Programming Question

1. A minimum of one complete paragraph explaining your understanding of the chapter of your choice.
2. You may include examples, experiences, and theories.
3. Note: a paragraph is a writing structure that requires a minimum of five complete sentences.
4. These five or more sentences should represent a valid knowledge of the topic.
5. The Discussion also requires a Comment or Reply to a classmate’s Discussion.
6. This Comment or Reply requires a minimum of three complete sentences.
7. It is not only about the number of sentences, but the valid knowledge of the topic represented through out the paragraph (Discussion) and/or the three sentences (Comment or Reply). And we are talking about “university student’s sentences” not “Mary is a girl or Tom is a boy” kind of sentences…
8. These three sentences should represent a valid knowledge of the other student’s Discussion.
9. Note: Sentences just expressing your opinion and/or perception of your classmate’s Discussion, and/or complimenting your classmate do not count for points, i.e., “I love what you wrote about…”; “You did a great job…”; “I agree with you”…
10. Not complying with all the above requirements will decrease the score for the Discussion.

Chapter 9:
Moving into the Adult Social World:
Socioemotional Development in Adolescence
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
1
Icebreaker: Brainstorm
The following should be discussed as a class
This chapter includes a discussion of romantic relationships during adolescence
Imagine that you are the caregiver for a 16-year-old boy who starts talking about a crush on someone he met at school
• What sorts of restrictions would you put on their dating, if any?
• How would you talk to him about this potential relationship?
• What advice would you give?
• Would your answers change if the 16-year-old was a girl? Why or why not?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
2
Chapter Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
9.1 Summarize identity development and self-esteem during adolescence
9.2 Summarize romantic relationships during adolescence, sexual behavior, and sexual minority youth
9.3 Describe how teenagers pick careers and how they’re influenced by part-time work
9.4 Describe the causes and consequences of substance use, depression, and delinquency in adolescence
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
3
9.1: Identity and Self-Esteem
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
4
Key Questions 1.1
• How do adolescents achieve an identity?
• What are the stages and results in acquiring an ethnic identity?
• How does self-esteem change in adolescence?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
5
The Search for Identity
• Erikson believed that identity achievement vs. identity (role) confusion involves adolescents’ balancing between
selecting a single self versus trying out many possible selves
• This happens via formal operational thought as they imagine themselves in various roles
• There is a strong focus on career roles, but they also focus on talents, romance, friendships, religion, and gender
orientation
• Adolescent thought also becomes very self-oriented
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
6
Table 9.1 Four Identity Statuses
STATUS
DEFINITION
EXAMPLES
Diffusion
The Individual is overwhelmed by the task of
achieving an identity and does little to accomplish
the task.
Larry hates the idea of deciding what to do with his future, so he spends most of
his free time playing video games.
Foreclosure
The individual has a status determined by adults
rather than by personal exploration.
For as long as she can remember, Sakura’s parents have told her that she should
be an attorney and join the family law firm. She plans to study prelaw in college,
although she’s never given the matter much thought.
Moratorium
The individual is examining different alternatives
but has yet to find one that’s satisfactory.
Brad enjoys most of his high school classes. Some days he thinks it would be fun
to be a chemist, some days he wants to be a novelist, and some days he’d like to
be an elementary school teacher. He thinks it’s a little weird to change his mind so
often, but he also enjoys thinking about different jobs.
Achievement
The Individual has explored alternatives and has
deliberately chosen a specific identity.
Throughout middle school, Efrat wanted to play in the WNBA. During 9th and 10th
grades, she thought it would be cool to be a physician. In 11th grade, she took a
computing course and everything finally “clicked”—she’d found her niche. She
knew that she wanted to study computer science in college.
Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
7
Characteristics of Adolescents’ Thinking
• Adolescent egocentrism is self-absorption that is characteristic of teenagers as they search for identity
• The imaginary audience describes adolescents’ feeling that their behavior is constantly being watched by their peers
• The personal fable is the belief of many adolescents that their feelings and experiences are unique and have never
been shared by anyone else
• The illusion of invulnerability is adolescents’ belief that bad things cannot happen to them
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
8
Ethnic Identity
• Ethnic identity is a feeling of belonging and learning the special customs and traditions of their group’s culture and
heritage, developed by members of ethnic minority groups
• There are three phases to achieving this identity: it starts with disinterest, then exploration of the ethnic identity,
followed by achievement of a distinct ethnic self-concept
• Ethnic minorities benefit from a strong ethnic identity
• Their interactions with family and friends are more satisfying; they are happier and worry less
• When parents of immigrant adolescents cling to “the old ways,” problems can develop
• Youths with shifting racial identities tend to have lower self-esteem
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
9
Self-Esteem in Adolescence
• Children’s self-esteem gradually increases during the elementary school years but dips when they begin middle
school
• As children adjust to a new “pecking order” after entering middle school, their self-esteem increases and then
stabilizes during adolescence
• Adolescents particularly differentiate their social self-esteem (e.g., positive about their relationship with a parent,
but negative about romantic relationships)
• Self-worth is ethnicity and age dependent
• Adolescents’ self-esteem is based on their self-perception, the social comparisons they make, and reflected
appraisals
• For example, self-esteem is higher when they are skilled in domains they value, their parents view them
positively, they are affectionate and involved, their parents set reasonable expectations and are willing to discuss
rules and discipline, and they believe peers think highly of them
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
10
The Myth of Storm and Stress
• While many depict adolescence as a time of storm and stress, that’s a myth
• Research shows that most adolescents love their parents and feel loved, appreciated, and wanted by them
• Most look to their parents for advice and embrace many of their values
• Parent–child conflicts do happen but they are often mild, but when serious they are very distressing for parents
• These conflicts are more common when adolescents cannot regulate their emotions well
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
11
Think, Pair, and Share Activity: Adolescent Stress
Students should find a partner for this activity
As you just learned, while the idea that adolescence is inherently a time of “storm and stress” is a myth, it is certainly a
time when adolescents face different stressors than they have previously.
