Presentation

Understanding the differences between virtual and face-to-face presentations is certainly becoming more important as business needs grow. Assess and explain the principal differences between face-to-face and virtual presentations. As an attendee or class participant, is seeing and interacting with the presenter of critical importance to you. Why or why not?

Your response should be at least 200 words in length.

Lesikar, R., Flatley, M., & Rentz, K. (2008). Business communication. (11 ed., pp. 476-478). The McGraw-Hill Companies.

(Lesikar, Flatley & Rentz, 2008)

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition

V. Other Forms of Business
Communication

14. Informal Oral
Communication

c h a p t e r f o u r t e e n

Informal Oral Communication

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to understand and
use good talking techniques, lead and participate in meetings,
communicate effectively by telephone, dictate messages effectively,
listen well, and understand nonverbal communication. To reach
these goals, you should be able to

1 Discuss talking and its key elements.
2 Explain the techniques for conducting and participating in

meetings.

3 Describe good telephone and voice mail techniques.
4 Describe the techniques of good voice input.
5 Explain the listening problem and how to solve it.
6 Describe the nature and role of nonverbal communication.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
V. Other Forms of Business
Communication
14. Informal Oral
Communication
© The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 441

I N T R O D U C T O R Y S I T U A T I O N

Informal Oral Communication on the Job
Your job as assistant director in the Public Relations Department at Mastadon Chemicals, Inc., seems somewhat
different from what you expected. It makes full use of your specialized college training, as you expected; but it also
involves duties for which you did not train because you did not expect them. Most of these duties seem to involve
some form of oral communication. In fact, you probably spend more of your work time in talking and listening than
in any other activity.
To illustrate, take today’s activities. Early this morning, you discussed a morale problem with some of your super-
visors. You don’t think they understood what you said. After that, you conducted a meeting of the special committee
to plan the department’s annual picnic. As chairperson, you ran the meeting. It was a disaster, you felt—everybody
talking at once, interrupting, arguing. It was a wonder that the committee made any progress. It seemed that every-
body wanted to talk but nobody wanted to listen.
In the afternoon, you had other job duties involving oral communication. After you returned from lunch, you must
have had a phone conversation every 20 minutes or so. You felt comfortable with most of these calls, but you thought
some of the callers needed a lesson or two in phone etiquette. Also, using speech recognition in Word, you dictated
a few messages and emails between phone calls.
You most certainly do a lot of talking (and listening) on your job, as do most of the people at Mastadon and just
about everywhere else. Oral communication is a vital part of your work. Perhaps you can become better at it by
studying the following review of oral communication techniques.

As you know, your work will involve oral as well as written communication. The
written communication will probably give you more problems, but the oral communi-
cation will take up more of your time. In fact, you are likely to spend more time in oral
communication than in any other work activity.
Much of the oral communication that goes on in business is the informal, person-
to-person communication that occurs whenever people get together. Obviously, we
all have experience with this form of communication, and most of us do it reasonably
well. But all of us can improve our informal speaking and listening with practice.
In addition to informal talking and listening, various kinds of other more formal
oral communication take place in business. Sometimes businesspeople conduct and
participate in committee meetings, conferences, and group discussions. Often they call
one another on the phone. Even their messages and reports may begin orally as spoken
dictation. And frequently, they are called upon to make formal presentations: speeches,
lectures, oral reports, and the like. All these kinds of oral communication are a part of
the work that businesspeople do.
This and the following chapter cover these kinds of oral communication. This chap-
ter reviews the somewhat less formal kinds: informal talking, listening, participating in
meetings, talking by phone, and dictating. The following chapter presents the two most
formal kinds: public speaking and oral reporting. Together, the two chapters should
give you an understanding of the types of oral communication situations you will
encounter in business.

INFORMAL TALKING
As noted previously, most of us do a reasonably good job of informal talking. In fact,
we do such a good job that we often take talking for granted and overlook the need
for improving our talking ability. Most of us could stand to improve. To improve our
talking ability, we need to be aware of its nature and qualities. We need to assess our
abilities. Then we need to work to overcome our shortcomings.

• You will spend more time
talking than writing in
business.

• Most of your oral
communication will be
informal.

• But some of it will be
formal, as in meetings,
phone calls, dictation,
speeches, and oral
reports.

• This and the following
chapter cover
these types of oral
communication.

• Most of us talk
reasonably well, but
probably we can do
better.

442 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

Defi nition of Talking
Imagine for a few moments what it would be like to have no words. All that you have
to express your thoughts are grunts, groans, and other such utterances. Of course, you
have various nonverbal symbols such as pointing your fi ngers, nodding your head, and
the like. As you fi nd yourself increasingly in need of expressing yourself, you prob-
ably become more and more emotional and frustrated—to the point of exaggerating
the nonverbal symbols and experiencing many physical symptoms such as redness of
the face, heavy breathing, and an increased heartbeat.
More than likely, the foregoing analogy describes the way you learned to talk. As a
dependent child, you expressed yourself with screams, cries, and nonverbal symbols.
But as you matured, you learned words, and the words greatly reduced the frustrations
of the past. They enabled you to communicate with others more exactly. They enabled
you to relate better to the world about you and to some extent to control it.
The foregoing review of how you learned to talk gives us the basis for defi ning
talking. From it we can derive this defi nition: Talking is the oral expression of knowl-
edge, viewpoints, and emotions through words. Also, from this review we can see that
talking replaces many of the body movements we made before we were able to talk.
And as we will see, it is supplemented by various body movements we have acquired
as we learned to talk: gestures, facial expressions, body positions, and such.
As a fi rst step in improving your talking ability, think for a moment about the quali-
ties you like in a good talker—one with whom you would enjoy talking in ordinary
conversation. Then think about the opposite—the worst conversationalist you can
imagine. If you will get these two images in mind, you can form a good picture of
the characteristics of good talking. Probably this mental picture includes good voice

T E C H N O L O G Y I N B R I E F

Voice Input Saves Writers Time Creating Documents

Created with Dragon Naturally Speaking. Used with permission.

• Think about having no
words to speak. If you
try to express yourself,
you probably become
frustrated.

• Thus, we learn words to
control ourselves and the
world about us.

• Talking, then, is the oral
expression of knowledge,
viewpoints, and emotions
through words.

• Think about the best and
worst speakers you can
imagine. This contrast
should give you the
qualities of good talking:
voice quality, speaking
style, word choice,
adaptation.

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 443

quality, excellence in talking style, accuracy of word choice, and adaptation. As these
elements control the overall quality of oral expression, we will now review them.

Elements of Good Talking
The techniques of good talking use four basic elements: (1) voice quality, (2) style,
(3) word choice, and (4) adaptation.

Voice Quality. It should be obvious that good voice quality is central to good
talking. By voice quality we mean the vocal sounds one hears when another speaks.
Primarily voice quality refers to the pitch and resonance of the sounds made. But for
our purposes, speed and volume are included. Because we cover these topics in Chap-
ter 15, our review here is brief. We need only to say that voices vary widely—from the
unpleasant to the melodious. Each of us is saddled with the voice given us. But we can
work for improvement.
Perhaps the best way of improving voice quality is fi rst to refer to your life ex-
periences. From your life experiences you know good voice quality when you hear
it. You know bad voice quality when you hear it. You know the effect received from
talking that is too fast or too slow. You know the effect of talking in a monotone. You
know the effect of a high-pitched voice, a guttural voice, a melodious voice. With this
knowledge in mind, you should analyze your own voice, perhaps with the assistance
of a recorder. Listen carefully to you. Fit what you hear into impressions you have
gained from your life experiences. Then do what you can to improve. It will take
conscious effort.

Style. Talking style refers to how the three parts of voice quality—pitch, speed, and
volume—blend together. It is the unique way these parts combine to give personal-
ity to one’s oral expression. As such, style refers to a set of voice behaviors that give
uniqueness to a person.
From the self-analysis described in our review of voice quality, you also should have
a good idea of your talking style. What is the image your talking projects? Does it pro-
ject sincerity? Is it polished? Smooth? Rough? Dull? After your honest assessment, you
should be able to determine your style defi ciencies. Then you should work to improve.

Word Choice. A third quality of talking is word choice. Of course, word choice is
related to one’s vocabulary. The larger the vocabulary, the more choices one has. Even
so, you should keep in mind the need for the recipient to understand the words you
choose. You should choose words you know are in his or her vocabulary. In addition,
the words you choose should be appropriate. They should convey the morality and

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Words of Wisdom

Oral communication was consistently identifi ed as the most important competency in evaluating entry-level candidates. The four
oral communication skills identifi ed as most important for entry-level jobs are following instructions, listening, conversing, and
giving feedback.

Jeanne D. Maes, University of South Alabama
Teresa G. Weldy, University of South Alabama

Marjorie L. Icenogle, University of South Alabama

Jeanne D. Maes, Teresa G. Weldy, Marjorie L. Icenogle, “A Managerial Perspective: Oral Communication Is Most Important for Business Students in the
Workplace,” Journal of Business Communication 34 (1997): 78.

• Good voice quality helps
one communicate. It
involves pitch, delivery
speed, and volume.

• Study the quality of your
voice and compare it with
what experience tells you
is good. Then correct the
shortcomings.

• Style is the blending of
pitch, speed, and volume
to form a unique talking
personality.

• A self-analysis of your
talking should show you
your talking style and the
image it projects.

• Choose words in your
listener’s vocabulary.
Select those that
appropriately convey the
morality and courtesy
you intend and respect
the listener’s knowledge.

444 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

courtesy you desire. And they should respect the listener’s knowledge of the subject
matter—that is, they should not talk down to or above the listener.

Adaptation. Adaptation is the fourth quality of good talking. It is an extension of
our discussion in the paragraphs above. Adaptation means fi tting the message to the
intended listener. Primarily this means fi tting the words to the listener’s mind. But it
also can include voice and style. To illustrate, the voice, style, and words in an oral
message aimed at children would be different for the same message aimed at adults.
Similarly, these qualities might vary in messages delivered in different cultures as well
as different social situations, work situations, and classrooms.

Courtesy in Talking
Our review of talking would not be complete without a comment about the need for
courtesy. Good relations between human beings require courtesy. We all know talkers
who drown out others with their loud voices, who butt in while others are talking, who
attempt to dominate others in conversation. They are universally disliked. Do not be
one of them. Good talkers encourage others to make their voices heard. They practice
courtesy in their conversations.
This emphasis on courtesy does not suggest that you should be submissive in your
conversations—that you should not be aggressive in pressing your points. It means
that you should accord others the courtesy that you expect of them. What we are sug-
gesting is simply the Golden Rule applied to conversation.

CONDUCTING AND PARTICIPATING
IN MEETINGS
From time to time, you will participate in business meetings. They will range from
extreme formality to extreme informality. On the formal end will be conferences and
committee meetings. On the informal end will be discussions with groups of fellow
workers. Whether formal or informal, the meetings will involve communication. In
fact, the quality of the communication will determine their success. As noted in Chap-
ter 10, collaborative report-writing groups should use the suggestions for conducting
effective meetings.

• Adaptation is fi tting
the message to the
listener. It includes word
selection, but here we
refer to the combined
effect of words, voice,
and style.

• Good talkers are
courteous. They don’t
attempt to dominate.

• They are assertive, but
they treat others as they
want to be treated.

• Meetings involve oral
communication.

Good talking is the
foundation for other
types of discourse—
from dictating to
personal meetings to
conducting online and
face-to-face meetings.

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 445

Your role in a meeting will be that of either leader or participant. Of course, the
leader’s role is the primary one, but good participation is also vital. The following
paragraphs review the techniques of performing well in either role.

Techniques of Conducting

Meetings

How you conduct a meeting depends on the formality of the occasion. Meetings of such
groups as formal committees, boards of directors, and professional organizations usu-
ally follow generally accepted rules of conduct called parliamentary procedure. These
very specifi c rules are too detailed for review here. When you are involved in a formal
meeting, you would do well to study one of the many books covering parliamentary
procedure before the meeting. In addition, you should know and practice the following
techniques. For less formal meetings, you can depart somewhat from parliamentary
procedure and those techniques. But you should keep in mind that every meeting has
goals and that such departures should never hinder you from reaching them.

Plan the Meeting. A key to conducting a successful meeting is to plan it thorough-
ly. That is, you develop an agenda (a list of topics to be covered) by selecting the items
that need to be covered to achieve the goals of the meeting. Then arrange these items
in the most logical order. Items that explain or lead to other items should come before
the items that they explain or lead to. After preparing the agenda, make it available to
those who will attend if the meeting is formal. For informal meetings, you may fi nd
keeping the agenda in mind satisfactory.

Follow the Plan. You should follow the plan for the meeting item by item. In most
meetings the discussion tends to stray and new items tend to come up. As leader, you
should keep the discussion on track. If new items come up during the meeting, you can
take them up at the end—or perhaps postpone them to a future meeting.

Move the Discussion Along. As leader, you should control the agenda. When
one item has been covered, bring up the next item. When the discussion moves off

Virtual meetings are becoming common in small and
large business alike. No longer do businesses need

T E C H N O L O G Y I N B R I E F

Collaborative Tools Support Virtual Meetings

sophisticated teleconferencing equipment to work together
from different locations. A typical desktop or laptop with an
Internet connection will work nicely. With the proper system
confi guration, meeting participants can both see and hear
others as well as see and work with various software
applications.
Businesses are using this technology with their employ-
ees, their suppliers, and their customers. Some of the uses
include training, sales presentations, review meetings, prod-
uct demonstrations, and much more—sometimes even just-
in-time meetings. All uses help the businesspeople do their
jobs while saving both time and travel costs.
One such meeting tool is GoTo Meeting, a web-based
application, which has won awards for its technology.
Because the technology is scalable, meeting size can vary
widely. And its cost and ease-of-use make it readily avail-
able to large and small businesses alike.

• In a meeting you will
be either a leader or a
participant.

• To lead some formal
meetings, you should
know parliamentary
procedure. So study the
subject.

• In addition, you should
do the following: (1) plan
the items to be covered
(the agenda),

• (2) follow the plan item
by item,

• (3) move the discussion
along,

446 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

subject, move it back on subject. In general, do what is needed to proceed through the
items effi ciently. But you should not cut off discussion before all the important points
have been made. Thus, you will have to use your good judgment. Your goal is to permit
complete discussion on the one hand and to avoid repetition, excessive details, and
useless comments on the other.

