Quantitative

Describe the techniques employed when showing quantitative differences between Bar and Pie Charts.

Lesikar, R., Flatley, M., &Rentz, K. (2008).Business communication. (11 ed., pp. 421-429). The McGraw-Hill Companies.

(Lesikar, Flatley&Rentz, 2008)

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. Fundamentals of Report
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c h a p t e r t w e l

Long, Formal Repor

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to construct long,
formal reports for important projects. To reach this goal, you should
be able to

1 Describe the roles and contents and construct the prefatory parts
of a long, formal report.

2 Organize the introduction of a long report by considering the likely
readers and selecting the appropriate contents.

3 Prepare the body of a long, formal report by applying the advice in
Chapter 10 and in other chapters.

4 Determine, based on the report’s purpose, the most effect

e way
to end a report: a summary, a conclusion, a recommendation, or a
combination of the three.

5 Describe the role and content of the appendix and bibliography of
a report.

6 Prepare a structural coherence plan for a long, formal report.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
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IV. Fundamentals of Report
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374 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

I N T R O D U C T O R Y S I T U A T I O N

Long, Formal Reports
Assume the role of associate director of research, Midwestern Research, Inc. As your title indicates, research is your
business. Perhaps it would be more accurate to say that research and reports are your business. Research is your
primary activity, of course. But you must present your fi ndings to your customers. The most effi cient way of doing
so is through reports.
Typical of your work is your current assignment with Nokia, a manufacturer of mobile phones. The sales division
of Nokia wants information that will help improve the effectiveness of its salespeople. Specifi cally, it wants answers
to the question of what its salespeople can do to improve their performance. The information gathered will be used
in revising the curriculum of Nokia’s sales training program.
To fi nd the answer to the basic question, you plan to investigate three areas of sales activities: how salespeople
use their time, how they fi nd prospects, and how they make sales presentations. You will get this information for two
groups of Nokia salespeople: the successful and the unsuccessful. Next, you will compare the information you get
from these two groups. You will compare the groups on the three areas of sales activity (the bases of comparison).
The differences you detect in these comparisons should identify the effective and the ineffective sales practices.
Your next task will be to determine what your fi ndings mean. When you have done this, you will present your
fi ndings, analyses, conclusions, and recommendations in a report to Nokia. Because Nokia executives will see the
report as evidence of the work you did for the company, you will dress the report up. You know that what Nokia sees
will affect what it thinks of your work.
So you will use the formal arrangement that is traditional for reports of this importance. You will include the con-
ventional prefatory pages. You will use headings to guide the readers through the text. And you will use graphics
liberally to help tell the report story. If the situation calls for them, you may use appended parts. In other words, you
will construct a report that matches the formality and importance of the situation. How to construct such reports is
the subject of this chapter.

Although not numerous, long, formal reports are highly important in business. They
usually concern major investigations, which explains their length. They are usually
prepared for high-level executives, which explains their formality.
The advice in Chapter 10 about creating reports—determining the purpose, gath-
ering information, and choosing a logical structure adapted to the readers—applies
to long, formal reports as well. And much of the advice in Chapter 11 about propos-
als can apply to long, formal proposals. We will not repeat this advice here. Instead,
this chapter will focus on the special components of formal reports, emphasizing
their purpose and design. For any given case, you will need to decide which of these
components to use and whether or not your report or proposal needs different special
elements. As always, the facts of the situation and your readers’ preferences should
be your guide.

ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT
OF LONGER REPORTS
In determining the structure of longer, more formal reports, you should view your
work much as architects view theirs. You have a number of parts to work with. Your
task is to design from those parts a report that meets your reader’s needs.
The fi rst parts in your case are the prefatory pages. As noted in Chapter 11, the
longest, most formal reports contain all of these. As the length of the report and the
formality of the situation decrease, certain changes occur. As the report architect, you
must decide which arrangement of prefatory parts meets the length and formality re-
quirements of your situation.

• See Chapters 10 and
11 for advice about
developing the contents
and structure of reports
and proposals.

• Long, formal reports
are important but not
numerous in business.

• Needs should determine
the structure of long,
formal reports.

• The need for the
prefatory parts
decreases as reports
become shorter and less
formal.

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Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 37

To make this decision, you need to know these parts. Thus, we will describe them in
the following pages. In addition, we will describe the remaining structure of the long-
est, most formal report. As you proceed through these descriptions, it will be helpful
to trace the parts through the illustration report at the end of this chapter. In addition, it
will help to consult Appendix B for illustrations of page form.
For convenience in the following discussion, the report parts are organized by
groups. The fi rst group comprises the prefatory parts, the parts that are most closely
related to the formality and length of the report. Then comes the report proper, which,
of course, is the meat of all reports. It is the report story. The fi nal group comprises the
appended parts. These parts contain supplementary materials, information that is not
essential to the report but may be helpful to some readers. In summary, the presentation
follows this pattern:

Prefatory parts: Title fl y. Title page. Authorization message. Transmittal message,
preface, or foreword. Table of contents and list of illustrations. Executive
summary.

The report proper: Introduction. The report fi ndings (presented in two or more
divisions). Summary, conclusion, or recommendation.

Appended parts: Appendix. Bibliography.

THE PREFATORY PARTS
As you know from preceding discussion, there may be many variations in the prefa-
tory parts of a formal report. Even so, the six parts covered in the following pages are
generally included in longer reports.

Title Fly
The fi rst of the possible prefatory report pages is the title fl y (see page 387). It contains
only the report title, and it is included solely for reasons of formality. Since the title
appears again on the following page, the title fl y is somewhat repetitive. But most
books have one, and so do most formal reports.
Although constructing the title fl y is simple, composing the title is not. In fact, on a
per-word basis, the title requires more time than any other part of the report. This is as
it should be, for titles should be carefully worded. Their goal is to tell the reader at a
glance what the report does and does not cover. A good title fi ts the report like a glove.
It covers all the report information tightly.

• In determining which
prefatory parts to include,
you should know their
roles and contents.

• Thus, they are reviewed
in the following pages.

• The title fl y contains only
the report title.

• Construct titles to make
them describe the report
precisely.

A long report can be
daunting to readers. Be
sure to provide prefatory
material that invites them
in and makes the key
information easy to fi nd.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

376 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

For completeness of coverage, you should build your titles around the fi ve Ws:
who, what, where, when, why. Sometimes how may be important. In some problems,
you will not need to use all the Ws. Nevertheless, they serve as a good checklist for
completeness. For example, you might construct a title for the report described at the
chapter beginning as follows:

Who: Nokia
What: Sales training recommendations
Where: Implied (Nokia regional offi ces)
When: 2008
Why: Understood (to improve sales training)
How: Based on a 2008 study of company sales activities

From this analysis comes this title: “Sales Training Recommendations for Nokia
Based on a 2008 Study of Company Sales Activities.”
For another example, take a report analyzing Petco’s 2008 advertising campaigns.
This analysis would be appropriate:

Who: Petco
What: Analysis of advertising campaigns
Where: Not essential
When: 2008
Why: Implied
How: Not essential

Thus, this title emerges: “Analysis of Petco’s 2008 Advertising Campaigns.”
Obviously, you cannot write a completely descriptive title in a word or two. Ex-
tremely short titles tend to be broad and general. They cover everything; they touch
nothing. Even so, your goal is to be concise as well as complete. So you must seek
the most economical word pattern consistent with completeness. In your effort to be
concise and complete, you may want to use subtitles. Here is an example: “A 2007
Measure of Employee Morale at Florida Human Resource Offi ces: A Study Based on
a Survey Using the Semantic Differential.”

Title Page
Like the title fl y, the title page presents the report title. In addition, it displays informa-
tion essential to identifi cation of the report. In constructing your title page, you should
include your complete identifi cation and that of the authorizer or recipient of the re-
port. You also may include the date of writing, particularly if the date is not in the title.
An example of a three-spot title page appears in the report at the end of the chapter.
You can see a four-spot arrangement (used when writer and reader are within the same
organization) in Appendix B.

Authorization Message
Although not illustrated in the diagram of report structure in Chapter 11 or in the report
at the end of this chapter, an authorization message can be a prefatory part. It was not
shown in the diagram (Figure 11–1) because its presence in a report is not determined
by formality or length but by whether the report was authorized in writing. A report
authorized in writing should include a copy of the written authorization. This part
usually follows the title page.
As the report writer, you would not write the authorization message. But if you
ever have to write one, handle it as you would a direct-order message. In the opening,
authorize the research. Then cover the specifi c information that the reader needs in
order to conduct it. This might include a clear description of the problem, time and
money limitations, special instructions, and the due date. Close the message with an
appropriate goodwill comment.

• As a checklist, use who,
what, where, when, why,
and sometimes how.

• One- or two-word titles
are too broad. Subtitles
can help conciseness.

• The title page displays
the title, identifi cation
of the writer and autho-
rizer, and the date.

• Include the authorization
message if the report
was authorized in writing.

• Write the authorization
message in the direct
order: authorization,
information about the
problem, goodwill close.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 37

Transmittal Message, Foreword, Preface
Most formal reports contain a personal message of some kind from the writer to the
reader. In most business reports, the transmittal message performs this function. In
some cases, particularly where the report is written for a group of readers, a foreword
or preface is used instead.
The transmittal message transmits the report to the reader. In less formal situations, the
report is transmitted orally or by email. In more formal situations, a letter does the job.
But keep in mind that a written message merely substitutes for a face-to-face meeting.
What you write in it is much like what you would say if you were face to face with the
reader. This personal touch enhances the communication effect of your report.
Because the goal of transmitting the report is positive, you should begin the transmit-
tal message directly, without explanation or other delaying information. Your opening
words should say, in effect, “Here is the report.” Tied to or following the transmittal of
the report, you should briefl y identify the report goal, and you can refer to the authori-
zation (who assigned the report, when, why).
What else you include in the transmittal message depends on the situation. In gen-
eral, you should include anything that would be appropriate in a face-to-face presen-
tation. What would you say if you were handing the report to the reader? It would
probably be something about the report—how to understand, use, or appreciate it.
You might make suggestions about follow-up studies, advise about limitations of the
report, or comments about side issues. In fact, you might include anything that helps
the reader understand and value the report. Typically, the transmittal message ends
with an appropriate goodwill comment. An expression of gratefulness for the assign-
ment or an offer to do additional research if necessary makes good closing material.
When you combine the transmittal message with the executive summary (an accept-
able arrangement), you follow the opening transmittal statement with a summary of
the report highlights. In general, you follow the procedure for summarizing described
in the discussion of the executive summary. Following the summary, you include
appropriate talk about the report. Then you end with a goodwill comment.
Because the transmittal message is a personal note to the reader, you may write in a
personal style. In other words, you may use personal pronouns (you, I, we). In addition,
you may write the message in conversational language that refl ects your personality.
You may not want to use the personal style in very formal cases, however. For exam-
ple, if you were writing a report for a committee of senators or for other high-ranking
dignitaries, you might elect to write the transmittal message impersonally. But such
instances are rare. In whatever style, you should convey genuine warmth to the contact
with another human being.

• The transmittal message
is a personal message
from the writer to the
reader.

• It substitutes for a face-
to-face meeting.

• Its main goal is to
transmit the report.

• In addition, it includes
helpful comments about
the report. The close is
goodwill.

• A summary follows
the opening when the
executive summary and
the transmittal message
are combined.

Playing possum doesn’t work anymore,
Stephmeyer! I want that report by 5 P.M. or else!
SOURCE: Copyright © Tribune Media Services, Inc. All
rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.

• The transmittal message
is usually in personal
style.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

378 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

As noted previously, you may transmit reports to broad audiences in a foreword or
a preface. Minor distinctions are sometimes drawn between forewords and prefaces.
But for all practical purposes, they are the same. Both are preliminary messages
from the writer to the reader. Although forewords and prefaces usually do not for-
mally transmit the report, they do many of the other things transmittal messages do.
Like transmittal messages, they seek to help the reader appreciate and understand the
report. They may, for example, include helpful comments about the report—its use,
interpretation, follow-up, and the like. In addition, they frequently contain expres-
sions of indebtedness to those helpful in the research. Like transmittal messages,
they are usually written in the fi rst person. But they are seldom as informal as some
transmittal messages. There is no established pattern for arranging the contents of
forewords and prefaces.

Table of Contents, List of Illustrations
If your report is long enough to need a guide to its contents, you should include a
table of contents. This table is the report outline in fi nished form with page numbers.
It previews the structure and contents of the report and helps readers fi nd what they
most want to read. It is especially helpful to those readers who want to read only a few
selected parts of the report—and there can be many such readers for a given report or
proposal.
Because the table of contents is such an important reading support, be sure to follow
the specifi c guidelines in Chapter 10 for preparing one.
In addition to listing the text headings, the table of contents lists the parts of the
report that appear before and after the report proper. Thus, it lists the prefatory parts
(though not the title fl y or title page), the appended parts (bibliography, appendix),
and the fi gures and tables that illustrate the report. Typically, the fi gures and tables
appear as separate listings following the listings reviewed above. See the textbook
website for instructions on how to generate a table of contents easily using Word.

Executive Summary
The executive summary (also called synopsis, abstract, epitome, précis, digest) is the
report in miniature. It concisely summarizes whatever is important in the report. For
some readers, the executive summary serves as a preview to the report. But it is written
primarily for busy executives who may not have time to read the whole report. Perhaps

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

A Questionable Example of Effective Reporting

“How could I have hired this fellow Glutz?” the sales manager moaned as he read this fi rst report from his new salesper-
son: “I have arrive in Detroit. Tomorry I will try to sell them companys here what ain’t never bought nothing from us.”
Before the sales manager could fi re this stupid fellow, Glutz’s second report arrived: “I done good here. Sold them bout
haff a millun dollars wirth. Tomorry I try to sell to them there Smith Company folks what threw out that last feller what sold
for us.”
Imagine how the sales manager’s viewpoint changed when he read Glutz’s third report: “Today I seen them Smith folks
and sole them bout a millun dollars wirth. Also after dinner I got too little sails mountin to bout half a millun dollars. Tomorry
I going to do better.”
The sales manager was so moved that he tacked Glutz’s reports on the company bulletin board. Below them he posted
his note to all the salespeople: “I want all you should reed these reports wrote by Glutz who are on the road doin a grate
job. Then you should go out and do like he done.”

• For broad audiences, a
foreword (or preface) is
used. Forewords do not
transmit the report—they
comment about it.

• Include a table of
contents when the report
is long enough to need a
guide to its contents.

• The table of contents lists
text headings, prefatory
parts, appended parts,
and fi gures and tables. It
gives page numbers.

• Follow the guidelines in
Chapter 10 for preparing
a table of contents.

• The executive summary
summarizes the report.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 37

they can get all they need to know by reading the executive summary. If they need to
know more about any part, they can fi nd that part through the table of contents. Thus,
they can fi nd out whatever they need to know quickly and easily.
You construct the executive summary by reducing the parts of the report in order
and in proportion. More specifi cally, you go through the report, selecting whatever is
essential. You should include the basic information about the report, such as its origin
and purpose. You should include the key facts and all the major analyses of the infor-
mation presented. And you should include all the conclusions and recommendations
derived from these analyses. The fi nished product should be a miniature of the whole,
with all the important ingredients. As a general rule, the executive summary is less
than an eighth as long as the writing it summarizes.
Because your goal is to cut the report to a fraction of its length, much of your suc-
cess will depend on your skill in word economy. Loose writing is costly. But in your
efforts to be concise, you are more likely to write in a dull style. You will need to avoid
this tendency.
The traditional executive summary reviews the report in the indirect order (intro-
duction, body, conclusion). In recent years, however, the direct order has gained in
popularity. This order shifts the conclusions and/or recommendations (as the case may
be) to the major position of emphasis at the beginning. Direct-order executive sum-
maries resemble the short reports described in Chapter 11. From this direct beginning,
the summary moves to the introductory parts and then through the major highlights of
the report in normal order.
Diagrams of both arrangements appear in Figure 12–1. Whichever arrangement you
choose, you will write the executive summary after the report proper is complete.

• It includes the report
purpose, highlights of
the facts, analyses,
conclusions, and
recommendations—in
proportion.

• Work on writing style in
this part.

• Either direct or indirect
order is appropriate.

Figure 12–

Diagram of the Executive
Summary in Indirect and
Direct Order

Executive
summary

(in indirect
order)

Executive
summary
(in direct
order)

III

V
V
I
II
III

II
III
IV
V

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
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Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

380 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

THE REPORT PROPER
As noted in Chapter 11, the body of most longer reports is written in the indirect order
(introduction, body, conclusion). But there are exceptions. Some longer reports are in
the direct order—with summaries, conclusions, or recommendations at the beginning.
And some are in an order prescribed by your company or the client. Even though the
orders of longer reports may vary, the ingredients of all these reports are similar. Thus,
the following review of the makeup of a report in the indirect order should help you in
writing any report.

Introduction
The purpose of the introduction of a report is to prepare the readers to receive
the report. Whatever will help achieve this goal is appropriate content. Giving
your readers what they need makes a good fi rst impression and displays good
you-viewpoint.
In determining what content is appropriate, consider all the likely readers of your
report. As we noted earlier, the readers of many shorter reports are likely to know
the problem well and have little or no need for an introduction. But such is not often
the case for longer reports. Many of these reports are prepared for a large number of
readers, some of whom know little about the problem. These reports often have long
lives and are kept on fi le to be read in future years. Clearly, they require some introduc-
tory explanation to prepare the readers.
Determining what should be included is a matter of judgment. You should ask your-
self what you would need or want to know about the problem if you were in your read-
ers’ shoes. As the report’s author, you know more about the report than anyone else. So
you will work hard not to assume that readers have the same knowledge of the problem
that you do. In selecting the appropriate information, you would do well to use the fol-
lowing checklist of likely introduction contents. Remember, though, that it is only a
checklist. Only on rare occasions, such as in the longest, most complex reports, would
you include all the items.

Origin of the Report. The fi rst part of your introduction might well include a
review of the facts of authorization. Some writers, however, leave this part out. If
you decide to include it, you should present such facts as when, how, and by whom
the report was authorized; who wrote the report; and when the report was submit-
ted. Information of this kind is particularly useful in reports that have no transmittal
message.