Discuss the following with a partner:
• What do you think teenagers find to be the most stressful, especially these days?
• What do you think causes the most conflicts in teenagers’ lives during adolescence?
• How do you think teenagers deal with these types of stressors and conflicts?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
12
9.2: Romantic Relationships and Sexuality
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
13
Key Questions 1.2
• Why do teenagers date?
• Why are some adolescents sexually active?
• What circumstances make dating violence especially likely?
• Who are sexual and gender minority youth?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
14
Romantic Relationships
• By the end of high school, roughly two-thirds of U.S. adolescents have dated and have had a “special” romantic
relationship
• Cultural factors influence the timing of these relationships
• Romantic relationships often build on friendships
• These relationships are often developmentally significant
• Adolescents involved in a romantic relationship are more confident and have greater self-esteem
• Adolescents involved in a romantic relationship also report more emotional upheaval and conflict
• Early dating with multiple partners can be problematic and is related to unsatisfying adult relationships later on
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
15
Sexual Behavior
• By the end of high school, two-thirds of adolescents will have had intercourse at least once
• Being sexually active is predicted by parents’ or peers’ sexually permissive attitudes, extraversion and impulsivity, and
characteristics of settings, such as when they’ve been drinking
• Peer approval and adolescents believing peers are having sex is also a factor
• Programs that teach teens about the risks and benefits of sex result in teens who have safer sex, use contraceptives,
and have fewer partners
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
16
Dating Violence
• Dating violence, which can include physical violence, emotional violence, sexual violence, or stalking, is reported by
25% of girls and 15% of boys
• Risk factors for perpetrating violence include exposure to violence at home; peers who condone the behavior; being
antisocial, aggressive, and not successful in school; and using drugs
• Harmful consequences for victims include depression, antisocial behavior, and substance abuse
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
17
Discussion Activity: Preventing Dating Violence
The class should discuss the following as a group
As you just learned, dating violence is a large issue that can have long-term consequences for those who experience it
• Based on what you learned and (if applicable) any outside experiences, how do you think schools can work to
prevent dating violence?
• What about parents—is there something that can be done to lower the levels of dating violence through
conversations at home?
• Can you think of other groups that could make an impact here? What are they, and what sort of programming would
you suggest?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
18
Sexual Minority Youth
• Attraction to same-sex individuals often first emerges around age 10 for males and females
• It is typically preceded by years of gender nonconformity
• Sexual and gender minority youth face many challenges, including harassment, which can lead to depression and
drug use
• These youth cope more effectively when they receive support from parents and peers and when their school feels
safe and welcoming
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
19
9.3: The World of Work
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
20
Key Questions 1.3
• How do adolescents select an occupation?
• What is the impact of part-time employment on adolescents?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
21
Career Development
Super’s three-phase theory of career development:
• First phase, crystallization, is using ideas about talents and interests to shape one’s provisional career prospects,
which usually takes place around 13–14 years old.
• Second phase, specification, is to further limit one’s prospects by learning more about career matches to one’s
interests, abilities, and personality, which usually takes place around 18 years old
• Third phase, implementation, is entering the workforce and learning firsthand about jobs, responsibility,
productivity, cooperation, and needed lifestyle changes, which takes place between late adolescence and the early
20s
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
22
Personality-Type Theory
According to Holland’s personality-type theory, work is fulfilling when it fits important facets of personality
Holland identified six personality prototypes, each suited to a set of occupations
PERSONALITY TYPE
DESCRIPTION
CAREERS
Realistic
Individuals enjoy doing physical labor and working with their
hands; they like to solve concrete problems.
Mechanic, truck driver, construction worker
Investigative
Individuals are task oriented and enjoy thinking about abstract
relations.
Scientist, technical writer
Social
Individuals are skilled verbally and interpersonally; they enjoy
solving problems using these skills.
Teacher, counselor, social worker
Conventional
Individuals have verbal and quantitative skills that they like to
apply to structured, well-defined tasks assigned to them by
others.
Bank teller, payroll clerk, traffic manager
Enterprising
Individuals enjoy using their verbal skills in positions of power,
status, and leadership.
Business executive, television producer, real estate agent
Artistic
Individuals enjoy expressing themselves through unstructured
tasks.
Poet, musician, actor
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
23
Social Cognitive Career Theory
• Another approach, the social cognitive career theory, says that progress toward a vocation rests on self-efficacy, or
youths’ beliefs about their ability to succeed in specific domains, and outcome expectations, or what they believe
will be the outcome of their behavior
• Successes and failures promote adolescents to develop beliefs about themselves, leading to interests and then goals
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
24
Part-Time Employment
• About 20% of American high school students hold part-time jobs, typically in retail
• More than 15–20 hours work per week leads to lower grades, anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, substance
abuse, and frequent problem behaviors
• It can also lead to unrealistic ideas about money, since most teens spend most of their earnings on themselves
• From 5 to 10 hours a week leads adolescents to build skills; their self-esteem is enhanced as well
• Economic skills improve if teens save money for a larger goal
• Summer employment does not conflict with the demands of school, so generally leads to benefits
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
25
Discussion Activity: Part-Time Employment
The class should discuss the following as a group
Most teenagers have had a part-time job at some point during the high school years
• What was your most memorable job during high school, if you had one?
• What did you learn from it?
• Do you think it affected your grades or other aspects of your education? What about your social life?