Control Those Who Talk Too Much. Keeping certain people from talking too
much is likely to be one of your harder tasks. A few people usually tend to dominate
the discussion. Your task as leader is to control them. Of course, you want the meeting
to be democratic, so you will need to let these people talk as long as they are contribut-
ing to the goals of the meeting. However, when they begin to stray, duplicate, or bring
in useless matter, you should step in. You can do this tactfully and with all the decorum
of business etiquette by asking for other viewpoints or by summarizing the discussion
and moving on to the next topic.

Encourage Participation from Those Who Talk Too Little. Just as some
people talk too much, some talk too little. In business groups, those who say little
are often in positions lower than those of other group members. Your job as leader is
to encourage these people to participate by asking them for their viewpoints and by
showing respect for the comments they make.

Control Time. When your meeting time is limited, you need to determine in ad-
vance how much time will be needed to cover each item. Then, at the appropriate
times, you should end discussion of the items. You may fi nd it helpful to announce the
time goals at the beginning of the meeting and to remind the group members of
the time status during the meeting.

Summarize at Appropriate Places. After a key item has been discussed, you
should summarize what the group has covered and concluded. If a group decision is
needed, the group’s vote will be the conclusion. In any event, you should formally
conclude each point and then move on to the next one. At the end of the meeting, you
can summarize the progress made. You also should summarize whenever a review will
help the group members understand their accomplishments. For some formal meet-
ings, minutes kept by a secretary provide this summary.

Techniques for Participating in a Meeting
From the preceding discussion of the techniques that a leader should use, you know
something about the things that a participant should do. The following review empha-
sizes them.

Follow the Agenda. When an agenda exists, you should follow it. Specifi cally,
you should not bring up items not on the agenda or comment on such items if others
bring them up. When there is no agenda, you should stay within the general limits of
the goal for the meeting.

Participate. The purpose of meetings is to get the input of everybody concerned.
Thus, you should participate. Your participation, however, should be meaningful. You
should talk only when you have something to contribute, and you should talk when-
ever you have something to contribute. Practice professional etiquette as you work
courteously and cooperatively with others in the group.

Do Not Talk Too Much. As you participate in the meeting, be aware that other
people are attending. You should speak up whenever you have something to say, but
do not get carried away. As in all matters of etiquette, always respect the rights of
others. As you speak, ask yourself whether what you are saying really contributes
to the discussion. Not only is the meeting costing you time, but it is costing other

• (4) allow no one to talk
too much,

• (5) encourage everybody
to take part,

• (6) control time when
time is limited, and

• (7) at appropriate places,
summarize what the
group has covered and
concluded.

• As a participant in a
meeting you should

• (1) follow the agenda,

• (2) participate in the
meeting,

• (3) avoid talking too
much,

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 447

people’s time and salaries as well as the opportunity costs of other work they might
be doing.

Cooperate. A meeting by its very nature requires cooperation from all the participants.
So keep this in mind as you participate. Respect the leader and her or his efforts to make
progress. Respect the other participants, and work with them in every practical way.

Be Courteous. Perhaps being courteous is a part of being cooperative. In any event,
you should be courteous to the other group members. Specifi cally, you should respect
their rights and opinions, and you should permit them to speak.

USING THE PHONE
A discussion of business phone techniques may appear trivial at fi rst thought. After all,
most of us have had long experience in using the phone and may feel that we have little
to learn about it. No doubt, some of us have excellent phone skills. But you have only
to call a few randomly selected businesses to learn that not everyone who talks on the
phone is profi cient in its use. You will get some gruff, cold greetings, and you will be
subjected to a variety of discourtesies. And you will fi nd instances of ineffi cient use of
time (which, of course, is costly). This is not to say that the problem is major, for most
progressive businesses are aware of the need for good phone habits and do something
about it. But poor phone techniques are found often enough to justify reviewing the
subject of phone use in a business communication textbook.

Need for Favorable Voice Quality
In reviewing good phone techniques, keep in mind that a phone conversation is a
unique form of oral communication. Only voices are heard; the speakers are not seen.
Impressions are received only from the words and the quality of the voices. Thus,
when speaking by phone, it is extremely important that you work to make your voice
sound pleasant and friendly.
One often-suggested way of improving your phone voice is to talk as if you were
face to face with the other person—even smiling and gesturing as you talk if this helps
you be more natural. In addition, you would do well to put into practice the suggestions
given earlier in this chapter concerning the use of the voice in speaking (voice quality,
variation in pitch, and speed). Perhaps the best instructional device for this problem
is to record one of your phone conversations. Then judge for yourself how you come
across and what you need to do to improve.

Techniques of Courtesy
If you have worked in business for any length of time, you have probably experienced
most of the common phone discourtesies. You probably know that most of them are
not intended as discourtesies but result from ignorance or unconcern. The following
review should help you avoid them and incorporate business etiquette into your phone
conversations.
The recommended procedure when you are calling is to introduce yourself immedi-
ately and then to ask for the person with whom you want to talk:

“This is Wanda Tidwell of Tioga Milling Company. May I speak with Mr. José
Martinez?”

If you are not certain with whom you should talk, explain the purpose of your call:

“This is Wanda Tidwell of Tioga Milling Company. We have a question about your
service warranty. May I talk with the proper executive about it?”

When a secretary or someone else who is screening calls answers the phone, the
recommended procedure is to fi rst identify the company or offi ce and then to make an
offer of assistance:

• (4) cooperate with all
concerned, and

• (5) practice courtesy.

• Many businesspeople
are discourteous and
ineffi cient in phone
communication.

• Because only sound is
involved, friendly voices
are important.

• So talk as if you were
in a face-to-face
conversation.

• Be courteous.

• When calling,
immediately introduce
yourself and ask for the
person you want (or
explain your purpose).

• When receiving a call,
identify your company
or offi ce; then offer
assistance.

448 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

“Rowan Insurance Company. How may I help you?”

“Ms. Santo’s offi ce. May I help you?”

When a call goes directly into the offi ce of the executive, the procedure is much the
same, except that the executive identifi es herself or himself:

“Bartosh Realty. Toby Bartosh speaking. May I help you?”

When an assistant answers for an executive (the usual case), special care should be
taken not to offend the caller. Following a question like “Who is calling?” by “I am
sorry, but Mr. Gordon is not in” leaves the impression that Gordon may be in but does
not want to talk with this particular caller. A better procedure would be to state directly
“Mr. Gordon is not in right now. May I ask him to return your call?” Or perhaps “May
I tell him who called?” or “Can someone else help you?” could be substituted for the
latter sentence.
Especially irritating to callers is being put on hold for unreasonable periods of time.
If the person being called is on another line or involved in some other activity, it may
be desirable to place the caller on hold or ask if the caller would like to leave a mes-
sage. But good business etiquette dictates that the choice should be the caller’s. If the
hold continues for a period longer than anticipated, the assistant should check back
with the caller periodically showing concern and offering assistance. Equally irritat-
ing is the practice of having an assistant place a call for an executive and then put the
person called on hold until the executive is free to talk. Although it may be effi cient to
use assistants for such work, as a matter of courtesy and etiquette the executive should
be ready to talk the moment the call goes through.
Assistants to busy executives often screen incoming calls. In doing so, they should
courteously ask the purpose of the calls. The response might prompt the assistant to re-
fer the caller to a more appropriate person in the company. It also might reveal that the
executive has no interest in the subject of the call, in which case the assistant should
courteously yet clearly explain this to the caller. If the executive is busy at the moment,
the assistant should explain this and either suggest a more appropriate time for a call
or promise a callback by the executive. But in no case should the assistant promise a
callback that will not be made. Such a breach of etiquette would likely destroy any
goodwill between the caller and the company.

Effective Phone Procedures
At the beginning of a phone conversation that you have initiated, it is good practice
to state the purpose of the call. Then you should cover systematically all the points
involved. For really important calls, you should plan your call, even to the point of
making notes of the points to cover. Then you should follow your notes to make certain
you cover them all.
Courteous procedure is much the same in a telephone conversation as in a face-to-
face conversation. You listen when the other person is talking. You refrain from inter-
rupting. You avoid dominating the conversation. And perhaps most important of all,
you cover your message quickly, saving time (and money) for all concerned.

Effective Voice Mail Techniques
Sometimes when the person you are calling is not available, you will be able to leave
a voice message in an electronic voice mailbox. Not only does this save you the time
involved in calling back the person you are trying to reach, but it also allows you to
leave a more detailed message than you might leave with an assistant. However, you
need to be prepared for this to be sure your message is both complete and concise.
You begin the message nearly the same way you would a telephone call. Be as cour-
teous as you would on the telephone and speak as clearly and distinctly as you can. Tell
the listener in a natural way your name and affi liation. Begin with an overview of the
message and continue with details. If you want the listener to take action, call for it at

• Assistants should
avoid offending callers
by asking misleading
questions, by making
misleading comments, or

• by being inconsiderate in
placing callers on hold.
Let the callers choose,
and check on the hold
status continually.

• Assistants often screen
calls. They should do this
courteously and honestly.

• When calling, state
your purpose early.
Then cover your points
systematically. Plan
important calls.

• Be considerate, listen,
and do not dominate.
Use time effi ciently.

• Voice mail is becoming
common in business.

• Use it much as you
would any other
telephone call.

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 449

the end. If you want the listener to return your call, state that precisely, including when
you can be reached. Slowly give the number where your call can be returned. Close
with a brief goodwill message. For example, as a program coordinator for a profes-
sional training organization, you might leave this message in the voice mailbox of one
of your participants:

This is Ron Ivy from Metroplex Development Institute. I’m calling to remind Ms.
Melanie Wilson about the Chief Executive Round Table (CERT) meeting next week
(Wednesday, July 20) at the Crescent Hotel in Dallas. Dr. Ken Cooper of the Dallas
Aerobics Center will present the program on Executive Health in the 21st Century.
We will begin with breakfast at 7:30 AM and conclude with lunch at noon. Some of the
CERT members will play golf in the afternoon at Dallas Country Club. If Ms. Wilson
would like to join them, I will be glad to make a tee time for her. She can contact me
at 940-240-1003 before 5:00 PM this Friday. We look forward to our Chief Executive
Round Table meeting next Wednesday.

Cell Phones and Their Courteous Use
In recent years the use of cell phones has become ubiquitous. In fact, according to the
Yankee Group, 70 percent of all Americans have a cell phone. To say the least, the
benefi ts of this technology have greatly expanded our ability to communicate. Even so,
their use has become an annoyance to 82 percent of Americans and 87 percent of cell
phone users.1 Each of us should be aware of these annoyances and do what we can to
reduce them. We can do this by following these suggestions, any one of which can be
broken in cases of emergency:

1. Turn off the ringer in meetings and other places where it would be disruptive.

2. Do not use the cell phone at social gatherings.

3. Do not place the phone on the table while eating.

4. Avoid talking whenever it will annoy others. Usually this means when within
earshot of others.

5. Avoid discussing personal or confi dential matters when others can hear you.

6. Do not talk in an excessively loud voice.

7. Preferably call from a quiet place, away from other people.

8. If you must talk while around people, be conscious of them. Don’t hold up lines,
obstruct the movements of others, or such.

9. Avoid using the phone while driving (the law in some states).

USING SPEECH RECOGNITION FOR MESSAGES
AND REPORTS
Dictating messages and reports is probably one of the most underutilized input methods
for writers today. Speech recognition software has been improved to allow continuous
speech and short setup periods with little training. Additionally, it works with most
standard software applications, and it is inexpensive compared to the value it offers
writers. Not only does such technology spell correctly, it can quickly learn specialized
vocabularies. And it is generally faster for most people than writing by hand or keying
information because most people can speak 140 to 160 words per minute. Although
proofreading dictated documents is a bit different because it involves looking for
homophones (words that sound alike) rather than misspelled or misused words, most
programs offer users the ability to play back the dictation, which will help them catch
other errors.
If you haven’t started dictating documents yet, one of the best ways to learn is to use
voice recognition software to handle your email. If you are using Offi ce XP or higher,
you already have the software; you simply need a microphone and a few minutes

• Cell phones are widely
used. Their use can be
annoying.

• You can reduce these
annoyances by following
these suggestions.

1 Lee Rainie and Scott Keeter, “Cell Phone Use,” Pew Internet Project, April 2006, 21 June 2006 .

• Dictation is an
underutilized input
method.

• Today’s software make
the process easy . . .

• and inexpensive.

450 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

for training. Two other excellent programs are Dragon NaturallySpeaking and Simply
Speaking. Once you have the tools, following the steps below will help you become
profi cient at dictating.

Techniques of

Dictating

Gather the Facts. Your fi rst logical step in dictating is to get all the information you
need for the message. This step involves such activities as getting past correspondence
from fi les, consulting with other employees, and ascertaining company policy. Unless
you get all the information you need, you will be unable to work without interruption.

Plan the Message. With the facts of the case before you, you next plan the mes-
sage. You may prefer to do this step in your mind or to jot down a few notes or an out-
line. Whatever your preference, your goal in this step is to decide what your message
will be and how you will present it. In this step, you apply the procedures covered in
our earlier review of message and report writing.

Make the Words Flow. Your next step is to talk through the message. Simple as
this step appears, you are likely to have problems with it. Thinking out loud even to
the computer frightens most of us at fi rst. The result is likely to be slow and awkward
dictation.
Overcoming this problem requires self-discipline and practice. You should force
yourself to concentrate and to make the words fl ow. Your goal should be to get the
words out—to talk through the message. You need not be too concerned about pro-
ducing a polished work on the fi rst effort. You will probably need to revise, perhaps
several times. After you have forced your way through several messages, your need to
revise will decrease and the speed and quality of your dictation will improve.

Speak Clearly. Because your dictation must be heard clearly by your system, you
should speak as distinctly as you can. Even small improvements in accuracy—say
from 95 percent to 99 percent—will have big payoffs in the time it takes you to com-
plete documents.

