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Phonology Homework

Name ___________________________________________________________

A. Ganda (Uganda)

1. kola ‘do’ Are [r] and [l] separate phonemes or

2. lwana ‘fight’ allophones of the same phoneme?

3. buulira ‘tell’ State your evidence. If the latter,

4, lya ‘eat’ state the distributions (20 points),

5. luula ‘sit’ and select a base form and write

6. omugole ‘bride’ a rule for the alternation (15 points) .

7. lumonde ‘sweet potato’

8. eddwaliro ‘hospital’

9. oluganda ‘Ganda language’

10. olulimi ‘tongue’

11. wulira ‘hear’

12. beera ‘help’

13. jjukira ‘remember’

14. eryato ‘canoe’

15. omuliro ‘fire’

16. effiriimbi ‘whistle’

17. emmeeri ‘ship’

18. eraddu ‘lightning’

19, wawaabira ‘accuse’

20. lagira ‘command’

Here are some loanwords from English in Ganda. How can you account for the treatment
of [r] and [l] in these words? 10 points

leerway ‘railway’

luula ‘ruler’

B. Gascon (Southwestern France) 40 points

/era hiʎo/ ‘the girl/daughter’
/eras hiʎos/ ‘the girls/daughter’
/eraj mas/ ‘the hands’
/eras tawlos/ ‘the tables’
/eras kledos/ ‘the haylofts’
/eraj bestjos/ ‘the animals’
/eraz ulos/ ‘the pots’
/eras kazos/ ‘the houses’
/eraz amidalos/ ‘the tonsils’
/eras hlus/ ‘the flowers’
/eraz awkos/ ‘the geese’
/eraj daʎos/ ‘the scythes’
/eraj nuros/ ‘the daughters-in-law’
/eraj granuz embeʒos/ ‘the great desires’
/era hiʎo de ʒwan/ ‘John’s daughter’ (lit. ‘the daugher of John’)
/eras hiʎoj de ʒwan/ ‘John’s daughters’
/eraj mjebos tawlos/ ‘my tables’ (lit. ‘the my tables’)
/eraj granus hlus/ ‘the big flowers’
/era petito awko/ ‘the little goose’
/eras petitoz awkos/ ‘the little geese’

The plural marker (which occurs at the end of the article, the adjective and the noun) can
take the form /s/, /z/ or /j/. State the distributions (20 points). Select a base form for the
plural marker and write rules accounting for the occurrence of the other two forms (20
points).

Link to IPA chart w/ sound:

http://phonetics.ucla.edu/course/chapter1/chapter1.html

Phonological Features and the IPA

Major Class Features

[syllabic]

All vowels are [+syllabic]. By default, consonants are [–syllabic]; [+syllabic] consonants are marked with the
[
”
] diacritic. Glides are always [–syllabic]; the [+syllabic] counterpart of a glide is a vowel.

p t ú c k q P
b d ã é g å
á â č

ê ä É

F f T s S ù ç x X è h
B v D z Z ü J G K Q H

>
pf

m M n ï

ñ N ð

l í

L Ï

ô ó

w V j î

i y W/

u
I Y U

e ø

o
E œ

/@ O
æ Œ a/A

[vocalic]

Vowels and glides are [+vocalic]; all other segments are [–vocalic].

p t ú c k q P
b d ã é g å
á â č ê ä É

F f T s S ù ç x X è h
B v D z Z ü J G K Q H
ì

Ð
>
pf ţ Ù

dz Ã

m M n ï ñ N ð
l í L Ï
ô ó

w V j î

i y W/1 u
I Y U

e ø 7 o
E œ 2/@ O
æ Œ a/A 6

[approximant]

Segments that are [+approximant] have a very wide constriction in the oral tract; segments that are [–
approximant] have a narrow constriction in the oral tract. Vowels, glides, and liquids are [+approximant];
stops, fricatives, affricates, and nasals are [–approximant].

p t ú c k q P
b d ã é g å
á â č ê ä É
F f T s S ù ç x X è h
B v D z Z ü J G K Q H
ì
Ð
>
pf ţ Ù
dz Ã
m M n ï ñ N ð
l í L Ï
ô ó
w V j î
i y W/1 u
I Y U
e ø 7 o
E œ 2/@ O
æ Œ a/A 6

[sonorant]

The feature [sonorant] characterizes an acoustic property of segments: segments that are [+sonorant] have
formant structure; segments that are [–sonorant] do not. Vowels, glides, liquids, and nasals are [+sonorant];
stops, fricatives, and affricates are [–sonorant].

p t ú c k q P
b d ã é g å
á â č ê ä É
F f T s S ù ç x X è h
B v D z Z ü J G K Q H
ì
Ð
>
pf ţ Ù
dz Ã
m M n ï ñ N ð
l í L Ï
ô ó
w V j î
i y W/1 u
I Y U
e ø 7 o
E œ 2/@ O
æ Œ a/A 6
2

[continuant]

The feature [continuant] refers to oral airflow: segments that are [+continuant] have continuous oral airflow;
segments that are [–continuant] involve an interruption in oral airflow. Vowels, glides, liquids, and fricatives
are [+continuant]; stops, affricates, and nasals are [–continuant].

