People

 

Work provides satisfaction to people in different ways. The Meaning of Work (MOW) International Research Team identifies six items that add value and satisfaction to one’s job. What are these six items? How are these six items different among people in different countries? Provide some examples. Your response should be at least 200 words in length. You are required to use at least your textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.

 

Herdesky, H. (2011). International management: Managing across the borders and cultures. (7 ed., pp. 384-386). Upper Saddle River: The Pearson Education Company.

 

(Herdesky, 2011)

 

384 Part 4 ‘ Clobal Human Resources Management
. High individualisrn suggests people would be motivatecl by opportunities for individual

advancement and autonomy; collectivism (low individualism) suggests that motivation

rvil1 more likely work through appeals to group goals and suppol’t’
. High masculinity suggests that most people would be tnore comfortable with the tradition

–

al division of work and roles; in a more feminine oulture, the boundaries could be looser

,

motivating people through more flexible roles and wot* netrvorks.

More recent research, repofied in 2008, and based on Hofstede’s dimensions of individual-

ism and masculinity was conducted by Gelade, Dobson, and Auer. They compared what 50,000

workers in a global pharinaceutical company in 29 nations valued most in their jobs and that

positively impacted their company. The results, based on Hofstede’s individualism dimension,

iho*eci that the higher the level of national individualism (such as is typicai in the United States

the more employees valued their autonomy, opportunities fbr per-sonal :’-l’::’-;:r”;- ” i!’li*

i

a worklif’e baiance. This compared with employees in the more collectivistic countries (sirch as

in China an6 Singapore) who apparently are more motivated when they felt that their jobs 1’u111

utilized their skills, and when they i’eit that the colnpany was providing them with good rt’ot’king

conditions, fringe benehts, and training.ta The findings based on the masculinity dimension were

that the higherihe ievel of “masculinity” (such as in Japan and Mexico), the more motivated

employees*were by being given opportunities for high pay, personal accomplishment, and iob

advancernent. This cornpar”a *ittl those from more “feminine” criltures (such as in Denmark
and Sweden), who ciaimed that factors relatecl to their reiationships with their managers and

co-workers provided more commitment to the organization. The authors conclude that:

The,se fincling,s show that the sources of organizational conwitnlent
are culturally

conclitioner| ctnd that their fficts are predictable fronz Hofstede’s value dimensions

JounNar- oF CRoss-CuLruRAL PsvcHol-ocv
39, uo’ 5 (2008).t5

Misjuclging the importance of these cultural variables in the workplace may result not only

in a failure to motivate but also in demotivation. Rieger and Wong-Rieger present the lbllowing

example:

In TlnilancJ, the infiocfitction of att indit,iductl rnerit borttts trtlan, u’hich runs counter to

the societal rrcrm of group cooperation, ntay reswlt in a tlecline rather thcm an inctectse

itt ptocluctitli4, fiom ettplol’ees |t,ha rcfuse-lo openl}| coftTpete with eaclt other.16

In considering what molivates people, we have to understand their needs, goals, value sys-

tems, ancl expectations, No matter what their nationality or cultural background, people are

driven to fulfiil needs and to achieve goals’ But what are those needso rvhat goais do they want to

achieve, and what can motivate that drive to sal.isfy their goals?

?’*te fdEeanEnfi *f W*rrlq
Because the tbcus in this text is on the needs that aft’ect the working environment, it is important

to understand first what work means to people from diflerent backgrounds. Fot’most people, the

basic meaning of work is tied to economic necessity (money for food, housing, and so forth)
for

the inrlividual and lbr society. However, the additional connotations of work are more subjective’

especially about what work provides other than money-achievement, honor, social contacts,

and so on.
Another way to view work, however, is through its relationship to the rest of a person’s

lif’e. The Thais call work rtgan, which is the same as the Thai word for “play,” and they tend

to introduce periocls of piay in their workdays. On the other hand, most people in China,

Germany, uni th” United States have a more serious attitude toward work’ Especially in
work-

oriented China, seven-clay work weeks with long hours and ferv days off are common’
A study of

average work hours in various countries conducted by Steers i’ound that Koreans
worked longer

hours and took fewer vacation days than worket’s in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore’

India, Japan, and Indonesia.lT The study concluded that the Koreans’ hard work was attributable

to loyalty to the company, group-ot’iented achievefilent’ and enrphasis on gloup harmony and

business relationshiPs.

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Chapter 1l ” Motivating and Leading 385

Studies on the meaning of work in eight counl.ries were caffied out by George
England

and a group of researchers who are calleci the It4eaning of Work (MOW) International

n”t””.!fr i”u*.ts Their research sought to determine a person’s idea of the relative impor-
tance of work compared to that of ieisure, community, religion, and family. They called this

concept of work work centrality, defined as “the degree of general importance that
working

has in the life of an inclividual at any given point in time.” The results showed, lbr example’

that the Japanese hold work tn be ulry important in their lives; the Brits, on the other hand

(in this uuihor’, birth country) seem io like their leisure tinte more than those in the other

countries surveyed. However, given the complexity of cultural and economic variables

involved in people’s attitude toward work, the results are difficult to generalize, in particular
as

concerns the implications of on-the-job rvork motivation. More relevant to manaSers
(as an aid

to understanding culture-based differences in motivation) are the specific reasons
for vaiuing

work. What kinds of needs does the working environment satisfy, and how does that psycho-

logical contract differ among populations?
The MOW research team provided some excellent insights into this question when it asked

people in the eight countries what they valued about work an

joUr. fn”ir research resulis showed the reiative order of importance overall as follows:

1. A needed income
2. Interest and satisfaction
3. Contacts with others
4. A way to serve society
5. A means ofkeePing occuPied
6. Stalus and prestige.le

Note the similarities of some of these functions with Masiow’s need categories and

Herzberg’s categories of motivators and maintenance factors. Clearly, these studies can
help

international managers to aniicipate what attitudes peopie have toward their work, what
aspects

of work in their lif’e context are meaningtul to them, and therefore what approach
the manager

should take in setting up motivation and incentive pians’

In addition to the difTerences among countries within each category-such as the higher

levei of interest and satisfaction derived from work by the Israelis as compared with the

Germans-it is interesting to note the within-country dift’erences. Although income was the-most

important factor fgr all co=untries, it apparently has a far greater impofiance than any other
factor

in iapan. In other countries, such as the Netherlands, the relative importance of different
l’actors

was more evenly distributed’
The broader implications oi-such comparisons about what work means to peopie are derived

from considering the total cultural context. The low rating given by the Japanese to the
status and

prestige founct in work, for instance, suggests that those needs arc more fully satisfied elsewhere

in tn”ir lives, such as within the family and community. In the Middle East, religion plays a major

role in all aspects of lif’e, including work. The Islamic work ethic is a commitment toward fu11j11-

ment, and so business motives are helcl in the highest regard.20 The origin of the Islamic work

ethic is in the Muslirn holy book, the Qur’an, ancl the words of the Prophet Mohammed:

On the da1,o! judgntent, the hone.st Muslint merclrcrtt x,ill stcnd ,sicle bv side tuitJt the

nrctt))rS’
Mona,ltuso

Muslims feel that work is a virtue and an obligation to establish equilibrium in one’s indi-

vidual and social life. The Arab worker is definecl by his or her level of cotnmitment to family,

anr1 wort is perceived as lhe cletermining factor in the ability to enjoy social and family lif’e’2l

A study of 1 i ? managers in Saudi Arabia by Ali lbund that Arab managefs are hi.ghlv committed

to the Islamic work ethic ancl that there is a morierate tendency toward individualism'”

Exhibit l1-1 shows the results of the study and gives more insight into the Islamic work

ethic. Another stucly by Kuroda and Suzuki found that Arabs are serious about their work and

that favoritisrn, give-and-take, and paternalism have no place in the Arab workplace’ They con-

trasted this attitu

gral part of tlte workpiace.23

–

t{

385 Pan 4 . Globat Human Resources l\4anagement

fixt”tl*t? ‘t’r -t rhe rsrami< work Ethic: Responses by saudi Arabian Managersaa ortem

Mean*
Islamic Work Ethic
1. Laziness is a vice.

5.

2. Dedication to work is a virtue.
3. Good work benefits both one’s self and others.
4. Justice and generosity in the workplace are necessary conditions

for society’s welfare.
Producing more than enough to meet one’s personal needs contributes
to the prosperity of society as a whole.
One should carry work out to the best of one,s ability.
Work is not an end in itself but a means to lbster personal growth
and social relations.

8. Life has no meaning without work.
9. More leisure time is good for society.

10. Human relations in organizations should be emphasized
and encouraged.

I 1. Work enables man to control nature.
12. Creative work is & source of happiness and accomplishment.
13. Any man who works is more likely to get ahead in life.
14. Work gives one the chance to be independent,
15. A successful man is the one who meeis deadiines at work.
16. One should constantly work hard to meet responsibilities.
17. The value of work is derived from the accompanying intention

rather than its results.

4.66
4.62
4.57

4.59

3.71

4.70

3.97
4.47
3.08

3.89
4.06
4.60
3.92
4.3s
4.17
4.25

3.16

6.

7,

-On
scale of 1-5 (5 highest)

other variables affect the perceived meaning of wort and how it satisfies various needs,
such as the reiative wealth of a countty. when people have a high standard of living, work can takeon a meaning different from simply providing the basic ecoriomic necessities of life. Ec.nomic
difTerences among countries were found to

“*lluin
variations in attitudes toward work in a studyby Furnham et al’ of over 12,000 young people from 41 countries on all five continents.

Specifically, the tesearchers fbund that young people in Far East and Middle Eastern countriesteporfed the highest cornpetitiveness and u”quiriiiu”n”ss for monef, while those from NorthAmerica and south America scored highest on work ethics and “*ori”ry’, (that is, continuing toslruggle to master something).2s such ltudies show the complexity of the underlying reasons fordifferences in attitudes toward work-cultural, economic, and so on-which must be taken intcr
account when considering what needs and motivations people bring to the workplace. All in all,research shows a considerable cultural variabiiity arccunj rto* *iJ meets empioyees, needs.
Tfue l{eeds *”Ei*ranciry !n th* lnternationa! Csnt*xt
How can a manager know what motivates people in a specific country? certainly, by drawing onthe experiences of others who have worked there and aiso by inferring the likely type of motiva-
tional structure present by studying what is known about the curture ii that region.

