u r e , r e l i g i o n , a n d a r t f a r
b e y o n d Greece itself. T h e c o l o n y o f Syracuse i n
Sicily, f o r e x a m p l e , g r e w t o be l a r g e r t h a n a n y
c i t y i n Greece. G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s d e e p l y i n f l u –
enced l o c a l c u l t u r e s a n d made a s i g n i f i c a n t
i m p a c t o n E t r u s c a n a n d R o m a n c i v i l i z a t i o n i n
I t a l y , as w e w i l l see i n C h a p t e r 5.

T H E K o p i j T E R E V O L U T I O N T h e n e w w e a l t h f l o w –
i n g t h r o u g h t h e G r e e k w o r l d f a c i l i t a t e d t h e i n t r o –
d u c t i o n o f a n e w t y p e o f f i g h t i n g f o r c e k n o w n as
h o p l i t e s . These w e r e u n i t s o f w e l l – a r m e d , w e l l –
d r i l l e d i n f a n t r y t h a t entered the b a t t l e f i e l d i n
massed r a n k s , f o u r t o eight deep, i n a f o r m a t i o n
c a l l e d a p h a l a n x . I n s p i r e d b y m i l i t a r y d e v e l o p –
m e n t s i n A s s y r i a , G r e e k city-states came t o r e a l –
ize t h a t large i n f a n t r y u n i t s w e r e m o r e effective
t h a n i n d i v i d u a l a r i s t o c r a t i c w a r r i o r s . H o p l i t e
w a r f a r e r e q u i r e d m o r e soldiers t h a n the a r i s t o c –
r a c y c o u l d p r o v i d e , so the p o l e i s h a d t o r e c r u i t
t h e m f r o m a m o n g the general p o p u l a t i o n .
Because the n e w r e c r u i t s h a d t o be w e a l t h y
e n o u g h t o purchase t h e i r o w n a r m o r a n d
s w o r d s , h o p l i t e s g e n e r a l l y came f r o m the m i d d l e
r a n k s o f society.

I n h o p l i t e w a r f a r e each m a n r e l i e d f o r
p r o t e c t i o n o n the m a n t o his r i g h t , w h o s e s h i e l d
p r o t e c t e d his o w n s w o r d a r m . C o o p e r a t i o n w a s
a l l – i m p o r t a n t , f o r i f the l i n e b r o k e , the i n d i v i d u a l
s o l d i e r became m o r e v u l n e r a b l e . H o p l i t e f i g h t i n g
generated a sense o f c o m m o n p u r p o s e t h a t h a d

p o l i t i c a l consequences, as h o p l i t e s d e m a n d e d a
p o l i t i c a l v o i c e i n the c o m m u n i t i e s f o r w h i c h they
f o u g h t . T h e i r g r o w i n g c o n f i d e n c e c h a l l e n g e d
a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s w h o t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n t r o l l e d
c o m m u n i t y d e c i s i o n – m a k i n g . M i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a –
t i o n t h u s c o n t r i b u t e d t o p o l i t i c a l change.