[lateral]

Lateral fricatives and approximants are [+lateral]; all other segments are [–lateral].

[nasal]

Nasal consonants are [+nasal]. All other segments are [–nasal] by default; nasal vowels and other nasalized
segments are marked with the [˜] diacritic.

[strident]

The feature [strident] refers to high-frequency aperiodic noise during a segment: segments that are [+strident]
have this noise; segments that are [–strident] do not. All affricates are [+strident]; in addition, fricatives
at certain places of articulation are [+strident]: labiodentals, alveolars, palato-alveolars, retroflexes, and
uvulars. All other segments are [–strident].

Place Features

[labial]

Among consonants, the feature [labial] distinguishes between labial and non-labial segments. Rounding in
vowels and glides is specified with [round], which is a dependent feature of [labial]; therefore, all vowels and
glides are [+labial]. Thus, bilabials, labiodentals, and all vowels and glides are [+labial]; all other segments
are [–labial]. In addition, if a language has a pair of segments that contrast in rounding, both segments are
[+labial] (see below).

[round]

The feature [round] is dependent on the feature [labial]; it refers to rounding of the lips independent of
labial place of articulation. Round vowels and glides are [+round]; unrounded vowels and glides and labial
consonants are [–round]. Rounding on other segments is indicated with the [w] superscript; thus, adding
[w] to a segment makes that segment [+round] (and [+labial] if it is not labial already). The non-rounded
counterpart of that segment (if any) is [+labial, –round].

p
b
á

F f
B v
>
pf

m M

w V j î
i y W/1 u
I Y U
e ø 7 o
E œ 2/@ O
æ Œ a/A 6

[coronal]

The feature [coronal] refers to the involvement of the front half of the tongue body in the articulation of
the segment. Interdental, alveolar, palato-alveolar, retroflex, and palatal consonants (except glides) are
[+coronal]; labial, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal consonants and all vowels are [–coronal]. The
dependent features of [coronal] are [anterior] and [distributed].

[anterior]

The feature [anterior] is dependent on the feature [coronal]; it refers to whether the primary constriction is in
the frontmost part of the mouth (at or before the alveolar ridge). Interdentals and alveolars are [+anterior];
palato-alveolars, retroflexes, and palatals are [–anterior].

t ú c
d ã é
â č ê

T s S ù ç
D z Z ü J

ì
Ð
ţ Ù
dz Ã

n ï ñ
l í L
ô ó

[distributed]

The feature [distributed] is a dependent feature of [coronal]; it refers to whether the primary constriction is
made with the tip or the blade of the tongue. Segments that are [+distributed] are articulated with the blade
of the tongue; segments that are [–distributed] are articulated with the tip. Interdentals, palato-alveolars,
and palatals are [+distributed]; alveolars and retroflexes are [–distributed].

t ú c
d ã é
â č ê
T s S ù ç
D z Z ü J
ì
Ð
ţ Ù
dz Ã
n ï ñ
l í L
ô ó

[dorsal]

The feature [dorsal] refers to the involvement of the back half of the tongue body in the articulation of the
segment. Palato-alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, and pharyngeal consonants and all vowels and glides are
[+dorsal]; labials, interdentals, alveolars, retroflexes, and glottals are [–dorsal]. The dependent features of
[dorsal] are [high], [low], and [back].

p t ú c k q P
b d ã é g å
á â č ê ä É
F f T s S ù ç x X è h
B v D z Z ü J G K Q H
ì
Ð
>
pf ţ Ù
dz Ã
m M n ï ñ N ð
l í L Ï
ô ó
w V j î
i y W/1 u
I Y U
e ø 7 o
E œ 2/@ O
æ Œ a/A 6
7

[high]

The feature [high] is dependent on the feature [dorsal]; it refers to the height of the tongue body. Alveo-
palatal, palatal, and velar consonants, all glides, and high vowels are [+high]; uvular and pharyngeal conso-
nants and mid and low vowels are [–high].

c k q
é g å

ê ä É

S ç x X

Z J G K

Ù
Ã
ñ N ð
L Ï
w V j î
i y W/1 u
I Y U
e ø 7 o
E œ 2/@ O
æ Œ a/A 6

[low]