Give Paragraphing, Punctuation, and Other Instructions as Needed. How
much of the paragraphing, spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics you dictate
depends on how well trained your system is. The more often you use the software,
the more it knows your dictation style and the fewer instructions it will need. If you
take care to spell out words unknown to your system in addition to training your sys-
tem, it will serve you better. You can see how to dictate effectively in the following
illustration.

• You should (1) get all the
information you need to
avoid interruption later;

• (2) plan the message
following the procedures
described in preceding
chapters;

• (3) talk through the
message,

• forcing the words to fl ow
if necessary (you can
revise later);

• (4) speak distinctly for
improved accuracy;

• (5) give the paragraphing,
punctuation, and other
instructions as the
system needs;

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 451

Play Back Intelligently. Although you should try to talk through the message with-
out interruption, you will sometimes need to stop and get a playback of what you have
dictated. But do this only when necessary. More than likely, the need for a playback
results from confused thinking. When you are learning to dictate, however, some confused
thinking is normal. And until you gain experience, you may profi t from playbacks.

Proofread for Accuracy. You will fi nd a playback especially helpful at the end of
the message to give you a check on the overall effect of your words. Additionally, con-
ducting playbacks while visually reading your fi nal document will help you proofread
your document for homophone errors (for example, using “there” for “their”).

Illustration
Many of the preceding techniques are illustrated in the following transcript of a dic-
tated routine email message. This example shows all the dictator’s words, including
punctuation, paragraphing, and corrections, that were spoken after the microphone
was activated. Note that the dictator spells out words that might not be in the program’s
vocabulary. However, if the word were the name of a client one expected to have for
a long time, the name could be added to the program for future use. Also, note that
the program attempts to learn your usage patterns, even the usage of homophones. For
example, if most of the time you used the word sweet rather than suite, the program
would fi rst supply sweet. As the software improves and as your dictation speed im-
proves, the program may be able to select the correct word forms based on context. At
fi rst, though, careful proofreading is essential.

Dear Payton spell that p-a-y-t-o-n cap that comma new paragraph Three crates of
orchard hyphen fresh Florida oranges should be in your store sometime Wednesday
morning as they were shipped today by Greene spell that g-r-e-e-n-e cap that motor
cap that freight cap that period new paragraph As you requested in your August 29
order comma the three hundred sixty-one dollars and sixty cents left paren invoice
cap that 14721 right paren was credited to your account period new paragraph Your
customers will go for these large comma tasty oranges comma I am sure period
They are the best we have handled in months period new paragraph Thanks comma
Payton comma for another opportunity to serve you period new paragraph Sincerely
comma new line Alex

LISTENING
Up to this point, our review of oral communication has been about sending information
(talking). Certainly, this is an area in which businesspeople need help. But evidence
shows that the receiving side (listening) causes more problems.

The Nature of

Listening

When listening is mentioned, we think primarily of the act of sensing sounds. In human
communication, of course, the sounds are mainly spoken words. Viewed from a com-
munication standpoint, however, the listening process involves the addition of fi ltering
and remembering.

Sensing. How well we sense the words around us is determined by two factors. One
factor is our ability to sense sounds—how well our ears can pick them up. As you
know, we do not all hear equally well, although mechanical devices (hearing aids) can
reduce our differences in this respect.
The other factor is our attentiveness to listening. More specifi cally, this is our mental
concentration—our will to listen. Our mental concentration on the communication
symbols that our senses can detect varies from moment to moment. It can range from
almost totally blocking out those symbols to concentrating on them very intensely. From
your own experience, you can recall moments when you were oblivious to the words

• (6) play back when
necessary; and

• (7) play back to
proofread for accuracy,
especially checking for
homophone errors.

• Here is the exact
transcript of a short
confi rmation message.

• Poor listening is
a major cause of
miscommunication.

• Listening involves
sensing, fi ltering, and
remembering.

• How well we sense
spoken words is
determined by (1) our
ability to sense sounds
and

• (2) our attentiveness.

452 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

spoken around you and moments when you listened with all the intensity you could
muster. Most of the time, your listening fell somewhere between these extremes.

Filtering. From your study of the communication process in Chapter 1, you know that
interpretation enables you to give meanings to the symbols you sense. In this process,
the contents of your mind serve as a sort of fi lter through which you give meaning to
incoming messages. This fi lter is formed by the unique contents of your mind: your
knowledge, emotions, beliefs, biases, experiences, expectations, and such. Thus, you
sometimes give messages meanings different from the meanings that others give them.

Remembering. Remembering what we hear is the third activity involved in
listening. Unfortunately, we retain little of what we hear. We remember many of the
comments we hear in casual conversation for only a short time—perhaps for only a
few minutes or hours. Some we forget almost as we hear them. According to authori-
ties, we even quickly forget most of the message in formal oral communications (such
as speeches), remembering only a fourth after two days.

Improving Your Listening Ability
Improving your listening is largely a matter of mental conditioning—of concentrating
on the activity of sensing. You have to want to improve it, for listening is a willful act.
If you are like most of us, you are often tempted not to listen or you just fi nd it easier
not to listen. We human beings tend to avoid work, and listening may be work.
After you have decided that you want to listen better, you must make an effort to pay
attention. How you do this will depend on your mental makeup, for the effort requires
disciplining the mind. You must force yourself to be alert, to pay attention to the word
spoken. Active listening is one technique individuals can use successfully. It involves
focusing on what is being said and reserving judgment. Other components include
sitting forward and acknowledging with “um-hm” and nodding. Back- channeling is
a variation of this technique that groups can use. Users leverage technologies such
as chat and blogs to comment on and enhance presentations in real time, which helps
keep a sharp focus on what is being said. Whatever technique you choose, improve-
ment requires hard work.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Listening Error in a Chain of Communication

Colonel to the executive offi cer: “As the general feels the soldiers are unaware of the dangers of drinking impure
water, he wishes to explain the matter to them. Have all personnel fall out in
fatigues at 1400 hours in the battalion area, where the general will address them.
In the event of rain, assemble them in the theater.”

Executive offi cer to company commander: “By order of the colonel, tomorrow at 1400 hours all personnel will fall out in
fatigues in the battalion area if it rains to march to the theater. There the general
will talk about their unawareness of the dangers of drinking.”

Company commander to lieutenant: “By order of the colonel, in fatigues the personnel will assemble at the theater
at 1400 hours. The general will appear if it rains to talk about the dangers of the
unawareness of drinking.”

Lieutenant to sergeant: “Tomorrow at 1400 hours the troops will assemble at the theater to hear the
general talk about unawareness of drinking dangerously.”

Sergeant to the enlisted personnel: “Tomorrow at 1400 hours the drunken general will be at the theater in his
underwear talking dangerously. We have to go and hear him.”

• To improve your
listening, you must want
to improve it.

• Remembering what we
hear is a part of listening.

• Filtering is the process
of giving symbols
meanings through the
unique contents of each
person’s mind.

• Be alert. Force yourself
to pay attention.

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 453

In addition to working on the improvement of your sensing, you should work on the
accuracy of your fi ltering. To do this, you will need to think in terms of what words mean
to the speakers who use them rather than what the dictionary says they mean or what they
mean in your mind. You must try to think as the speaker thinks—judging the speaker’s
words by the speaker’s knowledge, experiences, viewpoints, and such. Like improving
your sensing, improving your ability to hear what is being said requires conscious effort.
Remembering what you hear also requires conscious effort. Certainly, there are
limits to what the mind can retain, but authorities agree that few of us come close to
them. By taking care to hear what is said and by working to make your fi ltering process
give more accurate meanings to the words you hear, you add strength to the messages
you receive. The result should be improved retention.
In addition to the foregoing advice, various practical steps may prove helpful.
Assembled in a classic document titled, “The Ten Commandments of Listening,”2 the
following list summarizes the most useful of them:

1. Stop talking. Unfortunately, most of us prefer talking to listening. Even when we
are not talking, we are inclined to concentrate on what to say next rather than on
listening to others. So you must stop talking before you can listen.

2. Put the talker at ease. If you make the talker feel at ease, he or she will do a
better job of talking. Then you will have better input to work with.

3. Show the talker you want to listen. If you can convince the talker that you are
listening to understand rather than oppose, you will help create a climate for
information exchange. You should look and act interested. Doing things like
reading, looking at your watch, and looking away distracts the talker.

4. Remove distractions. The things you do also can distract the talker. So don’t
doodle, tap with your pencil, shuffl e papers, or the like.

5. Empathize with the talker. If you place yourself in the talker’s position and
look at things from the talker’s point of view, you will help create a climate of
understanding that can result in a true exchange of information.

6. Be patient. You will need to allow the talker plenty of time. Remember that not
everyone can get to the point as quickly and clearly as you. And do not interrupt.
Interruptions are barriers to the exchange of information.

Improve your listening
skills by focusing
your attention on the
speaker and listening
actively.

• Concentrate on
improving your mental
fi ltering.

• Think from the speaker’s
viewpoint.

• Consciously try to
remember.

• In addition, follow these
practical guidelines
(summarized in italics).

2 To some anonymous author goes a debt of gratitude for these classic and often-quoted comments about listening.

454 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

7. Hold your temper. From our knowledge of the workings of our minds, we know
that anger impedes communication. Angry people build walls between each
other. They harden their positions and block their minds to the words of others.

8. Go easy on argument and criticism. Argument and criticism tend to put the
talker on the defensive. He or she then tends to “clam up” or get angry. Thus,
even if you win the argument, you lose. Rarely does either party benefi t from
argument and criticism.

9. Ask questions. By frequently asking questions, you display an open mind and
show that you are listening. And you assist the talker in developing his or her
message and in improving the correctness of meaning.

10. Stop talking! The last commandment is to stop talking. It was also the fi rst. All
the other commandments depend on it.

From the preceding review it should be clear that to improve your listening ability,
you must set your mind to the task. Poor listening habits are ingrained in our makeup.
We can alter these habits only through conscious effort.

THE REINFORCING ROLE OF NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
In your role of either speaker or listener in oral communication, you will need to be
aware of the nonverbal—nonword—part of your communication. In both roles, non-
verbal communication accounts for a larger part of the total message than do the words
you send or receive. Usually, we use nonverbal communication to supplement and
reinforce our words. Sometimes, nonverbal communication communicates by itself.
Because it is so important to our communication, we will look at the nature of nonver-
bal communication and some types of it.

Nature of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal or nonword communication means all communication that occurs without
words. As you can see, the subject is a broad one. And because it is so broad, nonver-
bal communication is quite vague and imprecise. For instance, a frown on someone’s
forehead is sometimes interpreted to mean worry. But could it be that the person has a

Voice input systems
allow writers to
concentrate on word
choice and message
composition, freeing
them from typing and
spelling concerns. But
careful proofreading
is still essential,
especially for easily
confused words and
sound-alikes.

•

Nonverbal

communication accounts
for more of a total
message than words do.

• Nonverbal (nonword)
communication means all
communication without
words. It is broad and
imprecise.

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 455

headache? Or is the person in deep thought? No doubt, there could be numerous mean-
ings given to the facial expression.
The number of possible meanings is multiplied even more when we consider the
cross-cultural side of communication. As noted in Chapter 16, culture teaches us about
body positions, movements, and various factors that affect human relationships (inti-
macy, space, time, and such). Thus, the meanings we give to nonverbal symbols will
vary depending on how our culture has conditioned us.
Because of these numerous meanings, you need to be sensitive to what others intend
with nonverbal communication. And you need to make some allowance for error in the
meanings you receive from nonverbal symbols. As a listener, you need to go beyond
the obvious to determine what nonword symbols mean. As we have said about word
symbols, you need to see what people intend with their nonverbal symbols as well.
Perhaps one good way to grasp the intent of this suggestion is to look at the intended
meanings you have for the nonverbal symbols you use.
Think for a few moments about the smile on your face, a gesture, or such. What do
you mean by it? What could it mean to others? Is it exactly as you intend? Could it be
interpreted differently? Could someone from a different culture give a different mean-
ing to it? Only if you look at nonverbal symbols through the prism of self-analysis and
realize their multiple meaning potential can you get some idea of how they might be
interpreted differently. And when you become aware of the many differences, you then
can become sensitive to the meaning intended by the nonverbal communication.
In order to become sensitive to the myriad of nonverbal symbols, we will look at
some types of nonverbal communication. Specifi cally, we will study four types of
communication that occur without words.

Types of Nonverbal Communication
Although there are many ways to classify nonverbal communication, we will examine
four of the more common types: body language, space, time, and paralanguage. These
four types are especially important to our discussion of speaking and listening.

Body Language. Much of what we say to others without using words is sent through
the physical movements of our bodies. When we wave our arms and fi ngers, wrinkle
our foreheads, stand erect, smile, gaze at another, wear a coat and tie, and so on, we
convey certain meanings; and others convey meanings to us in return. In particular, the
face and eyes, gestures, posture, and physical appearance refl ect the inner workings of
emotions in our bodies.
The face and eyes are by far the most important features of body language. We look
to the face and eyes to determine much of the meaning behind body language and
nonverbal communication. For example, happiness, surprise, fear, anger, and sadness
usually are accompanied by defi nite facial expressions and eye patterns. You should be
aware of these two aspects of body language as you speak and listen to others.
Gestures are another way we send nonword messages through our body parts.
Gestures are physical movements of our arms, legs, hands, torsos, and heads.
Through the movement of each of these body parts, we can accent and reinforce
our verbal messages. And we can observe how others punctuate their verbal efforts
with gestures. For example, observe the hand movements of another person while he
or she is talking. As you observe these gestures, you will get a good picture of the
internal emotional state of the person. Moreover, speaking and gestures appear to be
linked. In general, the louder someone speaks, the more emphatic the gestures used,
and vice versa.
Another area of body language is physical appearance—our clothing, hair, and
adornments (jewelry, cosmetics, and such). The appearance of our bodies can affect
how our body movements are seen. Consider, for example, how you might perceive
a speaker at a formal banquet dressed in faded blue jeans. No doubt, the speaker’s
gestures, facial features, posture, and such would be perceived in relation to attire.
Accordingly, you want to make sure that your appearance fi ts the situation. And you

• Cross-cultural
aspects give many
meanings to nonverbal
communication.

• Be sensitive to intended
nonverbal meanings. Go
beyond the obvious.