People’s opinions of how best to satisfy their needs vary across culturcs also. one ciearconclusion is that tnanagers around the world have similar needs but show differing levels ofsatisfaction of those needs derived from theirjobs. Variables other than culture may be at play,however’ one of these variables may be the country’s stage of economic development. Withregard to the transitioning economy in Russia, fo.-“xarnile, a ,tuay by Elenkov foun4 thatRussian managel’s to*$
t:.,y:ity

and belongingness needs as oppor”d to higher-order needs,
such as self’-actualization.26 Whatever the ,”urnn, many companies that have stafied operationsin other countries lnve experienced differences in the uppur”ir.n*”d, oi th” Iocal employees andhow rhey expect work to,be recognized. Mazda, oriapun, experienced this problem in itlMichigan plant. Japanese firms tend to confer recognition in the iorm of plaques, attention, and

392 Part 4 , Global Human Resources Management

d,eadfng
Le patron, der Che.f, and the Boss.

DDI,
Leaders on Leaclers hip Survq,, 2OA6s3

This section on leadership (and the above quote) prompts consideration of the following ques-
tions: To what extent, and how, do leadership styles and practices around the world vary? What
are the forces perpetuating that divergence? Where, and why, will that divergence continue to be
the strongest? Is there any evidence for convergence of leadership styles and practices around the
world? What are the fbrces leading to that convergence, and how and where will this conver-
gence occur in the future? What implications do these questions have for cross-cultural leaders?

The task of helping employees realize their highest potential in the workplace is the essence
of leadership. The goal of every leader is to achieve the organization’s objectives while achieving
those of each employee. Today’s global rnanagers realize that increased cnmpetition requires them
to be open to change and to rethink their old culturally conditioned modes of leadership.

T!”I€ G!.SFAL LEADER’s RCILE AIUD ETSVIRCIN&!Er{T

The greatest competitive advantage global companies in the twenty-first century can have is eff’ective
global leaders. Yet this competitive challenge is not easy to meet, People tend to rise to leadership
positions by proving themselves able to lead in their home-country cor?orate culture and meeting the
generally accepted behaviors of that national culture. However, global leaders must broaden their
horizons-both strategically and cross-culturally-and develop a more flexible model of leadership
that can be applied anywhere-one that is adaptable to locational situations around the world.s4

The critical factors necessary for successful leadership abroad have come to be known as
the “Global Mindset.” Typically that mindset compares with the traditional mindset in the areas
of general perspective, organizational life, work style, view of change, and learning.55 Some of
the rypical actions and attitudes of a leader with a giobal mindset are shown in Exhibit i 1-4.

One successful leader with a “global mindset” is Carlos Ghosn, a French businessman and
CEO of Nissan and Renault. He was born in Brazil of Lebanese parents and educated in France.
While at Renault, he was sent to Japan to turnaround the ailing auto company, Nissan, which he
did very successfully, surprising everyone that he could work so well within the intricate culture
of Japanese business. (For further details see the Part 4 Comprehensive Case Study on Carlos
Chosn.) Ghosn was voted man of the Year 2003 by Fbfiune magazine’s Asian edition, he also
sits on the boalds of Alcoa, Sony, and IBM. This global leader and multicultural manager con-
veyed his high CQ when interviewed by Newsweek:

Cotnpanies are going global, but the te6ms are divided and scattered all over the
planet. . . . You have to knaw how to tnotivate people who think very dffirently than
you, tvho have differcnt kittds of sensitivities, so I think the most important message is to
get ptepared to deal with teams who ate multiculnrul, who tlo not think the same way.s1

EXH|tslT 1’t-4 The Global Mindset of Succesrful Leaders56

Personal work style High “cultural quotient” (CQ)
Open-minded and flexible
Effective cross-cultural communicator and collaborator
Team player in a global matrix
Supports global objectives and balances global with local

goals and practices.

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394 Parl4 ‘ Global Human Resources Management

in motivation and leadership around the world. More and more often, companies like Italtel
Spa-a5

using technology such as the intranet to share knowledge and product information throughout
their

glob-al operations. In the case of Italtel, this required wide delegation and empoweffnent of their

employees so that they could decentralize.

Individual manage1s are rcalizing that the Internet is changing their leadership styles and

interactions with employees, as well as their strategic leadership of their organizations. They

have to adapt to the hyplrspeed environment of e-business, as well as to the need for visionaty

leadership in a whole new set of competitive industry dynamics. Some of these new-age leader-

ship issues are discussed in the Management Focus: Leadership in a Digital World’

What does leadership mean in a digital world in which organizations are flexible and fluid and the

pace of change is extremely rapidl Whatt it like to lead in an e-business organization? Jomei

if’ang of VitrL Technology iescribes it as fqllows: “Thereb no place to hide. [The lnternet] forces
you t6 be on your toes ev”e’ry minute, every second. ”

‘ls
leadership in e-businesses really all that dif-

ierent from tiaditional organizations? Managers who’ve worked in both think it is’ How? Three

differences seemio be mJst evident: the speed at which decisions must be made, the importance

of being flexible, and the need to create a vision of the future’

triaking Decisions Fast. Managers in all organizations never have all the data they want

when makinf decisions, but the problem is multiplied in e-business..The situation is changing

rapidly and tie competition is intense. For example, Meg Whitman, then president and CEO of
efiay, iaid, “We’re giowing at 40 percent to 50 percent per quarter. That pace absolutely changes

the’leadeiship chaiienge. Every three months we become a different company. ln one
year’.we

wentfrom:b employeesto 140, and from 100,000 registered usersto 2’2 million’ At Hasbro

[where she was pievibusiy an executive], we would set i yearlong strategy, and then we would
simply execute against it. At eBay, we constantly revisit the strategy-and revise the tactics'”

