Relationship between Gender and Drug Abuse among Young Adults Essay

Read at least 10 empirical articles in your general dissertation field that you have not read previously.

In the “Literature Review Resources” document that you submitted in the previous course, provide the following for each source that you are adding to the document:

The APA-formatted citation.

A brief annotation of the key points of the source.

An indication of whether the source has been added to (Y) or excluded from (N) your RefWorks (or similar reference collection tool) list.

Highlight the additions to the document so your instructor can readily identify them

Running head: THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
The Relationship between Gender and Drug Abuse among Young Adults
Nicole Daniels.
PCN-812
03/27/2019
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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
Num
ber
1.
2.
The relationship between gender and drug abuse among young adults
Literature Review Resources
Article Information
2
Adde
d to
RefW
orks?
Y or
N
(opti
onal)
Bibliographic Information
Y
Becker, J. B., McClellan, M. L., & Reed, B. G. (2017). Sex Differences, Gender
And Addiction. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 95(1-2), 136–147.
Permalink
http://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.23963
Annotation
In this review article, the authors report that drug abuse and addiction closely
tie to both biological and sociocultural phenomenon. They further state that,
although people identify gender regarding biological differences, masculinity
and femininity as functions of gender get influenced by sociocultural and
developmental factors. The authors also add that both masculinity and
femininity influence one’s tendency to indulge in drug abuse, the impact of the
drugs on the brain, and the duration that one remains in drug use. As a result,
the authors conclude that, although they do not find a direct relationship
between drug use/addiction and the biologically-defined genders, the
sociocultural gender differences act as a risk factor of drug abuse and addiction.
Bibliographic Information
Y
De Genna, N. M., Cornelius, M. D., & Donovan, J. E. (2009). Risk Factors for
Young Adult Substance Use among Women who were Teenage
Mothers. Addictive Behaviors, 34(5), 463–470.
Permalink
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.12.014
Annotation
In this article, the authors seek to explore various risk factors that expose young
mothers and women that became pregnant in their teens. In this case, the
authors identified that predisposing factors such as depression were relatively
high among women that had become pregnant in their early years, and that
ended up showing top signs of marijuana and tobacco abuse as well as binge
drinking. Further, the authors report that it is often difficult for these young
THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
3.
4.
mothers to recover from drug abuse and addiction. Interestingly, teen pregnancy
and its related depression appear only shared among females. Although the
study does not create a male comparison, the results show that women may be
more exposed. As a result, this study may produce a robust framework for the
upcoming dissertation.
Bibliographic Information
Y
Greenfield, S. F., Back, S. E., Lawson, K., & Brady, K. T. (2010). Substance
Abuse in Women. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 33(2), 339–355.
Permalink
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2010.01.004
Annotation
In this article, the Greenfield, Back, Lawson & Brady (2010) explore substance
abuse and with a greater focus on women. The authors note that significant
gender gaps exist in the prevalence of drug abuse and drug-related disorders
between males and females and with the number of men facing these challenges
being sometimes more than the women. However, the authors note that some
unique characteristics of women have led to a rise in their rates of drug abuse,
and that has led to a significant decline in the gap between the males and
women that are facing drug abuse and drug-related disorders. Some of the
factors that the author’s state include neurological gonadal steroid hormones,
differences between males and females in stress reactivity, eating disorders,
vulnerability to psychological disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder,
and gender-specific treatment approaches. It is for these reasons that the authors
conclude that, although a relatively higher number of males are already facing
the drug abuse menace, greater focus should shift to women. This article will be
used as a foundation to understand the differences in the prevalence of drug
abuse between males and females, historical changes in gender gaps, and the
risk factors that women face.
Bibliographic Information
Y
Kelly, B. C., Wells, B. E., LeClair, A., Tracy, D., Parsons, J. T., &Golub, S. A.
(2013). Prescription Drug Misuse among Young Adults: Looking Across Youth
Cultures. Drug and Alcohol Review, 32(3), 288–294.
Permalink
http://doi.org/10.1111/dar.12016
Annotation
In this article, the authors seek to evaluate whether various youth cultures
influence the prevalence of drug abuse. They identify vast differences in this
prevalence of different youth cultures such as lesbian parties and electronic
dance music scenes, among other pop and mainstream cultures. Coincidentally,
some perceptions that show a high prevalence of drug abuse such as lesbian
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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
5.
6.
parties are gender related. This article could thus form a strong foundation for
exploring the role that gender plays in drug abuse and addiction among young
adults.
Bibliographic Information
Y
Khooshabi, K., Ameneh-Forouzan, S.-, Ghassabian, A., &Assari, S. (2010). Is
there a gender difference in associates of adolescents’ lifetime illicit drug use in
Tehran, Iran? Archives of Medical Science : AMS, 6(3), 399–406.
Permalink
http://doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2010.14263
In this article, Khooshabi, Ameneh-Forouzan, Ghassabian&Assari (2010) focus
on the differences in gender among drug users in their teenage and later years.
However, unlike many other studies have explored in this document, Khooshabi
et al. focus on the Asian region rather than the west. The authors identify a
higher tendency among boys to indulge in drug abuse at a tender age and
subsequently commit to lifetime illicit drug abuse despite facing similar risk
factors to girls. This article could be an essential addition to synthesis with most
other materials in this paper. For instance, while other documents identify that
different genders may face different risk factors and that differences in their
resilience about any risk factor determine their tendency to engage in drug
abuse, this article shows that the differences in risk factors play no significant
impact. Instead, the resilience of boys in any of these risk factors tends to be
relatively higher, which could then help in building a robust framework upon
which to base the research.
Bibliographic Information
Y
McArdle, P. (2008). Use and misuse of drugs and alcohol in adolescence. BMJ :
British Medical Journal, 337(7660), 46–50.
Permalink
http://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a306
Annotation
In this article, McArdle (2008) explores the misuse of drugs and alcohol among
adults. However, the author begins by examining the causes of substance abuse,
how one can identify drug abuse, an explanation of drug abuse, trends in drug
abuse, effects, and management of drug abuse. Unlike most other research
articles explored in this paper, McArdle focuses on the general adolescent
population rather than the differences in genders among this group. As such, the
results are more generalized. These results could be of great significance to
research as they could compare to other factors that the rest of the papers have
linked to either males or females, which will then help in understanding the
causes of each gender, the implications, trends, and management of drug abuse
based on the genders.
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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
7.
8.
9.
Bibliographic Information
Merline, A., Jager, J., &Schulenberg, J. E. (2008). Adolescent Risk Factors for
Adult Alcohol Use and Abuse: Stability and Change of Predictive Value across
Early and Middle Adulthood. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 103(Suppl 1),
84–99.
Permalink
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02178.x
Annotation
In this article, the authors seek to identify the risk factors for alcohol abuse
among young adults and middle-aged. The authors identify multiple risk factors
that lead to a large proportion of individuals in their early 20s engaging in
alcohol abuse. Some of these include marijuana use, tobacco use, and plan to
join college, among others. Although the authors conclude that some of these
risk factors are variants between males and females, they do not explore the
topic in deep to establish the reason that these differences emerge. The findings
of this article could thus guide the crafting of the upcoming dissertation and
particularly by offering some of the probable risk factors and predisposing
factors that may vary across genders. In return, exploring these risk factors
could then help in creating more meaningful results.
Bibliographic Information
Polak, K., Haug, N. A., Drachenberg, H. E., &Svikis, D. S. (2015). Gender
Considerations in Addiction: Implications for Treatment. Current Treatment
Options in Psychiatry, 2(3), 326–338.
Permalink
PMCID: PMC4578628
In this paper, Polak, Haug, Drachenberg&Svikis (2015) explore the factors that
contribute to differences in drug addiction among males and females as well as
other considerations that one could make when exploring implications and
treatment. Similar to most other authors in this document, Polak, and associates
identify that males are at a higher chance of engaging in drug abuse than their
female counterparts. Surprisingly, the authors recognize that implications of
drug abuse among females are relatively higher than in males despite the rates
of abuse being relatively lower in women. As such, the authors suggest that
special attention needs to be accorded to females when developing intervention
methods as they are highly sensitive to the approach chosen. This paper will
help in expounding more on gender differences on not just drug abuse, but
implications as well, which could then assist in developing more relevant
research questions.
Bibliographic Information
Shannon, L. M., Havens, J. R., Oser, C., Crosby, R., &Leukefeld, C. (2011).
5
Y
Y
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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
Examining gender differences in substance use and age of first use among rural,
Appalachian drug users in Kentucky. The American Journal of Drug and
Alcohol Abuse, 37(2), 98–104.