• Realize that nonverbal
symbols can have many
meanings.

• Four common
types of nonverbal
communication are
(1) body language,
(2) space, (3) time, and
(4) paralanguage.

• Our bodies send
nonword messages—
through arms, fi ngers,
expressions, posture,
and so on.

• The face and eyes are
the most important.

• Gestures (physical
movements of the
arms, legs, torso, and
head) send nonword
messages.

• Physical appearance—
clothing, hair, jewelry,
cosmetics, and so
on—also communicates.

456 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

want to remember that appearance is an important part of the body messages that are
sent and received in oral communication.

Space. Another type of nonverbal communication involves space and how it com-
municates meaning in speaking and listening. How we use space and what we do in
certain spaces we create tell much about us. Thus, each of us has a space language just
as we do a body language. This space language is crafted by our culture.
Authorities tell us that we create four different types of space: intimate (physical
contact to 18 inches); personal (18 inches to 4 feet); social (4 to 12 feet); and public
(12 feet to range of seeing and hearing). In each of these spaces, our communication
behaviors differ and convey different meanings. For example, consider the volume of
your voice when someone is 18 inches from you. Do you shout? Whisper? Now con-
trast the tone of your voice when someone is 12 feet away. Unquestionably, there is a
difference, just because of the distance involved.
Our behaviors in each type of space are learned from our cultures. Thus, you will
need to be sensitive to the spaces of others—especially those from different cultures.
As noted in Chapter 16, when people’s attitudes toward space are different, their ac-
tions are likely to be misinterpreted.

Time. A third type of nonverbal communication involves time. Just as there are body
language and space language, there is also a time language. That is, how we give
meaning to time communicates to others. To illustrate, think about how you manage
your daily schedule. Do you arrive early for most appointments? Do you prioritize
phone calls? Do you prepare agendas for meetings? Your response to time in these
ways communicates to others and, of course, others’ use of time communicates to you.
In terms of nonverbal communication, you should recognize that time orientations are
not always the same—especially in the cross-cultural arena—but they do communi-
cate. For Americans, Canadians, and many others from English-speaking countries,
time values are monochronic. Monochronic people tend to view time as linear and
always moving ahead. They expect events to happen at scheduled times. Polychronic
people—such as those from Asian, Arabic, and Spanish-speaking countries—have a
more indefi nite view of time. Unlike the monochronic person who expects a meeting
to start precisely at 9:00 AM, the polychronic person sees a 9:00 AM meeting as an
objective to be accomplished if possible. Nevertheless, time orientations become parts
of the messages we send to and receive from one another.

Paralanguage. Paralanguage, meaning “like language,” is a fourth type of non-
verbal communication. Of all the types, it is the closest to communication with word
symbols. It has to do with the sound of a speaker’s voice, the “how” of it—those hints
and signals in the way words are delivered.
To illustrate, read the following series of statements, emphasizing the underscored
word in each.

I am a good communicator.

I am a good communicator.
I am a good communicator.
I am a good communicator.
I am a good communicator.

By emphasizing the underscored word in each statement, you change the mean-
ing of that statement from the others even though you used the same words. You do
so by the way in which the word sequence sounds. As another example, try counting
from 1 to 10 a number of times, each time expressing a different emotional state—say
anxiety, anger, or happiness. The way you state each sequence of numbers will show
what you intend quite accurately.
Paralanguage is the communication effect of the speed, pitch, volume, and connec-
tivity of spoken words. Are they fast or slow? Are they high pitched or deep? Are they

• Space is another type of
nonverbal language.

• Four types of space
exist: (1) intimate,
(2) personal, (3)
social, and (4) public.
Communication behavior
differs in each.

• Communication
behaviors are learned
from cultures.

• Time is a third
type of nonverbal
communication.

• Paralanguage involves
how we say something.

• You can change the
meaning of spoken
sentences by accenting
different words in each.

• Paralanguage creates
meanings because of
speed, pitch, volume,
and connection of words.

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 457

loud and forceful or barely audible? Are they smooth or disjointed? These questions are
examples of the types you would ask to analyze the nonverbal symbols of paralanguage.
The symbols become a part of the meaning that is fi ltered from a spoken message.
Paralanguage meanings also are conveyed by consistencies and inconsistencies in
what is said and how it is said. Depending on the circumstance, a person’s voice may
or may not be consistent with the intended word meanings. But you should make
every effort to avoid inconsistencies that will send a confusing message. Consistency
between the words you choose and how you deliver them to create clear meaning
should be your goal.
Senders and receivers have certain expectancies about how a message should
sound. Whether real or imagined, people infer background factors (race, occupation,
etc.); physical appearance (age, height, gender); and personality (introversion, social
orientation, etc.) when they receive and fi lter voice patterns. When you speak, you
should do whatever you can to infl uence these expectancies positively. Many of the
suggestions in this chapter and the following one should help you deliver a consistent
and effective message. Active listeners will also want to listen between the lines of a
spoken message to determine the true meaning a speaker is sending.

Other Types of Nonverbal Communication. Other types of nonverbal com-
munication exist. But the preceding four types are the primary forms. For example,
color communicates different meanings to us. Artists, interior decorators, and “image
consultants” believe that different colors project different meanings. What meanings
do you get from red, yellow, black, blue? That you can answer at all should prove that
colors produce meanings in our minds. Applications of the idea to speaking and listen-
ing include visual-aid construction, wardrobe, offi ce decor, and the like. Thus, you
should give more than casual attention to color as a type of nonverbal communication.
Indeed, you will want to create a specifi c and intended meaning with it.
Still another type of nonverbal communication involves the structure of our physi-
cal context—its layout and design. In an offi ce, the physical arrangements—furniture,
carpeting, size, location, and decorations—all communicate meaning to us and to oth-
ers. These elements provide the context for many of our speaking and listening activi-
ties. As such, we should consider them as part of the messages we send and receive.

SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Talking is the oral expression of our knowledge, viewpoints, and emotions. It
depends on four critical factors:

• Voice quality—talking with variations in pitch, delivery, and volume.

• Speaking style—blending voice quality and personality.

• Word choice—fi nding the right word or words for the listener.

• Adaptation—fi tting a message to the mind of a unique listener.

2. In business, you are likely to participate in meetings, some formal and some
informal.

• If you are in charge of a meeting, follow these guidelines.

— Know parliamentary procedure for formal meetings.

— Plan the meeting; develop an agenda and circulate it in advance.

— Follow the plan.

— Keep the discussion moving.

— Control those who talk too much.

— Encourage participation from those who talk too little.

— Control time, making sure the agenda is covered.

— Summarize at appropriate times.

• Degrees of consistency
between what and how
someone says something
convey meaning.

• Expectancies about
background, appearance,
and personality are part
of paralanguage.

• Two other nonverbal
types exist, but they are
minor. One is color.

• Another is physical
context—offi ce,
carpeting, decorations,
and such.

1Discuss talking and its key elements.

2Explain the techniques for conducting and
participating in meetings.

458 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

• If you are a participant at a meeting, follow these guidelines:

— Stay with the agenda; do not stray.

— Participate fully.

— But do not talk too much.

— Cooperate.

— Be courteous.

3. To improve your phone and voice mail techniques, consider the following:

• Cultivate a pleasant voice.

• Talk as if in a face-to-face conversation.

• Follow courteous procedures.

— When calling, introduce yourself and ask for the person you want.

— State your purpose early.

— Cover points systematically.

— When receiving a call, identify your company or offi ce and offer
assistance.

— When answering for the boss, do not offend by asking questions or making
comments that might give a wrong impression; and do not neglect callers
placed on hold.

— When screening calls for the boss, be courteous and honest.

— Listen when the other person is talking.

— Do not interrupt or dominate.

— Plan long conversations, and follow the plan.

• For good voice mail messages, follow these suggestions:

— Identify yourself by name and affi liation.

— Deliver a complete and accurate message.

— Speak naturally and clearly.

— Give important information slowly.

— Close with a brief goodwill message.

• Demonstrate courtesy when using cell phones by following these general
guidelines:

— Turn off the ringer where it could disrupt others.

— Avoid use at social gatherings.

— Keep the phone off the table during meals.

— Talk only in places where others won’t be in earshot.

— Avoid talking about confi dential or private business.

— Keep voice volume down.

— Initiate calls in quiet places away from others.

— Be conscious of others when you talk.

— Avoid talking while driving, especially if it is against the law.

4. In dictating messages and reports, follow these suggestions.

• First, gather all the information you will need so you will not have to interrupt
your dictating to get it.

• Next, plan (think through) the message.

• Until you are experienced, force the words to fl ow—then revise.

• Remember, also, to speak in a strong, clear voice.

• Give punctuation and paragraphing in the dictation.

3Describe good phone and voice mail
techniques.

4Describe the techniques of good voice input.

• Play back only when necessary.

• Proofread for accuracy.

5. Listening is just as important as talking in oral communication, but it causes more
problems.

• Listening involves how we sense, fi lter, and retain incoming messages.

• Most of us do not listen well because we tend to avoid the hard work that good
listening requires.

• You can improve your listening with effort.

• Put your mind to it and discipline yourself to be attentive.

• Make a conscious effort to improve your mental fi ltering of incoming
messages; strive to retain what you hear.

• Follow the practical suggestions offered in “ The Ten Commandments of
Listening.”

6. Nonverbal (nonword) communication is the communication that occurs without
words.

• One major type is body language—the movements of our arms, fi ngers, facial
muscles, and such.

— Our face and eyes are the most expressive parts of body language.

— Gestures also send messages.

— Our physical appearance (clothing, cosmetics, jewelry, hairstyle)
communicates about us.

• Space is a second major type of nonverbal communication.

— We create four unique types of spaces: (1) intimate, (2) physical, (3) social,
and (4) public.

— We communicate differently in each space, as determined by our culture.

• How we give meaning to time is a third type of nonverbal communication.

• Meanings the sounds of our voices convey (paralanguage) are a fourth type.

• Color and physical context are minor nonverbal forms.

• In our speaking, we should use nonverbal communication to accent our words.

• In listening, we need to “hear” the nonverbal communication of others.

5Explain the listening problem and how to
solve it.

6Describe the nature and role of nonverbal
communication.

CHAPTER 14 Informal Oral Communication 459

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N S

1 Talking is a natural occurrence, so we should give it
little attention. Discuss.

2 How do the elements of talking help us communicate
better?

3 Being able to start a conversation is especially important
when meeting clients in social settings. Discuss the types
of topics that would and would not be appropriate.

4 The people attending a meeting—not the leader—
should determine the agenda. Discuss.

5 As meetings should be democratic, everyone present
should be permitted to talk as much as he or she wants
without interference from the leader. Discuss.

6 Describe an annoying phone practice that you have
experienced or know about (other than the ones dis-
cussed in the chapter). Explain and/or demonstrate how
it should be corrected.

7 Describe the strengths and weaknesses of voice mail
systems with which you are familiar.

8 Use the Internet to gather information and present a re-
port on recent developments in voice recognition.

9 Discuss why we have diffi culty in listening.
10 What can you do to improve your listening?
11 Explain how each type of nonverbal communication

relates to speaking and to listening.

460 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

Meetings

Because group meetings are meaningful only when they
concern problems that the participants know about and
understand, the following topics for meetings involve
campus situations. For one of these topics, develop a
specifi c problem that would warrant a group meeting.
(Example: For student government, the problem might be
“To determine the weaknesses of student government on
this campus and what should be done to correct them.”)
Then lead the class (or participate) in a meeting on the
topic. Class discussion following the meeting should
reinforce the text material and bring out the effective and
ineffective parts of the meeting.

a. Student drinking

b. Scholastic dishonesty

c. Housing regulations

d. Student–faculty relations

e. Student government

f. Library

g. Grading standards

h. Attendance policies

i. Varsity athletics

j. Intramural athletics

k. Degree requirements

l. Parking

m. Examination scheduling

n. Administrative policies

o. University calendar

p. Homework requirements

q. Tuition and fees

r. Student evaluation of faculty

s. Community–college relations

t. Maintaining fi les of old examinations for students

u. Wireless Internet availability

Phoning

Make a list of bad phone practices that you have experienced
or heard about. With a classmate, fi rst demonstrate the bad
practice and then demonstrate how you would handle it.
Some possibilities: putting a caller on hold tactlessly, harsh
greeting, unfriendly voice quality, insulting comments (un-
intended), attitude of unconcern, cold and formal treatment.

Dictating

Working with the voice recognition feature in Offi ce XP or
higher (or any other your instructor specifi es) select a writ-
ing case from the problems following the chapters on mes-
sages, Chapters 6, 7, and 8. Then dictate a message. You may
need to train the software before using it. After you have fi n-
ished your dictation, proofread it carefully. Then play back
the message for, review one fi nal time.

Listening

After the class has been divided into two (or more) teams,
the instructor reads some factual information (newspaper
article, short story, or the like) to only one member of each
team. Each of these team members tells what he or she has
heard to a second team member, who in turn tells it to a third
team member—and so on until the last member of each team
has heard the information. The last person receiving the in-
formation reports what she or he has heard to the instructor,
who checks it against the original message. The team able to
report the information with the greatest accuracy wins.

Nonverbal

Using a digital camera or pictures from magazines, get three
to fi ve pictures of men and women with different facial ex-
pressions (happiness, sadness, anger, etc.) or gestures. Ask
those native to your area to identify the emotions or the
meanings of the gestures the pictures convey. Then ask at
least three others from different countries (preferably differ-
ent continents) to identify the emotions. Report your results
to the class.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G E X E R C I S E S

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition

V. Other Forms of Business
Communication

15. Public Speaking and
Oral Reporting

c h a p t e r f i f t e e n

Public Speaking and Oral Reporting

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to use good speaking
and oral-reporting techniques. To reach this goal, you should be
able to

1 Select and organize a subject for effective formal presentation to a
specifi c audience.

2 Describe how personal aspects and audience analysis contribute
to formal presentations.

3 Explain the use of voice quality and physical aspects such as
posture, walking, facial expression, and gestures in effective oral
communication.

4 Plan for visuals (graphics) to support speeches and oral reports.
5 Work effectively with a group in preparing and making a team

presentation.

6 Defi ne oral reports and differentiate between them and written
reports on the basis of their advantages, disadvantages, and
organization.