Leaders in e-businesses seb themselves as sprinters and their contemporaries in traditional

businesses as long-distance runners. They frequenily use the term “lnternet time,” which
is a ref-

erence to a rapid-ly speeded-up working environment. “Every [e-business] leader today has
to

unlearn one lesson that was drilled into each one of them: You gather data so that
you can make

considered decisions. You can’t do that on lnternet time’ ”

Maintaining RexiUility. ln addition to speed, leaders in e-businesses need to be highly

flexible. They have to be able to roll with the ups and downs. They need to be able to
redirect their

group or organization when they find that something doesn’t-work’ They have to encourage

!*perimentaiion. This is what Vtirk Cuban, presideni and co-founder of Broadcast.com.
had

to’say about the importance of being flexible. “When we started, we thought advertising
would

be the core of our business. We were wrong. We thought that the way to define our
network was

to distribute servers all over the country. We were *tong. We’ve had to recalibrate again and

MANAGEMENT FOCUS

Leadership in a Digital World

ne {ired,iiskinE shame. Not so amazingly, resistance to the change vanished
overnight

ffiM.coulter,Managemeni,7thed.(Upper5addleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall,

again-and we’ll have to keep doing it in the future'”
Focusing on the Vision. Although visionary leadership is important in every organization,

in a hyperspeeJ environment, people require more irom their leaders. The rules,
policies, and reg-u-

lations that characterize more iraditional organizations provide direction and reduce
uncertainty for

“*ptoyees.
Such formalized guidelines typically don’t exist in e-businesses, and it becomes the

i.rponui5itiry of the leadeii to”proviOe direction-through their vision. For instance,
David Pottruck,

co-CEO o{ Chartes ScfrwJ, gatfrered nearly 100 of the company’s senior managers at
the southern

end of the Golden Cut” Aiiig*. He handei each a jacket inscribed with the phrase
“Crossing the

Chasm,, and led them across ihe bridge in a symbolii march to kick off his
plan to turn Schwab into

a futt-+teOged lnternet Urolerug”. Getiing people to buy into the vision may require
even more radi-

cal actions. For instance, whei tsao Okiwa, chairman-of Sega Enterprises, decided to
remake his

;;p;;y into an e-business, his management team resisted-that is, until he defied Japan’s consen-
sus-charged, lifetime-empioyment cult-ure by announcing that those who resisted

the change would

2001), used with Permission’

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396 Part 4 . Global Human Resources Management

XXl”ttglT ‘t 1-5 Culturally Contingent Eeliefs Regarding Effective Leadership Styles6e

Country N Charisma Tbam Self-Protective ParticiPative llumane Autonomous

Australia
Brazil
Canada
(English-speahing)
China
Denmark
Egypt
England
Greece

India
Ireland
Israel
Japan

Mexico
Nigeria
Philippines
Poland
Russia
Singapore
South Korea
Spain
Sweden
Thailand
Turkey
USA

345
264
2s7

160

32’l
241
168

234
231
1,5′,1

543
197

327

419
281

283

301

224
/.1 3

370
1,790

449
301
399

6.09

6.01

6.16

5,57

6.01

5.5’7

6.01

6.02
5.85
6.08
6.23
5.49
5.66
5.77
6.33
5.67
5.66
5.95
5.53
5,90
5.84
5.78
5.96
6,12

5.81

6.17
5.84

5.57

5.70
5.55
5.71

6.12
5.72
5,82
5.91

s.56
5.75
s.65
6.06
5.98
5.63
5.77
5.s3
5.93
5.75
5.76
6.01
5.80

3.05

3.50
2.96

3.80

2.82
4.21

3.04
3.49
3.78
3.01

3.64
3.61

3.86

3.90
3.33
3.53
3.69
3.32
3.68
3.39
2.82

3.91

3.s8
3.16

5.7r
6.06
6.09

5.0s
5.80
4.69
5.5′,1

5.81

4.99
5.64
4.96
5.08
4,64
5.19
5.40
5.05
4.67
5.30
4.93
5.1 1

5.54
5.30
5.09
5.93

5.09
4.84
5.24

s,18
4.23

5.14
4.90
5.16
s.26
5.06
4.68
4.68
4.71

5.48
5.53
4.56
4.08
5.24
4.8’7

4.66
4.73

5.09
4.90

3.95
2.27
3.65

4.07

3.79
4.49
3,92
3.98
3.85
3.95
4.26
3.67
3.86
3,62
3.75
4.34
4.63
3.87
4.21

3.54
3.97
4.28
3.83
3.75

5cale j to 7 in order of how important those behaviors are considered for effective leadership (z = highest)’

The charismatic leader shown in this research is someone who is, for example, a visionary,

an inspiration to subordinates, and pedbrmance-oriented. A team-oriented leader is someone who

exhibits diplomatic, integrative, and collaborative behaviors toward the ieam. The self-protective

dimension describes a leader who is self’-centered, conflictual, and status conscious. The partici-

pative leader is one who delegates decision making and encourages subordinates to take responsi-

tility. Hu*une leaders arc those who are compassionate to their employees. An autonotnous
leader is, as expected, an individualist, so countries that ranked participation as impo$ant tended

to rank autonomy in leadership as relatively unimportant. In Egypt, parlicipation and autonomy

were ranked about equally.To

This broad, path-breaking research by the GLOBE researchers can be very helpful to man-

agers going abroad, enabling them to exercise culturally appropriate leadership styles. In anoth-

“i
ttuge oithis ongoing research project, interviews with managers from various countries led

the researchers, heacled by Rotrert House, to cotrclude that the status and int’luence of leaders

vary a great deal across countries or regions according to the prevailing cultural forces. Whereas

Ameriians, Arabs, Asians, the English, Eastern Europeans, the French, Germans, Latin

Americans, and Russians tend to glorify leaders in both the political and organizational arenas;

those in the Netherlands, Scandinavia, ancl Germanic Switzerland have very difl’erent views of

leadership.Tl Following are sotne sample comments made by managers fiom various countries:

‘ Americans appreciate two kinds of leaclers. They seek empowerment from leaders
who

grant autonomy and delegate authority to subordinates, They also respect the bold, lbrce-

iul, confldent, and risk-taking leader, as personified by John wayne in his movies.
. The Dutch place emphasis on egalitarianism and are skeptical about the value of leader-

ship. Terms llke teacler and manager cany a stigma. If a father is employed as a manager,
Dutch children will not admit it to their schoolmates.