The feature [low] is dependent on the feature [dorsal]; it refers to the height of the tongue body. Pharyngeal
consonants and low vowels are [+low]; palato-alveolar, palatal, velar, and uvular consonants, all glides, and
high and mid vowels are [–low].

c k q
é g å
ê ä É
S ç x X è
Z J G K Q
Ù
Ã
ñ N ð
L Ï
w V j î
i y W/1 u
I Y U
e ø 7 o
E œ 2/@ O
æ Œ a/A 6

[back]

The feature [back] is dependent on the feature [dorsal]; it refers to the horizontal position of the tongue body.
Velar, uvular, and pharyngeal consonants and central and back vowels and glides are [+back]; palato-alveolar
and palatal consonants and front vowels and glides are [–back].

c k q
é g å
ê ä É
S ç x X è
Z J G K Q
Ù
Ã
ñ N ð
L Ï
w V j î
i y W/1 u
I Y U
e ø 7 o
E œ 2/@ O
æ Œ a/A 6

[pharyngeal]

Pharyngeal consonants and vowels in a language with a contrast between tense and lax vowels are [+pha-
ryngeal]; all other segments are [–pharyngeal]. The dependent feature of [pharyngeal] is [ATR].

[ATR]

The feature [ATR] (short for ‘advanced tongue root’) corresponds to the distinction between tense and lax
vowel. Tense vowels are [+ATR]; lax vowels and pharyngeal consonants are [–ATR].

è
Q
i y W/1 u
I Y U
e ø 7 o
E œ 2/@ O
æ Œ a/A 6

Laryngeal Features

[voiced]

Voiced consonants and all vowels are [+voiced]; voiceless consonants are [–voice].

[aspirated]

Voiceless fricatives and [H] are [+aspirated]; all other consonants and all vowels are [–aspirated] by default.
The feature [+aspirated] is also applied to aspirated stops (marked with the [h] diacritic), voiceless sonorants
(marked with the [

˚
] diacritic), and vowels with breathy voice (marked with the [

¨
] diacritic).

[glottalized]

Implosive consonants and the glottal stop are [+glottalized]; all other consonants and all vowels are [–
glottalized] by default. The feature [+glottalized] is also applied to ejectives (marked with the [’] diacritic)
and vowels with creaky voice (marked with the [

˜
] diacritic).

Diacritics

Table 1: IPA diacritics

Diacritic Example Meaning Feature
’ p’ ejective [+glottalized]

˚
n
˚

voiceless [–voiced, +aspirated]

ˇ
s
ˇ

voiced [+voiced]
h th aspirated [+aspirated]

”
ô
”

syllabic [+syllabic]

“
e
“

non-syllabic [–syllabic]

¨
a
¨

breathy voiced [+aspirated]

˜
a
˜

creaky voiced [+glottalized]
w tw labialized [+labial, +round]
j tj palatalized [+dorsal, +high, –back]
G tG velarized [+dorsal, +high, +back]
Q tQ pharyngealized [+pharyngeal]
” t” dental [+coronal, +anterior, +distributed]
„ t„ apical [+coronal, –distributed]
« t« laminal [+coronal, +distributed]
˜ ẽ nasalized [+nasal]

Syllables and

Sonority

� Sonority is an important but vague concept in phonology

� The sonority of a segment is correlated with many things

– Loudness/intensity

– Jaw openness

– Vowel-like-ness

� Segments can be arranged along a scale from more to less sonorous

Vowels > Glides > Liquids > Nasals > Obstruents
5 4 3

Syllables

� Syllable structure

Onset Rime

Nucleus Coda

– Nucleus is mandatory

– Onset and coda are optional

� Principles related to syllables

– Onset: languages do not like syllables without onsets

– NoCoda: languages do not like syllables with codas

– Sonority Sequencing Generalization (SSG): sonority should increase through
the onset to the nucleus and decrease from the nucleus through the coda

⇒ The bigger the sonority increase/decrease, the better

� How are these principles manifested in phonological patterns?

– Static patterns: sometimes a language obeys a principle absolutely

– Rules: sometimes a rule changes a structure that violates one of these principles
into a structure that satisfies it

Doing a Phonological Analysis

Phonemes and Allophones

� Once we know what sounds appear in a given language, phonologists want to know
more

– Which sounds are used to distinguish different words?

– What patterns determine which sounds can appear in which positions?