Problem and Purpose. A vital part of almost every report is a statement of its
problem. The problem is what the report seeks to do, the situation that it addresses. It
is the need that prompted the investigation.
You may state the problem of your report in three ways, as shown in Chapter 10.
One common way is to word it in the infi nitive form: “To determine standards for
corporate annual reports.” Another common way is to word it as a question: “What
retail advertising practices do Springfi eld consumers disapprove of?” Still another
way is to word it as a declarative statement: “Company X wants to know the char-
acteristics of the buyers of Y perfume as a guide to its advertising planning.” Any of
the three should give your reader a clear picture of what your report seeks to do. But
the problem statement is not the only item you include. You will need to elaborate on
what you are going to do.
Closely related to what you are doing is why you are doing it. The purpose (often
called by other names such as objective, aim, goal) tells the reason of the report. For
example, you might be determining standards for the corporate annual report in order
to streamline the production process. You will need to weave the why and what of the
report together for a smooth fl ow of thoughts.

• Then determine what
those readers need to
know. Use the following
checklist.

• 1. Origin—the facts of
authorization.

• 2. Problem—what
prompted the report.

• The problem is
commonly stated in
infi nitive, question, or
declarative form.

• Arrangements of the
report proper may vary,
but the following review
of the indirect order
should be helpful.

• The introduction should
prepare the readers.

• In deciding what to
include, consider all
likely readers.

• The purpose is the
reason for the report.

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IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
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CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 381

The table of contents generator tool in today’s word pro-
cessors frees writers from both the physical formatting
and the accuracy tasks. Just a few clicks produces and
formats the table of contents, along with leaders and page
numbers. Additionally, today’s generators add links so
that those reading the report on the screen rather than on
paper can easily navigate to a particular section or page
by simply clicking on it in the table of contents.
The table of contents generator works with styles,
using them as tags for marking items to include in the
table of contents. If you are using a standard report

template, styles are already incorporated in it. If you are
creating your own report from a blank document, you
could use predefi ned styles or defi ne your own styles
to create titles, headings, and subheads. Styles provide
consistency so that headings at certain levels always ap-
pear the same, helping the reader see the relationship of
the parts of your report.
Furthermore, if you decide to change the material in
your report after you have generated the table of contents,
you simply regenerate it to update page numbers with only
a few clicks.

T E C H N O L O G Y I N B R I E F

Using a Table of Contents Generator for Speed and Accuracy

Scope. If the scope of the problem is not clearly covered in any of the other intro-
ductory parts, you may need to include it in a separate part. By scope we mean the
boundaries of the problem. In this part of the introduction—in plain, clear language—
you should describe what is included in the problem. You also should identify the
limitations—what you have not included.

Limitations. In some reports, you will need to explain limitations. By limitations
we mean things that keep your report from being an ideal treatment of the problem.
Of course, in reality there is no such thing as an ideal treatment. No real-world prob-
lem can be completely explored, and because different writers will approach the same
problem differently, what seems complete to one person may not seem complete to
another. Everyone understands that no report can provide coverage of a given topic in
an absolute sense. But in certain cases, you will want to state explicitly what forms of
research were not employed so that your readers will know how to evaluate your in-
formation. For example, if time constraints permitted only a quick email survey rather
than in-depth interviews of your sources, you would say so. Or if a major source of

• 3. Scope—the
boundaries of the
problem.

• 4. Limitations—anything
that limits the report’s
treatment of the problem.

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382 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

• 5. History—how the
problem developed and
what is known about it.

• 6. Sources and
methods—how you got
the information.

information was unavailable (perhaps a key informant had left the company or relevant
industry reports were too expensive), you would note this limitation in your report. Be
frank in this section but not too negative. State clearly what was not done and why,
but do so without apology or such negative wording as “impair” or “compromised
the validity of our fi ndings.” If you have done a good job with the resources at your
disposal, this section of the report can use a directness that shows confi dence in the
report’s usefulness despite its limitations.

Historical Background. Knowledge of the history of the problem is sometimes
essential to understanding the report. Thus, you may need to cover that history in
your introduction. You will need to do more than merely list and present facts. You
will need to organize and interpret them for the readers. Your general aim in this part
is to acquaint the readers with how the problem developed and what has been done
about it. Your discussion here should bring out the main issues. It should review what
past investigations have determined about the problem, and it should lead to what still
needs to be done.

Sources and Methods of Collecting Information. You usually need to tell
the readers how you collected the information in the report. That is, you explain your
research methodology and you justify it. You specify whether you used published re-
search, surveys, experiments, or what not. And you describe the steps you followed. In
general, you describe your work in enough detail to allow your readers to judge it. You
tell them enough to convince them that your work was done competently.
In a simple case in which you gathered published research, you need to say little.
If most of your fi ndings came from a few sources, you could name the sources. If you
used a large number of sources, you would be wise to note that you used secondary
research and refer to the bibliography in the report appendix.
More complex research usually requires a more detailed description. If you con-
ducted a survey, for example, you probably would need to explain all parts of the in-
vestigation. You would cover sample determination, construction of the questionnaire,
interview procedure, and checking techniques. In fact, you would include as much
detail as is needed to gain the readers’ confi dence in your work.

Definitions, Initialisms, and Acronyms. If you use words, initialisms, or ac-
ronyms that are likely to be unfamiliar to readers of the report, you should defi ne these
words and initials. You can do this in either of two ways: you can defi ne each term in
the text or as a footnote when it is fi rst used in the report, or you can defi ne all unfamil-
iar terms in a separate part of the introduction. This part begins with an introductory
statement and then lists the terms with their defi nitions. If the list is long, you may
choose to arrange the terms alphabetically.

Report Preview. In very long reports, a fi nal part of the introduction should pre-
view the report presentation. In this part you tell the readers how the report will be
presented—what topics will be taken up fi rst, second, third, and so on. Of even greater
importance, you give your reasons for following this plan. That is, you explain the
strategy of your report. In short, you give your readers a clear picture of the road
ahead. As you will see later in the chapter, this part of the introduction is a basic ingre-
dient of the coherence plan of the long report. Illustrations of report previews appear
in the discussion of this plan (page 385) and in the report at the end of the chapter (see
Figure 12–3, page 387).

The Report Body
In the report body, the information collected is presented and related to the problem.
Normally, this part of the report comprises most of its content. In a sense, the report
body is the report. With the exception of the conclusion or recommendation part, the
other parts of the report are attached parts.

• Sometimes it is
necessary to cite
sources.

• More complex research
requires thorough
description.

• 7. Defi nitions of
unfamiliar words,
acronyms, or initialisms
used.

• 8. Preview—a description
of the route ahead.

• The report body presents
and analyzes the
information gathered.

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Writing
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CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 38

Advice presented throughout this book will help you prepare this part of the report.
Its organization was discussed extensively in Chapter 10. It is written in accord with
the instructions on style presented in Chapter 10 and with the general principles for
clear writing presented in the early chapters. It may use the components of shorter re-
ports and proposals discussed in Chapter 11. Any sources used must be appropriately
noted and documented as illustrated in Appendix E. It uses good presentation form as
discussed in Appendix B and elsewhere, and it follows the guidelines for use of fi gures
and tables discussed in Chapter 13. In short, writing this major section of the long,
formal report will require virtually all your organizing, writing, and formatting skills.

The Ending of the Report
You can end your report in any of a number of ways: with a summary, a conclusion, a
recommendation, or a combination of the three. Your choice depends on the purpose of
your report. You should choose the way that enables you to satisfy that purpose.

Ending Summary. When the purpose of the report is to present information, the
ending is logically a summary of the major fi ndings. There is no attempt to interpret
at this point. Any interpretations of the information in the report occur on the reader’s
part at this point, but not the writer’s. Such reports usually have minor summaries at
the end of the major sections. When this arrangement is followed, the ending summary
recapitulates these summaries.
You should not confuse the ending summary with the executive summary. The ex-
ecutive summary is a prefatory part of the report; the ending summary is a part of the
report text. Also, the executive summary is more complete than the ending summary.
The executive summary reviews the entire report, usually from the beginning to the
end. The ending summary reviews only the highlights of the report.

Conclusions. Some reports must do more than just present information. They must
analyze the information in light of the problem; and from this analysis, they must reach
a conclusion. Such reports typically end with this conclusion.
The make-up of the conclusion section varies from case to case. In problems for
which a single answer is sought, the conclusion section normally reviews the preced-
ing information and analyses and, from this review, arrives at the answer. In problems
with more than one goal, the report plan may treat each goal in a separate section and
draw conclusions in each section. The conclusion section of such a report might well
summarize the conclusions previously drawn. There are other arrangements. In fact,
almost any plan that brings the analyses together to reach the goals of the report is
appropriate.

• Preparing this part will
employ much of the
advice in this book.

• Reports can end in
various ways.

• Informational reports
usually end with a
summary of the major
fi ndings.

• The ending summary is
not as complete as the
executive summary.

• Reports that seek an
answer end with a
conclusion.

• The structure of the
conclusion varies by
problem.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Technical Writer’s Report on Humpty Dumpty

A 72-gram brown Rhode Island Red country-fresh candled egg was secured and washed free of feathers, blood, dirt,
and grit. Held between thumb and index fi nger, about 3 ft. or more from an electric fan (GE Model No. MC-2404, Serial
No. JC23023, nonoscillating, rotating on “Hi” speed at approximately 1045.23 plus or minus 0.02 rpm), the egg was sus-
pended on a pendulum (string) so that it arrived at the fan with essentially zero velocity normal to the fan rotation plane.
The product adhered strongly to the walls and ceiling and was diffi cult to recover. However, using putty knives a total of
13 grams was obtained and put in a skillet with 11.2 grams of hickory-smoked Armour’s old-style bacon and heated over
a low Bunsen fl ame for 7 min. 32 sec. What there was of it was of excellent quality.

“The DP Report,” Du Pont Explosives Department, Atomic Energy Division, Savannah River Laboratories, 12 July 1954.

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384 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Recommendations. When the goal of the report is not only to draw conclusions
but also to present a course of action, a recommendation is in order. You may organize
it as a separate section following the conclusion section. Or you may include it in the
conclusion section. In some problems, the conclusion is the recommendation—or at
least a logical interpretation of it. Whether you include a recommendation should be
determined by whether the readers want or expect one.

Appended Parts
Sometimes you will need to include an appendix, a bibliography, or both at the end of
the report. Whether you include these parts should be determined by need.

Appendix. The appendix, as its name implies, is a tacked-on part. You use it for
supplementary information that supports the body of the report but has no logical place
within the body. Possible appendix contents are questionnaires, working papers, sum-
mary tables, additional references, and other reports.
As a rule, the appendix should not include the charts, graphs, and tables that directly
support the report. These should be placed in the body of the report, where they support
the fi ndings. Reports should be designed for the convenience of the readers. Obviously,
it is not convenient for readers to look to the appendix for illustrations of the facts they
read in the report body. They would have to thumb back and forth in the report, thus
losing their concentration. Such a practice would not help the reader.

Bibliography. When your investigation makes heavy use of published sources, you
normally include a bibliography (a list of the publications used). The construction of
this list is described in Appendix E of this book.

THE STRUCTURAL COHERENCE PLAN
As we have noted, the writing in the longer reports is much like the writing in the
shorter ones. In general, the instructions given in earlier chapters apply to the longer
reports. But the longer reports have one writing need that is not present in the shorter
ones—the need for a structural coherence plan.
By structural coherence plan we mean a network of explanations, introductions,
summaries, and conclusions that guide the reader through the report. Of course, you
will also employ the devices for coherent writing discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. But
because of the formal report’s length, your reader will probably need additional help
relating the parts of the report to each other or keeping track of where he or she is in
the report. A structural coherence plan provides this extra help. Although you should
not use its components mechanically, it is likely to follow the general plan illustrated
in Figure 12–2.
The coherence plan begins with the report preview in the introduction. As you will
recall, the preview tells the readers what lies ahead. It covers three things: the topics to
be discussed, their order, and the logic of that order. With this information in mind, the
readers know how the parts of the report relate to one another. They know the overall
strategy of the presentation. The following paragraphs do a good job of previewing
a report comparing four automobiles to determine which is the best for a company’s
sales fl eet.

To identify which light car Allied Distributors should buy, this report compares the
cars under consideration on the basis of three factors: cost, safety, and performance.
Each of these factors is broken down into its component parts, which are applied to
the specifi c models being considered.
Because cost is the most tangible factor, it is examined in the fi rst major section.
In this section, the four automobiles are compared for initial and trade-in values.
Then they are compared for operating costs, as determined by mileage, oil use,
repair expense, and the like. In the second major section, the safety of the four
makes is compared. Driver visibility, special safety features, brakes, steering quality,

• Information that directly
supports the report
belongs in the text of the
report.

• Include a bibliography if
you make heavy use of
published sources.

• Longer reports need
extra structural
coherence devices.

• These are a network
of explanations,
introductions,
summaries, and
conclusions.

• The coherence plan
begins with the preview,
which describes the
route ahead.

• Include recommenda-
tions when the readers
want or expect them.

• Add an appendix or
a bibliography when
needed.

• The appendix contains
information that indirectly
supports the report.

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CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 385

acceleration rate, and traction are the main considerations here. In the third major
section, the dependability of the four makes is compared on the basis of repair
records and salespersons’ time lost because of automobile failure. In the fi nal major
section, weights are assigned to the foregoing comparisons, and the automobile that
is best suited to the company’s needs is recommended.

In addition to the preview in the introduction, the plan uses introductory and sum-
mary sections at convenient places throughout the report. Typically, these sections
are at the beginning and end of major divisions, but you should use them wherever

• Introductions to and
summaries of the report
sections keep readers
informed of where they
are in the report.

Figure 12–

Diagram of the Structural
Coherence Plan of a Long,
Formal Report

Summaries and conclusions help readers
to gather their thoughts and see the
relationships of the report topics.

Completing the plan, a final summary or
conclusion section brings the report to a
head. Here, previous section summaries
and conclusions are brought together.
From these a final conclusion and
recommendation may be drawn.

The first part of the structural coherence
plan is the introduction preview. Here
readers are told how the report will
unfold. Specifically, they are told what
will be covered, in what order it will be
covered, and the reasons for this order.

Because the report is long and involved,
introductions are needed at the
beginnings of the major sections to
remind readers where they are in the
plan outlined in the preview. These parts
introduce the topics to be discussed, point
the way through the sections, and relate
the topics of the sections to the overall
plan of the report.

I
II
III
IV
V

Structural coherence
helpers guide
readers through the
report. Helpers are
similar to today’s car
navigational systems.
Readers can clearly
see where they have
been, where they are,
and where they will go
next. By constructing
paragraphs, sentences,
and words at important
positions throughout
the report, readers can
be guided skillfully to
the report’s ending.

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386 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

they are needed. Such sections remind the readers where they are in the report. They
tell the readers where they have been, where they are going, and perhaps why they are
going there. These transition statements should not include facts, conclusions, refer-
ences to graphics, and such, which belong in the content paragraphs.
Illustrating this technique is the following paragraph, which introduces a major
section of a report. Note how the paragraph ties in with the preceding discussion,
which concerned industrial activity in three geographic areas. Note also how it justifi es
covering secondary areas in the next section of the report.

Although the great bulk of industry is concentrated in three areas (Grand City, Mill-
town, and Port Starr), a thorough industrial survey needs to consider the secondary,
but nevertheless important, areas of the state. In the rank of their current industrial
potential, these areas are the Southeast, with Hartsburg as its center; the Central
West, dominated by Parrington; and the North Central, where Pineview is the center
of activities.

The following summary-conclusion paragraph is a good ending to a major section.
The paragraph brings to a head the fi ndings presented in the section and points the way
to the subject of the next section.

These fi ndings and those pointed out in preceding paragraphs all lead to one
obvious conclusion. The small-business executives are concerned primarily with
subject matter that will assist them directly in their work. That is, they favor a
curriculum slanted in favor of the practical subjects. They insist, however, on some
coverage of the liberal arts, and they also are convinced of the value of studying
business administration. On all these points, they are clearly out of tune with the
bulk of the big-business leaders who have voiced their positions on this question.
Even the most dedicated business administration professors would fi nd it diffi cult to
support such an extremely practical approach. Nevertheless, these are the opinions
of the small-business executives. Because they are the consumers of the business-
education product, their opinions should at least be considered. Likewise, their
specifi c recommendations on courses (the subject of the following section) deserve
careful review.

Completing the coherence plan is the fi nal major section of the report. In this sec-
tion, you achieve the goal of the report. Here you recall from the preceding section
summaries all the major fi ndings and analyses. Then you apply them to the problem
and present the conclusion. Sometimes you will make recommendations. Thus, you
complete the strategy explained in the introduction preview and recalled at convenient
places throughout the report.
Wisely used coherence helpers can form a network of connections throughout the
report. You should keep in mind, however, that these helpers should be used only when
they are needed. That is, you should use them when your readers need help in seeing
relationships and in knowing where they are and where they are going. If you use them
well, they will appear as natural parts of the report story. They should never appear to
be mechanical additions. When paragraphs are combined with sentence and word tran-
sitions, as discussed in Chapters 3, 4, and 10, the total plan should guide your readers
smoothly and naturally through the report.

THE LONG ANALYTICAL REPORT
ILLUSTRATED
Illustrating the long analytical report is the report presented at the end of this chapter
(Figure 12–3). The report’s structure includes the formal elements described in the
preceding pages.

• The fi nal major section
of the report brings
together the preceding
information and applies it
to the goal.

• Use coherence helpers
naturally—when they are
needed.

• Figure 12–3 is an
illustration of a long,
formal report.

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Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 387

Figure 12–3

Illustration of a Long, Formal Report. This long, formal report presents the fi ndings of an observational study of successful and
unsuccessful salespeople to determine the differences in how each group works. The results will be used to revise the content
of the company’s sales training program. Because the report is extensive and the situation formal, the report has all the major
prefatory parts. The signifi cant statistical fi ndings are effectively emphasized by graphics. Whenever secondary sources are used,
they are appropriately noted and listed in the bibliography. Its physical presentation uses Word’s contemporary report template. Its
documentation uses MLA style.

Title fly Checklist of
5Ws and 1H
creates
complete title.

What

Why

When

How

Who

SALES TRAINING
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR NOKIA

BASED ON A 2008 STUDY
OF COMPANY SALES ACTIVITIES

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IV. Fundamentals of Report
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Companies, 2008

388 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Figure 12–3

Continued

Three-spot
title page

Recipient of report
receives prime
position on page.

Writer receives
subordinate page
position.