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398 Part 4 ” Global Human Resources Management

gxtj,BlT ‘t t-? comparative Leadership Dimensions: Participation and tnitiativeTg

Netherlands, the United States, Denmark, and Great Britain believe that empioyees should par-

ticipate in problem solving rather than simply be “fed” all the answers by managers, compared

with managers in those countries on the higher end of this scale, such as ltaly, Indonesia, and

Japan. Laurent’s l’indings about Japan, however, seem to contradict common know.ledge about

Japan’s very participative decision-making culture. In fact, research by Hampden-Turner and

Trornpenaars places Japan as second highest, after Sweden, in the extent to which leaders dele-

gate authority.TT Findings regarding the other countries are similar-shown in Exhibit 11-7′
Horveve1, participative leadership should not mean a lack of initiative or responsibility.

Other classic studies indicate cross-cultuml dift’erences in the expectations of ieadership

behavior. Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter surveyed more than 3,000 nanagers in 14 countries’ They
fbund that, although managers arouncl the world consistently tavored delegation and participa-

tion, those managers also had a low appreciation of the capacity and willingness of subordinates

to take an active role in the management ptocess.TS

In addition, several studies of individual countries or areas conclude that a participative

leadership style is frequently inappropriate. Managers in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the

Philippines were found to prefer autocratic leadership, whereas those in Singapore and Hong
fong are less autocratic.so Similarly, the Turks have been found to prefer authoritarian leadership,
as do the Thais.8l

in the Middle East, in particulaq little delegation occurs. A successful company there must

have strong managers who make all the decisions and who go unquestioned. Much emphasis is

placed on the use of power thro-ugh social contacts and family influence, and the chain of com-

mand must be rigidly follorved.82
The effects of participative ieadership can vary even in one location when the employees

are from

tive leadership to be more effective with U.S. workers than with Asian and Aiiican employees.

0 = lnw; 100 = high 0 = low; 100 = high

Managerial Initiatlve, Managers’
Sense of Drive and Responsitrility

Extent to Which Leaders Delegate
AuthoritY

USA

Sweden
Japan

Finland
Korea
Netherlands
Singapore
Switzerland
Belgium/Luxembourg
Ireland
France
Austria
Denmark
Italy
Australia
Canada
Spain
New Zealand
Grcece
UK
Norway
Portugal

Sweden
Japan

Norway
USA
Singapore
Denmark
Canada
Finland
Switzerland
Netherlands
Australia
Germany
New Zealand
Ireland
UK
Belgium/Luxembourg
Austria
France
Italy
Spain
Portugal
Greece

73.67
‘t2.29

12.24
69.58
67.86
67.11
66.34
65.71

65.47
64.76
64.64
62.56
62.79
62.44
62.A4
61.56
61.55
59.46
58.50
58.25

54.54
49.74

75.51

69.27
68.50

66.23

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64.65
64.38
62.92
62.24
61.33

61.22
60.85
60.54
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58.95
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400 Part 4 ‘ Global Human Resources Management

Russian workers decreased, which the researchers attributed
to a history of employee ideas being

ignored by Russian managers’ as well as cultural value differences’84

As noted, leadership ref’ers not just to the manager-subordinate relationship,
but also to the

important task of running the whole
“ornpuny,

division, or unit for which a manager is responsi-

ble. When that is a globaT responsibility, ii is vitat to be able to adapt
one’s leadership style to the

local context on *u:ny levels. Nancy tvictcinstry, an American
leader in Europe’ is very sensitive

to that imperative. Since she moved to Europe, charged
with the task of turning around the tfou-

bled wolters Kluwer, the Dutch publishing g.oup, she “has had
plenty

-of
experience of the way

national and cultural differences can both [“o”uii and enliven business.”8s One
immediate differ-

ence she noticed is that she is one of few women in senior management
in Holland. That fact,

added to the focus of the Dutch media on the executive as a
person and the views of the employ-

ees, rather than the focus on the company as in the united States, was
surprising to her’ As she

continues her restructuring plan, Ms. McKinstry (whose physician husband
commutes every two

weeks between his hospitifjob in New York and his family in Amsterdam)
has found that there

i, a mircon”eption that slie is going to apply an American, bottom-line leadership
style’

However, she saYs:

Tltere isn,t that one-size-.ftn-atl approach, ,tot even within
Europe. . ‘ . lf you have ct

product or a customer pobtem in France, there might be an approach
that works

extremely well. But if yiu took that same approach and tried to solve
the exact same

ptoblem in Holland, you mightfail’86
NANCY McKIusrnY’

Chairman and CEO, Wolters Kluwer Publishing Group’
Hotland, JutY I 5, 200487

ys. McKinsrry explains that in southern Europe, there
is far more nuance to what people

are saylng compared t0 northern Europe and in particular-compared
to the direct’ optimistic style

of the u.s. she finds that they often don’t .ounito say “No” to
her, even though they may not be

able to achieve what she is asking them. Her leadership
approach is to listen hard and say “How

are you going to go about meeting this goal?”88

CONCLUSION

Because leadership and motivation entail constant interactions
with others (employees’

peers, superiors, outside contacts), cultural influences on these
critical management func-

rions are
“”;y

t;;””;. certainly, other powerful variables are intricately involved in the inter-

national management context, particuiarly those of economics
and politics’ Effective leaders

carefully
“*urnin”

the entire context anideuelop sensitivity to others’ values
and expecta-

tions regarding personal and group interactions, performance,
and outcomes-and then act

accordinglY.