T H E RISE of T H E T Y R A N T S I n m a n y p o l e i s n e w
p o l i t i c a l leaders arose t o c h a m p i o n t h e cause o f
the h o p l i t e c i t i z e n r y . These p o l i t i c a l leaders w e r e
k n o w n as t y r a n t s , a w o r d b o r r o w e d f r o m the
N e a r East t h a t d i d n o t bear the negative c o n n o t a –
t i o n o f c r u e l a n d a r b i t r a r y r u l e t h a t i t carries
t o d a y . O r i g i n a l l y the w o r d tyrant m e a n t s o m e o n e
w h o seized p o w e r i n a p o l i s r a t h e r t h a n a c q u i r i n g
i t by h e r e d i t y , e l e c t i o n , o r some legal process.
T y r a n t s w e r e t y p i c a l l y a r i s t o c r a t s , b u t they f o u n d
t h e i r p o h t i c a l s u p p o r t a m o n g the h o p l i t e s a n d the
p o o r w h o f e l t l e f t o u t o f the p o l i t i c a l l i f e o f the
c o m m u n i t y . T y r a n t s u s u a l l y served the interests
o f t h e c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e , n o t j u s t the a r i s t o –
crats. T h e y p r o m o t e d overseas t r a d e , b u i l t h a r –
b o r s , p r o t e c t e d f a r m e r s , a n d began p u b h c w o r k s
p r o j e c t s t o e m p l o y c i t i z e n w o r k e r s a n d t o beau-
t i f y t h e i r cities. T h e y also c u l t i v a t e d aUiances w i t h
t y r a n t s i n o t h e r poleis t o establish peace a n d
p r o s p e r i t y . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , the t y r a n t s ‘ a u t h o r –
i t y enabled a b r o a d range o f citizens t o p a r t i c i –
pate i n g o v e r n m e n t f o r the f i r s t t i m e .

B u t t y r a n n i e s c o n t a i n e d a f a t a l f l a w . T h e
p o w e r o f the t y r a n t w a s h a n d e d d o w n f r o m
f a t h e r t o s o n , a n d the successors r a r e l y i n h e r i t e d
t h e i r f a t h e r s ‘ q u a l i t i e s o f l e a d e r s h i p . A s a r e s u l t ,
t y r a n n i e s o f t e n became oppressive a n d u n p o p u –
lar, especially a m o n g the h o p l i t e s a n d p o o r w h o
h a d s u p p o r t e d t h e t y r a n t s i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . F e w
t y r a n n i e s lasted m o r e t h a n t w o g e n e r a t i o n s .

T h e m o s t f a m o u s o f the e a r l y G r e e k t y r a n –
nies arose i n the large a n d i m m e n s e l y w e a l t h y
a n d p o w e r f u l p o l i s o f C o r i n t h i n the m i d – s e v e n t h
c e n t u r y B . C . E . F o r m a n y years a n a r i s t o c r a t i c
f a m i l y , the B a c c h i a d s , h a d d o m i n a t e d C o r i n t h . I n
6 5 7 B . C . E . , h o w e v e r , the t y r a n t C y p s e l u s , w h o
h a d been b o r n i n t o this f a m i l y , seized p o w e r w i t h
p o p u l a r s u p p o r t . H e r u t h l e s s l y suppressed his
a r i s t o c r a t i c r i v a l s b u t m a i n t a i n e d h i s p o p u l a r i t y
w i t h the p e o p l e . D i s e n c h a n t m e n t , h o w e v e r , set i n

8 2 CHAPTER 3 Creek Civilization

w i t h t h e r u l e o f Cypsekis’s s o n , Periander, w h o
succeeded l i i s f a t h e r i n 6 2 5 B . C . E . Periander’s
b r u t a l m e t h o d s o f r u l e , w h i c h i n c l u d e d the sys-
t e m a t i c e x e c u t i o n o r b a n i s h m e n t o f his p o h t i c a l
o p p o n e n t s a n d the m u r d e r o f his w i f e , lost h i m
the s u p p o r t o f the p e o p l e . S o o n after his succes-
s i o n b y a t h i r d t y r a n t , i n 5 8 5 B . C . E . , C o r i n t h
r e p l a c e d t h e t y r a n n y w i t h an a r i s t o c r a t i c f o r m o f
g o v e r n m e n t .

Contrasting Societies of the
Archaic Age
T h e t w o m o s t i m p o r t a n t poleis o n the Greek m a i n –
l a n d , Sparta and A t h e n s , developed very d i f f e r e n t
p o l i t i c a l a n d social systems d u r i n g the A r c h a i c Age.
B o t h city-states experienced h o p l i t e r e v o l u t i o n s ,
a n d b o t h resisted the r u l e o f t y r a n t s , b u t they
nonetheless developed i n d i f f e r e n t directions.
Sparta became a n o l i g a r c h y , w h i c h means g o v e r n –
m e n t b y a few. Athens, o n the other h a n d , devel-
oped i n t o a democracy, a w o r d m e a n i n g r u l e by the
people. D e m o c r a c y is a f o r m o f p o l i t i c a l organiza-
t i o n i n w h i c h the people share equally i n the g o v –
e r n m e n t o f their c o m m u n i t i e s , devise their o w n
p o h t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d select their o w n leaders.