SALES TRAINING
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR NOKIA

BASED ON A 2008 STUDY
OF COMPANY SALES ACTIVITIES

Prepared for
Mr. Peter R. Simpson, Vice President for Sales
Nokia Inc.
72117 North Musselman Road
Dearborn, MI 48126-2351

Prepared by
Ashlee P. Callahan

Midwestern Research Associates
Suite D, Brownfield Towers
212 North Bedford Avenue

Detroit, MI 48219-6708

November 17, 2008

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 389

Figure 12–3
Continued
Midwestern Research Associates
Suite D, Brownfield Towers
212 North Bedford Avenue

Detroit, MI 48219-6708
312-222-2575 research@midwestern.com

November 17, 2008

Mr. Peter R. Simpson
Vice President for Sales
Nokia Inc.
72117 North Musselman Road
Dearborn, MI 48126-2351

Dear Mr. Simpson:

Here is the report on the observational study of your salespeople that you asked us
to conduct on August 28.

Our study of two groups of salespeople—20 top performers and 20 low
performers—revealed significant differences in three areas: use of work time,
ability to generate prospects, and quality of sales presentations. The resulting
recommendations for your sales training program should help you correct the
shortcomings in your sales force.

We appreciate your choosing Midwestern for this assignment. If you should need
any additional research or assistance in implementing our recommendations, please
contact us at acallahan@midwestern.com or 312-222-2575.

Sincerely yours,

Ashlee P. Callahan
Senior Research Associate

Transmittal
message

Begins directly,
with the
transmittal.

Brief summary
helps the reader
understand and
appreciate the
research.

Goodwill comment
ends letter.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
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Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

390 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Figure 12–3
Continued

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

Incidentals of Authorization and Submittal

Objective of the Study

Use of Observational Techniques

A Preview of the Presentation

ANALYSIS OF WORK TIME USE

Negative Effect of Idle Time

Correlation of Prospect Contacting and Success

Vital Role of Prospect Building

Necessity of Miscellaneous Activities

DIFFERENCES IN FINDING PROSPECTS

Near Equal Distribution of Web Inquiries

Value of Cultivating Repeat Customers

Limited Effectiveness of Using Bird Dogs

Scant Use of Other Techniques

OBSERVABLE VARIATIONS IN PRESENTATIONS

Positive Effect of Integrity

Apparent Value of Moderate Pressure

Necessity of Product Knowledge

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TRAINING

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Table of
contents

Background
details of the
problem prepare
the reader to
receive the
report.

Three areas
of sales work
investigated
logically form
main headings.

Subfactors of the
work areas make
logical second-
level headings.

First- and
second-level
headings are
parallel.

Conciseness
in headings
improves
readability.

Talking
captions
avoid
monotonous
repetition in
wording.

Divisions of
main body
parts by
factors (and
subdivisions)
show good
thought and
logical
solution to
problem.

1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3

5
5
5
5

7
8
9

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
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12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 391

Figure 12–3
Continued

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. How productive and marginal salespeople use work time

Figure 2. Prospects contacted during observation period by productive
and marginal salespeople by method of obtaining them

Figure 3. Observed images of integrity in sales presentations
of marginal and productive

salespeople

Figure 4. Observed use of pressure in sales presentations of marginal
and productive salespeople

Figure 5. Product knowledge ratings of productive and marginal
salespeople

. . . . . . . . . . . 2

. . . . . . . . . . . . 4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

List of figures
(a continuation
of the table of
contents)

Titles use 5
Ws and 1H in
title
construction.

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392 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Figure 12–3
Continued
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

To enhance the performance of Nokia’s salespeople, this report recommends adding the
following topics to Nokia’s sales training program:

■ Negative effects of idle time
■ Techniques of cultivating prospects
■ Development of bird dog networks
■ Cultivation of repeat sales
■ Projection of integrity image
■ Use of moderate persuasion
■ Value of product knowledge

Supporting these recommendations are the following findings and conclusions drawn
from an observational study of 20 productive and 20 marginal salespeople. The two
groups were compared on three types of sales activities.

The data show that the productive salespeople used their time more effectively than did
the marginal salespeople. Compared with marginal salespeople, the productive
salespeople spent less time in idleness (28% vs. 53%). They also spent more time in
contact with prospects (31.3% vs. 19.8%) and more time developing prospects (10.4%
vs. 4.4%).

Investigation of how the salespeople got their prospects showed that because field
assignments were about equal, both groups profited about the same from unsolicited
web inquiries. The productive group got 282; the marginal group got 274. The
productive group used bird dogs more extensively, having 64 contacts derived from this
source during the observation period. The marginal group had 8. Productive salespeople
also were more successful in turning these contacts into sales.

Observations of sales presentations revealed that productive salespeople displayed
higher integrity, used pressure more reasonably, and knew the product better than
marginal salespeople. Of the 20 productive salespeople, 16 displayed images of
moderately high integrity (Group II). Marginal group members ranged widely with 7 in
Group III (questionable) and 5 each in Group II (moderately high integrity) and Group
IV (deceitful). Most (15) of the productive salespeople used moderate pressure, whereas
the marginal salespeople tended toward extremes (10 high pressure, 7 low pressure). On
the product knowledge test, 17 of the productive salespeople scored excellent and 3 fair.
Of the marginal members, 5 scored excellent, 6 fair, and 9 inadequate.

vi
Executive
summary

Following the
direct-order plan,
this executive
summary places the
recommendations
first. Highlights of
the supporting
findings follow.

Remaining
paragraphs
summarize the
major findings
in the order
presented in
the report.

Significant
comparisons
and conclusions
are emphasized
throughout.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 393

Figure 12–3
Continued

SALES TRAINING
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR NOKIA

BASED ON A 2008 STUDY OF
COMPANY SALES ACTIVITIES

INTRODUCTION
Incidentals of Authorization and Submittal

This study of Nokia salespeople’s sales activities is submitted to Mr. Peter R. Simpson, Vice
President for Sales, on November 17, 2008. As authorized on August 28, the investigation
was conducted under the direction of Ashlee P. Callahan of Midwestern Research Associates.

Objective of the Study

There is a significant performance gap between Nokia’s top salespeople and its lowest
performers. The objective of this study was to discover the reasons for this disparity and,
given these findings, to recommend changes in Nokia’s sales training program.

Use of Observational Techniques

The methodology used in this investigation was an observational study of Nokia salespeople.
Specifically, the study employed the contrived observation technique, which is a unique
means of observing work performance under real conditions.1 A detailed description of this
technique is a part of the proposal approved at the August meeting and is not repeated here.
Specific items relative to the application of this method in this case are summarized below.

Two groups of 20 Nokia salespeople were selected for the observation—a productive and a
marginal group. The productive group was made up of the company’s top producers for the
past year; the marginal group comprised the lowest producers. Only salespeople with three
years or more of experience were eligible.

A team of two highly trained observers observed each of the salespeople selected for a
continuous period of five working days. Using specially designed forms, the observers
recorded the work activities of the salespeople. At the end of the observation period, the

1 William G. Zikmund, Business Research Methods, 7th ed. (Cincinnati, OH: South-Western, 2003) 240.

Report proper
(introduction)

Authorization
facts identify
participants in
the report.

Purpose section
explains the
problem clearly
and precisely.

Thorough
review of
methodology
permits reader
to judge
credibility of
research.

All sources used are
appropriately credited and
thoroughly documented.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

394 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Figure 12–3
Continued

observers conducted an exit interview, recording certain demographic data and
administering a test of the salesperson’s knowledge of Nokia ‘s mobile phones.

A Preview of the Presentation

In the following pages, the findings and analysis appear in the arrangement discussed at the
August meeting. First comes a comparison of how the productive and the marginal
salespeople spend their work time. Second is an analysis of how the productive and the
marginal salespeople find their prospects. Third is a comparative analysis of the observable
differences in sales presentations of the two groups. Conclusions drawn from these
comparisons form the bases for recommendations regarding the content in Nokia’s sales
training program.

ANALYSIS OF WORK TIME USE

The time-duty observation records were examined to determine whether differences exist
between the productive and marginal salespeople in their use of work time. Activities were
grouped into four general categories: (1) idleness, (2) contacting prospects, (3) finding
prospects, and (4) miscellaneous activities. This examination revealed the followingresults.

Negative Effect of Idle Time

As shown in Figure 1, the productive salespeople spent less work time in idleness (28%)
than did the marginal salespeople (53%). Further examination of the observations reveals
that the top five of the 20 productive salespeople spent even less time in idleness (13%),
and the bottom five of the marginal salespeople spent more time in idleness (67%). Clearly,
these observations suggest the predictable conclusion that successful salespeople work
more than their less productive counterparts.

Preview
prepares
reader for
what follows in
body sections.

Subordinate
reference to
figure ties text
and graphic
together and
allows inter-
pretation to
begin in main
sentence.

Body sections
contain facts,
interpretations,
and solutions
to report
problems.

Section
introductions
tell what
follows in
subdivisions.

Graphics
add to
interpreta-
tions.

Figure 1. How productive and marginal salespeople use work time.

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%
Productive

salespeople
Marginal

salespeople

Mail
contacts

Telephone
contacts

Prospect
building

Face-to-face
contacts

Other work

Idle time

Sentence
conclusions
complement
formal
coherence
plan.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 395

Figure 12–3
Continued
Correlation of Prospect Contacting and Success

Productive salespeople spent more time contacting prospects face to face, by telephone, and
by mail (31.3%) than did marginal salespeople (19.8%). The specific means of making these
contacts show similar differences. Productive and marginal salespeople spent their work time,
respectively, 23.2% and 13.5% in face-to-face contacts, 4.8% and 2.0% in mail contacts, and
8.3% and 4.6% in telephone contacts. These data lend additional support to the conclusion
that work explains sales success.

Vital Role of Prospect Building

During the observation period, productive salespeople spent more than twice as much time
(10.5%) as marginal salespeople (4.4%) in building prospects. Activities observed in this
category include contacting bird dogs (people who give sales leads) and other lead sources
and mailing literature to established and prospective customers.

Necessity of Miscellaneous Activities

Both productive and marginal salespeople spent about a fourth of their work time in
miscellaneous activities (tending to personal affairs, studying sales literature, attending sales
meetings, sending and responding to email, and such). The productive group averaged 25.2%;
the marginal group averaged 22.5%. As some of this time is related to mobile phone sales,
productive salespeople would be expected to spend more time in this category.

The preceding data reveal that the way salespeople spend their time affects their productivity.
Productive salespeople work at selling. In sharp contrast with the marginal salespeople, they
spend little time in idleness. They work hard to contact prospects and to build prospect lists.
Like all mobile phone salespeople, they spend some time in performing miscellaneous duties.

DIFFERENCES IN FINDING PROSPECTS

A comparison of how productive and marginal salespeople find prospects and the productivity
of these methods were a second area of investigation. For this study, the observations were
classified by the four primary sources of prospects: (1) unsolicited web inquiries, (2) bird dogs
and other referrals, (3) repeat customers, and (4) other. Only prospects that were contacted in
person or by telephone during the observation period were included. Prospects were counted
only once, even though some were contacted more than once.

Near Equal Distribution of Web Inquiries

As expected, most of the contacts of both productive and marginal salespeople were web
inquiries. Because both groups had about equal field assignments, they got about the same
number of prospects from this source. As illustrated in Figure 2, productive members got 282
(an average of 14.1 each) and marginal members got 274 (an average of 13.7 each).

Although both groups got about the same number of prospects from web inquiries, productive
salespeople got better results. A review of sales records shows that productive salespeople
averaged 260 units per week from web inquiries; marginal salespeople averaged 220 units.
The difference, although appearing slight, represents roughly 40 mobile phones per week.

Report text
presents data
thoroughly yet
concisely —
and with
appropriate
comparisons.

Report length
and situation
formality
justify
third-person
writing.

Tense
consistency
places
concepts in
appropriate
time frames
and gives a
present time
viewpoint.

Key
transitional
words used
in emphasis
positions
keep ideas
moving.

Section
summary
helps the
reader
identify and
remember the
major
findings.

Section
introduction
continues
formal
coherence
plan.

Variety in
sentence
design helps
maintain
reader
interest.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

396 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Figure 12–3
Continued
Value of Cultivating Repeat Customers

Repeat customers and friends referred by them constitute the second most productive source
of prospects. During the observation period, productive salespeople had contacts with 49 such
prospects; marginal salespeople had 13. Productive salespeople also had better sales success
with these prospects, turning 40 of them into sales—an average of two per week. Marginal
group members made sales to seven of these prospects—an average of 0.35 per person. These
findings agree with those of a recent study reported in the American Salesman.2 These
differences appear to be a direct result of effort (or lack of it) in maintaining contacts with
customers after the sale.

Color adds
interest and helps
reader visualize
comparisons in
graphics.

Use of
graphics
allows only
important
details to be
emphasized
in report
text.

Figure 2. Prospects contacted during observation period by productive and marginal
salespeople by method of obtaining them.

2 Alex Hatzivassilis and Igor Kotlyar, “Increase the Number of Top Performers on Your Team,” American
Salesman 48.7 (2003): 17.

Predominance
of active
voice verbs
provide flow
and
concreteness
in text.

282

N
um

be
r o

f p
ro

sp
ec

300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

274

64
49

138

Web inquiries Bird dogs Repeat customers

Productive
salespeople
Marginal
salespeople

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 397

Figure 12–3
Continued
Limited Effectiveness of Using Bird Dogs

Contacts from bird dogs comprise the third largest group, producing 64 total contacts for the
productive and 8 for the marginal salespeople. Sales from this source totaled 9 for
productive salespeople and 2 for marginal salespeople—an average of 0.45 and 0.1 sales per
person, respectively. Although not large in terms of volume, these data explain much of the
difference between the two groups. The use of bird dogs involves work,3 and the willingness
to work varies sharply between the two groups.

Scant Use of Other Techniques

Other prospect-gaining techniques were little used among the salespeople observed.
Techniques long discussed in industry sales literature such as cold spearing, placing written
messages on automobile windshields, and random telephoning produced no prospects for
either group during the observation period.4 All of the salespeople observed noted that they
had used these techniques in the past, but with little success. The lack of evidence in this
study leaves unanswered the question of the effectiveness of these techniques.

The obvious conclusion drawn from the preceding review of how prospects are found is that
the productive salespeople work harder to get them. Although both groups get about the
same number of web inquiries, the successful ones work harder at maintaining contacts with
past customers and at getting contacts from a network of bird dogs and friends.

OBSERVABLE VARIATIONS IN PRESENTATIONS

Differences in the sales presentations used constituted the third area of study. Criteria used
in this investigation were (1) integrity, (2) pressure, and (3) product knowledge. Obviously,
the first two of these criteria had to be evaluated subjectively. Even so, highly trained
observers who used comprehensive guidelines made the evaluations. These guidelines are
described in detail in the approved observation plan.

Positive Effect of Integrity

Evaluations of the salespeople’s integrity primarily measured the apparent degree of
truthfulness of the sales presentations. The observers classified the images of integrity they
perceived during the sales presentations into four groups: Group I—Impeccable (displayed
the highest degree of truthfulness), Group II—Moderately High (generally truthful, some
exaggeration), Group III—Questionable (mildly deceitful and tricky); and Group
IV—Deceitful (untruthful and tricky).

Of the 20 productive salespeople observed, 16 were classified in Group II, as shown in
Figure 3. Of the remaining four, 2 were in Group I and 2 in Group III.

3 Julie Jahn, “Big Business Encourages Effective Use of Bird Dogs throughout Their Organizations,”
BusinessWeek 22 April 2003, 22 Oct. 2007 .
4 James Poon Teng Fatt, “Criteria Used for Evaluating Sales Persons,” Management Research
News 23.1 (2000): 27.

Talking
headings help
emphasize the
major findings.

Sectional
summary
draws ideas
together
before report
moves to next
section.

Formal
coherence
pattern
continues
with sectional
introduction.

Word choice
and sentence
length
contribute to
readability.

Interweaving
facts and
interpretations
gives good
emphasis.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

398 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Figure 12–3
Continued

Distribution of the marginal salespeople was markedly different: 3 in Group I, 5 in Group II,
7 in Group III, and 5 in Group IV. Clearly, integrity was more apparent among the
productive salespeople.

Apparent Value of Moderate Pressure

Measurements (by observation) of pressure used in the sales presentations were made in
order to determine the relationship of pressure to sales success. Using the guidelines
approved at the August meeting, the observers classified each salesperson’s presentations
into three categories: (1) high pressure, (2) moderate pressure, and (3) low pressure.
Observers reported difficulties in making some borderline decisions, but they felt that most
of the presentations were easily classified.

Of the 20 productive salespeople, 15 used moderate pressure, 3 used low pressure, and 2
used high pressure, as depicted in Figure 4. The 20 marginal salespeople presented a
different picture. Only 3 of them used moderate pressure. Of the remainder, 10 used high
pressure and 7 used low pressure. The evidence suggests that moderate pressure is most
effective.

Pattern of
subordinate
reference to
graphic and
interpretation
of facts shows
effective report
structure
throughout.

Figure 3. Observed images of integrity in sales presentations of productive and
marginal salespeople.

Impeccable

Moderately high

Questionable

Deceitful

2
3

16
5

2
7

0
5

Productive
salespeople
Marginal
salespeople

Number of salespeople

Interpretation
of significant
report facts
follows
subordinate
reference to
graphic.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 399

Figure 12–3
Continued
Necessity of Product Knowledge

Product knowledge, a widely accepted requirement for successful selling, was determined
during the exit interview.5 Using the 30 basic questions developed by Nokia management
from sales literature, observers measured the salespeople’s product knowledge. Correct
responses to 27 or more of the questions was determined to be excellent, 24 through 26
was fair, and below 24 was classified as inadequate.

Productive salespeople displayed superior knowledge of the product with 17 of the 20
scoring excellent. As shown in Figure 5, the remaining 3 scored fair.

The facts are
not just
presented.
They are
compared and
conclusions are
drawn from
them.

Central idea
and factual
support
demonstrate
paragraph
unity.

Balanced,
short
paragraphs
indicate
good
organization
of thought
and improve
readability.

Graphic
placement
amplifies
text
analysis.

Figure 4. Observed use of pressure in sales presentations of productive and
marginal salespeople.

High
pressure

Productive
salespeople
Marginal
salespeople
Number of salespeople

Low
pressure

Moderate
pressure

5 Barton Weitz, Stephen B. Castleberry, and John F. Tanner, Selling: Building Partnerships, 5th ed. (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2004) 247.

2
10

3
7

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

400 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Figure 12–3
Continued

Scores for product knowledge were sharply different in the marginal salesperson group.
Although 5 of them scored excellent, 6 scored fair, and 9 scored inadequate. These data point
to an apparent weakness in training or a lack of individual preparation.