7 Plan and deliver effective virtual presentations.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
V. Other Forms of Business
Communication
15. Public Speaking and
Oral Reporting
© The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

462 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

I N T R O D U C T O R Y S I T U A T I O N

Formal Speaking
In addition to your informal speaking and listening activities at Mastadon Chemicals, you have more formal ones
involving oral communication.
Take last week, for example. Marla Cody (your boss) asked you to do something very special for the company. It
seems that each year Mastadon Chemicals awards a $5,000 scholarship to a deserving business student at State
University. The award is presented at the business school’s annual Honors Day Convocation, usually by Ms. Cody.
To show the business school’s appreciation for the award, its administration requested that Ms. Cody be the speaker
at this year’s convocation. But Ms. Cody has a confl icting engagement, so you got the assignment. You responded
to the challenge as well as you could, but you were not pleased with the results.
Then, at last month’s meeting, Mastadon’s executive committee asked you for a special oral report from your
department for about the fi fth time. This time the report concerned the results of a survey that your department con-
ducted to determine local opinions about a dispute between Mastadon and its union. You did your best, but you felt
uneasy about what you were doing.
Such assignments are becoming more and more a part of your work as you move up the administrative ladder
at Mastadon. You must try to do them better, for your future promotions are involved. The following review of formal
oral presentations (speeches and reports) should help you in this effort.

MAKING FORMAL SPEECHES
The most diffi cult kind of oral communication for many people is a formal speech.
Most of us do not feel comfortable speaking before others, and we generally do a
poor job of it. But it need not be this way. With effort, we can improve our speaking.
We can do this by learning what good speaking techniques are and then putting those
techniques into practice.

Selection of the Topic
Your fi rst step in formal speechmaking is to determine the topic of your presentation.
In some cases, you will be assigned a topic, usually one within your area of specializa-
tion. In fact, when you are asked to make a speech on a specifi ed topic, it is likely to
be because of your knowledge of the topic. In some cases, your choice of topic will be
determined by the purpose of your assignment, as when you are asked to welcome a
group or introduce a speaker.
If you are not assigned a topic, then you must fi nd one on your own. In your search
for a suitable topic, you should be guided by three basic factors. The fi rst is your
background and knowledge. Any topic you select should be one with which you are
comfortable—one within your areas of profi ciency. The second basic factor is the
interests of your audience. Selecting a topic that your audience can appreciate and
understand is vital to the success of your speech. The third basic factor is the occasion
of the speech. Is the occasion a meeting commemorating a historic event? A monthly
meeting of an executives’ club? An annual meeting of a hairstylists’ association?
Whatever topic you select should fi t the occasion. A speech about Japanese manage-
ment practices might be quite appropriate for the members of the executives’ club, but
not for the hairstylists. Your selection should be justifi ed by all three factors.

Preparation of the Presentation
After you have decided what to talk about, you should gather the information you need
for your speech. This step may involve searching through your mind for experiences
or ideas, conducting research in a library or in company fi les, gathering information

• Speeches are diffi cult for
most of us. The following
techniques should help
you.

• Your topic may be
assigned.

• If you must select a
topic, consider (1) your
knowledge, (2) your
audience, and (3) the
occasion.

• Conduct research to get
the information you need.

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 463

online, or consulting people in your own company or other companies. In short, you
do whatever is necessary to get the information you need.
When you have that information, you are ready to begin organizing your speech.
Although variations are sometimes appropriate, you should usually follow the time-
honored order of a speech: introduction, body, conclusion. This is the order described
in the following paragraphs.
Although not really a part of the speech, the fi rst words usually spoken are the greeting.
Your greeting, of course, should fi t the audience. “Ladies and gentlemen” is appropriate
for a mixed audience; “gentlemen” fi ts an all-male audience; and “my fellow Rotarians”
fi ts an audience of Rotary Club members. Some speakers eliminate the greeting and
begin with the speech, especially in more informal and technical presentations.

Introduction. The introduction of a speech has much the same goal as the
introduction of a written report: to prepare the listeners (or readers) to receive the
message. But it usually has the additional goal of arousing interest. Unless you can
arouse interest at the beginning, your presentation is likely to fail. The situation is
somewhat like that of the sales message. At least some of the people with whom
you want to communicate are not likely to be interested in receiving your message.
As you will recall from your study of listening, it is easy for a speaker to lose the
audience’s attention. To prove the point, ask yourself how many times your mind
has drifted away from the speaker’s words when you have been part of an audience.
There is no question about it: You, the speaker, will have to work to gain and hold
the attention of your audience.
The techniques of arousing interest are limited only by the imagination. One pos-
sibility is a human-interest story, for storytelling has strong appeal. For example, a
speaker presenting a message about the opportunities available to people with original
ideas might open this way: “Nearly 150 years ago, an immigrant boy of 17 walked
the streets of our town. He had no food, no money, no belongings except the shabby
clothes he wore. He had only a strong will to work—and an idea.”
Humor, another possibility, is probably the most widely used technique. To illus-
trate, an investment broker might begin a speech on investment strategy as follows:
“What you want me to give you today is some ‘tried and trusted’ advice on how to
make money in the stock market. This reminds me of the proverbial ‘tried and trusted’
bank teller. He was trusted; and when they caught him, he was tried.” Humor works
best and is safest when it is closely related to the subject of your presentation.
Other effective ways for gaining attention at the opening are by using quotations
and questions. By quoting someone the audience would know and view as credible,
you build interest in your topic. You also can ask questions. One kind of question is

• Then organize the
information.

• The greeting usually
comes fi rst.

• Gain attention in the
opening.

• There are many opening
possibilities: human
interest,

• humor,

• quotations, questions,
and so on.

CORNERED © 2004 Mike Baldwin.
Reprinted with permission of UNIVERSAL
PRESS SYNDICATE. All rights reserved.

464 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

the rhetorical question—the one everyone answers the same, such as “Who wants to
be freed of burdensome fi nancial responsibilities?” Another kind of question gives you
background information on how much to talk about different aspects of your subject.
With this kind of question, you must follow through by basing your presentation on
the response. If you had asked “How many of you have IRAs?” and nearly everyone
put a hand up, you wouldn’t want to talk about the importance of IRAs. You could skip
that part of your presentation, spending more time on another aspect, such as managing
your IRA effectively.
Yet another possibility is the startling statement, which presents facts and ideas that
awaken the mind. Illustrating this possibility is the beginning of a speech to an audi-
ence of merchants on a plan to reduce shoplifting: “Last year, right here in our city, in
your stores, shoplifters stole over $3.5 million of your merchandise! And most of you
did nothing about it.”
In addition to arousing interest, your opening should lead into the theme of your
speech. In other words, it should set up your message as the examples above do.
Following the attention-gaining opening, it is appropriate to tell your audience the
subject (theme) for your speech. In fact, in cases where your audience already has an
interest in what you have to say, you can begin here and skip the attention-gaining
opening. Presentations of technical topics to technical audiences typically begin this
way. Whether you lead into a statement of your topic or begin with it, that statement
should be clear and complete.
Because of the nature of your subject, you may fi nd it undesirable to reveal a posi-
tion early. In such cases, you may prefer to move into your subject indirectly—to build
up your case before revealing your position. This inductive pattern may be especially
desirable when your goal is to persuade—when you need to move the views of your
audience from one position to another. But in most business-related presentations you
should make a direct statement of your theme early in the speech.

Body. Organizing the body of your speech is much like organizing the body of a
report (see Chapter 10). You take the whole and divide it into comparable parts. Then
you take those parts and divide them. You continue to divide as far as it is practical to
do so. In speeches, however, you are more likely to use factors rather than time, place,
or quantity as the basis of division because in most speeches your presentation is likely
to be built around issues and questions that are subtopics of the subject. Even so, time,
place, and quantity subdivisions are possibilities.
You need to emphasize the transitions between the divisions because, unlike the
reader who can see them, the listener may miss them if they are not stressed adequately.
Without clear transitions, you may be talking about one point and your listener may be
relating those ideas to your previous point.

Conclusion. Like most reports, the speech usually ends by drawing a conclusion.
Here you bring all that you have presented to a head and achieve whatever goal the

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

A Speaker’s Classic Putdown of an Unruly Audience

The speaker had covered his subject carefully and thoroughly. But his conclusion, which followed logically from his pre-
sentation, was greeted with loud hisses by some members of his audience. Because hisses leave little trace of their origin,
the speaker did not know who the dissenters were and could not respond directly to them. So he skillfully handled the
situation by saying: “I know of only three creatures that hiss—snakes, geese, and fools. I will leave it to you to determine
which of the three we have here.”

• The opening should set
up your subject.

• Tell the subject of your
speech . . .

• unless you have reason
not to, as when you must
persuade.

• Organize most speeches
by factors, as you would
a report.

• Emphasize transitions
between parts.

• The ending usually (1)
restates the subject,
(2) summarizes key
points, and (3) draws a
conclusion.

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 465

speech has. You should consider including these three elements in your close: (1) a
restatement of the subject, (2) a summary of the key points developed in the presenta-
tion, and (3) a statement of the conclusion (or main message). Bringing the speech
to a climactic close—that is, making the conclusion the high point of the speech—is
usually effective. Present the concluding message in strong language—in words that
gain attention and will be remembered. In addition to concluding with a summary, you
can give an appropriate quote, use humor, and call for action. The following close of
a speech comparing Japanese and American management techniques illustrates this
point: “These facts make my conclusion crystal clear. We are not Japanese. We do not
have the Japanese culture. Most Japanese management methods have not worked—
cannot work—will not work in our society.”

Determination of the Presentation Method
With the speech organized, you are ready to prepare its presentation. At this time, you
need to decide on your method of presentation—that is, whether to present the speech
extemporaneously, to memorize it, or to read it.

Presenting Extemporaneously. Extemporaneous presentation is by far the most
popular and effective method. With this method, you fi rst thoroughly prepare your
speech, as outlined above. Then you prepare notes and present the speech from them.
You usually rehearse, making sure you have all the parts clearly in mind, but you make
no attempt to memorize. Extemporaneous presentations generally sound natural to the
listeners, yet they are (or should be) the product of careful planning and practice.

Memorizing. The most diffi cult method is memorizing. If you are like most people,
you fi nd it hard to memorize a long succession of words. And when you do memorize,
you are likely to memorize words rather than meanings. Thus, when you make the
speech, if you miss a word or two, you become confused—and so does your speech.
You even may become panic-stricken.
Probably few of the speakers who use this method memorize the entire speech.
Instead, they memorize key passages and use notes to help them through the speech. A
delivery of this kind is a cross between an extemporaneous presentation and a memo-
rized presentation.

• Choose one of these
presentation methods:

• (1) extemporaneous
presentation (thorough
preparation, uses notes,
rehearsed),

• (2) memorizing, or

Good speakers
project their personal
qualities—confi dence,
sincerity, friendliness,
enthusiasm, and
interest.

466 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

Reading. The third presentation method is reading. Unfortunately, most of us tend to
read aloud in a dull monotone. We also miss punctuation marks, fumble over words, lose
our place, and so on. Of course, many speakers overcome these problems, and with effort
you can, too. One effective way is to practice with a recorder and listen to yourself. Then
you can be your own judge of what you must do to improve your delivery. You would be
wise not to read speeches until you have mastered this presentation method. In most set-
tings, it is a breach of etiquette to read. Your audience is likely to be insulted, and reading
is unlikely to be as well received as an extemporaneous delivery. However, when you are
in a position where you will be quoted widely, such as President of the United States or
the CEO of a major company, reading from a carefully prepared speech is recommended.
Many top executives today use teleprompters when delivering read speeches, and many
of these appear well done, especially with practice.

Consideration of Personal Aspects
A preliminary to good speechmaking is to analyze yourself as a speaker. In oral pre-
sentations you, the speaker, are a very real part of the message. The members of your
audience take in not only the words you communicate but also what they see in you.
And what they see in you can signifi cantly affect the meanings that develop in their
minds. Thus, you should carefully evaluate your personal effect on your message. You
should do whatever you can to detect and overcome your shortcomings and to sharpen
your strengths.
The following summary of characteristics that should help you as a speaker may
prove useful, but you probably already know what they are. To some extent, the prob-
lem is recognizing whether you lack these characteristics. To a greater extent, it is do-
ing something about acquiring them. The following review should help you pinpoint
and deal with your problem areas.

Delivery tools can help you to a better job
preparing and delivering oral presentations.
One tool within PowerPoint, Presenters View,
should help you plan, practice, and deliver
good presentations. You can see its major
tools in the screenshot here. As your audi-
ence sees only the slide, you are seeing the
presenter’s view. You see the current slide
being projected and its slide notes. Addition-
ally, you see the title to the upcoming slide as
well as the elapsed time since the beginning
of the presentation. Furthermore, along the
right column are several buttons that allow
you to start or end the show on one click,
black out that screen to bring the attention
back to you, and perform other actions. As
the presenter, you have the fl exibility to skip
slides or change the ordering on the fl y. The
slider bar at the bottom enables you easily
to pull up slides during question and answer
sessions as well.

T E C H N O L O G Y I N B R I E F

Presentation Delivery Tools Help You Convey Your Message Effectively

• (3) reading.

• A logical preliminary
to speechmaking is to
analyze yourself as a
speaker. You are a part
of the message.

• You should seek
the following four
characteristics:

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 467

Confidence. A primary characteristic of effective oral reporting is confi dence—
your confi dence in yourself and the confi dence of your audience in you. The two are
complementary, for your confi dence in yourself tends to produce an image that gives
your audience confi dence in you; and your audience’s confi dence in you can give you
a sense of security that increases your confi dence in yourself.
Typically, you earn your audience’s confi dence over periods of association. But
there are things you can do to project an image that builds confi dence. For example,
preparing your presentation diligently and practicing it thoroughly gives you con-
fi dence in yourself. That confi dence leads to more effective communication, which
increases your listeners’ confi dence in you. Another confi dence-building technique is
an appropriate physical appearance. Unfair and illogical as it may seem, certain types
of dress and hairstyles create strong images in people’s minds, ranging from highly
favorable to highly unfavorable. Thus, if you want to communicate effectively, you
should analyze the audience you seek to reach. And you should work to develop the
physical appearance that projects an image in which that audience can have confi –
dence. Yet another confi dence-building technique is simply to talk in strong, clear
tones. Such tones do much to project an image of confi dence. Although most people
can do little to change their natural voice, they can use suffi cient volume.