Permalink
http://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2010.540282
Annotation
In this research paper, Shannon and associates seek to identify the gaps in the
use and age of first use of drugs among young adults. The authors recognize
that males are more likely to engage in binge drinking, heavy drinking, and use
of hard drugs than it is the case among females. However, a point of interest is
the focus on first-time drug use. For instance, many studies analyzed in this
paper report that many people indulge in alcohol and drug use in their teenage
years. However, Shannon and associates identify from their exploration of past
research and the data that they collect that males tend to indulge in drug use
way before their female counterparts. The authors recognize that risk factors
come at a relatively later stage among females, which is common across all
races and ethnic groups. This article is an important paper as it could help to
build a foundation of the reasons that more males abuse drugs by illustrating
that they experience risk factors at earlier stages than females and that their first
age of alcohol abuse comes way earlier than their female counterparts.
10. Bibliographic Information
Wilsnack, R. W., Wilsnack, S. C., Kristjanson, A. F., Vogeltanz-Holm, N. D.,
&Gmel, G. (2009). Gender And Alcohol Consumption: Patterns From The
Multinational Genacis Project. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 104(9), 1487–
1500.
Permalink
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02696.x
Annotation
In this article, the authors seek to explore the differences in high-volume
alcohol use and addiction across genders. In research that took ten years, the
authors identified that males were more likely to indulge in heavy drinking as
compared to females. At the same time, the results indicated that men were
more likely to drink for prolonged periods than it was among the women.
Interestingly, these patterns had significant differences across various
continents, an indication that other sociocultural factors could have an
influence. However, it is unfortunate that the authors failed to explore the
factors that contributed to these differences. This research paper could thus act
as a strong foundation and a reference for the study as a result of its high level
of reliability.
11 Bibliographic Information
6
Y
Y
THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
.
Boyer, C. B., Greenberg, L., Chutuape, K., Walker, B., Monte, D., Kirk, J., …&
Adolescent Medicine Trials Network. (2017). Exchange of sex for drugs or
money in adolescents and young adults: an examination of sociodemographic
factors, HIV-related risk, and community context. Journal of community health,
42(1), 90-100.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-016-0234-2
Annotation
The author seeks to examine the associations between demographic factors,
community context and HIV risk in young adults and adolescents who have
exchanged sex for money or drugs. The authors secretly collected data through
an anonymous survey in different community venues where young adults and
adolescents congregate. These venues were in urban locations that are resourcechallenged and have high prevalence rates of STI. The researchers used Fisher’s
exact tests, Conventional descriptive statistics, and generalized estimating
equations to examine the associations. The authors also identified the
prevalence based on different demographics including gender. Among the
participants, 42.2 percent were male. The composition of transgender was 4.6
percent. The authors ensured that they got informed consent from participants to
protect their anonymity. The study contributes to the research about the
exchange of sex among young people and adolescents to get drugs or money
and the influence of gender on the actions of the individuals.
12 BibliographicInformation
Y
Pascual, M., Montesinos, J., Marcos, M., Torres, J. L., Costa‐Alba, P., García‐
.
García, F., &Guerri, C. (2017). Gender differences in the inflammatory
cytokine and chemokine profiles induced by binge ethanol drinking in
adolescence. Addiction Biology, 22(6), 1829-1841.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1111/adb.12461
Annotation
In this research, the authors seek to identify how drugs, specifically heavy binge
drinking affects young adults and adolescents based on their gender. The
authors determine that heavy use of ethanol can cause long term behavioral and
long‐term cognitive dysfunction. According to the article, some studies done in
the recent past on the effects of ethanol on the brains of adolescents and young
people had indicated different effects on male and female participants. As such
the authors sought to clarify the concentration of the different interleukins in
plasma of both male and female, young adults and adolescents. The researchers
related these levels to the intoxication after the ingestion of high amounts of
alcohol. Besides the increase of chemokines and cytokines, the researchers
found a rise of a colony‐stimulating factor in females. The results suggested that
females are likely to experience the drastic inflammatory effects of binge
alcohol consumption compared to males. The researchers also suggest that
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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
TLR4forms an essential part of neuroinflammation and ethanol‐induced
inflammation in adolescents.
13 Bibliographic Information
Y
Carliner, H., Mauro, P. M., Brown, Q. L., Shmulewitz, D., Rahim-Juwel, R.,
.
Sarvet, A. L., … &Hasin, D. S. (2017). The widening gender gap in marijuana
use prevalence in the US during a period of economic change, 2002–2014. Drug
and alcohol dependence, 170, 51-58.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.042
Annotation
The authors sought to examine the prevalence rate of drug use and in specific
marijuana based on gender differences. The article states that the lax attitude
that many people have adopted towards marijuana and the legalization of has
made the number of people using it to rise. The authors also suggest that
substance use has prevailed more for men than women, but currently, the gap is
closing on alcohol.The study seeks to understand if the changing trends of
marijuana use also differ by gender and by other factors such as income and
social, economic status.The authors cross-examine the changes taking place
over the years using the repeated cross-sectional data gotten by the surveys
carried out by the NIH about drug use and abuse between 2002 and 2014. The
researchers found that although the number of users has increased for both
genders, more men use marijuana than women. Also, men with low income
show the highest increase in the use of marijuana during this period.
14 Bibliographic Information
Y
Flentje, A., Bacca, C. L., & Cochran, B. N. (2015). Missing data in substance
.
abuse research? Researchers’ reporting practices of sexual orientation and
gender identity. Drug and alcohol dependence, 147, 280-284.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.11.012
Annotation
In this article, the authors seek to identify if recent substance use literature is
taking into consideration the genders and sexual orientation of the people and
how these factors influence the abuse of substances. The authors state that the
direction and gender of individuals affect their chances of abusing drugs for
example, lesbian, gay, transgender and bisexual individuals are more likely to
abuse drugs than heterosexual individuals. As such the lesbians, transgender
gay and bisexual people are more likely to have substance use disorders and to
seek treatment for their diseases. The authors state that despite such
information, research literature has left out sexual orientation and gender
impacts on substance use. The authors reviewed randomly selected articles from
various databases. These articles covered different periods. The authors found
that the researchers fail to consider and report gender and sexual orientation
influence on substance use. They conclude that over the years, the researchers
have not adopted a comprehensive gender influence method.
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15 Bibliographic Information
Y
.
Foster, K. T., Hicks, B. M., Iacono, W. G., &McGue, M. (2015). Gender
differences in the structure of risk for alcohol use disorder in adolescence and
young adulthood. Psychological medicine, 45(14), 3047-3058.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715001014
Annotation
This paper identifies that gender differences occurring in alcohol use Disorder
have facilitated the differentiated studies of risk factors and consequences for
men and women. In this study, the authors seek to test the differences found in
psychosocial risk factors and the results arising in adolescents and adults after
they apply controls for gender differences in psychological factors and base
rates of AUD. The psychosocial factors that the authors took into consideration
include alcohol and other drug use, deviant peer affiliation, externalizing and
internalizing symptoms, family adversity, academic problems, adult
socioeconomic status, and attitudes of the spouses/ romantic partners. The
researchers found that at 17 and 29 years of age, the levels of risks and
consequences of psychosocial factors were higher in men. However, the risk
exposure in adolescent years was higher in women than men, and by adulthood,
the results ofAUD were higher for women than men. Despite the high levels of
exposure risk in men, women have more severe disorders due to Alcohol use.
16 Bibliographic Information
Y
Crane,
N.
A.,
Langenecker,
S.
A.,
&Mermelstein,
R.
J.
(2015).
Gender
.
differences in the associations among marijuana use, cigarette use, and
symptoms of depression during adolescence and young adulthood. Addictive
behaviors, 49, 33-39.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.05.014
Annotation
The authors examine the relationship between gender, depression and cigarette
use and also how these factors influence the use of marijuana by adolescent and
young adults. The article states that it is necessary for people to understand the
influence of different factors on marijuana use as the preference rates increase.
The author selected the sample based on whether the participant had ever
smoked when they were fifteen to sixteen years of age. This selection also
included depression symptoms. The researchers found that depression and
cigarette use related to the use of marijuana. They also identify that gender
influenced the use of marijuana based on the factors mentioned above. The
purpose of marijuana connected to depression was more prevalent among the
male than in the female. The increase in marijuana use was also associated with
increasing cigarette use among men especially those with depression symptoms.
The authors concluded that the use of marijuana, cigarettes, and depression
affects male more than female and the detrimental consequences differ for the
two genders.
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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
17 Bibliographic Information
.