S P A R T A : A yiuTARizEO SOCSETV C u t o f f f r o m t h e
rest o f Greece by m o u n t a i n ranges t o the w e s t
a n d n o r t h , Sparta d o m i n a t e d the P e l o p o n n e s e ,
t h e s o u t h e r n m o s t p a r t o f Greece. U n t i l a b o u t
7 0 0 B . C . E . Spartans l i v e d m u c h h k e o t h e r Greeks
e x c e p t t h a t t h e i r h o p h t e s , w h o c a l l e d themselves
” t h e E q u a l s , ” a c h i e v e d p o l i t i c a l p o w e r w i t h o u t
t h e a i d o f t y r a n t s . Sparta w a s f o r m a l l y a m o n a r –
chy, r u l e d b y t w o h e r e d i t a r y k i n g s , each f r o m
one o f t h e city-state’s p r o m i n e n t a r i s t o c r a t i c
f a m i h e s . T h e t w o k i n g s w e r e e q u a l i n a u t h o r i t y ,
w h i c h m e a n t t h a t one c o u l d v e t o the decisions
o f the o t h e r , e x c e p t i n t i m e o f w a r , w h e n one o f
the k i n g s w a s c h o s e n c o m m a n d e r i n c h i e f . E f f e c –
t i v e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n t h i s p o l i s , h o w e v e r ,
r e s i d e d i n the gerousia, a c o u n c i l o f 2 8 elders
w h o m the assembly o f S p a r t a n c i t i z e n s , k n o w n
as t h e damos, elected f o r l i f e . T h e d a m o s , w h i c h
c o m p r i s e d o n l y h o p l i t e s , h a d l i t t l e e f f e c t i v e
p o w e r . I t elected the m e m b e r s o f the g e r o u s i a by

a c c l a m a t i o n a n d c o u l d o n l y v o t e t o accept o r
reject p o l i c i e s t h a t t h i s c o u n c i l p r o p o s e d .

R a p i d expansion i n the Peloponnese p r o m p t e d
Spartans t o develop a h i g h l y m i l i t a r i z e d society,
especially after 700 B.C.E., w h e n the Spartans c o n –
quered Messenia, a fertile region i n the western
Peloponnese. T o c o n t r o l the Messenians, w h o
vasdy o u t n u m b e r e d t h e m , the Spartans reduced the
Messenians t o the status o f helots o r serfs. Techni-
cally free, helots were nevertheless b o u n d t o the
l a n d a n d f o r c e d t o f a r m i t f o r the Spartans w h o
o w n e d i t . I f a Spartan master sold the l a n d t o
another Spartan, the helots stayed w i t h the l a n d .
H e l o t s p a i d h a l f o f their p r o d u c e t o their Spartan
masters, w h o c o u l d a n d d i d k i l l t h e m w i t h
i m p u n i t y . C o n t r o l l i n g the helots t h r o u g h t e r r o r
became the Spartans’ p r e o c c u p a t i o n .

I n Sparta’s social h i e r a r c h y free subjects
s t o o d one level above the h e l o t s . T h e y i n c l u d e d
m e r c h a n t s , m a n u f a c t u r e r s , a n d o t h e r business-
m e n w h o l i v e d i n c o m m u n i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t Spar-
t a n t e r r i t o r i e s . Free subjects p a i d taxes a n d
served i n t h e a r m y w h e n necessary, b u t they w e r e
n o t S p a r t a n c i t i z e n s .