$ummarY of KeY Points

1. Motivation and leadership are factors in the successful

implementation of desired strategy’ However’ while many
of

tt e Uasic principles are universal, much of the actual content

and process are culture-contingent-a function of an individ-

ual’s needs, value systems, and environmental context’

2. One problem in uiing content theories for cross-cultural

research, such as that created by Maslow’ is the assump-

tion of their universal application’ Because they were

developed in the United States, even the concepts’ such

as achievement or esteem, may have different meanings

in other societies, resuiting in a noncomparable basis

of research.

3. implicit in motivating an ernployee is an. understanding-
of *ttict of the employee’s needs are satisfied by work’
Studies on the “meaning of work” indicate considerable

cross-cultural differences.

4. A reexarnination of motivation relative to Hofstede’s
dimensions of power distance, uncefiainty avoidance’ individ-

ualism, and masculinity provides another perspective
on ihe

cultural contexts that can influence motivational stllctures’

5. Incentives and reward systems must be designed
to

reflect the motivational structure and relative cultural

emphasis on tive categories of rewards: financial’ social

status, job content, career, and professional’

Pg._384-400

384 Part 4 ‘ Clobal Human Resources Management

. High individualisrn suggests people would be motivatecl by opportunities for individual

advancement and autonomy; collectivism (low individualism) suggests that motivation

rvil1 more likely work through appeals to group goals and suppol’t’
. High masculinity suggests that most people would be tnore comfortable with the tradition-

al division of work and roles; in a more feminine oulture, the boundaries could be looser,

motivating people through more flexible roles and wot* netrvorks.

More recent research, repofied in 2008, and based on Hofstede’s dimensions of individual-

ism and masculinity was conducted by Gelade, Dobson, and Auer. They compared what 50,000

workers in a global pharinaceutical company in 29 nations valued most in their jobs and that

positively impacted their company. The results, based on Hofstede’s individualism dimension,

iho*eci that the higher the level of national individualism (such as is typicai in the United States

the more employees valued their autonomy, opportunities fbr per-sonal :’-l’::’-;:r”;- ” i!’li*i

a worklif’e baiance. This compared with employees in the more collectivistic countries (sirch as

in China an6 Singapore) who apparently are more motivated when they felt that their jobs 1’u111

utilized their skills, and when they i’eit that the colnpany was providing them with good rt’ot’king

conditions, fringe benehts, and training.ta The findings based on the masculinity dimension were

that the higherihe ievel of “masculinity” (such as in Japan and Mexico), the more motivated

employees*were by being given opportunities for high pay, personal accomplishment, and iob

advancernent. This cornpar”a *ittl those from more “feminine” criltures (such as in Denmark

and Sweden), who ciaimed that factors relatecl to their reiationships with their managers and

co-workers provided more commitment to the organization. The authors conclude that:

The,se fincling,s show that the sources of organizational conwitnlent are culturally

conclitioner| ctnd that their fficts are predictable fronz Hofstede’s value dimensions

JounNar- oF CRoss-CuLruRAL PsvcHol-ocv
39, uo’ 5 (2008).t5

Misjuclging the importance of these cultural variables in the workplace may result not only

in a failure to motivate but also in demotivation. Rieger and Wong-Rieger present the lbllowing

example:

In TlnilancJ, the infiocfitction of att indit,iductl rnerit borttts trtlan, u’hich runs counter to

the societal rrcrm of group cooperation, ntay reswlt in a tlecline rather thcm an inctectse

itt ptocluctitli4, fiom ettplol’ees |t,ha rcfuse-lo openl}| coftTpete with eaclt other.16

In considering what molivates people, we have to understand their needs, goals, value sys-

tems, ancl expectations, No matter what their nationality or cultural background, people are

driven to fulfiil needs and to achieve goals’ But what are those needso rvhat goais do they want to

achieve, and what can motivate that drive to sal.isfy their goals?

?’*te fdEeanEnfi *f W*rrlq

Because the tbcus in this text is on the needs that aft’ect the working environment, it is important

to understand first what work means to people from diflerent backgrounds. Fot’most people, the

basic meaning of work is tied to economic necessity (money for food, housing, and so forth) for

the inrlividual and lbr society. However, the additional connotations of work are more subjective’

especially about what work provides other than money-achievement, honor, social contacts,

and so on.

Another way to view work, however, is through its relationship to the rest of a person’s

lif’e. The Thais call work rtgan, which is the same as the Thai word for “play,” and they tend

to introduce periocls of piay in their workdays. On the other hand, most people in China,

Germany, uni th” United States have a more serious attitude toward work’ Especially in work-

oriented China, seven-clay work weeks with long hours and ferv days off are common’ A study of

average work hours in various countries conducted by Steers i’ound that Koreans worked longer

hours and took fewer vacation days than worket’s in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore’

India, Japan, and Indonesia.lT The study concluded that the Koreans’ hard work was attributable

to loyalty to the company, group-ot’iented achievefilent’ and enrphasis on gloup harmony and

business relationshiPs.