Bolland, K. A., Bolland, J. M., Tomek, S., Devereaux, R. S., Mrug, S.,
&Wimberly, J. C. (2016). Trajectories of adolescent alcohol use by gender and
early initiation status. Youth & Society, 48(1), 3-32.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X13475639
Annotation
In this article, the author identifies the relationship between the behaviors of
young people, context, gender, and adverse health and social outcomes. The
researchers use data from mobile youth surveys to identify the trajectories of
alcohol abuse for female and male living in impoverished neighborhoods. The
authors recognize the need to focus on African American youth because
previously, literature and researches had paid little attention to the group. These
trajectories address the degree of alcohol use as a function of early initiation to
alcohol use. The researchers found that initial introduction to alcohol use leads
to a high use especially up to 17byears of age. The escalation is notable for
women who began drinking at the age of 12 and younger. The female in this
category drink more than other age groups, and their trajectories remain
significantly higher through to 17 years of age. The authors suggest that the
results can help to improve the lives of impoverished and addicted young
people.
18 Bibliographic Information
.
Boyle, S. C., LaBrie, J. W., Froidevaux, N. M., &Witkovic, Y. D. (2016).
Different digital paths to the keg? How exposure to peers’ alcohol-related social
media content influences is drinking among male and female first-year college
students. Addictive behaviors, 57, 21-29.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.01.011
Annotation
In this article, the author seeks to address the relationship between social media
content and its influence on drug use mainly drinking for male and female firstyear college students. The authors identify the need for longitudinal research
into the importance of social media content on individuals in college to
conclude the speculations. The study, therefore, focuses on the relationship
between the drinking patterns of college students after they exposed to Social
media sites with alcohol-related content. The results indicated a correlation
between exposure to alcohol-related content on Facebook, Twitter, and other
places and alcohol consumption for young people. The prevalence rate was
higher for the male gender than for female. The female was more prone to
drinking because of the enhanced drinking believes and motives that alcohol
plays a role in college life. The male, however, had a more predictive
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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
11
relationship between second-semester drinking and Social media site
influences. The findings can assist in prevention efforts for the future of college
students.
19 Bibliographic Information
.
Carroll, M. E., Lynch, W. J., Roth, M. E., Morgan, A. D., & Cosgrove, K. P.
(2014). Sex and estrogen influence drug abuse. Trends in pharmacological
sciences, 25(5), 273-279.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2004.03.011
Annotation
In this article, the author addresses the role of gender hormones in drug and
substance abuse. According to the authors, the epidemiology, etiology
mechanisms and consequences of drug abuse differ in male and female young
adults. The author addresses different examples of gender differences in all
phases of substance abuse including steady-state maintenance, acquisition,
withdrawal, relapse, escalation, dysregulation and treatment. The researchers
conduct most of their trials on animals, but they correlate the results to human
beings to form a solid report. They also gather information from
epidemiological studies and human clinics. The researchers found that in all
categories of drug abuse, female were more sensitive to the effects of the drugs
compared to males. The article identifies estrogen as the leading cause of the
difference.
20 Bibliographic Information
.
Cotto, J. H., Davis, E., Dowling, G. J., Elcano, J. C., Staton, A. B., & Weiss, S.
R. (2010). Gender effects on drug use, abuse, and dependence: a unique
analysis of results from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Gender
medicine, 7(5), 402-413.
Permalink
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genm.2010.09.004
Annotation
In this study, the researchers sought to assess the gender differences in the rates
of substance abuse. They also tried to determine the dependency rates
concerning gender differences. The study complements the ongoing studies for
risks and protective measures underlying the use of substances and addiction.
The researchers used a population sample consisting of 2 age groups namely
12-17 and 18-25. Other factors considered in the example included commonly
abused substances such as marijuana, alcohol, and nonprescription medication.
The results indicated that males had significantly higher rates of substance use
Y
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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
12
than women. However, the patterns of abuse use and dependence among the
users determined by factors such as age and the drug in use. However, for the
age group 12-17, the girls exceeded boys in the use of alcohol. The Results
indicate that age gender, and substance abuse plays a role in the use of violence
and addiction to drugs.
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Bibliographic information
Tuchman, E. (2010). Women and addiction: the importance of gender issues in
substance abuse research. Journal of addictive diseases, 29(2), 127-138.
Permalink
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43227854_Women_and_Addiction_T
he_Importance_of_Gender_Issues_in_Substance_Abuse_Research
Annotation
The study, in this case, acknowledges the perception that most people held in
the past concerning substance abuse. In the article, the author claims that most
societies considered substance abuse as a problem associated with the males in
the community. Women and addiction or substance abuse were not rampant
amongst previous studies or communities. However, the study claims that there
exist multiple disparities and differences in various issues that range from the
social factors to the biological responses of the two genders. Women
particularly according to the study stand at a high chance or failing to get the
required recognition from the relevant stakeholders based on the perception that
the community holds against them. The issues of drug abuse and addiction cut
across both the male and female genders requiring specialized attention with no
bias of the affected populations.
Annotated information
Marchand, K., Palis, H., Peng, D., Fikowski, J., Harrison, S., Spittal, P., .&
Oviedo-Joekes, E. (2015). The role of gender in factors associated with
addiction treatment satisfaction among long-term opioid users. Journal of
addiction medicine, 9(5), 391.
Permalink
https://journals.lww.com/journaladdictionmedicine/Fulltext/2015/10000/The_R
ole_of_Gender_in_Factors_Associated_With.7.aspx
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23
Annotation
Most studies in the past associated substance abuse with a specific gender. In
addition to that, the success of the interventions primarily was based on the
nature of the techniques and treatment tools used. However, the study, in this
case, seeks to gather information about the role of gender-related factors that
may affect the success of addiction treatment interventions especially
considering the parties subjected to Opioid Agonist Treatment. The authors in
the study believe that the success of the responses is primarily affected by the
general gender-related aspects and attributes. In this case, the authors explore
the potential links that may exist in the factors associated with Opioid Agonist
Treatment or episodes from a gender perspective. In conclusion, the study
claims that as the first of its kind, the role of gender in OAT plays a critical role
in defining the ultimate strategies that the practitioners and the affected
stakeholders should consider when approaching each of the underlying
beneficiaries. Besides, the study claims that the conclusions obtained play a
critical part in informing the stakeholders on the best approaches to use on
either men or women to achieve the desired outcomes.
Bibliographic information
Women, U. N. (2014). A gender perspective on the impact of drug use, the drug
trade, and drug control regimes. New York, United Nations.
Permalink
https://www.unodc.org/documents/ungass2016/Contributions/UN/Gender_and_
Drugs_-_UN_Women_Policy_Brief.pdf
Annotation
The United Nations acknowledges that the globe today exhibits and suffers
from diverse problems that affect not only the male but the females in the
community. The global drug problem acts as one of the most common issues
that affect the entire world today. The report produced by the UN on the matters
on women claims that the concepts of the fight against drug and substance
abuse as well as the world drug problem seem to intersect with the aspects of
gender equality. In addition to gender equality, the reports associate these issues
with women empowerment in the community. From another perspective, the
study claims that in most formal discussions, rarely does the problems related to
the role of gender in drug abuse arise. The study, in this case, highlights that
women mainly may play diverse roles in the entire concepts. These concepts
may revolve around the aspects of women being victims or participants.
However, the report claims that such discussions do not arise in most forums,
therefore, creating a disparity of lack of the ultimate solutions to the issues.
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Bibliographic Information
Hunt, G., Asmussen Frank, V., & Moloney, M. (2015). Rethinking gender
within alcohol and drug research.
14
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Permalink
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4673671/
25
Annotation
The study, in this case, offers an insight into the issues of gender and drug
abuse. In the study, the authors claim that the question of gender remains one of
the most discussed concepts in various areas of interest. For instance, the report
claims that numerous other experts conducted research meant to associate
gender with the aspects of drug abuse and alcoholism. While most researchers
in the past engaged in gathering information about the potential implications
that may revolve around the engagement of females and males in drug and
substance abuse practices, few studies focused on the rate of women involved in
such issues. Most of the studies according to the authors, in this case, focused
on the problems of drug and alcohol abuse from a male perspective. Besides,
the authors claim that the past studies failed to consider the implications of the
new developments in various disciplines such as humanities, anthropology and
but not limited to criminology.
Bibliographic information
Y
Jules, M. A., Noh, S., Hamilton, H., Brands, B., Gastaldo, D., Wright, M. D. G.
M., & Khenti, A. (2015). Spirituality, gender, and drug use among students
from one University in Barbados. Texto & Contexto-Enfermagem, 24(SPE),
117-124.