T h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e c i t i z e n s o f Sparta
s t o o d at the t o p o f t h e s o c i a l p y r a m i d . T h e
greatest r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a l l S p a r t a n c i t i z e n s w a s
t o f u l f i l l the m i l i t a r y needs o f t h e p o l i s . F r o m
e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , boys t r a i n e d t o become s o l d i e r s
a n d g i r l s t r a i n e d t o become the w i v e s a n d m o t h –
ers o f s o l d i e r s . Boys l e f t h o m e at age seven t o
l i v e i n b a r r a c k s , w h e r e t h e y m a s t e r e d t h e s k i l l s
o f b a t t l e . T h e y w e r e p e r i o d i c a l l y beaten t o m a k e
t h e m able t o e n d u r e p a i n w i t h o u t f l i n c h i n g .
T h e i r c o m r a d e s – i n – a r m s p l a y e d a m o r e i m p o r –
t a n t r o l e i n t h e i r lives t h a n t h e i r o w n f a m i h e s .
Y o u n g m a r r i e d S p a r t a n m e n w e r e n o t p e r m i t t e d
t o l i v e w i t h t h e i r w i v e s , b u t h a d t o sneak a w a y
f r o m t h e i r b a r r a c k s a t n i g h t t o v i s i t t h e m .

C o n t e m p t f o r p a i n a n d h a r d s h i p , b l i n d
obedience t o o r d e r s , s i m p l i c i t y i n w o r d a n d d e e d ,
a n d c o u r a g e w e r e the c h i e f S p a r t a n v i r t u e s .
C o w a r d i c e h a d n o place i n t h i s society. Before
s e n d i n g t h e i r m e n t o w a r , w i v e s a n d m o t h e r s
w a r n e d , ” C o m e h o m e w i t h y o u r s h i e l d — o r o n
i t ! ” Sparta’s a r m i e s w o n a r e p u t a t i o n as the m o s t
f e r o c i o u s f i g h t i n g f o r c e i n a l l o f Greece.

•

A f t e r its c
ized the Pel
alliance o f m o
nese, w h i c h i t
f a r f r o m home
the A t h e n i a n s
aggression aga

A T H E N S : T O W ;

k n o w n p o l i s c
l a b l y r i c h co:
s o p h i c a l , a r t
W e s t e r n c i v i l i
a n c i e n t w o r k
g o v e r n m e n t t
i n n o v a t i v e f o i
i n g o f its i n t e i
its response to

I n the e i g l
A t h e n i a n s sett
i n g t h e i r c i t )
a b r o a d . I n t h i ;
a b o u t 1 , 0 0 0
I s l a n d — a n d a
p o l i s o n t h e G i
the s i x t h c e n t i
the w e a l t h o f
peasants becai
r i s k e d b e i n g :
c o u l d n o t repa

l » M I |

ca. 1100 B.<

850 B.C.E.

776 B.C.E.

750-720 B.< 750 B.C.E.

700-650 B.C
670-500 B.C
600 B.C.E.

594 B.C.E.

ca. 560-510
508 B.C.E.

Greece Rebuilds, 1100-479 B.C.E. 83

A f t e r its conquest o f Messenia, Sparta o r g a n –
ized the Peloponnesian l e a g u e , a n i n f o r m a l
alliance o f m o s t o f the other poleis i n the Pelopon-
nese, w h i c h i t d o m i n a t e d . Spartans avoided w a r s
far f r o m h o m e , b u t they and their allies j o i n e d w i t h
the A t h e n i a n s a n d other Greeks i n resisting Persia’s
aggression against Greece, as w e w i l l see shortly.

A T H E N S : T O W A R D D E M O C H A C Y A t h e n s , the best

k n o w n p o l i s o f a n c i e n t Greece, made a n i n c a l c u –
l a b l y r i c h c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the p o l i t i c a l , p h i l o –
s o p h i c a l , a r t i s t i c , a n d l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s o f
W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n . T h e f i r s t d e m o c r a c y i n the
a n c i e n t w o r l d , A t h e n s d e v e l o p e d p r i n c i p l e s o f
g o v e r n m e n t t h a t r e m a i n a l i v e t o d a y . Athens’s
i n n o v a t i v e f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d the f l o w e r –
i n g o f its i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e s t e m m e d d i r e c t l y f r o m
its response t o t y r a n n y a n d Persian aggression.