Sincerity. Your listeners are quick to detect insincerity. And if they detect it in you,
they are likely to give little weight to what you say. On the other hand, sincerity is
valuable to conviction, especially if the audience has confi dence in your ability. The
way to project an image of sincerity is clear and simple: You must be sincere. Pretense
of sincerity is rarely successful.

Thoroughness. Generally, a thorough presentation is better received than a scanty or
hurried presentation. Thorough coverage gives the impression that time and care have
been taken, and this tends to make the presentation believable. But thoroughness can be
overdone. Too much detail can drown your listeners in a sea of information. The secret is
to leave out unimportant information. This, of course, requires good judgment. You must
ask yourself just what your listeners need to know and what they do not need to know.
Striking such a balance is the secret to achieving integrity in your presentation.

• (1) Having confi dence in
yourself is important. So
is having the confi dence
of your audience.

• You must earn the
confi dence of your
audience, project the
right image, and talk in
a strong, clear voice.

• (2) Sincerity is vital.
You convey an image
of sincerity by being
sincere.

• (3) Thoroughness—
giving your listeners all
they need—helps your
image.

Successful oral
presentations to large
audiences are the
result of thorough
preparation.

468 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

Friendliness. A speaker who projects an image of friendliness has a signifi cant ad-
vantage in communicating. People simply like friendly people, and they are generally
receptive to what such people say. Like sincerity, friendliness is hard to feign and must
be honest to be effective. Most people are genuinely friendly. Some, however, are just
not able to project a genuinely friendly image. With a little self-analysis and a little
mirror watching as you practice speaking, you can fi nd ways of improving your pro-
jection of your friendliness.
These are but a few of the characteristics that should assist you as a speaker. There
are others: interest, enthusiasm, originality, fl exibility, and so on. But the ones discussed
are the most signifi cant and the ones that most speakers need to work on. Through self-
analysis and dedicated effort, you can improve your speaking ability.

Audience Analysis
One requirement of good speechmaking is to know your audience. You should study
your audience both before and during the presentation.

Preliminary Analysis. Analyzing your audience before the presentation requires
that you size it up—that you search for audience characteristics that could affect how
you should present your speech.
For example, the size of your audience is likely to infl uence how formal or informal
your speech should be. As a rule, large audiences require more formality. Personal char-
acteristics of your audience, such as age, gender, education, experience, and knowl-
edge of subject matter, also should infl uence how you make your speech— affecting
the words, illustrations, and level of detail you use. Like writing, speeches should be
adapted to the audience. And the more you know about the audience, the better you
will adapt your presentation to them.

Analysis during Presentation. Your audience analysis should continue as you
make the speech. Feedback is information about how your listeners are receiving your
words. Armed with this information, you can adjust your presentation to improve the
communication result.
Your eyes and ears will give you feedback information. For example, facial ex-
pressions will tell you how your listeners are reacting to your message. Smiles, blank
stares, and movements will give you an indication of whether they understand, agree
with, or accept it. You can detect from sounds coming (or not coming) from them
whether they are listening. If questions are in order, you can learn directly how your
message is coming across. In general, you can learn much from your audience by be-
ing alert; and what you learn can help you make a better speech.

Appearance and Physical Actions
As your listeners hear your words, they are looking at you. What they see is a part of
the message and can affect the success of your speech. What they see, of course, is you
and what surrounds you. In your efforts to improve the effects of your oral presenta-
tions, you should understand the communication effects of what your listeners see.
Some of the effects that were mentioned in Chapter 14 are expanded on here because
they are particularly important to speeches and oral reports.

The Communication Environment. Much of what your audience sees is the
physical things that surround you as you speak: the stage, lighting, background, and
so on. These things tend to create a general impression. Although not visual, outside
noises have a related infl uence. For the best communication results, the factors in your
communication environment should contribute to your message, not detract from it.
Your own experience as a listener will tell you what factors are important.

Personal Appearance. Your personal appearance is a part of the message your
audience receives. Of course, you have to accept the physical traits you have, but most

• (4) Projecting an image
of friendliness helps your
communication effort.

• You should know your
audience.

• Size up the audience
in advance. Look for
audience characteristics
that will affect your
speech—things like
the size, gender,
age, education, and
knowledge of the
audience.

• Analyze audience
reactions during
the speech (called
feedback). Facial
expressions, movements,
and noises give you
feedback information that
helps you adapt to the
audience.

• Your audience forms
impressions from these
six factors:

• (1) all that surrounds you
(stage, lighting, and the
like),

• (2) your personal
appearance,

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 469

of us do not need to be at a disadvantage in appearance. All that is necessary is to use
what you have appropriately. Specifi cally, you should dress in a manner appropriate
for the audience and the occasion. Be clean and well groomed. Use facial expressions
and physical movements to your advantage. Just how you should use facial expres-
sions and physical movements is described in the following paragraphs.

Posture. Posture is likely to be the most obvious of the things that your audience
sees in you. Even listeners not close enough to detect such things as facial expressions
and eye movements can see the general form of the body.
You probably think that no one needs to tell you about good posture. You know it
when you see it. The trouble is that you are not likely to see it in yourself. One solu-
tion is to have others tell you whether your posture needs improvement. Another is to
practice speaking before a mirror or watch yourself on video.
In your efforts to improve your posture, keep in mind what must go on within your
body to form a good posture. Your body weight must be distributed in a way consistent
with the impression you want to make. You should keep your body erect without ap-
pearing stiff and comfortable without appearing limp. You should maintain a poised,
alert, and communicative bearing. And you should do all this naturally. The great dan-
ger with posture is an appearance of artifi ciality.

Walking. Your audience also forms an impression from the way you walk before
it. A strong, sure walk to the speaker’s position conveys an impression of confi dence.
Hesitant, awkward steps convey the opposite impression. Walking during the presenta-
tion can be good or bad, depending on how you do it. Some speakers use steps forward
and to the side to emphasize points. Too much walking, however, attracts attention and
detracts from the message. You would be wise to walk only when you are reasonably
sure that this will have the effect you want. You would not want to walk away from a
microphone.

Facial Expression. As noted in Chapter 14, probably the most apparent and com-
municative physical movements are facial expressions. The problem, however, is that
you may unconsciously use facial expressions that convey unintended meanings. For
example, if a frightened speaker tightens the jaw unconsciously and begins to grin, the
effect may be an ambiguous image that detracts from the entire communication effort.
A smile, a grimace, and a puzzled frown all convey clear messages. Of course, you
should choose those expressions that best convey your intended meaning.
Eye contact is important. The eyes, which have long been considered “mirrors of
the soul,” provide most listeners with information about the speaker’s sincerity, good-
will, and fl exibility. Some listeners tend to shun speakers who do not look at them. On
the other hand, discriminate eye contact tends to show that you have a genuine interest
in your audience.

Gestures. Like posture, gestures contribute to the message you communicate. Just
what they contribute, however, is hard to say, for they have no defi nite or clear-cut
meanings. A clenched fi st, for example, certainly adds emphasis to a strong point. But it
also can be used to show defi ance, make a threat, or signify respect for a cause. And so
it is with other gestures. They register vague meanings, as discussed in Chapter 14.
Even though gestures have vague meanings, they are strong, natural helps to speak-
ing. It appears natural, for example, to emphasize a plea with palms up and to show
disagreement with palms down. Raising fi rst one hand and then the other reinforces a
division of points. Slicing the air with the hand shows several divisions. Although such
gestures are generally clear, we do not all use them in exactly the same way.
In summary, it should be clear that physical movements can help your speaking.
Just which physical movements you should use, however, is hard to say. The appropri-
ateness of physical movements is related to personality, physical makeup, and the size
and nature of the audience. A speaker appearing before a formal group should gener-
ally use relatively few physical movements. A speaker appearing before an informal

• (3) your posture,

• (4) your manner of
walking,

• (5) facial expressions
(smiles, frowns, eye
contact), and

• (6) gestures.

• Gestures have vague
meanings, but they
communicate.

• In summary, your
physical movements help
your speaking.

470 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

group should use more. Which physical movements you should use on a given occa-
sion is a matter for your best judgment.

Use of Voice
Good voice is an obvious requirement of good speaking. Like physical movements, the
voice should not hinder the listener’s concentration on the message. More specifi cally,
it should not detract attention from the message. Voices that cause such diffi culties
generally fall into these areas of fault: (1) lack of pitch variation, (2) lack of variation
in speed, (3) lack of vocal emphasis, and (4) unpleasant voice quality. Although these
areas are mentioned in Chapter 14, we will examine them here because of their key
signifi cance to formal oral communication.

Lack of Pitch Variation. Speakers who talk in monotones are not likely to hold
the interest of their listeners for long. Since most voices are capable of wide variations
in pitch, the problem usually can be corrected. The failure to vary pitch generally is a
matter of habit—of voice patterns developed over years of talking without being aware
of their effect.

Lack of Variation in Speaking Speed. Determining how fast to talk is a major
problem. As a general rule, you should present the easy parts of your message at a fair-
ly fast rate and the hard parts and the parts you want to emphasize at a slower rate. The
reason for varying the speed of presentation should be apparent: it is more interesting.
A slow presentation of easy information is irritating; hard information presented fast
may be diffi cult to understand.
A problem related to the pace of speaking is the incorrect use of pauses. Properly
used, pauses emphasize upcoming subject matter and are effective means of gain-
ing attention. But frequent pauses for no reason are irritating and break the listeners’
concentration. Pauses become even more irritating when the speaker fi lls them in with
distracting nonwords such as uh, like, you know, and OK.

Lack of Vocal Emphasis. A secret of good speaking is to give words their proper
emphasis by varying the manner of speaking. You can do this by (1) varying the pitch
of your voice, (2) varying the pace of your presentation, and (3) varying the volume
of your voice. As the fi rst two techniques have already been discussed, only the use of
voice volume requires comment here.
You must talk loudly enough for your entire audience to hear you, but not too loud-
ly. Thus, the loudness—voice volume—for a large audience should be greater than that
for a small audience. Regardless of audience size, however, variety in voice volume is
good for interest and emphasis. It produces contrast, which is one way of emphasiz-
ing the subject matter. Some speakers incorrectly believe that the only way to show
emphasis is to get louder and louder. But you can also show emphasis by going from
loud to soft. The contrast with what has gone on earlier provides the emphasis. Again,
variety is the key to making the voice more effective.

Unpleasant Voice Quality. It is a hard fact of communication that some voices
are more pleasant than others. Fortunately, most voices are reasonably pleasant. But
some are raspy, nasal, or unpleasant in another way. Although therapy often can im-
prove such voices, some speakers must live with them. But concentrating on varia-
tions in pitch, speed of delivery, and volume can make even the most unpleasant voice
acceptable.

Improvement through Self-Analysis and Imitation. You can overcome any
of the foregoing voice faults through self-analysis. In this day of audio and video
recorders, it is easy to hear and see yourself talk. Since you know good speaking
when you hear it, you should be able to improve your vocal presentation. One of the
best ways to improve your presentation skills is through watching others. Watch your

• Good voice is a
requirement of good
speaking. Four faults
affect voice:

• (1) lack of variation in
pitch (usually a matter of
habit),

• (2) lack of variation in
speed (cover the simple
quickly, the hard slowly),

• (3) lack of vocal
emphasis (gain emphasis
by varying pitch, pace,
and volume), and

• (4) unpleasant voice
(improvement is often
possible).

• You can correct the
foregoing faults through
self-analysis and work.

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 471

instructors, your peers, television personnel, professional speakers, and anyone else
who gives you an opportunity. Today you can even watch top corporate executives on
webcasts and video presentations. Analyze these speakers to determine what works
for them and what does not. Imitate those good techniques that you think would help
you and avoid the bad ones. Take advantage of any opportunity you have to practice
speaking.

Use of Visuals
The spoken word is severely limited in communicating. Sound is here briefl y and then
gone. A listener who misses the vocal message may not have a chance to hear it again.
Because of this limitation, speeches often need strong visual support: slides with talk-
ing points, charts, tables, fi lm, and the like. Visuals may be as vital to the success of a
speech as the words themselves.

Proper Use of Design. Effective visuals are drawn from the message. They fi t the
one speech and the one audience.
In selecting visuals, you should search through your presentation for topics that
appear vague or confusing. Whenever a visual of some kind will help eliminate vague-
ness or confusion, you should use it. You should use visuals to simplify complex infor-
mation and improve cohesiveness, as well as to emphasize or add interest. Visuals are
truly a part of your message, and you should look at them as such.
After deciding that a topic deserves visual help, you determine what form that help
should take. That is, should the visual be an outline, a chart, a diagram, a picture, or
what? You should select your visuals primarily on the basis of their ability to com-
municate content. Simple and obvious as this suggestion may appear, people violate
it all too often. They select visuals more for appearance and dramatic effect than for
communication effect.1

Types to Consider. Because no one type of visual is best for all occasions, you
should have a fl exible attitude toward visuals. You should know the strengths and
weaknesses of each type, and you should know how to use each type effectively.
In selecting visuals, you should keep in mind the available types. You will mainly
consider the various types of graphics—the charts, line graphs, tables, diagrams, and
pictures—discussed in Chapter 13. Each of these types has its strengths and weak-
nesses and can be displayed in various ways, generally classifi ed as nonprojected or

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Mark Twain on “Knowing When to Stop Talking”

This Mark Twain story carries a vital message for windy speakers:

Some years ago in Hartford, we all went to church one hot sweltering night to hear the annual report of Mr. Hawley, a city
missionary who went around fi nding people who needed help and didn’t want to ask for it. He told of the life in cellars, where
poverty resided; he gave instances of the heroism and devotion of the poor. “When a man with millions gives,” he said, “we make
a great deal of noise. It’s noise in the wrong place, for it’s the widow’s mite that counts.” Well, Hawley worked me up to a great
pitch. I could hardly wait for him to get through. I had $400 in my pocket. I wanted to give that and borrow more to give. You
could see greenbacks in every eye. But instead of passing the plate then, he kept on talking and talking, and as he talked it grew
hotter and hotter, and we grew sleepier and sleepier. My enthusiasm went down, down, down, down—$100 at a clip—until fi nally,
when the plate did come around, I stole ten cents out of it. It all goes to show how a little thing like this can lead to crime.