Permalink
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S010407072015000600117
Annotation
Although various factors play a critical part in the determination of the roles
exhibited by gender in substance abuse, the authors, in this case, conducted a
study meant to provide the ultimate link among spirituality, substance abuse and
gender using Barbados University undergraduate students. The survey collected
information from students of diverse communities and backgrounds. The
aspects of diversity arise from the use of students from different religions and
cultural backgrounds. In the study, the authors concluded that the level of
spirituality witnessed amongst the various students played a huge role in
defining their aspects and perceptions of the use of multiple substances. Drug
and substance abuse drastically reduced on the students who exhibited high-
THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
26
level spirituality. The study also confirmed that both females and males
perceived similar ideas on drugs or substance abuse based on their levels of
religiosity. The study confirmed that females exhibited a higher level of
spirituality as compared to their male counterparts. However, the authors
suggest more research to be carried out to determine the exclusive impact that
gender may play in drug or substance abuse amongst the young people within
the context.
Bibliographic information
Swahn, M. H., & Tumwesigye, N. M. (2013). A global perspective on alcohol
research: Facilitating interdisciplinary and international collaborations to
address prevailing challenges. The International Journal of Alcohol and Drug
Research, 1(1), 13-15.
15
Y
Permalink
http://ijadr.org/camh/index.php/ijadr/article/download/84/157
27
Annotation
This study starts by claiming that alcohol stands out as one of the most
commonly abused substances across the globe today. The article argues that the
level of consumption depends and varies across the genders. Men in the past
were perceived to be the most affected population by alcohol consumption.
However, recent studies like this one present a different approach to the
perception of alcoholism. In this case, the article perceived drunkenness as a
problem that affects both the male and females in the community. In addition to
that, the authors present findings that claim that alcohol overconsumption and
abuse brings about deaths among other impacts to both the females and males.
The article refrains from giving the exact figures that show the prevalence of
consumption between men and women. However, the authors claim that due to
the changing environmental factors, the problem of alcoholism affects not only
the men but also women in the community.
Bibliographic information
French, D. J., Sargent‐Cox, K. A., Kim, S., & Anstey, K. J. (2014). Gender
differences in alcohol consumption among middle‐aged and older adults in
Australia, the United States, and Korea. Australian and New Zealand Journal of
Public Health, 38(4), 332-339.
Y
THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
Permalink
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1753-6405.12227
28
Annotation
From another perspective, the study mentioned in this case sought to outline the
patterns in drinking or consumption of alcohol in male and female genders
within the middle-aged personnel in the United States and Australia. The
authors in the study sought to collect data that would help them to compare the
ultimate differences that may exist concerning the consumption or abuse of
alcohol between the middle-aged and adult males and females in the two
countries. In concluding the study, the authors claimed that the expectations
from gender roles about alcohol abuse might differ from one region to the other.
Both genders are affected by the prevailing socioeconomic factors when it
comes to the consumption of alcohol. Drug and alcohol use amongst the
middle-aged personnel within the community especially, from men and women
remains a significant issue of concern in many countries.
Bibliographic information
Y
Seaman, P., & Edgar, F. (2012). Creating better stories: Alcohol and gender in
transitions to adulthood. Glasgow: Glasgow Centre for Population Health.
Permalink
https://www.gcph.co.uk/assets/0000/3392/Alcohol_and_gender_full_report.pdf
Annotation
The study highlighted and presented above shows a significant problem that
affects the young people especially during the transition duration from
childhood to adulthood. In this case, the authors claim that the rate at which the
young people, mainly, women consumed alcohol in the recent past doubled as
compared to the past decades. The study also claims that the deaths associated
with alcohol abuse and consumption increased in the past 15 years. Based on
such a figure and trend, the author argues that the respective stakeholders may
need to undertake and implement various policies and measures that would in
the long run help to reduce such occurrences in the future. In addition to that,
the study claims that the changes witnessed in the community in various aspects
raised the ultimate levels and rates of consumption of alcohol for both the males
and females. The authors highlight the fact that the population today does not
consider alcohol consumption or abuse as a problem associated with men or
16
THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
17
males.
29
Bibliographic information
Storbjörk, J. (2011). Gender differences in substance use, problems, social
situation and treatment experiences among clients entering addiction treatment
in Stockholm. Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 28(3), 185-209.
Y
Permalink
http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:434403/FULLTEXT01.pdf
30
Annotation
The article presented above shows that the problems associated with genderrelated substance abuse in nations that embrace equality like Sweden remain
low. However, regardless of such a situation, the author claims that such issues
persist. The primary aim of the article in the context revolves around gathering
information about the potential differences as well as similarities that may exist
between the drug or substance treatment approaches as well as plans subjected
to both male and female victims. The study in addition to that sought to gather
data about the consumption challenges, treatment, and experiences of the
women and men who are subjected to the various drug or substance treatment
plans or programs. The study concludes that there exist no significant genderrelated differences based on the selected treatment strategies or plans. However,
differences arise from the aspects of social situations since men usually exhibit
higher exposure as compared to women.
Bibliographic information
Becker, J. B., McClellan, M., & Reed, B. G. (2016). The sociocultural context
for sex differences in addiction. Addiction Biology, 21(5), 1052-1059.
Y
THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
Permalink
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/133600/adb12383.pdf?
sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Annotation
As seen in the previous paper, the authors further the previously presented study
by focusing on a more in-depth analysis of the aspects of substance abuse
amongst the populations based on the sociocultural aspects. In this case, the
authors claim that drug addiction revolves around and comes from the concepts
of developmental as well as biology. The gender differences that arise in the
process may shape the overall perception of the males and females when it
comes to substance abuse and addiction. The authors conclude that the best
ways to examine the issues and factors in the context may revolve around the
use and application of the animal model as well as clinical-related research.
18
THE ROLE OF GENDER IN DRUG ABUSE
19
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Facilitating interdisciplinary and international collaborations to address prevailing
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French, D. J., Sargent‐Cox, K. A., Kim, S., & Anstey, K. J. (2014). Gender differences in alcohol
consumption among middle‐aged and older adults in Australia, the United States, and
Korea. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 38(4), 332-339.
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adulthood. Glasgow: Glasgow Centre for Population Health.
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treatment experiences among clients entering addiction treatment in Stockholm. Nordic
Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 28(3), 185-209.
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in addiction. Addiction Biology, 21(5), 1052-1059.
www.sciedu.ca/wje
World Journal of Education
Vol. 3, No. 1; 2013
Drug Prevention by Increasing Self-Esteem: Influence of Teaching
Approaches and Gender on Different Consumption Groups
Heyne Thomas1,* & Bogner Franz X.2
1
Didactics of Biology, University of Würzburg, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany
2
Centre of Maths & Science Education (Z-MNU), Institute of Biology Didactics, University of Bayreuth, D-95447
Bayreuth, Germany
*
Corresponding author: Didactics of Biology, University of Würzburg, Matthias-Lexer-Weg, Geb. 25, D-97074
Würzburg, Germany
Tel: 49-931-318-3789 E-mail: thomas.heyne@biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de
Received: November 30, 2012
Accepted: January 2, 2013
Online Published: January 9, 2013
doi:10.5430/wje.v3n1p1
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/wje.v3n1p1
The study was supported by the Bavarian State Ministry of Education as well as by the University of Bayreuth.
Abstract
Our study focused on an educational intervention designed to increase the self-esteem of low-achieving eighth
graders. The intervention was a substance-specific life skills program built upon teacher-centered versus
student-centered teaching methods. A cluster analysis identified four consumption groups prior to the intervention: A
potentially curious cluster (PC), a currently curious cluster (CC), an experimenter cluster (EP) and a consumer
cluster (CO). Self-esteem was measured three times in a pre-, post- and retention test design. The in terms of
percentage biggest PC cluster only responded positively. A consistent increase was detected among both different
teaching methods and both genders. Thus, self-esteem as an important psychological construct of physical well-being
could be influenced positively by many students in the context of a substance-specific life skills program.
Educational consequences to increase the efficiency of scholastic measures are discussed.
Keywords: self-esteem; life skills; drug prevention; consumption groups; teaching approaches
1. Introduction
1.1 Modern Drug Prevention Programs Integrate Drug-Specific Contents as well as the Development of Life Skills
School-based prevention programs are of great importance in the prevention of substance abuse amongst teens.
Teens generally do not always behave rationally with regard to health-risk behaviour and, therefore, may need
specific educational intervention (Freitag, Kähnert, & Hurrelmann, 1999; Kolip, 1999; Mittag & Jerusalem, 1999). In
most syllabi, acquisition of knowledge about legal drugs is recommended, often by emphasizing the avoidance of
illegal drugs, defensive attitudes towards peer pressure, and the development of self-esteem via the acquisition of
appropriate life skills. According to Brandon (2001) self-esteem is confidence in our ability to think, confidence in
our ability to cope with the challenges of life and confidence in our right to be happy, the feeling of being worthy.