• What was your least favorite part of that job, and why?
• If you chose not to be employed, what did you do instead? How do you think that compares to part-time
employment regarding what you learned doing something else?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
26
9.4: The Dark Side
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
27
Key Questions 1.4
• Why do teenagers drink and use drugs?
• What leads some adolescents to become depressed? How can depression be treated?
• What are the causes of juvenile delinquency?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
28
Drug Use
• In reality, most adolescents avoid drugs with one major exception: alcohol
• 50% of teenagers drank in the last year, and 33% have been drunk. Drinking is more likely when parents and peers
drink and when teens are coping with stress
• Stopping teens from drinking before it becomes habitual is essential to prevent future depression, anxiety, and
alcohol dependence
• Smoking usually begins between sixth and ninth grade, and approximately 25% of American teens experiment with
cigarettes; nearly 50% experiment with vaping
• Smoking is more likely when friends and parents smoke and less likely when parents have an authoritative
parenting style
• Comprehensive school and community programs can reduce teen drinking and smoking
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
29
Depression
• Depression during adolescence involves pervasive feelings of sadness, emptiness, irritability, anger, poor sleep, low
self-esteem, and inability to concentrate
• Depression can result from heredity, negative events, and/or feelings of lack of control
• By age 17, 20% of girls and 15% of boys have symptoms of depression
• Psychotherapy is successful in helping adolescents who are depressed
• Antidepressant drugs are also effective, but likely more effective when done in conjunction with therapy
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
30
Treating Depression: Two Approaches
• Antidepressant drugs correct imbalances in neurotransmitters, but increase suicide risk
• Therapy needs to focus on rewarding social interactions and to correctly interpret them
• Left untreated, depression can:
• Disrupt school performance/relationships
• Increase risk of adult depression
• Prevention programs reduce high-risk youth’s number of depressive episodes
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
31
Preventing Teen Suicides
• Suicide is the third most frequent cause of death (after accidents and homicide) among U.S. adolescents
• 10% have reported attempting suicide
• Girls are almost twice as likely to attempt suicide
• Native American teens are more likely to attempt suicide than other racial groups
• The strongest predictor of suicide is depression
• Signs of suicide include planning to hurt the self, talking about death, feeling hopeless or helpless, and/or feeling like
a burden to others
• Do not ignore the signs if you see them; get help
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
32
Delinquency
• Adolescent-limited antisocial behavior consists of relatively minor criminal acts by those who aren’t consistently
antisocial
• Short-lived, usually vanishing by late adolescence or early adulthood
• Life-course persistent antisocial behavior is antisocial behavior that emerges at an early age and continues
throughout life (e.g., hitting at 3, shoplifting at 12, and car theft at 16)
• Fewer than 5% of youth fit this pattern
• Contributors to life-course antisocial behavior include heredity (identical twins more similar than fraternal ones in
physical aggressiveness), biology (being temperamentally difficult), cognitive processes, family processes (particularly
parenting), and poverty
• Early prevention programs, such as Fast Track, can be effective at reducing later criminal activity
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
33
Think, Pair, and Share Activity: Antisocial Behavior
Students should find a partner for this activity
As you just learned, antisocial behavior in adolescence can sometimes be “time limited” and only happen during that
stage of life
Discuss the following with a partner:
• Why do you think antisocial behavior peaks during adolescence for most individuals, based on what you’ve learned
in this course so far and your own experiences?
• Can you think of examples from your own life (you, friends, even the media) that illustrate this type of time-limited
antisocial behavior? Please share if you’re comfortable doing so.
• Are there things that parents or teachers can do to limit this behavior? Or, alternately, are there things that would
make this kind of behavior more likely?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
34
Peer Assessment
Students should find a partner for the following activity
Early in this chapter, you learned about the following characteristics of adolescent thought. Please define and give an
example of each, then swap your answers with your partner to check your knowledge and understanding
• Adolescent egocentrism
• Imaginary audience
• Personal fable
• Illusion of invulnerability
If you don’t agree or aren’t sure, please ask for clarification
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
35
Chapter Summary
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
9.1 Summarize identity development and self-esteem during adolescence
9.2 Summarize romantic relationships during adolescence, sexual behavior, and sexual minority youth
9.3 Describe how teenagers pick careers and how they’re influenced by part-time work
9.4 Describe the causes and consequences of substance use, depression, and delinquency in adolescence
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
36
Chapter 8:
Rites of Passage: Physical and Cognitive
Development in Adolescence
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
1
Icebreaker: Brainstorm
Students should break into teams and brainstorm some of the rites of passage of adolescence
• What parts of your own adolescence did you consider “rites of passage”—what specific events do adolescents go
through that are just a part of adolescence?
• How do the physical changes of adolescence lead to these other changes in teenagers’ lives?
• Are all of the rites of passage associated with adolescence positive experiences, in your view? Why or why not?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
2
Chapter Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
8.1 Define changes associated with puberty and their impact on adolescents
8.2 Summarize adolescents’ needs for nutrition and exercise as well as threats to their well-being
8.3 Describe the strategies and factors that influence adolescents’ ability to remember and solve problems
8.4 Describe Kohlberg’s theory of morality
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
3
8.1: Pubertal Changes
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
4
Key Questions 1.1
• What physical changes during adolescence mark the transition to a mature young adult?
• What factors cause the physical changes associated with puberty?