The preceding presentation reveals some basic differences in the sales presentations of the
productive and marginal salespeople. The productive salespeople displayed higher integrity
(though not the highest). They used moderate pressure, whereas the marginal people tended
toward high or low extremes. Also, the productive people knew their products better.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TRAINING

The conclusions reached in the preceding sections suggest certain actions that Nokia Inc.
should take in training its sales force. Specifically, the instruction should be altered to include
the following topics:

■ Importance of minimizing idle time.
■ Sales rewards from productive work (mailing literature, telephoning, cultivating

prospects, etc.).
■ Significance of creating a network of bird dogs and friends in building prospects.
■ Value of maintaining contacts with past customers.
■ Need for integrity, within reasonable limits.
■ Use of moderate pressure, avoiding extremes in either direction.
■ Need for a thorough knowledge of the product.

Another
summary-
conclusion
brings section
to a close.

Text and
graphics work
closely together
to present the
information.

From the
summary-
conclusions of the
preceding three
sections the
recommendations
are derived.

Bulleting shows the
reader recommendations
are unordered and
equally weighted.

Clustered bar
chart is
appropriate
for presenting
information.

Figure 5. Product knowledge ratings of productive and marginal salespeople.

Excellent

Productive
salespeople
Marginal
salespeople
Number of salespeople

Inadequate

Fair

17
5

3
6

0
9

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 401

Figure 12–3
Continued
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fatt, James Poon Teng. “Criteria Used for Evaluating Sales Persons.” Management Research
News 23.1 (2000): 27–32.

Hatzivassilis, Alex, and Igor Kotlyar. “Increase the Number of Top Performers on Your Team.”
American Salesman 48.7 (2003): 17.

Jahn, Julie. “Big Business Encourages Effective Use of Bird Dogs throughout Their
Organizations.” BusinessWeek 22 April 2003. 22 Oct. 2007
.

Weitz, Barton, Stephen B. Castleberry, and John F. Tanner. Selling: Building Partnerships.
5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.

Zikmund, William G. Business Research Methods. 7th ed. Cincinnati, OH: South-Western,
2003.

Bibliography sources are
presented alphabetically
and completely. They
present last name first
and use the hanging
indent format.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

402 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

1. The prefatory section of the long, formal report consists of these conventional
parts:

• Title fl y—a page displaying only the title.

— As a checklist for constructing the title, use the 5 Ws (who, what, where,
when, why).

— Sometimes how is important.

• Title page—a page displaying the title, identifi cation of writer and recipient,
and date.

• Authorization message—included only when a message authorized the report.

• Transmittal message—a message transmitting the report (a foreword or preface
in very long and highly formal papers).

— This part takes the place of a face-to-face presentation.

— Begin it with a presentation of the report.

— Include comments about the report you would have made in a face-to-face
presentation.

— In some cases you may combine it with the executive summary.

— Write the message in personal style (fi rst and second person).

• Table of contents, list of illustrations—a listing of the report parts and
illustrations with page numbers.

• Executive summary—the report in miniature.

— Include, in proportion, everything that is important—all the major facts,
analyses, and conclusions.

— Write it in either direct or indirect order.

2. The report introduction prepares the readers to follow and interpret the report.

• Include whatever helps reach this goal.

• Use these items as a checklist for content: purpose, scope, limitations, problem
history, methodology, defi nitions, preview.

• A preview telling the order and reasoning for the order is useful in longer, more
involved reports.

3. Preparing the body of a long, formal report will require virtually all your
organizing, writing, and formatting skills.

4. The ending of the report achieves the report purpose.

• Use a summary if the purpose is to review information.

• Use a conclusion if the purpose is to reach an answer.

• Use a recommendation if the purpose is to determine a desirable action.

5. An appendix and/or bibliography can follow the report text.

• The appendix contains items that support the text but have no specifi c place in
the text (such as questionnaires, working papers, summary tables).

• The bibliography is a descriptive list of the secondary sources that were used in
the investigation.

6. The longer reports need various structural devices to give them coherence.

• These devices consist of a network of explanations, introductions, summaries,
and conclusions that guide the reader through the report.

• Begin the coherence plan with the introduction preview, which tells the
structure of the report.

• Then use the introductions and summaries in following parts to tell readers
where they are in this structure.

1Describe the roles and contents and construct
the prefatory parts of a
long, formal report.

2Organize each introduction of a long
report by considering
the likely readers and
selecting the appropriate
contents.

3Prepare the body of a long, formal report by
applying the advice in
Chapter 10 and in other
chapters.

4Determine, based on the report’s purpose,
the most effective
way to end a report: a
summary, a conclusion,
a recommendation, or a
combination of the three.

5Describe the role and content of the appendix
and bibliography of a
report.

SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVES

6Prepare a structural coherence plan for a
long, formal report.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

• At the end, bring together the preceding information, analyses, and conclusions
to reach the report goal.

• Make these coherence helpers inconspicuous—that is, make them appear to be
a natural part of the message.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N S

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 403

1 Long, formal reports are not often written in business.
So why should you know how to write them?

2 A good title should be complete and concise. Are not
these requirements contradictory? Explain.

3 Discuss the relative importance of the title fl y and the
title page in a report.

4 Distinguish among the transmittal message, the fore-
word, and the preface.

5 Describe the role and content of a transmittal message.
6 Why is personal style typically used in the transmittal

message?

7 What is the basis for determining whether a report
should have a table of contents?

8 Explain how to write the executive summary of a report.

9 Why does the executive summary include key facts
and fi gures in addition to the analyses and conclusions
drawn from them?

10 Some reports need little or no introduction; others need
a very long introduction. Why is this so?

11 Give examples of report problems whose introduction
could require coverage of methods of collecting data,
historical background, and limitations.

12 Explain how the advice in Chapter 10 can help you pre-
pare the body of a long report.

13 Give examples of report problems that would require,
respectively, (a) an ending summary, (b) an ending con-
clusion, and (c) an ending recommendation.

14 Using as a guide the diagram in Figure 12–2, summa-
rize the coherence plan of the long, formal report.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G E X E R C I S E S

1 Making any assumptions needed, construct complete yet
concise titles for the reports described below:

a. A report writer reviewed records of exit interviews
of employees at Marvel-Floyd Manufacturing Com-
pany who quit their jobs voluntarily. The objective
of the investigation was to determine the reasons for
leaving.

b. A researcher studied data from employee personnel
records at Magna-Tech, Inc., to determine whether
permanent (long-term) employees differ from short-
term employees. Any differences found would be used
in hiring employees in the future. The data studied in-
cluded age, education, experience, sex, marital status,
test scores, and such.

c. A report writer compared historical fi nancial records
(1935 to the present) of Super Saver Foods to deter-
mine whether this grocery chain should own or rent
store buildings. In the past it did both.

2 Criticize the following beginning sentences of transmittal
messages:

a. “In your hands is the report you requested January 7
concerning . . .”

b. “As you will recall, last January 7 you requested a
report on . . .”

c. “That we should open a new outlet in Bragg City is
the conclusion of this report, which you authorized
January 7.”

3 In a report comparing four automobiles (Alpha, Beta,
Gamma, and Delta) to determine which one is the best
buy for a company, section II of the report body covered
these cost data: (a) initial costs, (b) trade-in values, and
(c) operating expenses. Section III presented a compari-
son of these safety features of the automobiles: (a) stan-
dard safety features, (b) acceleration data, (c) weight dis-
tribution, and (d) braking quality.

a. Criticize this introductory paragraph at the beginning
of section III:

In the preceding section was presented a thorough
analysis of the cost data. Now safety of the cars
will be compared. Although costs are important,
Warren-Burke also is concerned about the safety of
its salespeople, who spend almost half their work
time driving.

b. Write a more appropriate introductory paragraph.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

404 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

4 The next section of the report (section IV) covered these
topics: (a) handling, (b) quality of ride, and (c) durability.

a. Criticize this introductory paragraph for the section:

This section of the report presents a comparison
of the overall construction of the four automobiles.
These considerations also are important because
they affect how a car rides, and this is important.
Thus, we will take up in this order: handling, general
riding quality, and construction qualities.

b. Write a more appropriate introductory paragraph.

5 Criticize this fi nal paragraph (a preview) of the introduc-
tion of the report described above:

This report compares the automobiles by three
factors. These are costs, safety, and comfort and
construction, in that order. Costs include initial ex-
penditure, trade-in value, and operating expense.
Safety covers safety devices, acceleration, weight
distribution, and braking. Comfort and construc-
tion includes handling, ride quality, and durability. A
ranking is derived from this comparison.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G P R O B L E M S

Long Report Problems

1 Selecting a university for a scholarship. In your role as
training offi cer for Galloway Manufacturing, Inc., a manu-
facturer of kitchenware, you have been asked by your presi-
dent to select a university to receive a scholarship. President
Blake W. Reddoch wants to establish the scholarship in the
hope that the recipient will consider signing on after gradua-
tion. But there would be no legal obligation to do so.
The scholarship will be in (accounting, mar-
keting, information systems, etc., as determined by your in-
structor). It will cover all expenses: tuition, fees, supplies,
incidentals, room, and board. It will be awarded to a begin-
ning student selected on the basis of academic ability. And it
will continue for four years as long as the student maintains
a minimum grade-point average of 3.0 and makes satisfac-
tory progress toward graduation.
Your role now is to fi nd the university that will receive this
scholarship. President Reddoch explains his instructions to
you in these words: “I want you to help me select the school
that will give us the very best training in this curriculum.

Find three leading schools in this general geographic area.
Review their curricula. Evaluate their offerings, their
facilities, their reputation, their standards, their students—
everything that will help us select the best one. Find out
what it costs to go there. This includes tuition, fees, living
cost estimates—all we need to know in determining
the amount to put in to the scholarship. But cost is not the
only consideration. Equally important is the quality of
the education obtained. You might help me if you ranked
the three schools. Of course, there is no guarantee I’ll follow
your rankings.”
You will get most of what you need on the websites of
the schools. But you may use other sources as well: opinions
of knowledgeable people, catalogs, brochures, and such.
When you have the information you need, you’ll study it,
make comparisons, and organize your fi ndings and analyses
in appropriate report form. You will address the report to
Mr. Reddoch. Probably he will want additional copies for
the other executives who will be in on the decision.

2 Determining what business will be like in the months
ahead. Nicole Garza, president of Bon Marche Department
Stores, Inc., has assigned you, her assistant, the task of writ-
ing a consensus business forecast for presentation at the next
board of directors meeting. Bon Marche does not have an
economist. “Why should we pay for one?” Ms. Garza rea-
sons. “We can’t afford such frills. We can get all we need
from current business periodicals, newspapers, and the
Internet.”
Since Ms. Garza’s instructions were—as usual—quite
vague, much of what you do will depend on your good judg-
ment. All she said was that she wanted you to survey the pre-

dictions of the leading economic forecasters for the months
ahead and to present your fi nding in a clear and meaning-
ful report to herself and the board. She wants the forecasts
consolidated—that is, she does not want a mere succes-
sion of individual forecasts. Your report, covering the entire
economy, will be largely general in nature. But you will give
special emphasis to forecasts pertaining to retailing.
Of course, your report will be in a form appropriate for
the board. Because the members will want to get at the
most important material quickly, be sure to include a fast-
moving executive summary. Address the report to the board.
Ms. Garza chairs the board.

3 Recommending a resort for Sterling Pharmaceutical’s
annual sales meeting. As assistant to Felix W. Baskin,
national sales manager for Sterling Pharmaceuticals, Inc.,

you have just concluded a meeting with your boss. He wants
you to help him select a resort for Sterling’s annual sales
meeting.

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Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 405

4 Evaluating the quality of life in a selected city. Cutting-
Edge Technology, Inc., is considering moving its headquar-
ters to (a city selected by your instructor). The
company has completed a study considering the economic
advantages of relocating, and this study was positive. But
before fi nally deciding, the company’s leaders want to know
more about the quality of life that they and their employees
could expect there. They have hired your research organiza-
tion to get the information they need.
Although quality of life is a very general term, you and
the company’s top executives have agreed that housing, edu-
cational institutions, recreational and cultural facilities, and
climate would be considered. You may think of other factors
as you get into the problem.
Your fi rst step is to gather the information available for
the factors involved. Some of it you can get from Internet

sources—the website of the Chamber of Commerce in par-
ticular. More may come from local libraries, the telephone
directory, travel brochures, and such. Some you may get by
personal observation and knowledge.
After you have gathered, assembled, and analyzed the
information you need, you will organize it for presentation
in a formal report. You will present the information and in-
terpret it objectively. In the end, you will arrive at a recom-
mendation on whether this city would offer a good quality
of life for the 227 employees and their families who would
move there.
Address the report to Geraldine Probst, the CEO of
Cutting-Edge Technologies, and to the members of her board
of directors. Give your report the formality expected at this
level of administration.

Mr. Baskin explained your assignment in these words: “As
you know, we hold our annual sales meeting at a resort—a
place where we can work and play a little. The meeting is
scheduled for fi ve days in late August. As you can imagine,
I have had many suggestions about where we should meet.
My three favorites are the Grand Hotel Marriott Resort and
Golf Club in Alabama, the PGA National Resort and Spa in
Florida, and the Horseshoe Bay Resort and Conference Cen-
ter in Texas. (Your instructor may choose to change these
selections.) I want you to investigate these three, evaluate
them, and recommend one of them.”
“I may not go along with your recommendation,” he
added, “so give me suffi cient information to permit me to
make my decision. Cost is important, but not the major fac-
tor. We will negotiate price after we have a fi nal selection.

But give me the prospects’ listed cost information, and make
it a part of your evaluation. As you know, we hold sales
meeting in the mornings. For this we’ll need a meeting room
that holds 56 people. The afternoons and evenings will be
fun times. We want to reward our people for their hard work
throughout the year. So they may do whatever they like after
lunch. I know we have a good number of golfers and some
tennis players. Some like swimming. Of course, they all like
to eat and party. If you can think of anything else to include,
do so. I want a thorough report. I am pretty sure you can get
what you need from their websites.”
After gathering the information available, you will evalu-
ate it, make comparisons, and reach a decision. Probably you
will rank the three. Of course, you will present all this to
Mr. Baskin in appropriate report form.

5 Evaluating three charities for a philanthropist. You are
the business manager for Elise M. Fahrendorf, a multimil-
lionaire, successful business leader, and philanthropist of the
fi rst order. Today she gave you a challenging assignment.
“As you know,” she explained to you, “I make substantial
contributions to what I think are worthy causes every year.
But I really don’t know whether my selections are the most
worthy ones. I want my money to go to the most deserving
groups. I want it to do the most good for the most people.
I hear horror stories about how some of them are run—
especially how high their administrative costs are. And I hear
reports that much of the money some charities raise goes to
the people who solicit it. So I want you to check out my three
favorites—the three that have received most of my money in
recent years. They are the Alzheimer’s Association, National

Multiple Sclerosis Society, and Memorial Sloan- Kettering
Cancer Center. (Your instructor may choose to change this
selection.) I want you to fi nd out what good they do, how
effi cient they are—and anything else that will help me
decide on whether to favor them. Your objective will be to
determine how deserving they are. When you have gathered
all this information, analyze it, compare, and conclude. You
might even rank these three. I might decide to give only to
one, give to all equally, or vary among them. I’ll do whatever
appears to be right.”
Now you must follow your boss’s instructions. You will
present the results of your work in a formal report (she likes
formality). As usual, you will include a fast-moving execu-
tive summary that will give her the answers right away.

6 Investigating the outlook for investments in an industry.
Assume you are employed in the Investments Research De-
partment of the Warneke Foundation, a philanthropic trust
with over $550 million of invested funds. You have been

assigned the task of determining the general outlook for in-
vestments in the industry. (Choose one from this
list or another with your instructor’s approval:)

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

406 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

8 Determining the best Internet source for buying .
Play the role of assistant to the purchasing manager for Sen-
tinel Insurance, Inc. In response to criticisms that the com-
pany’s current source of (offi ce supplies, furniture,
or such to be determined by your instructor) is not giving the
company the best deals, you have been asked to help correct
the situation. Specifi cally, you have been asked to “survey
the major outlets on the Internet, get their prices on the items
Sentinel buys as well as their return policies, and recom-
mend a source for us.” Currently, Sentinel gets its
from (to be determined by your instructor).
You will begin your effort by making a list of the items
Sentinel typically purchases. Use your best judgment here,
but certainly the list will include all those items common
to most offi ces. But since these items vary in quality and

style, select only items that are comparable to items carried
by most of the outlets. That is, you will want to be certain
that you are not comparing apples to oranges.
With your list completed, you will then search for these
items on the Internet. Then you will record the prices for the
items on your list. As you will see, there are many outlets,
but make certain that you fi nd at least two. Of course, in ad-
dition you will include Sentinel’s current supplier.
After you have gathered the information you need and
made comparisons, you will make your recommendation.
(Sentinel prefers to do business primarily with one supplier.)
Because the report will be read by various top management
people, you will dress it up with the trappings suitable for a
report of this nature. If they will help, you will use appropri-
ate graphics.

Aircraft Electronics (technology) Chemicals

Aluminum Steel Textiles

Shoes Pharmaceuticals Tobacco

Paper Food processing Automotive

Petroleum Publishing Clothing

Mining Utilities

Using the Internet as well as the leading business databases
and publications, you will review the past and present status
of the industry’s profi ts, sales, production, and the like. From
these reviews you will look for trends that will suggest the

industry’s future. Also, you will gather all facts and authori-
tative opinions relating to future growth. From all of this
you hope to be able to make a recommendation about invest-
ments in the industry in general.
Although your report will concern the industry rather
than a specifi c company (or companies), you are likely to
refer frequently to the major fi rms in the industry. And your
recommendation might point out the industry leaders. Write
your report in a form appropriate for the formality of this
situation. Submit it to Theodore M. McMichael, Chair, The
Investment Board, The Warneke Foundation.

7 Presenting the pros and cons of gun control to an arms
manufacturer. Assume the position of a research associate
employed by the Abraham-Doral Company, manufacturers
of a full line of rifl es, shotguns, and handguns. In recent years
advocates of gun control have exerted increasing pressure on
the company. Until now, the management of Abraham-Doral
has ignored them. But now it believes that their position must
be given due consideration. As a result, you were called into
a long executive staff meeting, in which President Samuel T.
Abraham’s fi nal words summarized your instructions.

“As you can see, we are disturbed. We think we should
know more about this matter. So we’re asking you to get for
us the principal arguments for and against gun control and
the supporting evidence for those arguments. This should
lead to recommendations concerning what our stand should
be, what messages we should communicate, what actions we
should take, and so on. Of course, we’re biased—guns are
our livelihood. But we want your report to look at this ques-
tion objectively. Please have your research in our hands for
the board meeting one month from today.”