Life skills point to a similar direction and are defined as abilities that enable an individual to deal effectively with the
demands and challenges of everyday life (World Health Organization, 1994). Life skills programs, therefore, exist in
many countries. They combine substance-specific and more general measures. Such programs intervene using the
cognitive competencies, social communication and self-competency of students (Kähnert, 2003). Programs within
this context have often showed positive effects on drug abuse patterns in terms of increased knowledge, reduction in
consumption, delayed consumption and attitude change (G.J. Botvin, Baker, Dusenbury, E.M. Botvin, & Diaz, 1995;
Botvin & Dusenbury, 1998; Cuijpers, 2002; Durlak, 1995; Gottfredson, Jones, & Gore, 2002; Miller, 1988; Scheier,
Botvin, & Griffin, 2001; Tobler et al., 2000).
1.2 High Self-Esteem as Protective Factor against Different Negative Influences
Effective educational approaches address students’ self-esteem as well as content because self-esteem is regarded as
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a major indicator of physical well-being in teens (Harter, 1999; Rosenberg, 1986). The literature presents a high level
of self-esteem as a key element in coping with peer pressure, poor school performance and negative emotional
well-being (Harter, 1990; Hattie, 1992; Rosenberg, 1986; Zimmerman, Copeland, Shope, & Dielman, 1997). Low
self-esteem correlates with high suicide rates, delinquency and depression (Bynner, O`Malley & Bachman, 1981;
Harter, 1986; Kazdin, French, Unis, & Esveldt-Dawson, 1983; Reinherz et al., 1989; Rosenberg, Schooler, &
Schoenbach, 1989; Wells & Rankin, 1983). Cross-sectional studies have consistently demonstrated a relationship
between self-esteem and drug abuse (Neumark-Sztainer, Story, French, & Resnick, 1997; Newcomb, Maddahian, &
Bentler, 1986; Selnov, 1985; Stacy, Newcomb, & Bentler, 1992). Botvin, Griffin, Paul, and Macaulay (2003) and
Kähnert (2003) reported the positive effect on self-esteem of attitude change and/or a decline in drug consumption in
their life skills programs. Longitudinal studies by Hirsch and DuBois (1991) as well as by Zimmerman et al. (1997)
described individuals whose self-esteem had changed over a period of four or two years, and simultaneously
Zimmerman et al. (1997) found a correlation between self-esteem and alcohol abuse. Teens with low self-esteem
showed the highest alcohol abuse. The moderate and high-score group, in contrast, showed low or no alcohol
consumption over a four-year period while the high-score group consistently showed the lowest abuse level at any
test schedule. Furthermore, a study of the German Federal Centre for Health Education (2004) concerning teens
affinity for drugs showed drug experience as a sequential exposure process to illegal drugs. Half of the teens who
reported alcohol abuse ultimately moved on to the use of cannabis.
1.3 Conventional Substance-Specific Life Skills Programs do not Consider Heterogeneity of Students with Regard to
their Consumption Behaviour and Attitude
Following Zimmerman et al. (1997), who revealed the importance of a strong self-esteem with regard to a low
substance abuse, we developed a nine-hour substance abuse prevention life skills program for low achieving eighth
graders within the framework of the existing syllabus. A male educator conducted the interventions in all classes.
The drug-specific life skills program should influence self-esteem of students positively, but we wanted to examine
potential changes in self-esteem particularly in relation to different consumption groups. Thus, we quantified
students’ consumption behaviour and attitude and identified following distinct clusters: the potentially curious
sample, labelled as cluster 1 (PC), the currently curious sample, labelled as cluster 2 (CC), the experimenter sample,
labelled as cluster 3 (EP) and the consumer sample, labelled as cluster 4 (CO).
1.4 The Question of the Appropriate Teaching Method
Our program consisted of two parts: an initial drug-specific module concerning the gateway drug cannabis, and a
subsequent substance-nonspecific one, targeting self-esteem and resistance self-efficacy (Table 1). Student-centered
or teacher-centered teaching approaches were provided when teaching the substance-specific content of cannabis.
The question of the appropriate teaching method arises, because students often have a clearly defined standpoint on
drugs. A constructivist student-centered approach provides a launching pad for students independently, individually
and actively constructing new knowledge, while in a teacher-centered approach knowledge is transferred only as
abstract information to students (Duit, Gropengießer, & Kattmann, 2005; Kember & Gow, 1994). Thus, in a second
step, we examined whether the consumption groups react to the self-esteem measures in a more positive and rapid
manner due to our student-centered constructivist approach.
1.5 Hypotheses
We developed four hypotheses:
1)
This specific drug prevention program reveals to positive changes in self-esteem of students.
2)
The determined consumption groups respond differently to the self-esteem treatments.
3)
Boys and girls may react differently to the self-esteem treatments due to the presence of a male educator.
4)
Constructivist student-centered approaches influence the effectiveness of the self-esteem treatments more
strongly than teacher-centered methods.
2. Methodology
2.1 Sample
A total of 282 Bavarian students (159 boys, 123 girls) from 16 classes participated in our study. They were
low-achieving eighth graders; their age ranged between 13 and 17 years (M = 13.9; SD = 0.71).
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2.2 Prevention Approach, Quasi-Experimental Design and Independent Variables
Peer-based interventions (social life skills programs) and affectively focussed knowledge interventions were used as
components in designing the substance-specific life skills program (Tobler, 1986). The teaching unit consisted of
nine lessons in full compliance with the existing syllabus. In order to keep the quality of implementation constant, in
accordance with Hansen, Graham, Wolkenstein, and Rohrbach (1991), a male educator conducted the interventions
in all classes.
The study followed a quasi-experimental design and focussed on two different teaching methods (student-centered vs.
teacher-centered) in the substance-specific part by targeting both psychological constructs in the
substance-nonspecific part (Table 1). The substance-specific content imparted knowledge about the gateway drug
cannabis for a period of three lessons. Health risks, effects on road traffic, the penalty consequences, and special
characteristics of the drug were elaborated (Heyne & Bogner, 2012). The substance-nonspecific content focussed on
strengthening self-esteem and resistance self-efficacy of the students for a period of six lessons. A control group (n =
46) served for test assessment and exclusion of other potential external influences (Lienert & Raatz, 1998). We did
not carry out a post-test (T1) with the control group, arguing that only middle-term changes of self-esteem were of
interest to our study, and hence we only measured at the end of our study (T3).
Table 1: Quasi-Experimental Design of the Study
Groups
Instruction 1
(G1)
Time
Instruction 2
(G2)
Instruction 3
(G3)
Control
Preceding substance-specific content (three lessons)
45 min
90 min
90 min
180 min
Pre-lesson
Pre-lesson
Pre-lesson
Conventional
Guided learning
Teacher-centered
learning at
at workstations
lesson
workstations
(student-centered
(contents of the
(student-centered)
guided)
workstations)
Substance-unspecific content (six lessons)
Strengthening resistance self-efficacy, self-esteem (Intervention I)
Strengthening resistance self-efficacy, self-esteem (Intervention II)
—
2.2.1 Substance-specific part: different teaching approaches
Only one teaching approach was applied per class, either a conventional learning at workstations, labelled as group 1
(G1; n = 52), a modified guided moderated learning at workstations, labelled as group 2 (G2; n = 74) or a traditional
teacher-centered approach, labelled as group 3 (G3; n = 58; Table 1). G2 was based on learning at workstation and
was especially provided for low achievers for teaching the substance-specific content of cannabis. This approach
achieved the best cognitive results as compared with G1 and G3 (Heyne & Bogner, 2012).
2.2.2 Substance-nonspecific part: influencing self-esteem
Afterwards, the substance-unspecific content was taught in a student-centered learning environment. Two
interventions were taught to all classes, students learning that self-esteem and resistance self-efficacy are decisive for
strong self-confidence, and that self-confidence in turn is the best prevention against drug dependence (Table 1). To
influence their self-esteem positively, teens should think about their own behaviour, discover individual skills, and
win recognition from other students. Adapted from Wilms and Wilms (2007), self-esteem should be strengthened
methodically through trust games, determining and describing skills and abilities, and through a written anonymous
evaluation by peers. Methods targeting resistance self-efficacy are published elsewhere (Heyne & Bogner, 2009).