• Visuals can sometimes
help overcome the
limitations of spoken
words.

• Use visuals for the hard
parts of the message.

1 For a revealing review on the strengths and weaknesses of slideware, see “Learning to Love PowerPoint” by David
Byrne and “Power Corrupts. PowerPoint Corrupts. Absolutely.” by Edward R. Tufte, both in Wired, September 2003.

• Use the type of
visual (outline, chart,
diagram, picture) that
communicates the
information best.

• Select from the various
available types of
visuals.

472 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

projected. Nonprojected techniques include such media as posters, fl ip charts, models,
handouts, and such; projected techniques include slides, transparencies, computer pro-
jections, and such.

Audience Size, Cost, and Ease of Preparation Considerations. Your choice
of visuals also should be infl uenced by the audience size and formality, the cost of pre-
paring and using the media (visuals), and the ease and time of preparation. The table
below illustrates how the different media fare on these dimensions, helping guide you
to the best choice for your particular needs.

Media Image Quality Audience Size Cost
Ease of
Preparation

Nonprojected Poster Very good Small $ Medium

Flip chart Good Small $ Short

Presentation board Good Small $ Short

Real object or model Very good Small $–$$ Short to long

Chalkboard or whiteboard Fair Medium $ None

Photos Very good Medium $ Short to medium

Handouts Excellent Large $–$ Short to long

Projected 35mm slides Very good Large $ Medium

Overhead transparencies Very good Medium $ Short

Visual presenters Very good Medium None None

TVs/VCRs Excellent Medium to large $–$$ Short to long

Computer projection Very good Medium to large None Short to long

Techniques in Using Visuals. Visuals usually carry key parts of the message.
Thus, they are points of emphasis in your presentation. You blend them in with your
words to communicate the message. How you do this is to some extent an individual
matter, for techniques vary. They vary so much, in fact, that it would be hard to pre-
sent a meaningful summary of them. It is more meaningful to present a list of dos and
don’ts. Such a list follows:

• Make certain that everyone in the audience can see the visuals. Too many or
too-light lines on a chart, for example, can be hard to see. An illustration that is
too small can be meaningless to people far from the speaker. Even fonts must be
selected and sized for visibility.

• Explain the visual if there is any likelihood that it will be misunderstood.

• Organize the visuals as a part of the presentation. Fit them into the presentation
plan.

• Emphasize the visuals. Point to them with physical action and words. Use laser
presenter tools and slide animations to emphasize. Most presentation software and
tablet PCs let you annotate slides easily.

• Talk to the audience—not to the visuals. Look at the visuals only when the
audience should look at them. When you want the audience to look at you, you
can regain attention by covering the visual or making the screen in PowerPoint
white or black (toggle the W or B keys).

• Avoid blocking the listeners’ views of the visuals. Make certain that the listeners’
views are not blocked by lecterns, pillars, chairs, and such. Take care not to stand
in anyone’s line of vision.

A Summary List of Speaking Practices
The foregoing review of business speaking has been selective, for the subject is broad.
In fact, entire books have been devoted to it. But this review has covered the high

• Make the visuals points
of interest in your
presentation.

• Here are specifi c
suggestions for using
visuals.

• This review has covered
the high points of
speaking.

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 473

points, especially those that you can easily transfer into practice. Perhaps even more
practical is the following list of what to do and not to do in speaking.

• Organize the speech so that it leads the listeners’ thoughts logically to the
conclusion.

• Use language specifi cally adapted to the audience.

• Articulate clearly, pleasantly, and with proper emphasis. Avoid mumbling and the
use of nonwords such as ah, er, uh, like and OK.

• Speak correctly, using accepted grammar and pronunciation.

• Maintain an attitude of alertness, displaying appropriate enthusiasm and
confi dence.

• Employ body language to best advantage. Use it to emphasize points and to assist
in communicating concepts and ideas.

• Be relaxed and natural. Avoid stiffness or rigidity of physical action.

• Look the listeners in the eye and talk directly to them.

• Keep still. Avoid excessive movements, fi dgeting, and other signs of nervousness.

• Punctuate the presentation with reference to visuals. Make them a part of the
speech text.

• Even when faced with hostile questions or remarks, keep your temper. To lose
your temper is to lose control of the presentation.

• Move surely and quickly to the conclusion. Do not leave a conclusion dangling,
repeat unnecessarily, or appear unable to close.

TEAM (COLLABORATIVE) PRESENTATIONS
Another type of presentation you may be asked to give is a group or team presenta-
tion. To give this type of presentation, you will need to use all you have learned about
giving individual speeches. Also, you will need to use many of the topics discussed in
Chapter 10 on collaborative writing groups. But you will need to adapt the ideas to an
oral presentation setting. Some of the adaptations should be obvious. We will mention
others to which you should give special thought in your team presentation.
First, you will need to take special care to plan the presentation—to determine the
sequence of the presentation as well as the content of each team member’s part. You
also will need to select carefully supporting examples to build continuity from one part
of the presentation to the next.
Groups should plan for the physical aspects of the presentation, too. You should
coordinate the type of delivery, use of notes, graphics, and styles and colors of attire to
present a good image of competence and professionalism. And you should plan transi-
tions so that the team will appear coordinated.
Another presentation aspect—physical staging—is important as well. Team mem-
bers should know where to sit or stand, how visuals will be handled, how to change or
adjust microphones, and how to enter and leave the speaking area.
Attention to the close of the presentation is especially strategic. Teams need to de-
cide who will present the close and what will be said. If a summary is used, the mem-
ber who presents it should attribute key points to appropriate team members. If there is
to be a question-and-answer session, the team should plan how to conduct it. For ex-
ample, will one member take the questions and direct them to a specifi c team member?
Or will the audience be permitted to ask questions to specifi c members? Some type of
fi nal note of appreciation or thanks needs to be planned with all the team nodding in
agreement or acknowledging the fi nal comment in some way.
In all of their extra planning activities, teams should not overlook the need to plan for
rehearsal time. Teams should consider practicing the presentation in its entirety several
times as a group before the actual presentation. During these rehearsals, individual
members should critique thoroughly each other’s contributions, offering specifi c ways
to improve. After fi rst rehearsal sessions, outsiders (nonteam members) might be asked

• This summary checklist
of good and bad
speaking practices
should prove helpful.

• Group presentations
require individual
speaking skills
plus planning for
collaboration. Adapt the
ideas on collaborative
writing in Chapter 10 to
team presentations.

• Plan for the order of the
presentation and each
member’s part.

• Plan for the physical
factors.

• Plan for the physical
staging.

• Plan for the close.

• Plan to rehearse the
presentation.

474 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

to view the team’s presentation and critique the group. Moreover, the team might con-
sider videotaping the presentation so that all members can evaluate it. In addition to
a more effective presentation, the team can enjoy the by-products of group cohesion
and esprit de corps by rehearsing the presentation. Successful teams know the value of
rehearsing and will build such activity into their presentation planning schedules.
These points may appear trivial, but careful attention to them will result in a pol-
ished, coordinated team presentation.

REPORTING ORALLY
A special form of speech is the oral report. You are more likely to make oral reports
than speeches in business, and the oral reports you make are likely to be important to
you. Unfortunately, most of us have had little experience and even less instruction in
oral reporting. Thus, the following review should be valuable to you.

A Defi nition of

Oral Reports

In its broadest sense, an oral report is any presentation of factual information and its
interpretation using the spoken word. A business oral report would logically limit cov-
erage to factual business information. By this defi nition, oral business reports cover
much of the information and analysis exchanged daily in the conduct of business. They
vary widely in formality. At one extreme, they cover the most routine and informal
reporting situations. At the other, they include highly formal and proper presentations.
Because the more informal oral exchanges are little more than routine conversations,
the emphasis in the following pages is on the more formal ones. Clearly, these are the
oral reports that require the most care and skill and are the most deserving of study.

Differences between Oral and Written Reports
Oral reports are much like written reports, so there is little need to repeat much of the
previously presented material on reports. Instead, we will focus on the most signifi cant
differences between oral and written reports. Three in particular stand out.

• The oral report is a form
of speech.

• An oral report is defi ned
as an oral presentation of
factual information.

• Oral reports differ from
written reports in three
ways:

In oral presentations,
appropriately handled
visuals can be effective
in communicating
messages clearly.

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 475

Visual Advantages of the Written Word. The fi rst signifi cant difference
between oral and written reports is that writing permits greater use of visuals to com-
municate than does speaking. With writing, you can use paragraphing to show readers
the structure of the message and to make the thought units stand out. In addition, you
can use punctuation to help show relationships, subordination, and qualifi cation. These
techniques improve the communication effect of the entire message.
On the other hand, when you make an oral presentation, you cannot use any of
these techniques. However, you can use techniques peculiar to oral communication.
For example, you can use infl ection, pauses, volume emphasis, and changes in the rate
of delivery. Depending on the situation, the techniques used in both oral and written
reports are effective in assisting communication. But the point is that the techniques
are different.

Reader Control of Written Presentation. A second signifi cant difference be-
tween oral and written reports is that the readers of a written report, unlike the listen-
ers to an oral report, control the pace of the communication. They can pause, reread,
change their rate of reading, or stop as they choose. Since the readers set the pace,
writing can be complex and still communicate. However, since the listeners to an oral
report cannot control the pace of the presentation, they must grasp the intended mean-
ing as the speaker presents the words. Because of this limiting factor, good oral report-
ing must be relatively simple.

Emphasis on Correctness in Writing. A third signifi cant difference between
oral and written reports is the different degrees of correctness that they require.
Because written reports are likely to be inspected carefully, you are likely to work
for a high degree of correctness when you prepare them. That is, you are likely to
follow carefully the recognized rules of grammar, punctuation, sentence structure,
and so on. When you present oral reports, on the other hand, you may be more lax
about following these rules. One reason is that usually oral reports are not recorded
for others to inspect at their leisure. Another is that oral communication standards
of correctness are less rigid than written communication standards. This state-
ment does not imply that you should avoid good language in oral communication,
however.
The differences between writing and speaking—visual aspects, reader control, and
correctness—can become planning parts to improve your oral report. You will need to
identify the advantages of written reports and compensate for their lack in your oral
report. Such a process is an essential preliminary step to the actual planning of oral
reports.

Planning the Oral Report
As with written reports, planning is the logical fi rst step in your work on oral reports.
For short, informal oral reports, planning may be minimal. But for the more formal
oral reports, particularly those involving audiences of more than one, proper planning
is likely to be as involved as that for a comparable written report.

Determination of Report Objective. Logically, your fi rst task in planning an
oral report is to determine your objective. As prescribed for the written report in Chap-
ter 10, you should state the report objective in clear, concise language. Then you should
clearly state the factors involved in achieving this objective. This procedure gives you
a guide to the information you must gather and to the framework around which you
will build your presentation.
In determining your report objective, you must be aware of your general objective.
That is, you must decide on your general purpose in making the presentation. Is it to
persuade? To inform? To recommend? This decision will have a major infl uence on
your development of material for presentation and perhaps even on the presentation
itself.

• (1) writing and speaking
have unique advantages
and disadvantages;

• (2) the speaker controls
the pace of an oral
report, and the reader
controls the pace of a
written report; and

• (3) written reports
place more stress on
correctness.

• Planning is the fi rst step
in preparing oral reports.

• First determine the
objective and what must
be done to reach it.

476 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

Organization of Content. The procedure for organizing oral reports is similar to
that for organizing written reports. You have the choice of using either the direct or
indirect order. Even so, the same information is not necessarily presented in the same
way orally and in writing. Time pressure, for example, might justify direct presentation
for an oral report on a problem that, presented in writing, might be better arranged in
the indirect order. Readers in a hurry can always skip to the conclusion or ending of the
report. Listeners do not have this choice.
Although oral reports may use either the direct or indirect order, the indirect is the
most logical order and by far the more widely used order. Because your audience is
not likely to know the problem well, introductory remarks are needed to prepare it to
receive your message. In addition, you may need such remarks to arouse interest, stim-
ulate curiosity, or impress the audience with the importance of the subject. The main
goals of the introductory remarks are to state the purpose, defi ne unfamiliar terms,
explain limitations, describe scope, and generally cover all the necessary introductory
subjects (see discussion of the report introduction, Chapter 11).
In the body of the oral report, you should work toward the objective you have set.
Here, too, the oral report closely resembles the written report. Division of subject
matter into comparable parts, logical order, introductory paragraphs, concluding para-
graphs, and the like are equally important to both forms.
The major difference in the organization of the written and the oral report is in the
ending. Both forms may end with a conclusion, a recommendation, a summary, or a
combination of the three. But the oral report is likely to have a fi nal summary, whether
or not it has a conclusion or a recommendation. In a sense, this fi nal summary serves
the purpose of an executive summary by bringing together all the really important in-
formation, analyses, conclusions, and recommendations in the report. It also assists the
memory by emphasizing the points that should stand out. Oral and nonverbal emphasis
techniques should help your audience remember your key points.

PRESENTING VIRTUALLY
One new venue for oral presentations is the virtual or online venue. While videocon-
ferencing has been around for years, several factors seem to be driving the use of this
technology now. Some of these factors are negative—high costs of travel in both dol-
lars and time and widely dispersed business operations. But there are positives work-
ing as well, including both better technology and high speed networks. With better
hardware and more widely accessible connections to the Internet, several companies
have developed easy-to-use, web-based applications. WebEx, once the defacto stan-
dard in this area, now has competitors with such products as Citrix’s GoToMeeting,
Microsoft’s Live Meeting, Marcomedia’s Breeze, Horizon’s Wimba, and more. And
the affordable costs make this technology attractive to both large and small businesses
for presentations to both large and small audiences.
Understanding the nature of this technology, the differences between virtual and
face-to-face presentations, and some techniques to use with it will become more
important as its use in business grows.