• How do physical changes affect adolescents’ psychological development?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
5
Signs of Physical Maturation
• Puberty consists of two changes that mark the change from childhood to young adulthood: the growth spurt and the
growth of breasts or testes
• Dramatic increases in height and weight, and changes in body’s fat and muscle content
• Changes in the reproductive organs that mark sexual maturity, as well as secondary sexual characteristics (body
and facial hair, growth of breasts)
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
6
The Adolescent Growth Spurt
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
7
Physical Growth
• During the adolescent growth spurt, girls gain as much as 15 pounds a year and boys 17 pounds a year
• Girls mature earlier than boys
• Body parts do not mature at the same rate
• Bones get longer and denser
• Body fat increases, more so for girls
• Muscle fibers become thicker and denser; heart and lung capacity increase, more so for boys
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
8
Brain Growth in Adolescence
• By the beginning of adolescence, the brain is 95% of adult size and weight
• Myelination and synaptic pruning are nearly complete
• Not all brain regions reach maturity:
• Brain systems sensitive to reward reach maturity
• Brain systems responsible for self-control are not fully specialized until adulthood
• Makes adolescents more likely to engage in rewarding but risky behaviors
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
9
Sexual Maturation
• Primary sex characteristics are physical signs of maturity that are directly linked to reproductive organs
• Secondary sex characteristics denote physical signs of maturity not directly linked to reproductive organs
• For girls, puberty begins with the growth of breasts and the growth spurt, followed by the appearance of pubic hair
• Menarche is the onset of menstruation in girls, usually around age 13
• For boys, puberty begins with the growth of the testes and scrotum, followed by the appearance of pubic hair, the
start of the growth spurt, and the growth of the penis
• Spermarche is the first spontaneous ejaculation of sperm-containing fluid, usually around age 13
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
10
Mechanisms of Maturation
• The pituitary releases a growth hormone, which also stimulates other glands to produce estrogen in girls and
testosterone in boys
• Estrogen and testosterone are present in boys and girls, but in different amounts
• Puberty’s timing is genetically regulated and is affected by health, nutrition, and genetics
• Menarche occurs earlier when nutrition and health care are better
• Girls start menarche earlier when they experience adverse living conditions
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
11
Psychological Impact of Puberty
• Body image
• Girls are more critical of their appearance and are likely to be dissatisfied, especially when friends often discuss
appearance
• Boys are more likely to be pleased with appearance
• Most displeased when teased or peers encourage them to change the way they look
• Response to menarche and spermarche:
• Girls usually share the news with mothers right away and later with friends
• Traditional societies publicly celebrate menarche, but not industrialized ones
• Less is known about boys’ reactions to spermarche
• Feel more positively if prepared for it (e.g., by reading)
• Rarely tell parents or friends
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
12
Moodiness
• Rapid increases in hormones related to slightly greater irritability and impulsivity, but not moodiness
• Mood shifts are more often associated with changes in activities and social settings
• Teens are more likely to report being in a good mood when with friends or when recreating and a bad mood
when in adult-regulated settings, like in a classroom or at a part-time job
• Because teens change social settings many times a day, they appear to be moodier than adults
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
13
Rate of Maturation
• Early maturing: 11 (boys); 9 (girls)
• Late maturing: 15–16 (boys); 14–15 (girls)
• Early maturation’s effects on girls’ sexual activity varies among U.S. ethnic groups
• Late transition to puberty has few long-lasting effects for boys or girls
• Girls who mature early
• Often lack self-confidence, are less popular, are more likely to be depressed and have behavior and substance
problems
• May be pressured into sex early and become mothers while still teenagers, leading to poverty
• Warm, supporting parenting can reduce these negative effects
• Boys who mature early are at risk for depression, substance abuse, participation in early sexual activity
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
14
Think, Pair, and Share Activity: Early Onset Puberty
Students should find a partner for the following activity
As mentioned in your book, early onset puberty can be difficult for girls and lead to negative outcomes. It is possible
that this is linked to differences in cognition and social situations in middle childhood; after all, menarche can begin as
early as 9 years old
• If your daughter or the daughter of a friend was going through early onset puberty, what would you talk to her about
directly?
• Is there anything that you would share with your friend based on what you’ve learned in this chapter?
• How would your answers change if your friend’s child was a boy?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
15
8.2: Health
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
16
Key Questions 1.2
• What are the elements of a healthy diet for adolescents? Why do some adolescents suffer from eating disorders?
• Do adolescents get enough exercise? What are the pros and cons of participating in sports in high school?
• What are common obstacles to healthy growth in adolescence?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
17
Nutrition and Obesity
• Puberty brings special nutritional needs, including hemoglobin (for increased muscle mass and menstruation), iron, and calcium
• Without adequate iron, teens are often listless and moody
• Without adequate calcium, bones may not develop fully, placing them at risk later in life for osteoporosis
• Using body mass index (BMI), an adjusted ration of weight to height, one out of every five teens is overweight
• Overweight teens are unpopular, are more prone to depression and anxiety, and put health at risk (e.g., high blood pressure,
diabetes)
• Genes may influence obesity
• Sedentary lifestyle
• Parents affect eating habits by stressing external more than internal eating signals
• Too little sleep
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
18
Obese Youths Can Lose Weight
• Successful interventions focus on setting and monitoring goals about eating, exercise, and sedentary behavior
• Parents are trained to help children set realistic eating and exercise goals and use behavioral principles to help
children meet their goals
• Stress physical activity
• After losing weight, many still are overweight
• It is best to prevent rather than intervene
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
19
Anorexia and Bulimia (1 of 2)
• Anorexia nervosa is a disorder marked by a persistent refusal to eat and an irrational fear of being overweight
• Individuals with anorexia nervosa have a grossly distorted image of their own body and claim to be overweight
despite being painfully thin
• This is a very serious disorder, and it can lead to death if untreated
• Bulimia nervosa involves alternating between periods of binge eating and purging through self-induced vomiting or
with laxatives
• During binge eating, adolescents with bulimia consume two days’ worth of calories in two hours or less
• Purging once or twice daily
• More common in girls, but 12-15% of boys have an eating disorder
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
20
Anorexia and Bulimia (2 of 2)
• Contributing factors to both disorders:
• heredity
• psychosocial factors
• Adverse life experiences, negative self-esteem, mood or anxiety disorders
• Overconcern about one’s body and weight (boys: muscular) and dieting
• Internalizing the thin body image that is often thought to be ideal in Western cultures
• Interventions can be successful
• Change attitudes and behaviors and resist social pressure to be thin
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
21
Physical Fitness
• Regular activity typically means 1 hour of exercise every day focused on cardio
• Research shows that adolescents rarely get enough exercise, especially because physical education classes are
becoming less common
• Many adolescents engage in organized sports, which have been shown to enhance self-esteem and initiative
• Sports can also lead to injuries, use of performance-enhancing drugs, and antisocial behavior
• Some athletes experience sexual abuse, sexual harassment, or emotional harassment from coaches as well as
physical violence from coaches and peers
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
22
Discussion Activity: Adolescent Physical Fitness
The class should discuss the following as a group
Your textbook mentions lower rates of physical fitness and exercise as related at least in part to low enrollment and
inconsistent attendance in physical education classes at high schools.