2.2.3 Cluster analysis: determination of four consumption groups
We applied the CATI questionnaire (consumption, frequency of consumption, interest in consumption and curiosity
about the effects) of the BZgA (2004) for purposes with regard to consumption behaviour and attitude. For grouping
the students, we analyzed their response patterns by a cluster analysis (Appendix A). We applied two independent
mathematical procedures whose contingency served as a quality criterion. We extracted a four-group classification
using the agglomerative hierarchical Ward’s method (Norusis, 1993). Given the cluster number as four, the
following K-means cluster analysis procedure (Andersberg, 1973) assigned each student to one cluster, labelled PC,
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CC, EP and CO. A cluster-wise cross-tabulation of the two methods used evaluated this analysis and showed a high
level of agreement of the four-cluster solution (adjusted coefficient of contingency Ckorr = .93, N = 282, p  .001).
Clusters are homogenous if the standard deviations of each variable within each cluster are lower than the
corresponding values in the sample as a whole (Bacher, 1994). Only one of the 16 within-cluster values (6.25%) did
not meet this criterion.
2.3 Dependent Variable
Self-esteem was measured using an 8-item psychometric scale in a pre- (T1), post- (T2) and retention test (T3)
schedule (Götz, 2004). T1 took place 1 week before intervention I, T2 after completion of intervention II and T3 6
weeks afterwards. No testing took place after the immediate completion of intervention I (as we did not expect any
short-term changes). The self-esteem scale consisted of three items on general, positive self-esteem and of five items
covering the issue of an individual desire to change him/herself, or to change feelings about him/herself. Cronbach`s
α was αpre = .88, αpost = .88 and αretention = .92. Factor analyses (PCA with Varimax rotation confirmed the scale’s
unidimensionality in all test schedules (loading scores between 0.80 and 0.64). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin statistics
were .89, .89, .91 respectively; and Bartlett´s test of sphericity yielded Chi-square = 870.418, 887.719, 1287.552; df
= 28 in each case; p < .001 in each case. We used non-parametric tests for statistical evaluation, because mean scores of all three tests were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov–Smirnov with Lilliefors Significance Correction, p < .001 at T1, T2 and T3). The Friedman test was used for in-group comparison. In case of significance, we applied the Wilcoxon test for pair-wise comparisons to determine the exact test date changes. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used for the comparison of our three independent samples. The Chi-Square value is reported when computing the Kruskal-Wallis test with SPSS 20. Finally, we employed the Mann-Whitney U test for inter-group differences (Zöfel, 2007). With a group size among 30 students no statistical tests were done. The pre-test revealed baseline differences between boys and girls (Appendix B). Thus, sum scores could not be used in the comparison of gender for computing. We calculated difference variables to avoid this problem. These variables take into account the different base levels. Statistical significance is partly dependent on the number of participants (Rost, 2013), for determining any pedagogical significance, the effect sizes need particular attention. We used Kraemer and Andrews (1982) measure of the non-parametric effect size D. Effect sizes of 0.2 are generally regarded as small; an effect size of 0.5 is considered as moderate and 0.8 as large (Cohen, 1988; Rost, 2013). 3. Results 3.1 Total Group (G) Our educational intervention was associated with students’ self-esteem over all test dates (Friedman Test, Chi-Square = 46.55; df = 2; p < .001). All testing schedules produced changes, although small effect size changes just existed between T1 and T3 as well as between T2 and T3 (Table 2). Control group scores did not differ at all (Wilcoxon, Z = -1.568; p = .117). 3.2 Cluster Analysis Due to the different group sizes, no between-group comparisons were applied. The potentially curious cluster (PC; n = 183) made up 77.5% of the total sample and, thus, comprised the largest fraction of the sample which had never tried any drugs, showed almost no interest in drug consumption and detailed no curiosity about drug effects; additionally, they disapproved of any illegal drugs at all. The second cluster, the currently curious (CC; n = 34), had never tried any drugs, but was highly interested in their consumption and their effects; this cluster made up 14.4% of the total sample. The third cluster, the experimenters (EP; n = 15), made up 6.4%; they had tried drugs once or twice, were interested in consumption, but were less curious about their effects. The last cluster, the consumers (CO; n = 4), was identified by high consumption rates and a great interest in consumption; their curiosity about the effects had already dwindled. Fortunately, they comprised only 1.7% (Heyne & Bogner, 2009). Published by Sciedu Press 4 ISSN 1925-0746 E-ISSN 1925-0754 www.sciedu u.ca/wje World Journal J of Educaation Vol. 3, No. 1; 2013 Figu ure 1: Characteerization of thee Four Clusterss mption Groups 3.3 Consum All consum mption groups revealed chan nges of the meedian scores ovver all test dattes. The PC-, CC- and EP- cluster revealed th hese changes in n spite of ceilin ng-effects (App pendix B). The PC-cluster was thee only consum mption group that t showed ssignificant inteervention effeects (Friedmann Test, Chi-Squaree(PC) = 48.97; df = 2; p < .001). With reegard to the eeffect size, peddagogically siggnificant channges in self-esteem m only occurreed between thee T1 and the T3 and betweeen the T2 and the T3 scheduules. The CC-cluster currently did d not show an ny changes (Frriedman Test, Chi-Square(CC)) = 4.412; df = 2; p = .126). No group effeect was found (Tab ble 2). Due to thee small samplle size, no staatistical calculaations were ddone for both the EP- and the CO-clusteer. The EP-Clusterr showed a deccline of self-estteem medians between the T 1 and the T2 scchedule and reaached the basicc value in T3 again n. The CO-Clu uster revealed the t smallest median m score off all consumpttion groups in T1, a further ggradual decrease off self-esteem median m scores was w observed between the T 1 and T2 and bbetween the T2 and the T3 schhedules (Appendix B). 3.4 Genderr Because off group size, gender g effects could only bee analyzed withhin the PC cluuster. Both gennders increased their self-esteem m significantly (Friedman–Test, Chi-Squaree(PCfemale) = 22.229; df = 2; p < .001; Chi-Squaare(PCmale) = 266.75; df = 2; p < .00 01). In pair-wiise comparison n, the effect sizzes for girls (PC Cf) were small between T2 annd T3 and betw ween T1 and T3, thee ones for boyss (PCm) were moderate m (Table 2). Howeveer the self-esteeem shift were quite similar iin both genders computing differrence variabless (Mann-Whitn ney U test; Z(T22-T1) = -0.195; p = .845; Z(T3-TT1) = -0.954; p = .340; p = .513). Differencce variable weere computed, cause the pree-test showed baseline diffeerences Z(T3-T2) = -0.654; between bo oys and girls (M Mann-Whitney y U test; Z(T1) = -2.843; p = .0 13; Appendix B). 3.5 Teachin ng Methods The effect of the precedin ng teaching meethods, too, co ould only be exxamined in the PC cluster. Thhe self-esteem scores mentations, G22PC (student-ceentered differed in G1PC (studentt-centered) onlly between T1 and T3. In botth other implem nd G3PC (teach her-centered), changes c in sellf-esteem occuurred between T2 and T3 andd between T1 aand T3 guided) an (Figure 2, Table T 2). Grou up size effects were excluded d. No differencces were foundd in the betweeen-group compparison (Kruskal–W Wallis-Test, Ch hi-Square(PC-T11) = 0.884; df = 2; p = .6433; Chi-Squaree(PC-T2) = 2.1277; df = 2; p = .345; Chi-Squaree(PC-T3) = 1.276; df = 2; p = .528). Published byy Sciedu Press 5 IISSN 1925-07466 E-ISSN 19255-0754 www.sciedu u.ca/wje World Journal J of Educaation Vol. 3, No. 1; 2013 Figurre 2: Changes in Self-esteem m of the Potentiially Curious C Cluster (PC) in the Three Diffferent Teachingg Approaches G1 G PC = student-centered; G2PCC = student-cenntered guided; G3PC = teacherr-centered Table 2: In n-Group Comp parison of Selff-Esteem of thee Total Group (G), the Two Cluster Groupps (PC, AC), G Gender (PCfemale, PC P male) and the Different Teacching Methodss (G1PC, G2PC, G3PC) (Wilcoxxon Test, asym mpt. sig., two-ttailed); non-parametric effect sizee D Self-esteeem change Pre- vs. Possttest (T1–T2) ( Groups (n) Z p D Post- vs. R Retention test (T2––T3) Pre- vss. Retention tesst (T1–T3) Z p D Z p D  .001 .21 -6.331  .001 .34  .001 .24 -4.788  .001 .34 . 076 a / -.885 .376 /a Total T group G (236) ( -2 2.742 -- b .013 3 -- b .491 1 a .006 6 -4.104 Cluster groups c PC d CC (183) ( (34) ( -2.4 474 -.6 688 -6.298 / -1.772 Gender PCfemale (86) ( PCmale (97) ( -1.5 556 -1.9 924 .120 0 .054 4 a -3.674  .001 .39 -4.509  .001 .20 a -3.093 . 002 .53 -4.454  .001 .77 / / Teacching methods G1PC G2PC G3PC a (52) ( (74) ( (58) ( -1.8 807 -1.5 515 -0.9 997 .071 1 .130 0 .319 9 a -1.686 . 092 /a -3.614 .001 .71 a -2.657 . 008 .26 -3.647  .001 .36 -3.904 .001 .40 -3.810  .001 .43 / / a / b c d not determ mined because of o lacking sign nificance. effect size  0.2. ppotentially currious. currentlyy curious. Published byy Sciedu Press 6 IISSN 1925-07466 E-ISSN 19255-0754 www.sciedu.ca/wje World Journal of Education Vol. 3, No. 1; 2013 3.6 Main Findings of the Study 1) This life-skills-program influenced student’s self-esteem positively. 