A Defi nition of Virtual Presentations
A virtual presentation is one usually delivered from a desktop over the Internet to an
audience located anywhere in the world where there is Internet access. While it could
be delivered with both audio and video components, so the audience could see and
hear the presenter, about 80 percent of today’s users view PowerPoint slides on the
Internet and listen over a phone line. Usually no other special hardware or costly soft-
ware is needed. These presentations can also be recorded, allowing audiences to view
them at different times as well at different places.
Virtual presentations are being used in businesses in many of the same ways
face-to-face presentations are used—to inform and to persuade. They can im-
prove productivity by giving even remote employees up-to-date information and

• Next organize content.
Either the indirect or
direct order is all right,

• but the indirect order is
more common.

• The organization of oral
and written reports is
much the same, except
that oral reports usually
have a closing summary.

• Both positive and
negative factors are
driving the growth of
virtual presentations.

• A virtual presentation can
be delivered and viewed
anywhere there is access
to the Internet.

• Virtual presentations can
inform and persuade
both on-site and remote
users.

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 477

training, avoiding down time for travel and reducing travel costs. They can allow sales
people to reach broader audiences as well as highly targeted specialized audiences
worldwide.

Differences between Face-to-Face
and Virtual Presentations
The major difference between face-to-face and virtual presentations is that the dynamics
have changed—the speaker cannot see the audience and sometimes the audience cannot
see the speaker. Some argue that being able to see the presenter is not critical, and the
technology has given us some tools to help the speaker get feedback from the audience.
In Figure 15–1, you can see some of the tools available to the viewer using Microsoft’s
LiveMeeting. Each viewer can confi gure the screen to his or her preference.
For this particular meeting the presenter loaded a still picture of himself, which
many viewers appreciate. The list of attendees shows that 545 people are present and
gives their sign-on names. It also shows a seating chart with most of the audience indi-
cating in green that the speaker should proceed; however, there is a signifi cant number
of red boxes turned on, indicating that some want the presenter to slow down. Also, it
includes a chat box for real-time questions and answers. Obviously, the speaker cannot
present and type answers to questions at the same time, so this feature is usually used
when an assistant is available. And the predominant window here is the slide being
discussed. Viewers often run this window at full screen size, toggling back to the other
tools as needed. Presenters can also poll the audience during a presentation and display
the results immediately.
To deliver a virtual presentation effectively, a presenter needs to do some prelimi-
nary, delivery, and closing activities. First is to choose a user-friendly, simple technol-
ogy. Then send out announcements of the presentation along with a note encouraging
the audience to pretest their systems before the designated start time for the presen-
tation. If needed, you might want to arrange to have a technical person on hand to
troubleshoot, anticipating that some will have trouble connecting, others will fall be-
hind, and occasionally your time will expire. With a technical person on hand, these
typical problems can be resolved quickly. Also, you’ll need to arrange ahead of time
for an assistant if you need one. And you need to create something for early arrivers
at your presentation to view in the fi rst 5 to 10 minutes before you start. This could be
an announcement, news of an upcoming presentation, or information about your prod-
ucts and services. You will also want to tell participants where additional information
is available, including your slides, video recording of the presentation, and other
business links.

Figure 15–1

Microsoft’s LiveMeeting
has several tools that can
enhance the interaction
between the speaker and
audience.

• Virtual presenters cannot
see their audience; most
audiences today do not
see the presenter.

• Effective virtual
presenters employ some
unique preliminary,
delivery, and closing
techniques.

478 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

The delivery of your presentation will be much like that for other presentations,
except you will be doing it from your desktop using a headphone. You may want to use
the highlighter or an animation effects tool in PowerPoint to help you emphasize key
points that you would otherwise physically point to in a face-to-face presentation. You
will want to plan breaks where you will poll or quiz the audience or handle questions
that have come in through the chat tool. If you use the presenter’s view in PowerPoint,
you can set the timer to help you do this at regular intervals as well as gauge the timing
through the questions and speed feedback.
In the closing, you will want to allow time to evaluate the success of your presenta-
tion as well as to handle questions and answers. Watching your time is critical because
some systems will drop you if you exceed your requested time.
Overall, presenting virtually requires the same keys to success as other presentations—
careful planning, attentive delivery, and practice.

1Select and organize a subject for effective
formal presentation to a
specifi c audience.

SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Consider the following suggestions in selecting and organizing a speech.

• Begin by selecting an appropriate topic—one in your area of specialization and
of interest to your audience.

• Organize the message (probably by introduction, body, conclusion).

• Consider an appropriate greeting (“Ladies and Gentlemen,” “Friends”).

• Design the introduction to meet these goals:

— Arouse interest with a story, humor, or such.

— Introduce the subject (theme).

— Prepare the reader to receive the message.

• Use indirect order presentation to persuade and direct order for other cases.

• Organize like a report: divide and subdivide, usually by factors.

• Select the most appropriate ending, usually restating the subject and
summarizing.

• Consider using a climactic close.

• Choose the best manner of presentation.

— Extemporaneous is usually best.

— Memorizing is risky.

— Reading is diffi cult unless you are skilled.

2. To improve your speaking, take these steps:

• Work on these characteristics of a good speaker:

— Confi dence.

— Sincerity.

— Thoroughness.

— Friendliness.

• Know your audience.

— Before the presentation, size them up—looking for characteristics that
affect your presentation (gender, age, education).

— During the presentation, continue to analyze them, looking at facial
expressions, listening to noises, and such—and adapt to them.

3. What the listeners see and hear affects the communication.

• They see the physical environment (stage, lighting, background), personal
appearance, posture, walking, facial expressions, gestures, and such.

• They hear your voice.

2Describe how personal aspects and audience
analysis contribute to
formal presentations.

3Explain the use of voice quality and
physical aspects such
as posture, walking,
facial expression, and
gestures in effective oral
communication.

• Effective virtual
presenters often use a
variety of technological
tools to keep their
audiences attention.

• Effective virtual
presenters manage the
timing carefully.

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 479

— For best effect, vary the pitch and speed.

— Give appropriate vocal emphasis.

— Cultivate a pleasant quality.

4. Use visuals whenever they help communicate.

• Select the types that do the best job.

• Blend the visuals into your speech, making certain that the audience sees and
understands them.

• Organize your visuals as a part of your message.

• Emphasize the visuals by pointing to them.

• Talk to the audience, not the visuals.

• Do not block your audience’s view of the visuals.

5. Group presentations have special problems.

• They require all the skills of individual presentation.

• In addition, they require extra planning to

— Reduce overlap and provide continuity.

— Provide smooth transitions between presentations.

— Coordinate questions and answers.

6. Business oral reports are spoken communications of factual business information
and its interpretation.

• Written and oral reports differ in three signifi cant ways.

— Written reports permit more use of visual helps to communication
(paragraphing, punctuation, and such); oral reports allow voice infl ection,
pauses, and the like.

— Oral reports permit the speaker to exercise greater control over the pace of
the presentation; readers of a written report control the pace.

— Written reports place more emphasis on writing correctness (grammar,
punctuation, etc.).

• Plan oral reports just as you do written ones.

— First, determine your objective and state its factors.

— Next, organize the report, using either indirect or direct order.

— Divide the body based on your purpose, keeping the divisions comparable
and using introductory/concluding paragraphs, logical order, and the like.

— End the report with a fi nal summary—a sort of ending executive summary.

7. Advances in hardware and software along with increases in broadband speeds and
Internet access have spawned the growth of virtual presentations in business.

• In virtual presentations the speaker cannot see the audience and often
the audience cannot see the speaker. But today’s software helps bridge
this gap.

• Before delivering a virtual presentation, the speaker should plan for the
technology being used, announcements mailed to the audience ahead of the
meeting, system testing, assistance for presentation support from technical and
non-technical sides, and material for early arrivers to view.

• During the delivery, the speaker should plan intereaction with polling or
quizzing, take regular breaks for feedback and questions, and be attentive to the
feedback from the audience on speed of delivery.

• In closing, the speaker should allow ample time for both questions and
evaluation.

• Overall, the virtual presentation like the face-to-face presentation requires
planning, attentive delivery, and practice.

4Plan for visuals to support speeches and
oral reports.

5Work effectively with a group in preparing
and making a team
presentation.

6Defi ne oral reports and differentiate between
them and written
reports on the basis
of their advantages,
disadvantages, and
organization.

7Plan and deliver presentations virtually.

480 PART 5 Other Forms of Business Communication

1 Assume that you must prepare a speech on the impor-
tance of making good grades for an audience of college
students. Develop some attention-gaining ideas for the
introduction of this speech. Do the same for a climactic
close for the speech.

2 When is an extemporaneous presentation desirable?
When should a speech be read? Discuss.

3 Explain how a speaker’s personal characteristics infl u-
ence the meanings of his or her spoken words.

4 An employee presented an oral report to an audience
of 27 middle- and upper-level administrators. Then she
presented the same information to three top executives.
Note some of the probable differences between the two
presentations.

5 Explain how feedback can be used in making a
speech.

6 One’s manner of dress, choice of hairstyle, physical
characteristics, and the like are personal. They should
have no infl uence on any form of oral communication.
Discuss.

7 By description (or perhaps by example), identify good
and bad postures and walking practices for speaking.

8 Explain how facial expressions can miscommunicate.
9 Give some illustrations of gestures that can be used to

communicate more than one meaning. Demonstrate
them.

10 “We are born with voices—some good, some bad, and
some in between. We have no choice but to accept what
we have been given.” Comment.

11 What should be the determining factors in the use of
visuals (graphics)?

12 Discuss (or demonstrate) some good and bad tech-
niques of using visuals.

13 In presenting an oral report to a group composed of
fellow workers as well as some bosses, a worker is
harassed by the questions of a fellow worker who is
trying to embarrass him. What advice would you give
the worker? Would your advice be different if the critic
were one of the bosses? What if the speaker were a
boss and the critic a worker? Discuss.

14 Give examples of ways a team could provide continu-
ity between members through the use of supporting
examples. Be specifi c.

15 Explain the principal differences between written and
oral reports.

16 Compare the typical organization plans of oral and
written reports. Note the major differences between the
two kinds of plans.

17 Explain the principal differences between face-to-face
and virtual presentations.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N S

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G E X E R C I S E S

Speeches (face-to-face or Virtual)

Since a speech can be made on almost any topic, it is not
practical to list topics for speeches. You or your instructor
can generate any number of interesting and timely topics in a
short time. Whatever topic you select, you will need to deter-
mine the goals clearly, to work out the facts of the situation,
and to set a time limit.

Oral Reports

Most of the written report problems presented in the problem
section following Chapter 11 also can serve as oral report
problems. The following problems, however, are especially
suitable for oral presentation.

1 Survey the major business publications for information
about the outlook for the national (or world) economy
for the coming year. Then present a summary report to
the directors of Allied Department Stores, Inc.

2 Select a current technological innovation for business
use and report it to a company’s top administrators
(you select the company). You will describe the inno-
vation and point out how it will benefi t the company. If
appropriate, you may recommend its purchase.

3 Report to a meeting of a wildlife-protection organiza-
tion on the status of an endangered species. You will
need to gather the facts through research, probably in
wildlife publications.

4 A national chain of (your choice) is open-
ing an outlet in your city. You have been assigned the
task of reviewing site possibilities. Gather the pertinent
information and make an oral recommendation to the
board of directors.

5 The Future Business Leaders Club at your old high
school has asked you to report to it on the nature and
quality of business study at your college. You will

CHAPTER 15 Public Speaking and Oral Reporting 481

cover all the factors that you think high school students
need to know. Include visuals in your presentation.

6 As representative of a travel agency, present a travel
package on (place or places of your choice)
to the members of the Adventurer Travel Club. You
will describe places to be visited, and you will cover all
the essential details: dates, hotels, guide service, meals,
costs, manner of travel, and so on.

7 As a member of an investment club, report to the mem-
bership on whether the club should purchase shares of
Time Warner (TWX), Clear Channel Communications
(CCU), and Yahoo (YHOO). Your report will cover
past performance, current status, and future prospects
for the short and long run.

8 Look through current newspapers, magazines, the web,
and so on, and get the best available information on
the job outlook for this year’s college graduates. You
will want to look at each major fi eld separately. You
also may want to show variations by geographic area,
degree, and schools. Present your fi ndings in a well-
organized and illustrated oral report.

9 Present a plan for improving some phase of operation
on your campus (registration, academic honesty, hous-
ing, grade appeals, library, cafeteria, traffi c, curricula,
athletics, computer labs, or the like).

10 Present an objective report on some legislation of impor-
tance to business (right-to-work laws, ethics, environ-
mental controls, taxes, or the like). Take care to present
evidence and reasoning from all the major viewpoints.
Support your presentation with facts, fi gures, and so on
whenever they will help. Prepare visual supports.

11 Assume that you are being considered by a company of
your choice for a job of your choice. Your prospective
employer has asked you to make a -minute
report (your instructor will specify) on your qualifi ca-
tions. You may project your education to the date you

will be on the job market, making assumptions that are
consistent with your record to date.

12 Prepare and present a report on how individuals may
reduce their federal or state income tax payments. You
probably will want to emphasize the most likely sourc-
es of tax savings, such as tax sheltering and avoiding
common errors.

13 Make a presentation to a hypothetical group of inves-
tors that will get you the investment money you need
for a purpose of your choice. Your purpose could be to
begin a new business, to construct a building, to devel-
op land—whatever interests you. Make your presenta-
tion as real (or realistic) as you can. And support your
appeal with visuals.

14 As chairperson of the site-selection committee of the
National Federation of Business Executives, present a
report on your committee’s recommendation. The com-
mittee has selected a city and a convention hotel (you
may choose each). Your report will give your recom-
mendation and the reasons that support it. For class
purposes, you may make up whatever facts you may
need about the organization and its convention require-
ments and about the hotel. But use real facts about the
city.

15 As a buyer of men’s (or women’s) clothing, report to
the sales personnel of your store on the fashions for the
coming season. You may get the necessary information
from publications in the fi eld.

16 The top administrators of your company have asked
you to look into the matter of whether the company
should own automobiles, lease automobiles, or pay
mileage costs on employee-owned automobiles. (Auto-
mobiles are used by sales personnel.) Gather the best
available information on the matter and report it to the
top administrators. You may make up any company
facts you need, but make them realistic.

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