• Based on your experience, does that seem accurate?
• When you took physical education classes, did you feel like you got exercise?
• What other factors do you think contribute to lower than desired exercise levels in adolescents?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
23
Threats to Adolescent Well-Being
• Every year, approximately 20,000 adolescents die, usually from an accident
• Adolescents take risks that many adults find unacceptable, like reckless driving, using drugs or alcohol, or other highrisk behaviors
• Many of these deaths are preventable
• For example, automobile accidents are often linked to driving too fast, texting, alcohol, or not wearing seatbelts
• Gun access and use
Adolescents poorly evaluate risk compared to perceived rewards
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
24
8.3: Information Processing During Adolescence
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
25
Key Questions 1.3
• How do working memory and processing speed change in adolescence?
• How do increases in content knowledge, strategies, and metacognitive skill influence adolescent cognition?
• What changes in problem solving and reasoning take place in adolescence?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
26
How Does Information Processing Improve in Adolescence?
• Adolescence is not a distinct stage for information-processing theorists
• This period is simply one in which rapidly changing childhood cognitive processes are “tweaked” to adult levels
• Changes do take place in certain areas of cognition
• Speed of cognitive processing changes little after age 12
• Adolescents’ working memory capacity is about the same as adults
• Adolescents process information more efficiently
• Increased axonal myelination allows more rapid neural communication
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
27
Content Knowledge, Strategies, and Metacognitive Skills
• Adolescents are equally knowledgeable as adults in certain domains and more so in others (e.g., computers and
smartphones)
• Adolescents can now identify task-specific strategies and monitor how well they are implementing them
• Outlining and highlighting text material
• Creating a master study plan
• Making lists of material they do versus don’t know well
This knowledge indirectly enables them to learn, understand, and remember more new experiences
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
28
Think, Pair, and Share Activity: Content Knowledge
Students should find a partner for the following activity
Your textbook mentions that in terms of content knowledge, there are areas where adolescents have more knowledge
than adults
• What are three examples of areas where you think adolescents have more knowledge than adults?
• Why do you think that is the case?
• Would it be beneficial for adolescents to teach adults about these areas, in your opinion? Why or why not?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
29
Problem-Solving and Reasoning
• Problem solvers use heuristics and analytical solutions
• Adolescents become more analytical and logical
• Better formal operational thinking
• Greater working memory capacity
• Skilled at finding weaknesses in arguments or flaws in reasoning
• Adolescents use their thinking skills selectively
• More when their beliefs are threatened
• Less when their beliefs are supported
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
30
8.4: Reasoning About Moral Issues
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
31
Key Questions 1.4
• How do adolescents reason about moral issues?
• What other factors influence moral reasoning?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
32
Kohlberg’s Theory: Levels 1 and 2
• Level 1—preconventional level: moral reasoning is based on external forces
• Stage 1: obedience orientation: believe that authority figures know what is right and wrong
• Stage 2: instrumental orientation: look out for their own needs
• Level 2—conventional level: moral reasoning is based on society’s norms
• Stage 3: interpersonal norms: moral reasoning based on winning the approval of others
• Stage 4: social system morality: moral reasoning is based on maintenance of order in society
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
33
Kohlberg’s Theory: Level 3
• Level 3—postconventional level: personal moral code guides morality
• Stage 5: social contract: moral reasoning is based on the belief that laws are for the good of everyone
• Stage 6: personal moral system based on universal ethical principles, or moral principles that apply to all
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
34
Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory
• Longitudinal studies show that people do progress sequentially; do not skip stages
• Moral reasoning and moral behavior are linked
• Limitations
• The sequence of stages is not universal
• Moral reasoning in other cultures is often not described well by Kohlberg’s theory
• Some cultures do not stress individual rights and justice
• Cultures espousing different moral principles may resolve moral dilemmas differently
• Even Western cultures do not consistently support the theory’s emphasis on justice
• Does not factor in the impact of membership in social groups
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
35
Discussion Activity: Moral Reasoning
The class should discuss the following as a group
• Do you think that people always reason at the most advanced level they are capable of, or do they revert to a
“lower” level of moral reasoning?
• Why would someone revert in that way?
• How can adults promote moral reasoning with adolescents? Why would that be important?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
36
Peer Assessment
Write down your definitions of the following terms:
• Primary sex characteristics
• Secondary sex characteristics
• Menarche
• Spermarche
Next, write down your answers to the following questions:
• What events kick off puberty for boys? What about for girls?