9 Determining how prices at near-campus stores compare
with prices away from campus. As a member of your student
government, you have heard many complaints about the
high prices students must pay at stores in the campus area.
Many of the complaints you heard suggest that the local
stores are gouging students—that prices at stores off campus
are much lower. After long debate, the student government
members agreed that they needed specifi c information, and
they formed a special committee to study and report on the
question. You were chosen to serve as chairperson of this
committee.
Working with your committee members, you selected a
few campus stores and some comparable off-campus stores

(in a mall or shopping district some distance away). You
then worked out a student’s market basket—products fre-
quently bought by students. Next, you got prices for these
items at the two groups of stores. Of course, you ignored
special promotions and the like. (Your instructor may permit
you to collect this information in teams, but of course the
writing will be done individually.)
When you have gathered this information, you are ready
to give it meaning. You will carefully analyze it and organize
it for presentation. Then you will present it in the formal
report form you learned in your business communication
course. As the information is largely statistical, you will
present the major facts in graphic form. Your conclusion

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 407

10 Solving a problem on your campus. Certain problems
exist on most college campuses. At least, they exist in the
minds of many of the faculty, students, and staff. From the
following list of such problems, you (or your instructor) will
select one that needs attention on your campus.

Library operation

Campus security

Policies on sales
of tickets to athletic
events

Regulation of social
activities

Faculty–student
relations

Orientation program
for beginning students

Curriculum improvement

Increasing (or decreasing)
enrollments

Scholastic honesty

Campus crime

Cultural atmosphere on
campus

Class attendance
policies

Scholastic probation
policies

Parking, traffi c control

Grade infl ation

Student government

Emphasis on athletics

Campus beautifi cation

Fire prevention

Admission policies
(including diversifi cation
practices)

You will fi rst gather all the signifi cant facts regarding the
problem you select. When you are thoroughly acquainted
with them, you will gather authoritative opinions concern-
ing the solution.
Obtaining such information may involve looking through
bibliographic sources as well as the Internet to fi nd out what
has been done on other campuses. It may involve interview-
ing people on campus who are attempting to deal with the
problem. Next you will carefully analyze your problem in
light of all you have learned about it. Then you will develop
a solution.
To make the situation appear realistic, place yourself in
the proper role at your school to handle such a problem.
Then write your work in a report appropriate for the situa-
tion. Address it to the person or persons at your school who
would be likely to handle such matters.

will determine whether there is truth to the complaint that
campus stores have higher prices. You will not only address
the general question but also look into differences in the

major categories of items in your shopping basket. Address
the report to your student-body president.

TOPIC SUGGESTIONS FOR INTERMEDIATE-LENGTH AND LONG REPORTS

Following are suggestions for additional report problems
ranging from the simple to the highly complex. You can
convert them into realistic business problems by supplying
details and/or adapting them to real-life business situations.
For most of these problems, you can obtain the needed infor-
mation through secondary research. The topics are arranged
by business fi eld, although many of them cross fi elds.

Accounting

1 Report on current depreciation accounting practices,
and recommend depreciation accounting procedures
for Company X.

2 Design an inventory control system for X Company.
3 Report to Company X executives on how tax court

decisions handed down over the past six months will
affect their fi rm.

4 What security measures should Company X take re-
garding access to its accounting data online?

5 Advise the managers of X Company on the account-
ing problems that they can anticipate when the com-
pany begins overseas operations.

6 Analyze break-even analysis as a decision-making
tool for X Company.

7 Explain to potential investors which sections in
Company X’s most recent annual report they should
review most carefully.

8 Analyze the relative effects on income of the fi rst-in,
fi rst-out (FIFO) and last-in, fi rst-out (LIFO) methods
of inventory valuation during a prolonged period of
infl ation.

9 Write a report for the American Accounting Associa-
tion on the demand for accountants with computer
systems training.

10 Develop information for accounting students at your
college that will help them choose between careers in
public accounting and careers in private accounting.

11 Advise the management of X Company on the
validity of return on investment as a measure of
performance.

12 Report on operations research as a decision-making
tool for accountants and managers.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
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Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

408 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

13 Report to the management of X Company on trends in
the content and design of corporate annual reports.

14 Report to an association of accountants the status of
professional ethics in accounting.

15 Report to management of X Company on the com-
munication skills important to accounting.

16 Investigate the matching principle and its effects on
fi nancial statements for Company X.

17 Report to the board of directors at X on Company
whether the balance sheet fails to recognize impor-
tant intangible assets.

18 Explain the extent to which accounting refl ects the
intent of Company X’s business decisions.

19 Review for Company X whether disclosure could
be an effective substitute for recognition in fi nancial
statements.

20 Report to the management of Company X on whether
intangible assets have fi nite or infi nite lives.

21 Advise the founders of new Company X on income
tax considerations in the selection of a form of busi-
ness organization.

22 Review for Company X the pros and cons of current
methods of securities evaluation.

General Business

23 Evaluate the adequacy of current college programs
for developing business leadership.

24 Which business skills should schools and colleges
teach, and which should companies teach?

25 What should be the role of business leaders in devel-
oping courses and curricula for business schools?

26 Report on ways to build and use good teams in the
workplace.

27 Identify the criteria Company X should use in select-
ing a public relations fi rm.

28 Report on the advisability of including business in-
ternships in a business degree program.

29 Investigate the impact of electronic signatures on the
business community.

30 How does today’s business community regard the
master of business administration (MBA) degree?

31 Evaluate the contribution that campus business and
professional clubs make to business education.

32 How effective is online training in education for
business?

33 Should education for business be specialized, or should
it provide a generalized, well-rounded education?

34 Determine how to get and use permission for music
added to business presentations.

35 Determine which of three franchises (your instructor
will select) offer the best opportunity for investment.

36 Determine guidelines for avoiding sexual harassment
for Company X.

37 Determine cultural problems likely to be encountered
by employees going to work in _____ (a foreign
country).

38 Investigate the pros and cons of international busi-
ness majors studying abroad for one term.

39 Should Company X use the U.S. Postal Service or a pri-
vate courier (Federal Express, United Parcel Service)?

40 For an instructor, answer the question of whether IM
should be used as a class teaching tool.

41 Advise a client on whether to invest in a company
producing renewable energy (wind, solar, etc.).

Labor

42 For the executives of the National Association of
Manufacturers (or some such group), report on the
outlook for labor–management relations in the next
12 months.

43 For the offi cers of a major labor union, research and
report progress toward decreasing job discrimination
against minorities.

44 For X Union, project the effects that a particular
technology (you choose) will have on traditionally
unionized industries by the year 2012.

45 Advise the management of X Company on how to
deal with Y Union, which is attempting to organize
the employees of X Company.

46 Interpret the change in the number of union members
over the past years.

47 Report on the successes and failures of employee-run
businesses.

48 Report on the status and effects of “right to work”
laws.

49 Evaluate the effects of a particular strike (your
choice) on the union, the company, the stockholders,
and the public. Write the report for a government
investigating committee.

50 For Union X, prepare an objective report on union
leadership in the nation during the past decade.

51 Layoffs based on seniority are causing a dispro-
portionate reduction in the number of women and
minority workers at Company X. Investigate alterna-
tives that the company can present to the union.

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Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
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IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 409

52 Investigate recent trends relative to the older worker
and the stands that unions have taken in this area.

53 Review the appropriateness of unionizing govern-
ment workers, and recommend to a body of govern-
ment leaders the stand they should take on this issue.

54 Report on the role of unions (or management) in pol-
itics, and recommend a course for them to follow.

55 Reevaluate (unions or employment
relations—your instructor will specify) for the man-
agement of X Company.

56 Analyze the changing nature of work for the leaders
of union (your instructor will designate).

57 Report on the blending of work and family issues for
X Union.

Finance

58 As a fi nancial consultant, evaluate a specifi c form of
tax shelter for a client.

59 Review the customer-relations practices of banks
and recommend customer relations procedures for
Bank X.

60 Review current employee loan practices and recom-
mend whether Company X should make employee
loans.

61 Report on what Company X needs to know about
fi nancial matters in doing business with
(foreign country).

62 Give estate planning advice to a client with a unique
personal situation.

63 Advise X Company on whether it should lease capi-
tal equipment or buy it.

64 Advise Company X on whether it should engage in a
joint venture with a company overseas or establish a
wholly owned foreign subsidiary.

65 Compare the costs for X Company of offering its
workers child care or elder care benefi ts.

66 Should Company X accept national credit cards or
set up its own credit card system?

67 Advise Company X on how to avoid a hostile
takeover.

68 Which will be the better investment in the next three
years: stocks or bonds?

69 Advise Company X on whether it should list its stock
on a major stock exchange.

70 Advise Company X, which is having problems with
liquidity, on the pros and cons of factoring accounts
receivable.

71 Recommend the most feasible way to fi nance a start-
up restaurant.

Management

72 Develop for Company X a guide to ethics in its high-
ly competitive business situation.

73 After reviewing pertinent literature and experiences
of other companies, develop a plan for selecting and
training administrators for an overseas operation for
Company X.

74 Survey the current literature and advise Company X
on whether its management should become politi-
cally active.

75 After reviewing the pros and cons, advise X
Company on whether it should begin a pro-
gram of hiring individuals with disabilities or the
disadvantaged.

76 Report on the behavioral and psychological effects of
introducing wellness programs to Company X.

77 The executives of X Company (a manufacturer of
automobile and truck tires) want a report on recent
court decisions relating to warranties. Include any
recommendations that your report justifi es.

78 Report on the problems involved in moving Com-
pany X headquarters from (city) to

(city).

79 After reviewing current practices with regard to
worker participation in management, advise Compa-
ny X on whether it should permit such participation.

80 Should Company X outsource for (service)
or establish its own department?

81 Review the advantages and disadvantages of rotat-
ing executive jobs at Company X, and then make a
recommendation.

82 What should be Company X’s policy on offi ce
romances?

83 Develop an energy conservation or recycling plan for
X Company.

84 Evaluate the effectiveness of a portal for handling
internal communications for Company X.

85 Design a security system for preventing computer
espionage at Company X, a leader in the highly com-
petitive industry.

86 Evaluate the various methods for determining corpo-
rate performance and select the one most appropriate
for Company X.

87 Advise X Company on the procedures for incorpo-
rating in (state or province).

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

410 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

88 Report to Company X on the civil and criminal li-
abilities of its corporate executives.

89 Report on the quality awards being given to
businesses.

90 Determine how diversity enrichment is addressed at
Company X.

91 Determine for a legislative committee the extent
of minority recruiting, hiring, and training in the
industry.

92 As a consultant for an association of farmers, evalu-
ate the recent past and project the future of growing,
raising, or bioengineering (your choice—
cattle, poultry, wheat, soybeans, or the like).

93 Develop a plan for reducing employee turnover for
Company X.

94 Report to a labor union on recent evidence of sexual
harassment, and recommend steps that the union
should take to correct any problems you fi nd.

95 Investigate the feasibility of hiring older workers for
part-time work for Company X.

Personnel/Human Resource
Administration

96 Report on and interpret for Company X the effects
of recent court decisions on the testing and hiring of
employees.

97 Survey company retirement practices and recom-
mend retirement policies for Company X.

98 Report on practices in compensating key personnel in
overseas assignments and recommend for Company
X policies for the compensation of such personnel.

99 Report on what human resource executives look for
in application documents.

100 Report on the advantages and disadvantages of Com-
pany X’s providing on-site day care for children of
employees.

101 After reviewing the legal and ethical questions in-
volved, recommend whether Company X should use
integrity tests in employee hiring.

102 Review what other companies are doing about em-
ployees suffering from drug or alcohol abuse, and
recommend a policy on the matter for Company X.

103 Report on effective interviewing techniques used to
identify the best people to hire.

104 Investigate the impact of the Family Leave Act on
Company X.

105 Compare the pros and cons of alternative methods of
dispute resolution.

106 Report on ways Company X can link performance
improvement plans to discipline and pay.

107 Investigate the impact of the legal aspects of hu-
man resource management (EEO, ADA, wrongful
termination, harassment, family care and medical
leave, workplace violence—your instructor will se-
lect one or several) on Company X.

108 Analyze the impact of changing work priorities in a
culturally diverse workplace for Company X.

109 Report on recent issues in employee communication
for Company X.

Marketing

110 Review the available literature and advise Com-
pany X on whether it should franchise its
business.

111 Select a recent national marketing program and ana-
lyze why it succeeded or failed.

112 Advise the advertising vice president of Company
X on whether the company should respond to or ig-
nore a competitor’s direct attack on the quality of its
product.

113 Review the ethical considerations involved in adver-
tising to children and advise Company X on the
matter.

114 Determine for Company X the social and ethical as-
pects of pricing for the market.

115 Explore the possibilities of trade with
(a foreign country) for Company X.

116 Determine for a national department store chain
changing trends in the services that customers expect
when shopping online.

117 Prepare a report to help a contingent of your legisla-
ture decide whether current regulation of advertising
should be changed.

118 Determine the problems X Company will encounter
in introducing a new product to its line.

119 Report on the success of rebates as a sales stimula-
tor and advise Company X on whether it should use
rebates.

120 Should Company X buy or lease minivans for dis-
tributing its products?

121 Determine the trends in packaging in the
industry.

122 Should X Company establish its own sales force, use
manufacturer’s agents, or use selling agents?

123 How should Company X evaluate the performance
of its salespeople?

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 411

124 Determine for X Company how it can evaluate the
effectiveness of its (online, print, or radio) advertising.

125 Select the best channel of distribution for new product
Y and justify your choice.

126 Should X Company establish its own advertising de-
partment or use an advertising agency?

127 Conduct a market study of (city) to deter-
mine whether it is a suitable location for (a
type of business).

128 Report to X Company on drip marketing and rec-
ommend whether it should use drip marketing to in-
crease sales.

129 Investigate the factors to consider when marketing
online through the Internet to children.

130 Compare the effectiveness of three different types
of online advertising and recommend one for
Company X.

131 Determine whether any of the products of Company
X are good candidates for infomercials.

Computer Applications

132 Recommend a handheld computer for use by the
salespeople of Company X.

133 Advise Company X about the steps it can take to pro-
tect its computer fi les from internal sabotage.

134 Determine whether Company X should purchase or
lease its computer equipment.

135 Report to the president of Company X the copyright
and contract laws that apply to the use of computer
programs.

136 Investigate the possibility of using the majority of
offi ce applications from the Internet rather than con-
tinually purchasing and upgrad

ing programs.

137 Determine which positions Company X should des-
ignate as possible telecommuting candidates.

138 Report to the CIO on the impact of wireless technol-
ogy on Company X.

139 Report on the future developments of robotics in the
industry.

140 Review and rank for possible adoption three software
programs that Company X might use for its
work (name the fi eld of operations).

141 Determine for Company X the factors it should con-
sider in selecting computer insurance.

142 Compare three online programs for training your
employees on (name the software applica-
tion) and recommend one.

143 Report on the collaborative web-based meeting tools
used in businesses similar to Company X.

144 Explore the procedures and methods for measuring
information system effectiveness and productivity
for Company X.

145 Investigate how to improve information security and
control for Company X.

146 Identify and recommend web-based survey tools that
would be appropriate for Company X.

147 Should (a small company) use blogs as a
marketing tool?

Business Education

148 Evaluate the effect of remodeling your new offi ce
site using both ergonomic and feng shui principles.

149 Report on ways companies now use and plan to use
desktop meeting applications.

150 Analyze the possibility of instituting companywide
training on etiquette, covering everything from
handling telephone calls, to sexual harassment, to
dining out.

151 Advise management on the importance of the air
quality in its offi ces.

152 Investigate ways to complete and submit company
forms on the web or the company portal.

153 Evaluate the reprographic services and practices at
your school from an environmental perspective.

154 Report on ways to hire and keep the best employees
in the computer support center.

155 Report on ways to improve literacy in the workplace.
156 Report on the availability and quality of online train-

ing programs.

157 Report on ways to improve the communication of
cross-cultural work groups.

158 Analyze the possibility of using voice-recognition
software with the products available today.

159 Determine for Company X whether it should
replace the laptop computers of its sales reps with
tablet PCs.

160 Evaluate at least three data visualization programs
and recommend one for use at Company X.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
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IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing

13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies,

200

c h a p t e r t h i r t e e n

Graphic

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to use graphics
effectively in business reports. To reach this goal, you should be
able to

1 Plan which parts of your report should be communicated by
graphics.

2 Explain the general mechanics of constructing graphics—size,
layout, type, rules and borders, color and cross-hatching, clip art,
background, numbering, titles, title placement, and footnotes and
acknowledgments.

3 Construct textual graphics such as tables, pull quotes, fl owcharts,
and process charts.

4 Construct and use visual graphics such as bar charts, pie charts,
line charts, scatter diagrams, and maps.

5 Avoid common errors and ethical problems when constructing and
using graphics.

6 Place and interpret graphics effectively.

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Business Communication:
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IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing

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CHAPTER 13 Graphics 41

I N T R O D U C T O R Y S I T U A T I O N

Graphics
In your management job at Pinnacle, you proofread reports prepared by your co-workers. Because Pinnacle uses
chemicals in its products, many of the reports are highly technical and complex. Many others, especially those com-
ing from fi nance and sales, are fi lled with facts and fi gures. In your judgment, most of the reports you have proofread
are hard to understand.
The one you are looking at now is packed with page after page of sales statistics. Your mind quickly gets lost in
the mass of details. Why didn’t the writer take the time to summarize the more important fi gures in a chart? And why
didn’t the writer put some of the details in tables? Many of the other reports you have been reading, especially the
technical ones, are in equal need of graphics. Bar charts, pie charts, and maps would certainly help explain some of
the concepts discussed. If only report writers would understand that words alone sometimes cannot communicate
clearly—that words sometimes need to be supplemented with visual communication techniques. If the writers of
your reports studied the following review of graphics, your job would be easier and more enjoyable. So would the
jobs of the readers of those reports.

In many of your reports you will need to use graphics to help convey information
quickly and accurately. Graphics both grab attention and are retained longer. By graph-
ics we mean any form of illustration: charts, pictures, diagrams, maps. Although tables
and bulleted lists are predominantly text, their format permits us to include them here.
Also, most computer presentation programs include these formats.