� The concept of the phoneme helps us understand phonological patterns

– The phoneme is an abstract contrastive category

– A language’s segment inventory consists of a number of phonemes

– Each phoneme has an underlying form: the sound that is stored in speakers’
mental lexicons

– Each phoneme has a number of surface forms, called allophones

* These surface forms represent how the phoneme is pronounced in a particular
context

* At least one of the surface forms is the same as the underlying form

* We write a rule to describe which surface form appears in which context

� Every pair of sounds in a language is in one of two possible relationships

– They are allophones of separate phonemes

⇒ Alternatively, we say they are separate phonemes
* For at least some context, either sound could appear in that context: the
sounds are in contrastive distribution

* There may be a minimal pair: two words with different meanings that are
exactly the same except that one word has the first sound where the other
word has the second

– They are allophones of the same phoneme

⇒ Alternatively, we say they are allophones
* In every context, only one of the two sounds is possible: the sounds are in
complementary distribution

* In other words, in every context, it is possible to predict which of the two
sounds can appear and which cannot

* It follows from this that there cannot be a minimal pair for the two sounds

Procedure for Phonemic Analysis

Are X and Y allophones of the same phoneme, or allophones of separate phonemes?

1. Are there any minimal pairs in the data for X and Y?

Yes: The sounds are in contrastive distribution. They are allophones of separate
phonemes. You’re finished.

No: Go on to step

2. Make charts showing the environments where X and Y appear. Is there a pattern
such that one sound always appears in one context, while the other sound appears
everywhere else?

⇒ You aren’t required to include these charts in the write-up that you turn in, but
it’s a good idea to write them out for yourself.

Yes: The sounds are in complementary distribution. They are allophones of the same
phoneme. Go on to step

No: The sounds are probably in contrastive distribution; they are allophones of sepa-
rate phonemes. You’re finished.

3. Write a rule that accounts for the distribution of X and Y.

(a) Determine which sound is the underlying form (that is, which sound is the phoneme).

⇒ The sound that appears ‘elsewhere’ is the underlying form.

(b) Write a rule that describes when the underlying sound should be changed to a
different allophone

Format of Phonological Rules

/X/ → [Y] / A B

X: The sound(s) affected by the rule

� If your rule applies to a single underlying sound, put the IPA symbol between
forward slashes

� If your rule applies to a natural class, list all the features necessary to define the
class in square brackets

⇒ When defining a natural class in a rule, use as few features as possible

Arrow: Indicates that the underlying form changes to something different in some environ-
ments

Y: The allophone that the underlying form changes into

� If your rule applies to a single sound, put the surface allophone in square brackets

� If your rule applies to a natural class, list the features that the rule changes in
square brackets

⇒ Any feature not listed here stays the same as it was in the underlying form

Forward Slash: Separates the change from the environment where the change occurs

A, B: The environment where the change occurs; A and B may be any of the following

� An IPA symbol

� A list of features that defines a natural class

� A boundary

– Word boundary: #

– Morpheme boundary: –

– Syllable boundary: [σ or ]σ

� Nothing

Underscore: A placeholder showing the position of the phoneme that changes relative to
its conditioning environment

Eastern Andalusian Spanish

(Romance; Spain)

Segments of interest: vowels, [s]

Data

Form Gloss
papEl paper
bErdura verdure
pero but
kante sing.

.sg.pst
Ipnotiko hypnotic
dIktar dictate.inf
diÙa happiness
makina machine
kOrto short
galardOn reward

Form Gloss
koÙe car
poso well
salUd health
rUmbo direction
rudo rough
bruto stupid
mikrobjo microbe
desjErto deserted
nukleo nucleus

Most Dialects E. Andalusian Gloss
Ermano Ermano brother
ErmanOs ErmanO brother.pl
madre madre mother
madrEs madrE mother.pl
djo djo give.3.sg.pst
djOs djO God
pErdi pErdi lose.1.sg.pst
pErdIs pErdI partridge

Solution

Rules

(1) Vowel Laxing: Vowels become lax in closed syllables.

[
+syl

]
→

[
−ATR

]
/

[
−syl

]
]σ

(

) [s]-Deletion: [s] deletes syllable-finally.

/
s
/
→ ∅/ ]σ

Syllabification

(1) Stop-approximant CC sequences are syllabified together. All other CC sequences are
syllabified separately.

Sample Derivations

Vowel Lowering before [s]-Deletion: correct result

UR /papel/ /koÙe/ /ermano/ /ermanos/
VL papEl — Ermano ErmanOs
SD — — — ErmanO
SR [papEl] [koÙe] [Ermano] [ErmanO]

[s]-Deletion before Vowel Lowering: incorrect result

UR /papel/ /koÙe/ /ermano/ /ermanos/
SD — — — Ermano
VL papEl — Ermano —
SR [papEl] [koÙe] [Ermano] *[Ermano]

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