Swap with a partner to check your answers. If you aren’t sure, ask for clarification!
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
37
Chapter Summary
Now that this chapter is over, you should be able to:
8.1 Define changes associated with puberty and their impact on adolescents
8.2 Summarize adolescents’ needs for nutrition and exercise as well as threats to their well-being
8.3 Describe the strategies and factors that influence adolescents’ ability to remember and solve problems
8.4 Describe Kohlberg’s theory of morality
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
38
Chapter 7:
Expanding Social Horizons: Socioemotional
Development in Middle Childhood
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
1
Icebreaker: Brainstorm
As a class, discuss the use of media for those in middle childhood
• How much television do you think that children in this age group watch?
• Do you think they use social media, and if so, how much?
• Do you think that television, social media, video games, and other activities using “screens” are good for children this
age? Why or why not?
• If you had a 10-year-old child, would you limit their screen time? What would you ideally do?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
2
Chapter Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
7.1 Describe the role of families and disruptions in families on children’s development
7.2 Describe peer relationships in middle childhood
7.3 Describe potential benefits and drawbacks in children’s use of electronic media
7.4 Describe changes in understanding of peers and social groups in middle childhood
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
3
7.1: Family Relationships
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
4
Key Questions 1.1
• What is a systems approach to parenting?
• What are the primary dimensions of parenting? How do they affect children’s development?
• What determines how siblings get along? How do first-born, later-born, and only children differ?
• How do divorce and remarriage affect children?
• What factors lead children to be maltreated?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
5
The Family as a System
• The family as a system
• The family structure evolved as a way to protect and nurture young children
• Theorists view families from a contextual perspective and believe that families form a system of interacting
elements
• The family itself is embedded in other social systems that can affect family dynamics, either directly or indirectly
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
6
A Systems View of Families
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
7
Dimensions and Styles of Parenting
• Two general parenting dimensions: warm and responsive versus hostile and uninvolved
• Extreme control versus no control
• Psychological control refers to parents’ efforts to manipulate their children/make them feel guilty
• Behavioral control refers to parents’ efforts to set rules for their children and control what they do
• Four parenting styles result from combining the two dimensions and their two levels
• Authoritarian parenting: high control and low warmth and responsiveness
• Authoritative parenting: greater control plus warm and responsive
• Permissive parenting: low control but warm
• Uninvolved parenting: low control and low warmth
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
8
Variations Associated with Culture and Socioeconomic Status
• Parenting styles vary across cultures
• European Americans: warm, exert moderate control, and value individualism
• Asian Americans and Latin Americans: value cooperation and collaboration
• Parenting styles also vary within cultures
• Low SES entails stress due to low income, lesser education, and/or a need to protect children from danger, but
this can result in controlling and punitive parenting
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
9
Parental Behavior
• Direct instruction is telling children what to do and when, and explaining why
• Coaching is helping children master social and emotional skills and explaining links between behavior and
emotions
• Modeling is learning by observing and imitating what parents do and say
• Counterimitation is learning what should not be done by observing the behavior
• Feedback allows parents to indicate whether a behavior is appropriate or inappropriate
• Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated in the future
• Punishment is the application of an aversive stimulus or removal of an attractive stimulus, both to reduce the
likelihood that a behavior is repeated.
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
10
Punishment
• Punishment can be effective when it’s prompt, consistent, and explained, within a good parent–child relationship
• Punishment has some serious drawbacks; effects are temporary and there are undesirable side effects
• One effective punishment is time-out, when a child who misbehaves must briefly sit alone in a quiet, unstimulating
location
• When time-out is over, the parent explains why the punished behavior is a problem and what the child should do
instead
• Another problem is the negative reinforcement trap, when parents accidentally reinforce the behavior they want to
discourage
• For example, a mom gives in to a whining child who doesn’t want to clean his room without making him clean his
room, so he whines more the next time
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
11
Influences of the Marital System
• Harmful effects of chronic parental conflict:
• Jeopardizes children’s feelings of a stable family; makes children feel anxious, frightened, and sad
• Diverts parents’ attention away from high-quality parenting
• Parents who take a constructive approach to conflict teach children good skills
• Unemployment or work stress can undermine parenting skills
• Parents need to work as a team, with each supporting the child in their unique ways
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
12
Children’s Contributions: Reciprocal Influence
• Parents and children affect each other’s behavior and family (dys)functioning
• Parenting styles differ with the child’s age, cognitive development, and temperament
• Adolescents desire more autonomy and input into decision making, and their well-being flourishes as parents
gradually relinquish control
• Temperamentally active children may require greater parental control
• Reciprocal influences lead to routine patterns of behaviors and interactions
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
13
Siblings
• The birth of a sibling can result in the older child withdrawing or regressing to childish behavior
• Sibling relationships are more harmonious:
• In adolescence
• If same-sex
• Have good emotion regulation and good temperaments
• When the parents have a good relationship
• When the parents are affectionate, caring, and responsive to each other and all of their children
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
14
Adopted Children
• The best estimate is that of all U.S. children, 2–4% are adopted
• The most common form of adoption is for a foster parent or relative to adopt young children who are in foster care
• Young children are also adopted through private agencies
• Infants and young children are adopted more often
• Most adopted children do quite well
• Some are more prone to conduct disorders and school adjustment problems, like older children or those who had
lower quality care pre-adoption
• Open adoption, when adopted children and their families communicate with the children’s birth family, is more
common today
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
15
Impact of Birth Order
• Parents of first-born children have high expectations, are more affectionate, and are more strict
• First-borns have higher IQ, and are more willing to conform
• Only children succeed more in school and aren’t “spoiled brats”
• Later-born children tend to have parents who are more relaxed in their discipline
• Later-born children are less concerned about pleasing parents and adults, more outgoing and popular with their
peers, more innovative, and more likely to take risks
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
16
Divorce and Remarriage
• Divorce’s effect on children:
• Depends on parents cooperating with each other, especially about discipline
• Problems with school achievement, conduct, adjustment, self-concept, and parent–child relations
• Likelier to experience negative marriage attitudes and marital problems, and to divorce
• Less life satisfaction; more depression as adults
• Joint custody is when both parents retain legal custody of their children following a divorce
• An option when parents get along
• In sole custody, children fare better with same-sex parent
• Children benefit when fathers remain involved in parenting
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
17
Which Children Are Most Affected By Divorce?