2) The potentially curious cluster (PC) was the biggest consumption group and the only cluster which changed its self-esteem in a pedagogically significant manner. The currently curious cluster (CC) did not respond at all. 3) Girls showed lower self-esteem scores in the pre-test, however, pedagogical significance and effect sizes could be achieved for both genders. 4) Self-esteem of the potentially curious cluster (PC) was increased, irrespective of the different preceding teaching methods. The group size was still too small within the currently curious cluster (CC) to be able to present statistical results about the influence of the different teaching methods. 4. Diskussion 4.1 The Biggest Consumption Group (PC) could be Influenced in Their Self-esteem Positively From a practical point of view, a pedagogically significant relationship between teens’ self-esteem and the intervention occurred. We found a middle-term increase in the self-esteem of the sample as a whole. These results are in line with the findings of Botvin et al. (2003), Kähnert (2003) and Miller (1988). Successful intervention was demonstrated only for the potentially curious (PC) cluster. Due to its large group size, this group dominated the total group findings. Observed scores increased by only 2.0 medians between T1 and T3. Its effect size D, however, identified a pedagogically significant effect. Authors such as Brown (1993) or Demo and Savin-Williams (1992) confirmed the pedagogical relevance of small changes even when ceiling-effects occur or relatively small changes were described. Zimmerman et al. (1997) pointed to a lower tendency for individuals with well-developed self-esteem to use addictive substances. It can be assumed that the already positive self-esteem of many potentially curious (PC) teens was further strengthened by our intervention. In addition, resistance self-efficacy could be influenced in this consumption group also positively and the already existing mind-sets about drugs were additionally supported by our intervention (Heyne & Bogner, 2009). 4.2 Gender-specific Teaching Seems not Required for Substance-specific Life Skills Programs The PC-cluster was also the only consumption group large enough to permit gender-specific analyses. However, the gender-specific differences in our pre-test scores are not easy to explain (Appendix B). Girls may feel less comfortable in low achieving classes which in itself may weaken their already fragile social standing and reputation. Additionally, their advanced puberty provides them with more realistic views compared to their male peers at this age. Kähnert (2003) analogously reported different pre-test results. The author found positive shifts in the long-run only for girls and boy’s changes may not have been recordable due to a strong ceiling effect. Our girls indicated a small pedagogically significance in the medium-run, and the boys a probably artificial ceiling effect associated with moderate effect size. Obviously our female peers estimated their self-esteem level more realistically than our male peers. However, the difference variables may argue for a realistic assessment of both genders in our intervention and self-esteem changes were also measured for boys, despite coming from a high pre-test-level. Our third hypothesis was rejected, the educator’s gender showing no effect. 4.3 Teachers and External Experts should Work Together in Drug Prevention Programs The PC cluster over all treatment subgroups (G1PC - G3PC) seemingly gained a pedagogical added value within our retention-test timeframe. In the middle-term, the preceding teaching approaches had no effect on the PC consumption group. G1PC – G3PC revealed positive changes in their self-esteem. Nevertheless, the change processes over all test schedules needs further examination. In addition to the retention-test timeframe effect and in contradiction of our fourth hypothesis, a change occurred in the PC consumption group between the T-2 and T-3 testing schedules under the implementation teacher-centered method G3PC. When comparing teacher-centered approaches with student-centered learning at workstations, many authors have reported lower scores with regard to interest, enjoyment, usage, usability of the content and cognitive knowledge of teacher-centered approaches (Heyne & Bogner, 2012; Lord, 2001; Randler & Bogner, 2006; Sturm & Bogner, 2008). These results may have adversely affected follow-up measures in the self-esteem enhancement program. A possible explanation of this surprising result may lie in our using an external expert rather than the regular classroom teacher. Tobler and Stratton (1997) described external counsellors as particularly successful in prevention programs. It is possible that teens regard information by an external “expert” as more credible. The student-centered approach (G1PC) confirmed these Published by Sciedu Press 7 ISSN 1925-0746 E-ISSN 1925-0754 www.sciedu.ca/wje World Journal of Education Vol. 3, No. 1; 2013 conclusions. No influence of self-esteem training was found for this sub-group in the post-test. G1PC students were cognitively overloaded in the preceding substance specific part of our intervention (Heyne & Bogner, 2012). This inappropriate teaching approach substantially delayed the effectiveness of the subsequent self-esteem intervention in the short-term. The negative effect disappeared in the middle-term. Obviously the male educator conducting both self-esteem interventions succeeded in eradicating the negative experiences of the preceding substance-specific section. The modified guided student-centered approach (G2PC) performed best in the substance-specific part and enabled the teens to generate opinions independently of adults (Heyne & Bogner, 2012). This group also showed post-test changes in the self-esteem enhancement program and appeared considering also the good results in self-efficacy training all together the best approach (Heyne & Bogner, 2009). Considering these results teachers and external experts should work together in drug prevention programs. Teachers provide didactical know how, i.e. in the field of knowledge acquisition in open learning environments and external experts ensure requirement objectivity in other parts of substance-specific life skills programs. 4.4 Students of the Current Curious Cluster (CC) Could not be Influenced in Their Self-esteem No positive changes were observed in the currently curious cluster (CC), even though such prevention programs are also said to target teens considered as a risk group for harmful behaviour (Kähnert, 2003). Thus, the findings are in line with our second hypothesis. The PC and CC cluster responded differently to the measures of our life skills program. The resistance self-efficacy training revealed also no influence to the cluster of the CC students (Heyne & Bogner, 2009). Small subsample sizes prevented testing our last hypothesis, that the preceding constructivist student-oriented teaching methods would influence the mind-sets of these teens and that they would react positively to the self-esteem measures. 5. Conclusions The potentially curious cluster’s self-esteem (PC) can be successfully supported by a substance-specific life skills program adapted to the requirements of the syllabus. This teaching approach reaches the majority of students who already reject drug use and promotes self-esteem of boys and girls similarly. Considering this consumption group, promotion of self-esteem should be linked with basic instruction about drugs and resistance self-efficacy training (Heyne & Bogner, 2009). With regard to the whole intervention, substance-specific and substance-nonspecific treatments should be provided by external experts as well as teachers. However, an increase in individual self-esteem requires a continuous educational process involving repeated instruction during a school year. For a continuous implementation beyond the basic programs, specific training for pre- and in-service teachers seems appropriate However, we have to be aware that educational approaches do not reach all students, i.e. the cluster of the current curious (CC) needs additional and different intervention. Subsequent studies should design prevention programs especially for this target group and should evaluate whether current curious students (CC), consumer (CO) and experimenter (EP) can be summarised to one target group. Because only few of these at-risk students are in one single class, youngsters from several classes should be summarized to a group and are informed specifically for target group. Consequently, teachers have to assume the responsibility for the identification and grouping of these at-risk students. Considering this consumption group, measures to increase self-esteem should be separated stringent from substance-specific contents in order to achieve success. At the same time the effects of the different teaching methods we have presented should be investigated also for this consumption groups. 6. Limitations of the Study 1) Self-esteem itself is considered as unsteady in the developmental phase of teens (Kähnert, 2003). Observation over a longer period of time is desirable; but probably not realisable because of organizational, financial and time limitations. 2) The educational intervention was associated with students’ self-esteem significantly, but we could not interview a representative sample of PC-students to assess how the intervention influenced their self-esteem due to official barriers. 