,

ri

ir

,tr

ri

:i
i.

iiti

Chapter 1l ” Motivating and Leading 385

Studies on the meaning of work in eight counl.ries were caffied out by George England

and a group of researchers who are calleci the It4eaning of Work (MOW) International

n”t””.!fr i”u*.ts Their research sought to determine a person’s idea of the relative impor-

tance of work compared to that of ieisure, community, religion, and family. They called this

concept of work work centrality, defined as “the degree of general importance that working

has in the life of an inclividual at any given point in time.” The results showed, lbr example’

that the Japanese hold work tn be ulry important in their lives; the Brits, on the other hand

(in this uuihor’, birth country) seem io like their leisure tinte more than those in the other

countries surveyed. However, given the complexity of cultural and economic variables

involved in people’s attitude toward work, the results are difficult to generalize, in particular as

concerns the implications of on-the-job rvork motivation. More relevant to manaSers (as an aid

to understanding culture-based differences in motivation) are the specific reasons for vaiuing

work. What kinds of needs does the working environment satisfy, and how does that psycho-

logical contract differ among populations?

The MOW research team provided some excellent insights into this question when it asked

people in the eight countries what they valued about work anlreru pqoialttuilor”t ot ftltlqn eql se ‘{‘v’us
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394 Parl4 ‘ Global Human Resources Management

in motivation and leadership around the world. More and more often, companies like Italtel Spa-a5

using technology such as the intranet to share knowledge and product information throughout their

glob-al operations. In the case of Italtel, this required wide delegation and empoweffnent of their

employees so that they could decentralize.

Individual manage1s are rcalizing that the Internet is changing their leadership styles and

interactions with employees, as well as their strategic leadership of their organizations. They

have to adapt to the hyplrspeed environment of e-business, as well as to the need for visionaty

leadership in a whole new set of competitive industry dynamics. Some of these new-age leader-

ship issues are discussed in the Management Focus: Leadership in a Digital World’

What does leadership mean in a digital world in which organizations are flexible and fluid and the

pace of change is extremely rapidl Whatt it like to lead in an e-business organization? Jomei

if’ang of VitrL Technology iescribes it as fqllows: “Thereb no place to hide. [The lnternet] forces

you t6 be on your toes ev”e’ry minute, every second. ”
‘ls leadership in e-businesses really all that dif-

ierent from tiaditional organizations? Managers who’ve worked in both think it is’ How? Three

differences seemio be mJst evident: the speed at which decisions must be made, the importance

of being flexible, and the need to create a vision of the future’

triaking Decisions Fast. Managers in all organizations never have all the data they want

when makinf decisions, but the problem is multiplied in e-business..The situation is changing

rapidly and tie competition is intense. For example, Meg Whitman, then president and CEO of

efiay, iaid, “We’re giowing at 40 percent to 50 percent per quarter. That pace absolutely changes

the’leadeiship chaiienge. Every three months we become a different company. ln one year’.we

wentfrom:b employeesto 140, and from 100,000 registered usersto 2’2 million’ At Hasbro

[where she was pievibusiy an executive], we would set i yearlong strategy, and then we would

simply execute against it. At eBay, we constantly revisit the strategy-and revise the tactics'”

Leaders in e-businesses seb themselves as sprinters and their contemporaries in traditional

businesses as long-distance runners. They frequenily use the term “lnternet time,” which is a ref-

erence to a rapid-ly speeded-up working environment. “Every [e-business] leader today has to

unlearn one lesson that was drilled into each one of them: You gather data so that you can make

considered decisions. You can’t do that on lnternet time’ ”

Maintaining RexiUility. ln addition to speed, leaders in e-businesses need to be highly

flexible. They have to be able to roll with the ups and downs. They need to be able to redirect their

group or organization when they find that something doesn’t-work’ They have to encourage

!*perimentaiion. This is what Vtirk Cuban, presideni and co-founder of Broadcast.com. had

to’say about the importance of being flexible. “When we started, we thought advertising would

be the core of our business. We were wrong. We thought that the way to define our network was

to distribute servers all over the country. We were *tong. We’ve had to recalibrate again and

MANAGEMENT FOCUS

Leadership in a Digital World

ne {ired,iiskinE shame. Not so amazingly, resistance to the change vanished overnight

ffiM.coulter,Managemeni,7thed.(Upper5addleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall,

again-and we’ll have to keep doing it in the future'”
Focusing on the Vision. Although visionary leadership is important in every organization,

in a hyperspeeJ environment, people require more irom their leaders. The rules, policies, and reg-u-

lations that characterize more iraditional organizations provide direction and reduce uncertainty for

“*ptoyees.
Such formalized guidelines typically don’t exist in e-businesses, and it becomes the

i.rponui5itiry of the leadeii to”proviOe direction-through their vision. For instance, David Pottruck,

co-CEO o{ Chartes ScfrwJ, gatfrered nearly 100 of the company’s senior managers at the southern

end of the Golden Cut” Aiiig*. He handei each a jacket inscribed with the phrase “Crossing the

Chasm,, and led them across ihe bridge in a symbolii march to kick off his plan to turn Schwab into

a futt-+teOged lnternet Urolerug”. Getiing people to buy into the vision may require even more radi-

cal actions. For instance, whei tsao Okiwa, chairman-of Sega Enterprises, decided to remake his