• Children fare best when neither parent experiences psychological problems, when parents get along with each other,
and when parents stay involved and parent effectively
• Divorce is more harmful to temperamentally emotional children and those who interpret events negatively
• Less harmful if parents explain divorce’s reasons to children, reassure them of love/involvement, don’t compete for
the child, don’t criticize their ex, and don’t ask children to mediate disputes
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
18
Blended Families
• A blended family consists of a biological parent, stepparent, and children
• Typical blended family is a mother, her children, and a stepfather
• Children can thrive in a blended family
• Children close to their mother and stepfather report being well-adjusted
• Showing preference to biological children in a blended family can lead to conflict and unhappiness
• Strategies for stepfathers: be involved and avoid encroaching on established relationships
• Strategies for stepmothers: be careful not to overfocus on the new relationship with the spouse; maintain time and
affection with children
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
19
Discussion Activity: Same-Sex Parents
The class should discuss the following questions as a group
Research shows that as parents, gay and lesbian couples are more similar to heterosexual couples than they are
different, although they more likely share childrearing tasks equally
• Why do you think that’s the case?
• How do you think children of same-sex parents learn about other-sex gender roles?
• How do you think the experiences of children from same-sex parented families are different than those of children
with mixed-sex parents? How are they the same?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
20
Parent–Child Relationships Gone Awry: Child Maltreatment
• A large number of U.S. children are neglected or abused in some way every year.
• 75% neglect: inadequate food, clothing, or medical care
• Maltreatment risk is highest when cultures condone physical punishment; when the family lives in poverty or
experiences social isolation; when parents were abused as children, lack effective parenting skills, or have marital
conflicts; or when the child’s behavior is often aversive
• Spanking is common in the United States
• The United States has higher child maltreatment rates than countries where physical punishment is not
condoned (in Europe, Asia)
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
21
Resilience
• Ego resilience is the ability to respond adaptively and resourcefully to new situations
• Buffers against abuse’s effects
• Sometimes called a protective factor
• Other protective factors include:
• Being engaged in school
• children having positive representations of their mothers (e.g., “kind,” “loving”)
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
22
Linking Research to Life: Preventing Child Maltreatment
• Reducing positive attitudes toward physical punishment
• Reducing poverty and its stressful effects
• Maintaining social supports that advise parents and provide opportunities to vent
• Increasing counseling and training in parenting skills (e.g., for at-risk families due to child illness)
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
23
7.2: Peers
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
24
Key Questions 1.2
• What are the benefits of friendship?
• What are the important features of groups of children and adolescents? How do these groups influence individuals?
• Why are some children more popular than others? What are the causes and consequences of being rejected?
• What are some effects of childhood aggression? Why are some children chronic victims of aggression?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
25
Friendships
• Friendship is a voluntary relationship of two people involving mutual liking
• Preschoolers: choose based on common interests and getting along well
• 8- to 11-year-olds: mutual liking and shared interests, plus psychological characteristics (e.g., trust, assistance)
• Adolescents: all of the above, plus loyalty and intimacy (particularly for girls)
• Friends tend to be similar in age, of same sex, and from the same race or ethnic group
• Latter less true if children’s schools or neighborhoods are ethnically diverse
• Cross-group friendships help majority group children form more positive attitudes toward a minority
• Friends have similar interests, attitudes toward school, recreational pursuits, future plans, and risky behavior
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
26
Quality and Consequences of Friendships
• Children benefit from good friendships:
• Higher self-esteem
• Less likely to be lonely or depressed
• Act more prosocially
• Cope better with stresses
• Co-rumination is conversations about one’s personal problems and is particularly common among adolescent girls
• Friendships can be hazardous when friends reinforce each other’s aggressiveness and risky behaviors
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
27
Groups
• Groups are very prevalent in American schools
• A clique is a small group of child or adolescent friends similar in attitudes, sex, race, and age
• A crowd is a larger, mixed-sex group of older children with similar attitudes and values
• The dominance hierarchy is the ordering of individuals in a group, where members defer to leaders
• Boys: physical power determines who leads
• Girls and older boys: having the best skills to fulfill group’s purpose determines who leads
• Examples: Being outgoing and having good ideas qualifies one to lead class projects; having camping
experience qualifies one to lead at summer camps
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
28
Peer Influence
• Peer pressure is the pressure to conform to group norms
• Most powerful when:
• Youth are younger and socially anxious
• Peers are friends and/or of high status
• Identify strongly with the group
• Behavioral standards are ambiguous
• Peer pressure can have both positive and negative effects
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
29
Think, Pair, and Share: Friendships in Middle Childhood
Students should find a partner for this activity
Think back on your own friendship experiences in middle childhood and share with your partner. Here are some
questions to get you started:
• Were you part of a clique?
• What sorts of things did you like to do with your friends? Looking back on it now, were any of the things you chose to
do examples of you giving in to peer influence?