PLANNING THE GRAPHICS
You should plan the graphics for a report soon after you organize your fi ndings. Your
planning of graphics should be based on the need to communicate. Graphics serve one
main purpose—to communicate—and you should use them primarily for that purpose.
Graphics can clarify complex or diffi cult information, emphasize facts, add coherence,
summarize data, and provide interest. Additionally, today’s data mining and visualiza-
tion tools help writers fi lter the vast amount of data that are gathered and stored regu-
larly. Of course, well-constructed graphics also enhance the appearance of a report.
In selecting graphics, you should review the information that your report will con-
tain, looking for any possibility of improving communication of the report through
the use of graphics. Specifi cally, you should look for complex information that visual
presentation can make clear, for information too detailed to be covered in words, and
for information that deserves special emphasis.
Of course, you will want to plan with your reader in mind. You will choose graph-
ics appropriate to both the content and context where they are presented. The time and
money you spend on gathering information or creating a graphic should be balanced in
terms of the importance of the message you want to convey. Thus, you construct graph-
ics to help the reader understand the report more quickly, easily, and completely.
As you plan the graphics, remember that unlike info graphics that stand alone, report
graphics should supplement the writing or speaking—not take its place. They should
help the wording by covering the more diffi cult parts, emphasizing the important points,
and presenting details. But the words should carry the main message—all of it.

DETERMINING THE GENERAL MECHANICS
OF CONSTRUCTION
In constructing graphics, you will be concerned with various mechanical matters. The
most common are summarized in the following paragraphs.

• A graphic is any form of
illustration.

• You should plan the use
of graphics as you plan
your report.

• In planning their use,
look for information
that they can help
communicate.

• Plan graphics with your
reader in mind.

• But remember that
graphics supplement and
do not replace the writing

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IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
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414 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Size Determination
One of the fi rst decisions you must make in constructing a graphic is determining
its size. This decision should not be arbitrary, and it should not be based on conve-
nience. You should give the graphic the size that its contents and importance justify. If
a graphic is simple (with only two or three quantities), a quarter page might be more
than enough and a full page would be too much unless its importance needed empha-
sis. But if a graphic must display complex or detailed information, a full page might
be justifi ed.
With extremely complex, involved information, you may need to use more than a
full page. When you do, make certain that this large page is inserted and folded so that
the readers can open it easily. The fold you select will be determined by the size of the
page. You simply have to experiment until you fi nd a convenient fold.

Layout Arrangement
You should determine the layout (shape) of the graphic by size and content require-
ments. Sometimes a tall, narrow rectangle (portrait) is the answer; sometimes the
answer is a short, wide rectangle or a full-page rectangle (landscape). You simply
consider the logical possibilities and select the one that appears best.

Type
Type used in graphics throughout a report is generally consistent in both style and
font. Style refers to the look of the type such as bold or italics; font refers to the look
of the letters such as with or without feet (serif or sans serif). Occasionally you may
want to vary the type, but do so by design for some special reason. Be aware that even
the design of the font you choose will convey a message, a message that should work
with the text content and design. If your reader will be viewing the document on screen
in Word 2007 or on a Vista computer with ClearType, be sure to use one of the fonts
optimized for use with ClearType such as Cambria or Calibri. They were designed to
render well on the screen, and Microsoft’s research has confi rmed that they enable
people to read faster and more accurately, leading to a 7 percent average increase in
productivity.1

Size is another variable to watch. The size you choose should look appropriate in
the context in which it is used. Your top priority in choosing type style, font, and size
should be readability.

Rules and Borders
You should use rules and borders when they help the appearance of the graphic.
Rules help distinguish one section or graphic from another, while borders help sepa-
rate graphics from the text. In general, you should place borders around graphics that

1 Bill Hill, Microsoft Project Manager, video interview, 29 May 2006 .

• Make each graphic the
size that its contents
justify.

• Graphics larger than
a page are justifi ed if
they contain enough
information.

• Size and contents
determine the shape of
graphics.

• Choose a type to help
convey the message
clearly.

• Choose a type size that
is readable.

• Use rules and borders
when they help
appearance.

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Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 13 Graphics 4

occupy less than a full page. You also can place borders around full-page graphics,
but such borders serve little practical value. Except in cases in which graphics simply
will not fi t into the normal page layout, you should not extend the borders of graphics
beyond the normal page margins.

Color and Cross-Hatching
Color and cross-hatching, appropriately used, help readers see comparisons and dis-
tinctions (see Figure 13–1). In fact, research has found that color in graphics improves
the comprehension, retention, and ease of extracting information. Also, both color and
cross-hatching add to the attractiveness of the report. Because color is especially effec-
tive for this purpose, you should use it whenever practical and appropriate.

Clip Art
Today you can get good-looking clip art easily—so easily in fact that some writers
often overuse it. Although clip art can add interest and bring the reader into a graphic
effectively, it also can overpower and distract the reader. The general rule is to keep
in mind the purpose your clip art is serving: to help the reader understand the content.
It should be appropriate in both its nature and size. It also should be appropriate in its
representation of gender, race, and age. Also, if it is copyrighted, you need permission
to use it.

Background
Background colors, photos, and art for your graphics should be chosen carefully. The
color should provide high contrast with the data and not distract from the main mes-
sage. Photos, especially faded photos, that are well chosen can add interest and draw
the reader in. However, photos as well as other art can send other messages and evoke
emotions not appropriate or desirable for the message the graphic conveys. Addition-
ally, when graphics are used cross-culturally, you will want to be sure the message
your background sends is the one you intended by testing or reviewing it with the
intended receivers.

Numbering
Except for minor tabular displays, pull quotes, and clip art, you should number all the
graphics in the report. Many schemes of numbering are available to you, depending on
the make-up of the graphics.
If you have many graphics that fall into two or more categories, you may number
each of the categories consecutively. For example, if your report is illustrated by six
tables, fi ve charts, and six maps, you may number these graphics Table I, Table II, . . .
Table VI; Chart 1, Chart 2, . . . Chart 5; and Map 1, Map 2, . . . Map 6.
But if your graphics comprise a wide mixture of types, you may number them in two
groups: tables and fi gures. Figures, a miscellaneous grouping, may include all types
other than tables. To illustrate, consider a report containing three tables, two maps, three

Figure 13–1

Color versus Cross-
hatched Pie

• Color and cross-hatching
can improve graphics.

• Use clip art to help your
reader understand your
message.

• Background color,
photos, and art should
enhance the message of
the graphic.

• Number graphics
consecutively by type.

• Figures are a
miscellaneous grouping
of types. Number tables
separately.

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Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

416 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

charts, one diagram, and one photograph. You could number these graphics Table I,
Table II, and Table III and Figure 1, Figure 2, . . . Figure 7. By convention, tables are not
grouped with other types of graphics. But it would not be wrong to group and number
as fi gures all graphics other than tables even if the group contained suffi cient subgroups
(charts, maps, and the like) to permit separate numbering of each of them.

Construction of Titles and Captio

Every graphic should have a title or caption that adequately describes its contents. A
title is used with graphics displayed in oral presentations; a caption is used with graph-
ics included in print documents. Like the headings used in other parts of the report,
the title or caption of the graphic has the objective of concisely covering the contents.
As a check of content coverage, you might well use the journalist’s fi ve Ws: who,
what, where, when, and why, and sometimes you also might use how. But because
conciseness also is desired, it is not always necessary to include all the Ws in the title.
The title or caption of a chart comparing the annual sales volume of the Texas and
California territories of the Dell Company for the years 2006–07 might be constructed
as follows:

Who: Dell Company
What: Annual sales
Where: Texas and California branches
When: 2006–07
Why: For comparison

The title or caption might read, “Comparative Annual Sales of Texas and California
Territories of the Dell Company, 2006–07.” For even more conciseness, you could use
a major title and subtitle. The major title might read, “A Texas and California Sales
Comparison”; the subtitle might read, “Dell Company 2006–07.” Similarly, the caption
might read “A Texas and California Sales Comparison: Dell Company 2006–2007.”
An alternative to this kind of topic heading is a talking heading. As you learned in
Chapter 10, the talking heading tells the reader the nature of what is to follow. The same
holds true for a graphic. In this case a talking heading might read, “Texas Leads California
in Total Annual Sales for 2006.” In a sense, it gives the reader the main message of the
graphic. You’ll see another example of a talking heading in Figure 13–8, Illustration of a
Bi-lateral Column Chart, which reads, “NASCAR Leads in Fan Base Growth.”

Placement of Titles and Captions
In documents, titles of tables conventionally appear above the tabular display; captions
of all other types of graphics conventionally appear below it. In presentations, titles

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Clear Evidence of the Value of Accurate Charts

“To what do you attribute your company’s success?” asked the interviewer.
“A line chart,” replied the executive. “In the early years of our company, we had some real problems. Productivity was
low, and we were losing money. So to impress our problem on our workers, I had a line chart painted on the wall of our
main building. Every day, when the workers arrived, they saw our profi t picture. Well, the profi t line kept going down. It went
from the third fl oor, to the second, to the fi rst, to ground level. Then we had to bring in digging equipment to keep the line
going. But keep it going we did—until the line dramatically reversed direction.”
“The workers fi nally got the message?” asked the interviewer.
“No,” replied the executive, “the digger struck oil.”

• The titles should
describe content clearly
(consider the fi ve Ws:
who, what, where, when,
why ).

• The conventional
placement of titles is at
the top for tables and at
the bottom for charts. But
many place all titles at
the top.

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Business Communication:
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Digital World, 11th Edition
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Writing
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Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 13 Graphics 417

of both tables and other charts and illustrations are usually placed above the graphic.
There has been a trend toward using title case type for all illustration titles and plac-
ing the titles of both tables and fi gures at the top. In fact, most presentation programs
default to the top. These practices are simple and logical; yet you should follow the
conventional practices for the more formal reports.

Footnotes and Acknowledgments
Parts of a graphic sometimes require special explanation or elaboration. When this
happens, as when similar situations arise in connection with the text of the report,
you should use footnotes. Such footnotes are concise explanations placed below the
illustration and keyed to the part explained by means of a superscript (raised) number
or symbol (asterisk, dagger, double dagger, and so on). Footnotes for tables are best
placed immediately below the graphic presentation. Footnotes for other graphic
forms follow the illustration when the title or caption is placed at the bottom of the
graphic.
Usually, a source acknowledgment is the bottom entry made in the graphic context.
By source acknowledgment we mean a reference to the body or authority that deserves
the credit for gathering the data used in the illustration. The entry consists simply of
the word Source followed by a colon and the source name. A source note for data based
on information gathered by the U.S. Department of Commerce might read like this:

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce

If you or your staff collected the data, you may either omit the source note or give
the source as “Primary,” in which case the note would read like this:

Source: Primary

CONSTRUCTING TEXTUAL GRAPHICS
Graphics for communicating report information fall into two general categories: those
that communicate primarily by their textual content (words and numerals) and those
that communicate primarily by some form of picture. Included in the textual group are
tables, pull quotes, and a variety of fl ow and process charts (Gantt, fl ow, organization,
and such).

Tables
A table is an orderly arrangement of information in rows and columns. As we have
noted, tables are not truly graphic (not really pictures). But they communicate like
graphics, and they have many of the characteristics of graphics.
Two basic types of tables are available to you: the general-purpose table and the
special-purpose table. General-purpose tables cover a broad area of information. For
example, a table reviewing the answers to all the questions in a survey is a general-
purpose table. Such tables usually belong in the appendix.
Special-purpose tables are prepared for one special purpose: to illustrate a particular
part of the report. They contain information that could be included with related infor-
mation in a general-purpose table. For example, a table presenting the answer to one
of the questions in a survey is a special-purpose table. Such tables belong in the report
text near the discussion of their contents.
Aside from the title, footnotes, and source designation previously discussed, a table
contains heads, columns, and rows of data, as shown in Figure 13–2. Row heads are
the titles of the rows of data, and spanner heads are the titles of the columns. The span-
ner heads, however, may be divided into column heads, as they are often called.
The construction of text tables is largely infl uenced by their purpose. Nevertheless,
a few general construction rules may be listed:

• If rows are long, the row heads may be repeated at the right.

• Use footnotes to explain
or elaborate.

• Acknowledge the source
of data with note below.

• “Source: Primary” is the
proper note for data you
gathered.

• Graphics fall into two
general categories:
(1) textual (words and
numerals) and (2) visual
(pictures).

• A table is an orderly
arrangement of
information.

• You may use general-
purpose tables (those
containing broad
information),

• or you may use special-
purpose tables (those
covering a specifi c area
of information).

• See Figure 13–2
for details of table
arrangement.

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418 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

• The em dash (—) or the abbreviation n.a. (or N.A. or NA), but not the zero, is used
to indicate data not available.

• Footnote references to numbers in the table should be keyed with asterisks,
daggers, double daggers, and such. Numbers followed by footnote reference
numbers may cause confusion. Small letters of the alphabet can be used when
many references are made.

• Totals and subtotals should appear whenever they help the purpose of the table.
The totals may be for each column and sometimes for each row. Row totals are
usually placed at the right; but when they need emphasis, they may be placed
at the left. Likewise, column totals are generally placed at the bottom of the
column, but they may be placed at the top when the writer wants to emphasize
them. A ruled line (usually a double one) separates the totals from their
components.

• The units in which the data are recorded must be clear. Unit descriptions (bushels,
acres, pounds, and the like) appropriately appear above the columns, as part of
the headings or subheadings. If the data are in dollars, however, placing the dollar
mark ($) before the fi rst entry in each column is suffi cient.

Tabular information need not always be presented in formal tables. In fact, short
arrangements of data may be presented more effectively as parts of the text. Such ar-
rangements are generally made as either leaderwork or text tabulations.

Leaderwork is the presentation of tabular material in the text without titles or rules.
(Leaders are the repeated dots with intervening spaces.) Typically, a colon precedes
the tabulation, as in this illustration:

The August sales of the representatives in the Western Region were as follows:

Charles B. Brown . . . . . . . . . . $33,517
Thelma Capp . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,703
Bill E. Knauth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,198

Text tabulations are simple tables, usually with column heads and some rules. But
they are not numbered, and they have no titles. They are made to read with the text, as
in this example:

In August the sales of the representatives in the Western Region increased sharply
from those for the preceding month, as these fi gures show:

Representative
July

Sales
August
Sales Increase

Charles B. Brown $32,819 $33,517 $ 698

Thelma Capp 37,225 39,703 2,478

Bill E. Knauth 36,838 38,198 1,36

Table I—Worldwide Music Industry Revenues
2005–2010 (millions)

*Some data for 2005 taken from 10K and 10Q filings
SOURCE: eMarketer May

200

ProjectedActual

$34,058

$11,9

$7,748

2009

$33,227

$9,968

$6,479

2008

$32,576

$6,5

$3,909

2007

$31,937

$4,152

$2,076

2005*

$31,0

$1,085

$43

2006

$31,465

$2,832

$1,274

Total music revenues

Total digital music revenues

Mobile music revenues

Table number and title

Spanner heads

Column heads

Row heads

Footnote
Source
acknowledgment

• Tabular information also
can be presented as (1)
leaderwork (as illustrated
here), or

• (2) text tabulations (as
illustrated here).

Figure 13–2 Good Arrangement of the Parts of a Typical Table

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 13 Graphics 419

Pull Quotes
The pull quote is a textual visual that is often overlooked yet extremely useful in em-
phasizing key points. It is also useful when the text or content of the report does not
lend itself naturally or easily to other graphics. By selecting a key sentence, copying it
to a text box, enlarging it, and perhaps even enhancing it with a new font, style, or col-
or, a writer can break up the visual boredom of a full page or screen of text. Drawing
software lets users easily wrap text around shapes as well as along curves and irregular
lines. Figure 13–3 shows an example that is simple yet effective in both drawing the
reader’s attention to a key point and adding visual interest to a page.

Bullet Lists
Bullet lists are listings of points arranged with bullets (•) to set them off. These lists
can have a title that covers all the points, or they can appear without titles, as they ap-
pear at various places in this book. When you use this arrangement, make the points
grammatically parallel. If the points have subparts, use sub-bullets for them. Make the
sub-bullets different by color, size, shape, or weight. Darts, check marks, squares, or
triangles can be used for the secondary bullets.

Flowcharts and Process Charts
If you have studied business management, you know that administrators use a variety
of specialized charts in their work. Often these charts are a part of the information
presented in reports. Perhaps the most common of these is the organization chart (see
Figure 13–4). These charts show hierarchy of positions, divisions, departments, and
such in an organization. Gantt charts are graphic presentations that show planning and

• Pull quotes emphasize
key concepts.

• Bullet lists show points
set off by a bullet symbol.

Figure 13–3

Illustration of a Pull
Quote

SOURCE: Harvard Business Review Dec. 2005: 90.

• Various specialized
management charts are
useful in reports—for
example, organization
charts, Gantt charts, and
fl owcharts.

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Business Communication:
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Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

420 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

Rosemary Lenaghan
Stephen Acord
Lydia Liedman

Mary Sanchez
Megan O’Conner
Paul Wong

Marie Murphy
Eulalia Gomez

Terrance Lenaghan
Matthew Gregory
Kathleen Meersman
Cecelia Kubicek
Troy Payton

Zeke Smith
Emma York
Marina Munson
Janet Wingler

Carolynn Workman
Controller

Jane Adami
VP. R&D

Robert Edwards
VP. Marketing

Chris VanLerBerghe
Executive Assistant

Diana Chan
President

Chart 4
Organization Chart for the U.S. Corporate Office of Thankyoutoo.com, 2007

Carol Acord
VP. PR

Owen Smith
VP. MIS

Figure 13–4 Illustration of an Organization

Chart

Figure 13–5 Illustration of a Flowchart

Search with
Google

Follow link to

source

Revise search
strategy

Evaluate
credibility of

source

Potential
sources?

Useful
source?

Yes

Yes
No
No
Yes
Potential
sources?

Add to Unique
Favorites folder

End search

Enough
sources?

Go to
other

resources

Select topic

Figure 5
The Process of Searching with Google

No
Yes

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Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 13 Graphics 4

scheduling activities. As the word implies, a fl owchart (see Figure 13–5) shows the
sequence of activities in a process. Traditionally, fl owcharts use specifi c designs and
symbols to show process variations. A variation of the organization and fl owchart is
the decision tree. This chart helps one follow a path to an appropriate decision. You can
easily construct these charts with presentation and drawing software.

CONSTRUCTING VISUAL GRAPHICS
The truly visual types of graphics include a variety of forms: charts and illustrations.
Charts are graphics built with raw data and include bar, pie, and line charts and all their
variations and combinations. Illustrations includes maps, diagrams, drawings, photos,
cartoons, and such.