I n t h e e i g h t h a n d s e v e n t h centuries B . C . E . , the
A t h e n i a n s settled A t t i c a , the t e r r i t o r y s u r r o u n d –
i n g t h e i r c i t y , r a t h e r t h a n s e n d i n g c o l o n i s t s
a b r o a d . I n t h i s w a y , A t h e n s g a i n e d m o r e l a n d —
a b o u t 1,000 square m i l e s , t h e size o f R h o d e
I s l a n d — a n d a larger p o p u l a t i o n t h a n a n y o t h e r
p o l i s o n the G r e e k m a i n l a n d . By the b e g i n n i n g o f
the s i x t h c e n t u r y , a r i s t o c r a t s c o n t r o l l e d m o s t o f
the w e a l t h o f A t t i c a , a n d m a n y o f the A t h e n i a n
peasants became h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d t o t h e m . T h e y
r i s k e d b e i n g s o l d i n t o s l a v e r y a b r o a d i f t h e y
c o u l d n o t r e p a y t h e i r debts.

T o f o r e s t a l l c i v i l w a r b e t w e e n the d e b t –
r i d d e n p e a s a n t r y a n d t h e a r i s t o c r a c y , b o t h seg-
m e n t s o f the p o p u l a t i o n o f A t t i c a agreed t o let
S o l o n , a n A t h e n i a n s t a t e s m a n k n o w n f o r his
p r a c t i c a l w i s d o m , r e f o r m the p o l i t i c a l system. I n
5 9 4 B . C . E . S o l o n (ca. 6 5 0 – 5 7 0 B . C . E . ) enacted
several r e f o r m s t h a t l i m i t e d the a u t h o r i t y o f t h e
a r i s t o c r a c y a n d e n a b l e d a l l m a l e citizens t o p a r –
t i c i p a t e m o r e f u l l y i n p u b l i c l i f e . These r e f o r m s
created the i n s t i t u t i o n s f r o m w h i c h d e m o c r a c y
e v e n t u a l l y d e v e l o p e d . S o l o n cancelled debts,
e l i m i n a t e d d e b t – s l a v e r y , a n d b o u g h t the f r e e d o m
o f A t h e n i a n s w h o h a d been enslaved a b r o a d .
T a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f a rise i n l i t e r a c y , S o l o n
d i r e c t e d scribes t o r e c o r d his n e w l a w s o n
w o o d e n panels f o r the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y t o r e a d .
T h i s p o l i c y d i m i n i s h e d a r i s t o c r a t i c c o n t r o l o f the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A t h e n i a n l a w a n d ensured t h a t
the l a w s w o u l d be e n f o r c e d f a i r l y f o r a l l A t h e n –
i a n c i t i z e n s , regardless o f t h e i r status.

S o l o n n e x t o r g a n i z e d the p o p u l a t i o n i n t o f o u r
p o l i t i c a l g r o u p s based o n w e a l t h . O n l y m e n i n the
t w o richest g r o u p s c o u l d h o l d the highest a d m i n i s –
t r a t i v e office o f archon a n d be elected t o the h i g h –
est c o u r t , t r a d i t i o n a l l y a base o f a r i s t o c r a t i c
a u t h o r i t y . T h e t h i r d g r o u p c o u l d h o l d l o w e r p o l i t i –
c a l o f f i c e . T h e f o u r t h g r o u p , the landless thetes,
w h o c o u l d n o t a f f o r d h o p l i t e w e a p o n s , d i d n o t
h o l d a n y offices i n the p o l i s . A l l f o u r g r o u p s , h o w –
ever, were represented i n the c o u n c i l o r b o u l e o f

CHRONOLOGY: GREECE REBUILDS

ca. 1100 B.C.E.