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Appendix A Cannabis Amphetamin LSD Heroin Cocaine Ecstasy Knowledge about (%) 97.9 74.2 66.4 95.8 96.2 88.1 Supply (%) 10.6 2.1 1.3 0 0.8 1.3 Consumption (%) 8.1 0,8 0.8 0 0.8 1.3 Interest in consumption (%) 13.6 4.7 5.9 3.4 5.9 7.6 Curiosity about effects (%) 16.9 11.4 9.7 5.9 8.1 13.1 Consumption Attitudes and Behaviour Regarding Illegal Drugs (M = 13.6 years; N = 282). Published by Sciedu Press 11 ISSN 1925-0746 E-ISSN 1925-0754 www.sciedu.ca/wje World Journal of Education Vol. 3, No. 1; 2013 Appendix B Self-esteem change T1 Median Groups (n) G (236) T2 (25/75th P) Median T3 (25/75th P) Median (25/75th P) 29.00 (25.00/31.00) Total group 27.00 (23.00/29.00) 28.00 (23.00/30.00) Cluster groups PC (183) 27.00 (24.00/30.00) 28.00 (24.00/30.00) 29.00 (26.00/31.00) CC (34) 26.00 (21.75/28.25) 27.00 (21.50/29.00) 27.50 (22.50/30.00) EP (15) 28.00 (16.00/30.00) 24.00 (20.00/31.00) 28.00 (19.00/30.00) CO (4) 21.50 (11.25/26,50) 16.00 (15.00/22.25) 14.50 (09.00/25.25) Gender PCfemale (86) 26.00 (22.75/29.00) 27.00 (23.00/29.00) 28.00 (25.00/30.00) PCmale (97) 28.00 (25.00/30.00) 29.00 (25.00/31.00) 30.00 (27.00/32.00) Teaching approaches G1PC (52) 28.00 (24.00/30.00) 29.00 (25.00/31.00) 29.00 (27.00/31.00) G2PC (74) 27.50 (22.00/30.00) 28.00 (23.00/30.00) 28.00 (25.00/31.00) G3PC (57) 27.00 (24.00/30.00) 28.00 (24.00/30.00) 29.00 (26.00/31.00) Grouped Median and 25./75.th Percentile of * the total group (G) * the four cluster groups (PC, CC, EP, CO) * gender (PCfemale, PCmale) * the different teaching approaches (G1PC, G2PC, G3PC) Published by Sciedu Press 12 ISSN 1925-0746 E-ISSN 1925-0754 Gender Differences in Measuring Adolescent Drug Abuse and Related Psychosocial Factors Andria M. Botzet Ken C. Winters Randy Stinchfield SUMMARY. Although gender issues have been addressed in clinical drug abuse literature, very little research has focused on gender differences in terms of the psychometric properties of assessment instruments. If boys and girls interpret instruments differently, the accuracy of clinical evaluation, referral, and treatment decisions based on these measures may be compromised. The current study examines this issue within the context of one instrument, the Personal Experience Inventory (PEI). The PEI is a multi-scale, self-administered questionnaire that has been used in various descriptive and treatment studies of adolescent drug abusers. We examine gender-specific psychometric properties of the PEI based on a drug-abusing sample of adolescents (n of boys = 1,322; n of girls = 822). The results indicate that reliability and validity evidence, as well as Andria M. Botzet, MA, Ken C. Winters, PhD, and Randy Stinchfield, PhD, are affiliated with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota. Address correspondence to: Andria M. Botzet, MA, Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, F282/2A West, 2450 Riverside Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55454 (E-mail: botze003@umn.edu). Support for this manuscript was provided from NIDA grants DA05104 and K02 DA15347. [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Gender Differences in Measuring Adolescent Drug Abuse and Related Psychosocial Factors.” Botzet, Andria M., Ken C. Winters, and Randy Stinchfield. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 16, No. 1, 2006, pp. 91-108; and: Adolescent Substance Abuse: New Frontiers in Assessment (ed: Ken C. Winters) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2006, pp. 91-108. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: docdelivery@ haworthpress.com]. Available online at http://jcasa.haworthpress.com  2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J029v16n01_07 91 92 ADOLESCENT SUBSTANCE ABUSE: NEW FRONTIERS IN ASSESSMENT factor structure data, are generally comparable for both genders. However, differences did arise in rates of elevation on the distortion scales. Limitations of the present study and future research needs are discussed. doi:10.1300/J029v16n01_07 [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.] KEYWORDS. Gender differences, assessment, PEI, drug abuse, adolescents Several clinical and epidemiological studies have addressed gender issues in adolescent drug abuse research. Prevalence studies have predominantly found that boys are at a greater risk for alcohol and other drug abuse (Kahler, Read, Wood, & Palfai, 2003), and that boys are more likely to try illicit drugs and more likely to use them more frequently than girls (Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2005). According to the 2005 Monitoring the Future Study, boys also report much higher rates of smokeless tobacco, steroid use, and heavy drinking. However, cigarette use is roughly the same across genders (Johnston et al., 2005). A recent national report of drug use among Americans indicated that adolescent boys reported higher rates on nearly every drug use variable, including early onset of drug use, binge drinking, illicit drug use, and substance use disorders (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2005). Clinical studies have revealed gender differences and similarities with respect to determinants of gender differences, including social and cultural environment, psychological and physical health factors, and coping mechanisms. Opland, Winters, and Stinchfield (1995) found that girls tend to utilize drug use as a coping mechanism for stress, whereas boys tend to use drugs for the pleasurable effects. A cross-sectional study of drug-abusing youth assessed in clinical settings (Winters, Stinchfield, & Henly, 1993) found that scales measuring delinquency and peer drug involvement were most highly correlated with overall drug use involvement in both girls and boys. However, girls tended to have higher associations between drug involvement and psychological distress compared to boys. A study by Hsieh and Hollister (2004) found that female subjects who were entering a substance abuse treatment program exhibited more severe psychological difficulties, Botzet, Winters, and Stinchfield 93 poorer self-image, increased family problems, and more exposure to sexual abuse than did their male counterparts. Meanwhile, boys in the same study exhibited higher rates of school and legal problems as compared to the girls. Dakof, Tejeda, and Liddle (2000) found similar results in their clinical sample, namely, that drug-abusing girls exhibited much higher levels of internalizing symptoms and higher levels of family dysfunction, even though they used drugs just as extensively as the boys. Of importance to this literature is the relative impact of the psychometric soundness of the instruments used to infer findings related to gender. If measures are biased by gender, the interpretation of study results may be potentially jeopardized. For example, males and females may differ on their report of feelings and emotions, which could influence a measure that depends on emotive-related issues. Also, self-report may vary by gender; one gender may be more likely to under-report or over-report certain aspects of drug involvement. Several reviews are available on the state of the adolescent drug abuse assessment field (e.g., Leccese & Waldron, 1994; Winters, 2003), and this literature concludes that, as a group, the clinical instruments and measures used within this field have generally favorable psychometric properties. However, there has been virtually no focus on the relative psychometric evidence of these instruments by gender. This paper addresses the issue of gender differences in the measurement of drug abuse severity and related psychosocial factors by focusing on a single instrument, the Personal Experience Inventory (PEI: Winters & Henly, 1989). The PEI is a relevant tool to address gender-specific issues because it has been widely cited in the literature (Rahdert, 1991; Weinberg et al., 1998), a large clinical database of girls and boys now exists, and its multidimensionality allows for both drug abuse and psychosocial scales to be examined. Previous publications of the PEI’s psychometric properties have not fully addressed the issue of gender. The PEI manual only reports one set of psychometric data as a function of gender: scale internal consistency (Winters & Henly, 1989). These data show comparable coefficient alphas for both boys and girls. Another study by Winters, Latimer, Stinchfield, and Henly (1999) found that correlations between the Psychosocial scales and Drug Use Frequency (DUF) scales on the PEI were similar among age and gender groups. That study also found that the Psychological Disturbance, Peer Chemical Environment, Deviant Behavior, and Negative Self-Image scales were most predictive of DUF for both genders (Winters et al., 94 ADOLESCENT SUBSTANCE ABUSE: NEW FRONTIERS IN ASSESSMENT 1999). Other publications on the psychometrics of the PEI have not reported gender specific data, most certainly because the small sample sizes in these studies precluded such comparisons (e.g., Guthmann & Brenna, 1990; Cady, Winters, Jordan, Solberg, & Stinchfield, 1996). The present study capitalizes on a large PEI database that has been built for over eight years. We report a range of reliability and validity evidence as a function of gender and age (younger = 12-15 years old; older = 16-18 years old) subgroups. Our intent was to additionally sub-divide the subjects into ethnic groups as a function of gender and age. However, because the database has very small sample sizes of younger and older girls among the non-white ethnic group...