Bar and Column Charts
Simple bar and column charts compare differences in quantities by differences in the
lengths of the bars representing those quantities. You should use them primarily to
show comparisons of quantity changes at a moment in time.
As shown in Figure 13–6, the main parts of the bar chart are the bars and the grid
(the fi eld on which the bars are placed). The bars, which may be arranged horizontally
or vertically (also called a column chart), should be of equal width. You should identify
each bar or column, usually with a caption at the left or bottom. The grid (fi eld) on
which the bars are placed is usually needed to show the magnitudes of the bars, and the
units (dollars, pounds, miles, and such) are identifi ed by the scale caption below.
When you need to compare quantities of two or three different values in one chart,
you can use a clustered (or multiple) bar chart. Cross-hatching, colors, or the like on
the bars distinguish the different kinds of information (see Figure 13–7). Somewhere
within the chart, a legend (explanation) gives a key to the differences in the bars.
Because clustered bar charts can become cluttered, usually you should limit compari-
sons to three to fi ve kinds of information in one of them.
When you need to show plus and minus differences, you can use bilateral column
charts. The columns of these charts begin at a central point of reference and may go
either up or down, as illustrated in Figure 13–8. Bar titles appear either within, above,
or below the bars, depending on which placement fi ts best. Bilateral column charts are
especially good for showing percentage changes, but you may use them for any series
in which plus and minus quantities are present.

• Visual graphics include
data-generated charts,
photographs, and
artwork.

• Simple bar and column
charts compare
differences in quantities
by varying bar lengths.

• Clustered bar charts
are useful in comparing
two or three kinds of
quantities.

• When you need to
show plus and minus
differences, bilateral
column charts are useful.

$2
0,0

Professional degrees

Doctorate degree

Master’s degree

Bachelor’s degree

Associate’s degree

Some college, no degree

Ed
uc

at
io

na
l L

ev
el

Average Annual Earnings
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, Annual Demographic Survey, 2005.

High school graduate

9th to 12th grade

Less than 9th grade

$4
0,0

$6
0,0

$1
00

,00
0

$1
20

,00
0

$8
0,0

,00
0

Chart 6
Educational Attainment and Annual Earnings

$115,292

$93,096

$67,361

$53,581

$37,4

$35,970

$30,640

$20,082

$22,232

Figure 13–6

Illustration of a Bar Chart

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Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

422 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

If you need to compare subdivisions of columns, you can use a stacked (subdivided)
column chart. As shown in Figure 13–9, such a chart divides each column into its
parts. It distinguishes these parts by color, cross-hatching, or the like; and it explains
these differences in a legend. Subdivided columns may be diffi cult for your reader to
interpret since both the beginning and ending points need to be found. Then the reader
has to subtract to fi nd the size of the column component. Clustered column charts or
pie charts do not introduce this possibility for error.
Another feature that can lead to reader error in interpreting bar and column chart
data is the use of three dimensions when only two variables are being compared.
One study evaluated the speed and accuracy of readers’ interpretation of two-
dimensional columns on two-dimensional axes with three-dimensional columns on
two- dimensional axes and three-dimensional columns on three-dimensional axes.
The results showed that readers were able to extract information from the column
chart fastest and most accurately when it was presented in the simple two- dimensional

0% 10%

Percenta

20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

Chart 7
Where Students Shop for Back-to-School Items

Fall 2005

Discount store

Department store

College bookstore

Office supply store

Online

Specialty store

Home store

Drug store

Juniors
Seniors
Graduate students

Sophomores
Freshmen

SOURCE: National Retail Federation.

Figure 13–7

Illustration of a Clustered
Bar Chart

SOURCE: Fortune 5 Sep. 2005: 56.

Chart 8
NASCAR Leads in Fan Base Growth

Percentage change, 1997–2004

Pe
rc

en
ta

20
15
10
5
0

–5

–10

–20

–15

24.6

NASCARNHLNBAMLBNFL

–1.6 –1.3

–13.9
–10.2

Figure 13–8

Illustration of a Bilateral
Column Chart

• To compare subdivisions
of columns, use a
stacked bar chart.

• Two-dimensional
columns on two-
dimensional axes are
easiest for readers to
use.

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CHAPTER 13 Graphics 4

column on the two-dimensional axis.2 Therefore, unless more than two variables are
used, choosing the two-dimensional presentation over the three-dimensional form is
usually better.
A special form of stacked (subdivided) column chart is used to compare the
subdivisions of percentages. In this form, all the bars are equal in length, for each
represents 100 percent. Only the subdivisions within the bars vary. The objective
of this form is to compare differences in how wholes are divided. The component
parts may be labeled, as shown in Figure 13–10, but they also may be explained in
a legend.

• You also can use such
a chart for comparing
subdivisions of
percentages.

Sp
en

di
ng

Freshmen
$0

200

400

600

800

$1,000

$1,200

$1,400

$1,600

$1,800

Sophomores Juniors Seniors Graduate
students

Supplies

Shoes

Clothing

Textbooks

Dorm furnishings

Electronics

Chart 9
Back to College Spending by Students

Fall 2005
SOURCE: National Retail Federation.

Classification

Figure 13–9

Illustration of a Stacked
Column Chart

Figure 13–10

Illustration of a 100
Percent Stacked Column
Chart

1999
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

2000 2001 2002 2003 20052004

Chart 10
Software Reliability: Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures

SOURCE: Communications of the ACM June 2006: 58.

Year

Logic flaws

Data reference failures

Interface failures

Input/output errors

OS Interface flaws

2 Theophilus B. A. Addo, “The Effects of Dimensionality in Computer Graphics,” Journal of Business Communication
31 (1994): 253.

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Figure 13–

Illustration of a Pictograph

0
5
20
25
30

France
Country

Av
er

ag
e

Nu
m

be
r o

fD
ay

Chart 11
Vacation Days Allotted per Year to Working Adults

in Select Countries Worldwide, 2006

Germany UK Canada Australia US

10
15
SOURCE: Communications of the ACM June 2006: 58.

Pictographs
A pictograph is a bar or column chart that uses bars made of pictures. The pictures are
typically drawings of the items being compared. For example, the number of vacation
days in selected countries, instead of being shown by ordinary bars (formed by straight
lines), could be shown by bar drawings of harmrmocks. This type of column chart is a
pictograph (see Figure 13–11).
In constructing a pictograph, you should follow the procedures you used in con-
structing bar and column charts and two special rules. First, you must make all the pic-
ture units equal in size. That is, you must base the comparisons wholly on the number
of picture units used and never on variation in the areas of the units. The reason for
this rule is obvious. The human eye is grossly inadequate when comparing geometric
designs that vary in more than one dimension. Second, you should select pictures or
symbols that fi t the information to be illustrated. In comparing the cruise lines of the
world, for example, you might use ships. In comparing computers used in the world’s
major countries, you might use computers. The meaning of the drawings you use must
be immediately clear to the readers.

Pie Charts
The most frequently used chart in comparing the subdivisions of wholes is the pie chart
(see Figure 13–12). As the name implies, pie charts show the whole of the information
being studied as a pie (circle), and the parts of this whole as slices of the pie. The slices
may be distinguished by labeling and color or cross-hatching. A single slice can be
emphasized by exploding—pulling out—a piece. Because it is hard to judge the values
of the slices with the naked eye, it is good to include the percentage values within or
near each slice. Also, placing a label near each slice makes it quicker for the reader
to understand the items being compared than using a legend to identify components.
A good rule to follow is to begin slicing the pie at the 12 o’clock position and then to
move around clockwise. It is also good to arrange the slices in descending order from
largest to smallest.

Line Charts
Line charts are useful in showing changes of information over time. For example,
changes in prices, sales totals, employment, or production over a period of years can
be shown well in a line chart.

• Pictographs are bar or
column charts made with
pictures.

• Pie charts show
subdivisions of a whole.

• In constructing
pictographs, follow the
procedure for making bar
and column charts, plus
two special rules.

• Line charts show
changes over time.

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CHAPTER 13 Graphics 425

In constructing a line chart, you draw the information to be illustrated as a continu-
ous line on a grid. The grid is the area in which the line is displayed. It is scaled to show
time changes from left to right across the chart (X-axis) and quantity changes from
bottom to top (Y-axis). You should mark clearly the scale values and the time periods.
They should be in equal increments.
You also may compare two or more series on the same line chart (see Figure 13–13).
In such a comparison, you should clearly distinguish the lines by color or form (dots,
dashes, dots and dashes, and the like). You should clearly label them on the chart or by
a legend somewhere in the chart. But the number of series that you may compare on
one line chart is limited. As a practical guide, the maximum number is fi ve to eight.
It is also possible to show parts of a series by use of an area chart. Such a chart,
however, can show only one series. You should construct this type of chart, as shown
in Figure 13–14, with a top line representing the total of the series. Then, starting from
the base, you should cumulate the parts, beginning with the largest and ending with the
smallest. You may use cross-hatching or coloring to distinguish the parts.
Line charts that show a range of data for particular times are called variance or hi-lo
charts. Some variance charts show high and low points as well as the mean, median,
or mode. When used to chart daily stock prices, they typically include closing price in
addition to the high and low. When you use points other than high and low, be sure to
make it clear what these points are.

Ho
ur

s
pe

r p
er

so
n

SOURCE: Fortune 4 September 2003: 135.

1997 2003

2005 2007

100

150

200

250

300

1999 2001
Year

Chart

Time Spent Annually on Various Media

Consumer internet
Newspapers
Music

Videogames
Magazines

Books
Home video
Box office

Projected

Figure 13–13

Illustration of a Line Chart

Natural emissions,

33.30%

Man-made emissions,
33.30%

Natural recycling of
existing deposits1,

33.30%

Chart 12
Mercury Rising:

Contributions to Global Mercury Emissions

1From natural and man-made sources recycled by winds and ocean currents.
SOURCE: U.N. Environment Programme Global Mercury Assessment; Environmental Protection Agency.

Figure 13–12

Illustration of a Pie Chart

• The line appears on a
grid (a scaled area) and
is continuous.

• Two or more lines may
appear on one chart.

• Area charts show the
makeup of a series.

• Variance charts show
high and low points—
sometimes more.

Footnote: The Wall Street Journal, 20 April 2006: A10.

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Ball in orange: $33 and above
Balls in blue: $25 and below

Chart 15
Golf Ball Characteristics with Price

Soft cover/
firm core

10. Maxfli Noodle ($20)
11. Maxfli Revolution ($33)
12. Maxfli XS Tour ($18)
13. Nike Power Dist. Feel-Speed ($16)
14. Nike Power Dist. Ti Velocity ($16)
15. Nike Tour Accuracy ($40)
16. Nike Tour Accuracy DD ($40)
17. Nike Tour Accuracy TW ($40)
18. Pinnacle Gold Distance ($13)
19. Pinnacle Gold Distance Lady ($11)
20. Pinnacle Power Core Dist. ($15)

21. Pinnacle Power Core Feel ($15)
22. Precept Extra Distance ($24)
23. Precept Laddie ($21)
24. Precept MC Lady ($20)
25. Precept Tour Premium LS ($35)
26. Slazenger Black Label ($39)
27. Srixon Hi-Brid Tour ($36)
28. Strata Tour Professional ($24)
29. Strata Tour Ultimate ($38)
30. Strata Tour Ultimate 2 ($37)
31. Titleist NXT Distance ($25)

32. Titleist NXT Tour ($25)
33. Titleist Pro V1 ($45)
34. Titleist Professional ($38)
35. Top-Flite XL 3000 Super Feel ($18)
36. Top-Flite XL 3000 Super Long ($18)
37. Top-Flite XL 3000 Super Spin ($18)
38. Top-Flite XL 3000 S. Straight ($18)
39. Wilson Staff Pro Dist. Straight ($23)
40. Wilson Staff Pro Dist. Women’s ($22)
41. Wilson Staff True Distance ($40)
42. Wilson Staff True Tour ($40)

Index of balls
(Typical “street” price a dozen)

1. Callaway CB1 Blue ($25)
2. Callaway CB1 Red ($25)
3. Callaway CTU 30 Blue ($40)
4. Callaway CTU 30 Red ($40)
5. Callaway HX Blue ($44)
6. Callaway HX Red ($44)
7. Dunlop Advanced Ti ($9)
8. Dunlop LoCo ($17)
9. Maxfli A10 ($40)

SOFT FIRM

COVER HARDNESS

CO
M

PR
ES

SI
ON

Firm cover/
firm core

Soft cover/
soft core

Firm cover/
soft core

29 27 28

15
30

40
32

1
25

16 5

179
12 34

2642

3
6

41
37

2
38

18
19

7
14

8
35

22
10

11
21

LO
W

HI
GH

23
4

Figure 13–15 Illustration of a Scatter Diagram

Chart 14
Individual Tax Filing Method Used and Projected

2004 to 2012

Re
tu

rn
s

in
M

ill
io

Year
SOURCE: Internal Revenue Service.

200620052004
0

20
40
80
100

120

160

140

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Total individual
electronic returns

Total individual
paper returns

Projected

Figure 13–14

Illustration of an Area
Chart

SOURCE: Golf Digest July 2002: 61.

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CHAPTER 13 Graphics 427

Scatter Diagrams
Scatter diagrams are often considered another variation of the line chart. Although
they do use X and Y axes to plot paired values, the points stand alone without a line
drawn through them. For example, a writer might use a scatter diagram in a report
on digital cameras to plot values for price and resolution of several cameras. While
clustering the points allows users to validate hunches about cause and effect, they
can only be interpreted for correlation—the direction and strength relationships. The
points can reveal positive, negative, or no relationships. Additionally, by examining
the tightness of the points, the user can see the strength of the relationship. The closer
the points are to a straight line, the stronger the relationship. In Figure 13–15, the
paired values are Cover Hardness and Compression.

Maps
You also may use maps to communicate quantitative as well as physical (or geographic)
information. Statistical maps are useful primarily when quantitative information is to
be compared by geographic areas. On such maps, the geographic areas are clearly out-
lined, and some graphic technique is used to show the differences between areas (see
Figure 13–16). Quantitative maps are particularly useful in illustrating and analyzing
complex data. Traffi c patterns on a website could be mapped as well as patterns in a
retail store. Physical or geographic maps (see Figure 13–17) can show distributions as

• Scatter diagrams show
direction and strength of
paired values.

• Maps show quantitative
and geographic
information.

Chart 16
Sex Ratio of the Total U.S. Population: 2004

Data Classes
Males/100 Females

100.3–103.2
97.7–99.3
95.7–97.3
93.6–95.4
88.5–93.2

SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, 2004 American Community Survey.

Figure 13–16 Illustration of a Map (quantitative)

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well as specifi c locations. Of the numerous techniques available to you, these are the
most common:

• Showing differences of areas by color, shading, or cross-hatching is perhaps the
most popular technique (see Figure 13–16). Of course, maps using this technique
must have a legend to explain the quantitative meanings of the various colors,
cross-hatchings, and so forth.

• Graphics, symbols, or clip art may be placed within each geographic area to depict
the quantity for that area or geographic location.

• Placing the quantities in numerical form within each geographic area is another
widely used technique.

Combination Charts
Combination charts often serve readers extremely well by allowing them to see rela-
tionships of different kinds of data. The example in Figure 13–18 shows the reader the
price of stock over time (the trend) as well as the volume of sales over time (compari-
sons). It allows the reader to detect whether the change in volume affects the price of
the stock. This kind of information would be diffi cult to get from raw data.

Three-Dimensional Graphics
Until now you have learned that three-dimensional graphs are generally undesirable.
However, we have mostly been referring to the three-dimensional effect applied to

• Here are some specifi c
instructions for statistical
maps.

Figure 13–17 Illustration of a Map (Physical)

• With multiple variables,
3D graphics can help
readers understand the
data better.

• Sometimes a
combination of chart
types is effective.

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CHAPTER 13 Graphics 429

graphics with two variables. But when you actually have three or more variables, pre-
senting them in three dimensions is an option. It is the difference between the raised
pie chart versus the ball. Adding a third dimension to a pie chart by “raising” it (includ-
ing a shadow) will not enhance its information value, but if you actually have three-
dimensional data, putting it in the form of a ball will enable your readers to see it from
multiple perspectives and gain additional information. In fact, Francis Crick, a Nobel
prize-winner for discovering the structure of DNA, once revealed it was not until he
and his collaborators took a sheet of paper, cut it, and twisted it that they understood
the confi guration of DNA. Today we have sophisticated statistics, graphics, and data
mining tools to help us fi lter and see our data from multiple perspectives.
These three-dimensional tools are beginning to make their way from science labs
into business settings. Several factors seem to be driving the trend. Businesses large
and small are collecting and attempting to analyze extremely large amounts of detailed
data. They are analyzing not only their own data but also data on their competitors.
And advances in hardware, software, and web-based applications are making it easier
to graphically represent both quantitative and qualitative data.
Although 3D graphics help writers display the results of their data analysis, they
change how readers look at information and may take some time getting used to. These
tools enable users both to see data from new perspectives and to interact with it. They
allow users to free themselves from two dimensions and give them ways to stretch
their insights and see new possibilities. These graphics can help businesses make time-
ly decisions through leveraging their corporate information assets.
Figure 13–19 shows a three-dimensional visual thesaurus for the word graph. The
color of its node and the distance of the node from the centroid refl ect the degree of
similarity between the node and the centroid, something you cannot get from a tradi-
tional thesaurus. Here the closer the synonym to graph, the redder or hotter it is and
the more similar to the word. In this case chart is hotter than drawing, and drawing is
hotter than outline.
Using 3-D graphic tools clearly has a place and use. They are especially good for
helping to analyze large data sets with multiple variables, query them, and interpret
them. In deciding whether to use a three-dimensional representation such as this one
or a two-dimensional one such as one you might see at , you need to consider your audience, the context, and goal of your communica-
tion. Overall, multidimensional presentation on paper is diffi cult; multiple representa-
tions can be made from separate two-dimensional views, but not always effectively.

MayJun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 06 Feb Mar Apr

–20%

DE Weekly 5/24/06

DJIA

–10%

+20%

+10%

+0%

+30%

+40%

+50%

M
ill

io
ns

30
20
10
0

SOURCE: Big Charts 24 May 2006.

Figure 13–18

Illustration of a
Combination Chart,
Comparing the Dow Jones
Average to the volume and
Weekly Change Range of
Deere Common Stock

• 3D graphics facilitate
analyzing large data
sets.

• 3D graphics facilitate
seeing data from a new
perspective.

• Tools allow users to
interact with their data.

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If the document is being presented online or digitally where the reader can rotate it to
see perspectives, it is likely to be much more effective with a larger number of readers.
Writers should take care to use three-dimensional graphics appropriately.