850 B.C.E.
776 B.C.E.

750-720 B.C.E.
750 B.C.E.

700-650 B.C.E.
67O-500 B.C.E.
600 B.C.E.

594 B.C.E.

ca. 560-510 B.C.E.
508 B.C.E.

Mycenaean palace states collapse; the Dark Age begins

Greek population begins to grow; trade and settlements increase

Traditional date of first Olympic Games

Homer composes the Iliad and the Odyssey

City-states emerge, overseas colonization begins; Greeks adopt the alphabet

from the Phoenicians

Hoplite armor and tactics develop; Spartans conquer Messenia

Tyrants rule many city-states

Coins are first minted in Lydia in Anatolia; science and philosophy start in Ionia

Solon reforms Athenian Constitution

Peisistratus and sons rule as tyrants in Athens; Sparta dominates Peloponnese

Cleisthenes’ democratic reforms unify Attica

8 4 CHAPTER 3 Creek Civilization

4 0 0 male citizens (100 f r o m each class), w h i c h
served as an a d v i s o r y b o d y f o r the general assem-
b l y o f a l l male citizens. F i n a l l y , m e n o f any class
c o u l d serve o n a n e w c o u r t t h a t S o l o n established.
W o m e n , slaves, a n d foreigners h a d n o voice i n
g o v e r n m e n t at a l l .

T h e changes i n t r o d u c e d by S o l o n d i d n o t end
social d i s c o n t e n t o r achieve p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y .
S m a l l f a r m e r s c o n t i n u e d t o become i m p o v e r i s h e d
despite his c a n c e l l a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l d e b t ; m a n y
o f t h e m l o s t t h e i r l a n d t o t h e i r c r e d i t o r s . Solon’s
p o h t i c a l c o m p r o m i s e s satisfied n o one. T h e aris-
t o c r a c y f e l t t h a t S o l o n h a d g i v e n a w a y t o o m u c h
o f t h e i r p o w e r , whereas the m e r c h a n t s , s h o p k e e p –
ers, a n d artisans w h o o c c u p i e d the t h i r d p o l i t i c a l
g r o u p w e r e u n h a p p y because they had n o t
received m o r e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r . M o s t o f t h e elected
offices r e m a i n e d i n the h a n d s o f the a r i s t o c r a c y .

C a p i t a l i z i n g o n this w i d e s p r e a d d i s c o n t e n t , a
n o b l e m a n n a m e d Peisistratus (ca. 5 9 0 – 5 2 8 B . C . E . )
seized p o w e r i n 5 6 1 a n d r u l e d A t h e n s as a t y r a n t
f r o m 5 4 7 u n t i l his death i n 528 B . C . E . L i k e o t h e r
t y r a n n i e s i n Greece, Peisistratus’s regime i n i t i a l l y
enjoyed w i d e s u p p o r t . He alleviated the p l i g h t o f
the s m a l l l a n d o w n e r s by g i v i n g t h e m l a n d t h a t he
h a d seized f r o m aristocrats. H e sponsored b u i l d i n g
w o r k s , s u p p o r t e d r e l i g i o u s festivals, encouraged
trade a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , and s u p p o r t e d
the arts. H e i n i t i a t e d a v i g o r o u s t r a d i t i o n o f A t h e n –
i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l life b y i n v i t i n g artists a n d poets t o
c o m e t o A t h e n s f r o m a l l over Greece. H i s sons,
however, abused their p o w e r , a n d jealous aristo-
crats, assisted b y Sparta, t o p p l e d the f a m i l y ‘ s r u l e
i n 5 1 0 . Peisistratus’s s u r v i v i n g s o n f l e d t o Persia.