• Do you still talk to your friends from middle childhood now? If so, how have your friendships changed over time?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
30
Popularity and Rejection
• Popular children are liked by most classmates
• Rejected children are disliked by most classmates
• Rejected children can become aggressive or withdrawn
• Compared to popular children’s parents, those of rejected children:
• Are belligerent, combative, intimidating, and aggressive during interpersonal conflict
• Inconsistently discipline children and are not loving or warm when punishing them
• Controversial children are liked by some classmates and disliked by others
• Average children are liked and disliked by some classmates, but with lower intensity than the above categories
• Neglected children are largely ignored by their classmates
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
31
Aggressive Children and Their Victims
• Instrumental aggression is when aggression is used to achieve an explicit goal
• Hostile aggression is unprovoked aggression that seems to have the goal to intimidate, harass, or humiliate someone
• Early childhood aggressiveness predicts adolescent and adult aggression
• Chronic bullying victims have low self-esteem, dislike school, and are often lonely, anxious, and depressed
• Risks for being victimized include children either being aggressive themselves or withdrawn and submissive
• Revictimization is likely if they refuse to defend themselves
• 10–25% experience repeated bullying
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
32
7.3: Electronic Media
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
33
Key Questions 1.3
• What is the impact of watching television on children’s attitudes, behavior, and cognitive development?
• How does playing video games affect youth?
• How does use of social media affect development?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
34
Television and Videos
• In a typical day, American children spend 5 hours in front of a screen (including computers, phones, and television)
and adolescents spend 7 hours—not including homework
• Children may learn gender stereotypes, aggressiveness, risky behaviors, and impulsivity from TV, but also prosocial
behavior
• There is little evidence of TV viewing affecting attention span or ability to concentrate, or of it leading to passive,
uncreative, and lazy thinking
• Watching positive programming (like Sesame Street) relates to better high school grades and time spent reading
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
35
Video Games
• Adolescent boys play video games (2 hours per day) more than girls do (45 minutes)
• Some games can improve spatial skills, processing speed, and executive functioning
• Violent video games can make children more aggressive and less empathic, and desensitize them
• Approximately 10% of kids get “hooked” on video games
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
36
Social Media
• Adolescents spend over an hour every day on social media
• They use it to feel more connected with friends, as self-disclosure promotes high-quality friendships
• Social media helps form friend-making skills
• The “dark side” of social media is cyberbullying
• Teenagers are also worried about “status” among their peers related to social media (how many likes they get, how
many followers they have, etc.) and how often they received negative feedback or were rejected
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
37
Discussion Activity: Social Media
Discuss the following as a class:
At the start of this chapter, you brainstormed about media use in middle childhood. Now that you’ve all learned more,
it is time to revisit that discussion
• Do you think that television, social media, video games, and other activities using “screens” are good for children this
age? Why or why not?
• If you had a 10-year-old child, would you limit their screen time? What would you ideally do?
• How did your answers change based on what you’ve learned in this chapter?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
38
7.4: Understanding Others
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
39
Key Questions 1.4
• As children develop, how do their descriptions of others change?
• How does understanding of others’ thinking change as children develop?
• How do children learn about social groups?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
40
Describing Others
• Self- and other descriptions become progressively richer, more abstract, and more psychological with cognitive
development
• At age 7, children use mostly concrete terms
• Children under 10 years old have a positive bias in what they say
• Starting at age 10, kids also acknowledge negative traits
• At around 16 years old, positive and negative traits are integrated cohesively
• Starting around 4–5 years old, children can infer others’ psychological traits if they are told behavioral examples (e.g.,
“selfish” if hearing a child won’t share)
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
41
Understanding What Others Think
• Selman’s five stages of perspective taking:
• Undifferentiated (3–6 years old): children know that self and others can have different thoughts and feelings, but
often confuse the two
• Social-informational (4–9 years old): children know that perspectives differ because people have access to
different information
• Self-reflective (7–12 years old): children can step into another person’s shoes and view themselves as others do;
they also know that others can do the same
• Third-person (10–15 years old): children can step outside the immediate situation to see how they and another
person are viewed by a third person
• Societal (14 years to adult): adolescents realize that a third-person perspective is influenced by broader personal,
social, and cultural contexts
• Recursive thinking is understanding second-order beliefs, or what another person is thinking
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
42
Understanding Social Groups
• Young children use perceptual cues and labels to create essentialized social categories such as gender and race, and
they use generic attributes to apply to all members of the group
• Prejudice is a negative view of others based on their membership in a different group
• Younger children’s prejudice is more like an enhanced view of their own group
• They perceive other groups as simply “we versus them”
• Negative views form slowly over time
• Reducing prejudice works well when we:
• Encourage friendly and constructive contact (exposure)
• Encourage role playing
• Educate
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
43
Think, Pair, and Share Activity: Reducing Prejudice
Students should find a partner for this activity
• What kind of examples did you see from your teachers in terms of addressing prejudice when you were growing up?
• If you’re comfortable sharing, what were your school experiences like in terms of prejudice? Do you think the efforts
of your teacher and/or school worked to increase acceptance?
• How would you like to see society as a whole continue to reduce prejudice?
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
44
Peer Assessment
Each student should pick a partner, and write down definitions of the following terms:
• Popular children
• Rejected children
• Controversial children
• Average children
• Rejected children
Then answer this question: What are the causes and consequences of rejection?
Swap with your partner to check your work, and ask for clarification as needed
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
45
Chapter Summary
Now that you’ve finished this chapter, you should be able to:
7.1 Describe the role of families and disruptions in families on children’s development
7.2 Describe peer relationships in middle childhood
7.3 Describe potential benefits and drawbacks in children’s use of electronic media
7.4 Describe changes in understanding of peers and social groups in middle childhood
Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
46