Photographs
Cameras are everywhere today. If we do not have them in our phones, we might have
them in a credit card size or even smaller. And free and for-fee photos are readily
available on the Internet, too. In documents, photos can serve useful communication
purposes. They can be used to document things and events as well as show products,
processes, or services. You could use the photo in Figure 13–20 as a metaphor for the
concept of a hole in a company’s computer security (someone getting in) or the loss
of corporate intelligence (something getting out). Today photos, like data-generated
graphics, can easily be manipulated. A writer’s job is to use them ethically, including
getting permission when needed and presenting them objectively.

Graph
Plan

Persuasion

Chart

Map

Scheme

Drawing

Outline

Image

DiagramFigure 13–19

Illustration of a Three-
Dimensional Graphic

Figure 13–20

Illustration of a Photo

SOURCE: http://www.wilmascope.org/

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CHAPTER 13 Graphics 431

Other Graphics
The types of graphics discussed thus far are the ones most commonly used. Other types
also may be helpful. Diagrams (see Figure 13–21) and drawings (see Figure 13–22)
may help simplify a complicated explanation or description. Icons are another useful
type of graphic. You can create new icons and use them consistently, or you can draw
from an existing body of icons with easily recognized meanings, such as . Even
carefully selected cartoons can be used effectively. Video clips and animation are now
used in electronic documents. See the text website for some examples. For all practical
purposes, any graphic is acceptable as long as it helps communicate the true story. The
possibilities are almost unlimited.

Visual Integrity3
In writing an objective report, you are ethically bound to present data and visuals in
ways that enable readers to interpret them easily and accurately. By being aware of
some of the common errors made in presenting graphics, you learn how to avoid them
as well as how to spot them in other documents. Even when errors are not deliberately
created to deceive a reader, they cause loss of credibility with the reader—casting
doubt on the document as well as on other work you have completed. Both data-
generated graphics and visual graphics can misrepresent information. Writers need to
be diligent in applying high quality standards when using them.

Blind Spot: No visibility for 30 feet behind truck.
Stay back 20–25 car lengths.

Blind Spot: Leave 4 car
lengths between vehicles

Blind Spot: Pass
through, don’t linger

Blind Spot:
Don’t linger

3 For an excellent expanded discussion of graphic errors, see Gerald E. Jones, How to Lie with Charts (San Jose, CA:
iUniverse.com, 2001).

Figure 13–21

Illustration of a Diagram

Figure 13–22

Illustration of a Drawing

• Other graphics
available to you are
diagrams, drawings,
and even cartoons.

• Business writers are
ethically bound to
present data that readers
can extract easily and
accurately.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, Share the Road Safely Program.

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Data-generated Graphs
Two categories of common errors in using graphs are errors of scale and errors of for-
mat. Another more diffi cult category of error is inaccurate or misleading presentation
of context.
Errors of scale include problems with uniform scale size, scale distortion, and zero
points. You need to be sure that all the dimensions from left to right (X axis) are equal,
and the dimensions from the bottom to the top (Y axis) are equal. Otherwise, as you
see here, an incorrect picture would be shown.

• Common errors are
errors of scale, format,
and context presentation.

200620042003
0

60
40
20
80
100
120
140

2005 2007 200620042003
0

100
80
20

110

120

130

140
2005 2007
200620042003
0
60
40
20
80
100
120
140
2005 2007 200620042003
0
60
40
20
80
100
120
140
2005 2007

Scale distortion occurs when a graphic is stretched excessively horizontally or verti-
cally to change the meaning it conveys to the reader. Expanding a scale can change the
appearance of the line. For example if the values on a chart are plotted one-half unit
apart, changes appear much more suddenly. Determining the distances that present the
most accurate picture is a matter of judgment. Notice the different looks of the graphic
show here when stretched vertically and horizontally.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Words of Wisdom

Students must be sensitized in the importance of pictures that accompany written messages to the same extent that they are
sensitized to the importance of nonverbal communication that accompanies messages.

Shirley Kuiper, The University of South Carolina
Rosemary Booth, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte

Charles D. Bodkin, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte

Shirley Kuiper, Rosemary Booth, and Charles D. Bodkin, “The Visual Portrayal of Women in IBM’s Think: A Longitudinal Analysis,” Journal of Business
Communication 35 (1998): 259.

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CHAPTER 13 Graphics 433

Software programs
enable writers to
create a wide variety of
graphics from small to
huge data sets.

Errors of format come in a wide variety. Some of the more common ones include
choice of wrong chart type, distracting use of grids and shading, misuse of typeface,
and problems with labels. If a company used pie charts to compare expenses from one
year to the next, readers might be tempted to draw conclusions that would be inappro-
priate because, although the pies both represent 100 percent of the expenses, the size of
the business and the expenses may have grown or shrunk drastically in a year’s time.
If one piece of the pie had been colored or shaded in such a way as to make it stand
out from the others, it could mislead readers. And, of course, small type or unlabeled,
inconsistently labeled, or inappropriately labeled graphics clearly confuse readers. You
need to be careful to present graphics that are both complete and accurate.
Another ethical dilemma is accurately presenting context. Politicians are often de-
liberately guilty of framing the issue to suit their cause. Business writers can avoid this
deception both by attempting to frame the data objectively and by presenting the data

200520042003
0

600
400
200
800

1000

1200

1400

2006 2007 200520042003

1300

1320

1310

1330

1340

1350

2006 2007 200520042003
0

1300

1250

1350

2006 2007

Finally, another type of scale error is violating the zero beginning of the series. For
accuracy, you should begin the scale at zero. But when all the information shown in the
chart has high values, it is awkward to show the entire scale from zero to the highest
value. For example, if the quantities compared range from 1320 to 1350 and the chart
shows the entire area from zero to 1350, the line showing these quantities would be
almost straight and very high on the chart. Your solution in this case is not to begin the
scale at a high number (say 1300), for this would distort the information, but to begin
at zero and show a scale break. Realize, however, that while this makes the differences
easier to see, it does exaggerate the differences. You can see this here.

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with the reader in mind. For example, one might look at the cost of attending college
for the past 30 years. A line chart of the actual dollar cost over the years would show
a clear upward trend. However, to present the costs without factoring in infl ation dur-
ing that 30-year period would distort the results. In Figure 13–23, you can see that the
actual cost of college tuition and fees in dollars adjusted for infl ation would show costs
that are lower or equal to today’s costs.

Visual Graphs
Visual graphs, too, need to be used ethically. Writers need to be careful when choosing
the information to represent and the visual elements to represent it. One area writers

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Practicing Visual Ethics

As you have learned in this chapter, graphics can serve several useful purposes for the business writer. However, the
writer needs to be accountable in using graphics to present images that in the eye and mind of the reader communicate
accurately and completely. To do this, the careful writer pays attention to both the design and content of the graphic. These
are particularly important, for readers often skim text but read the graphics. Research shows that people remember im-
ages much better and longer than text.
The following guides will help you in evaluating the graphics you use:

• Does the visual’s design create accurate expectations?

• Does the story told match the data?

• Is the implied message congruent with the actual message?

• Will the impact of the visual on your audience be appropriate?

• Does the visual convey all critical information free of distortion?

• Are the data depicted accurately?

Adapted from Donna S. Kienzler, “Visual Ethics,” Journal of Business Communication 34 (1997): 171–87.

Tu
iti

198519801975 2005
$0

$2,000

$4,000

$6,000

$8,000

$10,000

1990 1995 2000

Chart 23
Average Annual Resident Undergraduate Tuition and Required Fees

Constant & Current Dollars, Academic Years 1975 to 2005

Academic Year

Current dollars

Constant dollars

SOURCE: Minnesota Higher Education Services Office, 2006.

Figure 13–23

Illustration of Accuracy
of Content

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 13 Graphics 435

need to watch is appropriate selection. Are people or things over- or underrepresented?
Are the numbers of men and women appropriate for the context? Are their ages ap-
propriate? Is ethnicity represented appropriately? Have colors been used appropriately
and not to evoke or manipulate emotions? What about volume and size? Are the num-
ber of visuals and size appropriate for the emphasis the topic deserves? Are visuals
presented accurately, free of distortion or alteration? Have photos been cropped to be
consistent with the context? Writers need to carefully select and use visual graphs to
maintain high integrity.

PLACING AND INTERPRETING
THE GRAPHICS
For the best communication effect, you should place each graphic near the place where
it is covered in writing. Exactly where on the page you should place it, however, should
be determined by its size. If the graphic is small, you should place it within the text
that discusses it. If it is a full page, you should place it on the page following the fi rst
reference to the information it covers.
Some writers like to place all graphics at the end of the report, usually in the appen-
dix. This arrangement may save time in preparing the report, but it does not help the
readers. They have to fl ip through pages every time they want to see a graphic. Com-
mon sense requires that you place graphics in such a way as to help readers understand
the report.
Sometimes you may need to include graphics that do not fi t a specifi c part of the
report. For example, you may have a graphic that is necessary for completeness but is
not discussed in the report. Or you may have summary charts or tables that apply to
the entire report but to no specifi c place in it. When such graphics are appropriate, you
should place them in the appendix. And you should refer to the appendix somewhere
in the report.
Graphics communicate most effectively when the readers see them at the right place
in the report. Thus, you should refer the readers to them at the right place. That is, you
should tell the readers when to look at a graphic and what to see. Of the many wordings
used for this purpose, these are the most common:

. . . , as shown in Figure 4, . . . .

. . . , indicated in Figure 4, . . . .

. . . , as a glance at Figure 4 reveals, . . .

. . . (see Figure 4) . . . .

If your graphic is carrying the primary message, as in a detailed table, you can just
make an incidental reference to the information in the graphic, as in “Our increased
sales over the last three years . . . .”
However, if the words are carrying the primary message such as in the bar chart
in Figure 13–14, you might start with a reference to the chart followed closely by a
thorough interpretation. One good mantra to use is GEE, standing for generalization,
example, and exception.4 You’ll start with a summary statement that reveals the big
picture. In the case of Figure 13–14, you might say, “As Figure 14 shows, the num-
ber of individuals fi ling tax returns electronically will grow from 65 million today to
90 million in 2012.” After presenting the fi gure, you’ll give one or more supporting
examples that call your readers’ attention to key fi ndings. Then you will give the ex-
ception to the general trend, if there is one—for example, “In most years the increase
is expected to be four million; however, in the fi rst year it will be fi ve million when
easy-to-use web-based tax preparation software fi rst becomes available.”
Your readers will appreciate well-chosen, well-designed, and well-explained
graphics, and you will achieve powerful communication results.

• Place the graphics near
the fi rst place in the text
in which you refer to
them.

• Placing graphics at the
end of the report does
not help the readers.

• Graphics not discussed
in the report belong in
the appendix.

• At the right place,
incidentally invite the
readers to look at the
graphics.

• Interpret using a
generalization, example,
exception (GEE)
strategy.

4 Jane E. Miller, “Implementing ‘Generalization, Example, Exceptions (GEE),’ ” The Chicago Guide to Writing about
Numbers: The Effective Presentation of Quantitative Information (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2004)
265.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

436 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

1. Because graphics are a part of the communication in a report, you should plan for
them.

• But remember that they supplement the writing; they do not replace it.

• Use them wherever they help communicate the report information.

2. Construct each graphic carefully, following these general instructions:

• Give each the size and arrangement that its contents and importance justify.

• Choose a readable type. New Clear Type fonts such as Calibri or Cambria
improve on-screen readability.

• Use rules, borders, and color when they help.

• Use clip art and background appropriately.

• Number the graphics consecutively by type.

• Construct topic titles for them using the fi ve Ws (who, what, where, when, why)
and one H (how) as a checklist. Alternatively, use the main message as a talking
heading.

• Use footnotes and acknowledgments when needed, placing them below the
graphic.

3. Choose textual graphics to display data that are largely text based.

• Use general-purpose tables for information that is broad in scope.

• Use special-purpose tables for information that is specifi c in scope.

• Use leaderwork or tabulations for short arrangement of data.

• Use pull quotes to emphasize a key idea.

• Use bullet lists to set off points.

• Use fl owcharts and process charts to show activity sequences.

4. In selecting a graphic, consider these primary uses of each:

• Simple bar or column chart—shows quantity comparisons over time or over
geographic distances.

• Clustered bar or column chart—shows two or three quantities on one chart.

• Bilateral column chart—shows plus and minus differences and is especially
good for showing percentage changes.

• Stacked or subdivided bar chart—used to compare differences in the division
of wholes.

• Pictograph—shows quantitative differences in picture form.

• Pie chart—used to show how wholes are divided.

• Line chart—useful in showing changes over time. Variations include belt
charts, surface charts, and variance charts.

• Scatter diagram—compares pairs of values.

• Map—shows quantitative and physical differences by area.

• Combination chart—used to show relationships between separate data sets.

• Three-dimensional graphic—used to analyze and interpret large data sets with
three or more variables.

• Photograph—used to document things and events or show products, processes,
and services.

Apply other graphics to serve special needs:

• Diagrams and drawings.

• Icons.

SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1Determine which parts of your report should
be communicated by
graphics and where in
the report the graphics
should appear.

2Explain the general mechanics of
constructing graphics—
size, layout, type, rules
and borders, color and
cross-hatching, clip art,
background, numbering,
titles, title placement,
and footnotes and
acknowledgments.

3Construct textual graphics such as tables,
pull quotes, fl owcharts,
and process charts.

4Construct and use visual graphics such as
bar charts, pie charts,
scatter diagrams, and
maps.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

• Cartoons.

• Video clips and animation.

5. Visual integrity applies to both data-generated graphics and visuals.

• To present data objectively avoid these common errors :

— Errors of scale—no uniform scale size, scale distortion, missing zero point.

— Errors of format—wrong chart type, distracting use of grids and shading,
misuse of typeface, and problems with labels.

— Errors of context presentation.

• Visuals need special attention to the following:

— Selection.

— Color.

— Volume and size.

— Distortion, dropping, and alterations.

6. Place and interpret graphics effectively.

• Place graphics near to the text part they illustrate.

• Place in the appendix those that you do not discuss in the text.

• Invite the readers to look at them at the appropriate place.

• Interpret using a generalization, example, exception strategy.

5Avoid common errors and ethical problems
when constructing and
using graphics.

6Place and interpret graphics effectively.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N S

CHAPTER 13 Graphics 437

1 For the past 20 years, Professor Clark Kupenheimer
has required that his students include fi ve graphics in
the long, formal report he assigns them to prepare.
Evaluate this requirement.

2 Because it was easier to do, a report writer prepared
each of the graphics on a full page. Some of these
graphics were extremely complex; some were very
simple. Comment on this practice.

3 A report has fi ve maps, four tables, one chart, one dia-
gram, and one photograph. How would you number
these graphics?

4 How would you number these graphics in a report:
seven tables, six charts, nine maps?

5 Discuss the techniques that may be used to show quan-
titative differences by area on a statistical map.

6 Select data that are ideally suited for presentation in
three dimensions. Explain why use of a data visualiza-
tion is good for this case.

7 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using
pictographs.

8 Find a graph that uses scale breaks. Discuss the possible
effects of its use on the reader.

9 Find a graphic with errors in format. Tell how you
would correct the errors to present the chart’s data
more clearly to the reader.

10 “I have placed every graphic near the place I write
about it. The reader can see the graphic without any ad-
ditional help from me. It just doesn’t make sense to di-
rect the reader’s attention to the graphics with words.”
Evaluate this comment.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G E X E R C I S E S

1 Construct a complete, concise title for a bar chart show-
ing annual attendance at home football (or basketball, or
soccer) games at your school from 2000 to the present.

2 The chart prepared in Question 1 requires an explana-
tion for the years 2005 to the present. In each of those

years, one extra home game was played. Explain how
you would provide the necessary explanation.

3 For each of the areas of information described on the
following page, which form of graphic would you use?
Explain your decision.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report
Writing
13. Graphics © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

438 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing

a. Record of annual sales for the Kenyon Company for
the past 20 years.

b. Comparison of Kenyon Company sales, by product,
for this year and last year.

c. Monthly production of the automobile industry in
units.

d. Breakdown of how the average middle-income fam-
ily in your state (or province) disposes of its income
dollar.

e. How middle-income families spend their income dol-
lar as compared with how low-income families spend
their income dollar.

f. Comparison of sales for the past two years for each of
the B&B Company’s 14 sales districts. The districts
cover all 50 states, Canada, and Puerto Rico.

g. National production of trucks from 1950 to present,
broken down by manufacturer.

h. Relationship between list price and gas mileage of
alternative and gasoline-fueled cars.

4 For each of the following sets of facts, (a) determine the
graphic (or graphics) that would be best, (b) defend your
choice, and (c) construct the graphic.

a. Average (mean) amount of life insurance owned
by Fidelity Life Insurance Company policyholders.
Classifi cation is by annual income.

Income
Average Life

Insurance

Under $30,000 $ 15,245

$30,000–34,999 24,460

$35,000–39,999 36,680

$40,000–44,999 49,875

$45,000–49,999 61,440

$50,000 and over 86,390

b. Profi ts and losses for Whole Foods Stores, by store,
2003–2007, in dollars.

Store

Year Able City Baker Charleston Total

2003 234,210 132,410 97,660 464,280

2004 229,110 –11,730 218,470 435,850

2005 238,430 –22,410 216,060 432,080

2006 226,730 68,650 235,510 530,890

2007 230,080 91,450 254,820 576,350

c. Share of real estate tax payments by ward for Bigg
City, 2002 and 2007, in thousands of dollars.

2002 2007

Ward 1 17.1 21.3

Ward 2 10.2 31.8

Ward 3 19.5 21.1

Ward 4 7.8 18.2

City total 54.6 92.4

d. Percentage change in sales by employee, 2006–2007,
District IV, Abbott, Inc.

Employee
Percentage

Change

Joan Abraham �7.3

Helen Calmes �2.1

Edward Sanchez �7.5

Clifton Nevers �41.6

Wilson Platt �7.4

Clara Ruiz �11.5

David Schlimmer �4.8

Phil Wirks �3.6

5 The basic blood types are O, A, B, and AB. These can
be either positive or negative. With some basic research,
determine what percentage of each type people in the
United States have. Choose an appropriate graph type
and create it to convey the data.

6 Through your research, fi nd the approximate milligrams
of caffeine in the following items and create an appro-
priate graphic for Affi liated Food Products, Inc., to il-
lustrate your fi ndings.

5-oz. cup of coffee (drip brewed)

7-oz. glass of iced tea

6-oz. glass of soda with caffeine

1-oz. dark chocolate, semisweet

7 Choose fi ve or six outdoor summer sport activities. In a
graphic identify the activity and whether it affects car-
diovascular, arms, legs, back, or abdominals. You can
assume these activities can affect more than one fi tness
zone. You work for the Parks and Recreation Depart-
ment of a city of your choosing.

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