T w o years later, t h e assembly selected a
n o b l e m a n n a m e d Cleisthenes t o r e o r g a n i z e
A t h e n i a n p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . By c l e v e r l y rear-
r a n g i n g t h e basic p o l i t i c a l u n i t s o f A t t i c a i n t o t e n
a r t i f i c i a l t r i b e s , Cleisthenes u n i f i e d t h i s t e r r i t o r y
a n d m a d e A t h e n s the center o f a l l i m p o r t a n t
p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y . B u i l d i n g u p o n Solon’s r e f o r m s ,
he set the basic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f d e m o c r a c y i n place
w i t h a n e w b o u l e o f 5 0 0 m a l e c i t i z e n s , i n w h i c h
each o f the t r i b e s chose 50 m e m b e r s b y l o t . T h e
b o u l e h e a r d p r o p o s a l s f r o m citizens a n d o n t h i s
basis m a d e u p t h e agenda f o r the assembly,
w h i c h c o n s i s t e d o f a l l a d u l t m a l e c i t i z e n s . A l l

these m a l e citizens c o u l d also h o l d p u b l i c o f f i c e .
I n t h i s w a y Cleisthenes b r o k e the p o w e r o f aris-
t o c r a t i c f a m i h e s a n d set u p t h e l a s t i n g , f u n d a –
m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e s o f A t h e n i a n d e m o c r a c y .

THE GREEK ENCOUNTER
WITH PERSIA
• H o w d i d t h e P e r s i a n E m p i r e b r i n g t h e

p e o p l e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t t o g e t h e r i n a
s t a b l e r e a l m , a n d w h a t e l e m e n t s o f P e r s i a n
r e l i g i o n a n d g o v e r n m e n t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d
W e s t e r n t h o u g h t ?

Persian h i s t o r y began a b o u t 1 4 0 0 B . C . E . , w h e n
s m a l l g r o u p s o f h e r d s m e n s t a r t e d m i g r a t i n g i n t o
w e s t e r n I r a n f r o m areas n o r t h o f t h e C a s p i a n
Sea. O v e r 5 0 0 years these settlers s l o w l y coa-
lesced i n t o t w o closely r e l a t e d g r o u p s , t h e M e d e s
a n d the Persians.

By a b o u t 9 0 0 B.C.E., the Medes h a d estab-
lished mastery over a l l the peoples o f the I r a n i a n
p l a t e a u , i n c l u d i n g the Persians. I n 6 1 2 B . C . E . , w i t h
the assistance o f the B a b y l o n i a n s , the M e d e s c o n –
quered the Assyrians. T h e y t h e n pushed i n t o cen-
t r a l A n a t o U a ( m o d e r n T u r k e y ) , A f g h a n i s t a n , and
possibly f a r t h e r i n t o C e n t r a l A s i a . I n the s i x t h cen-
t u r y , u n d e r the leadership o f C y r u s the G r e a t
(r. 5 5 0 – 5 3 0 B . C . E . ) , Persia b r o k e a w a y f r o m
M e d i a n r u l e a n d soon c o n q u e r e d the k i n g d o m o f
the M e d e s . U n d e r the guidance o f this b r i l l i a n t
m o n a r c h a n d his successors, the Persians a c q u i r e d
a vast e m p i r e . T h e y f o l l o w e d a m o n o t h e i s t i c r e l i –
g i o n , Z o r o a s t r i a n i s m , a n d governed their subjects
w i t h a c o m b i n a d o n o f tolerance a n d firmness.

Lyms the Great and Persian
Expansion
A f t e r a s c e n d i n g t h e Persian t h r o n e C y r u s (r. ca.
5 5 0 – 5 3 0 B . C . E . ) e m b a r k e d o n a d a z z l i n g 2 0 – y e a r
career o f c o n q u e s t . H i s m i l i t a r y genius a n d
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s k i l l s t r a n s f o r m e d the s m a l l k i n g –
d o m i n t o a g i a n t m u l t i e t h n i c e m p i r e t h a t

40

M A P 3

T h e Pel
The Pen
Egypt, c
tolerant

I–ft