;;p;;y into an e-business, his management team resisted-that is, until he defied Japan’s consen-

sus-charged, lifetime-empioyment cult-ure by announcing that those who resisted the change would

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398 Part 4 ” Global Human Resources Management

gxtj,BlT ‘t t-? comparative Leadership Dimensions: Participation and tnitiativeTg

Netherlands, the United States, Denmark, and Great Britain believe that empioyees should par-

ticipate in problem solving rather than simply be “fed” all the answers by managers, compared

with managers in those countries on the higher end of this scale, such as ltaly, Indonesia, and

Japan. Laurent’s l’indings about Japan, however, seem to contradict common know.ledge about

Japan’s very participative decision-making culture. In fact, research by Hampden-Turner and

Trornpenaars places Japan as second highest, after Sweden, in the extent to which leaders dele-

gate authority.TT Findings regarding the other countries are similar-shown in Exhibit 11-7′

Horveve1, participative leadership should not mean a lack of initiative or responsibility.

Other classic studies indicate cross-cultuml dift’erences in the expectations of ieadership

behavior. Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter surveyed more than 3,000 nanagers in 14 countries’ They

fbund that, although managers arouncl the world consistently tavored delegation and participa-

tion, those managers also had a low appreciation of the capacity and willingness of subordinates

to take an active role in the management ptocess.TS

In addition, several studies of individual countries or areas conclude that a participative

leadership style is frequently inappropriate. Managers in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the

Philippines were found to prefer autocratic leadership, whereas those in Singapore and Hong

fong are less autocratic.so Similarly, the Turks have been found to prefer authoritarian leadership,

as do the Thais.8l
in the Middle East, in particulaq little delegation occurs. A successful company there must

have strong managers who make all the decisions and who go unquestioned. Much emphasis is

placed on the use of power thro-ugh social contacts and family influence, and the chain of com-

mand must be rigidly follorved.82

The effects of participative ieadership can vary even in one location when the employees

are from 384 Part 4 ‘ Clobal Human Resources Management
. High individualisrn suggests people would be motivatecl by opportunities for individual
advancement and autonomy; collectivism (low individualism) suggests that motivation
rvil1 more likely work through appeals to group goals and suppol’t’
. High masculinity suggests that most people would be tnore comfortable with the traditional
division of work and roles; in a more feminine oulture, the boundaries could be looser,
motivating people through more flexible roles and wot* netrvorks.
More recent research, repofied in 2008, and based on Hofstede’s dimensions of individual

ism and masculinity was conducted by Gelade, Dobson, and Auer. They compared what 50,000
workers in a global pharinaceutical company in 29 nations valued most in their jobs and that
positively impacted their company. The results, based on Hofstede’s individualism dimension,
iho*eci that the higher the level of national individualism (such as is typicai in the United States
the more employees valued their autonomy, opportunities fbr per-sonal :’-l’::’-;:r”;-” i!’li*i
a worklif’e baiance. This compared with employees in the more collectivistic countries (sirch as
in China an6 Singapore) who apparently are more motivated when they felt that their jobs 1’u111
utilized their skills, and when they i’eit that the colnpany was providing them with good rt’ot’king
conditions, fringe benehts, and training.ta The findings based on the masculinity dimension were
that the higherihe ievel of “masculinity” (such as in Japan and Mexico), the more motivated
employees*were by being given opportunities for high pay, personal accomplishment, and iob
advancernent. This cornpar”a *ittl those from more “feminine” criltures (such as in Denmark
and Sweden), who ciaimed that factors relatecl to their reiationships with their managers and
co-workers provided more commitment to the organization. The authors conclude that:
The,se fincling,s show that the sources of organizational conwitnlent are culturally
conclitioner| ctnd that their fficts are predictable fronz Hofstede’s value dimensions
JounNar-oF CRoss-CuLruRAL PsvcHol-ocv
39, uo’ 5 (2008).t5
Misjuclging the importance of these cultural variables in the workplace may result not only
in a failure to motivate but also in demotivation. Rieger and Wong-Rieger present the lbllowing
example:
In TlnilancJ, the infiocfitction of att indit,iductl rnerit borttts trtlan, u’hich runs counter to
the societal rrcrm of group cooperation, ntay reswlt in a tlecline rather thcm an inctectse
itt ptocluctitli4, fiom ettplol’ees |t,ha rcfuse-lo openl}| coftTpete with eaclt other.16
In considering what molivates people, we have to understand their needs, goals, value systems,
ancl expectations, No matter what their nationality or cultural background, people are
driven to fulfiil needs and to achieve goals’ But what are those needso rvhat goais do they want to
achieve, and what can motivate that drive to sal.isfy their goals?
?’*te fdEeanEnfi *f W*rrlq
Because the tbcus in this text is on the needs that aft’ect the working environment, it is important
to understand first what work means to people from diflerent backgrounds. Fot’most people, the
basic meaning of work is tied to economic necessity (money for food, housing, and so forth) for
the inrlividual and lbr society. However, the additional connotations of work are more subjective’
especially about what work provides other than money-achievement, honor, social contacts,
and so on.
Another way to view work, however, is through its relationship to the rest of a person’s
lif’e. The Thais call work rtgan, which is the same as the Thai word for “play,” and they tend
to introduce periocls of piay in their workdays. On the other hand, most people in China,
Germany, uni th” United States have a more serious attitude toward work’ Especially in work-
oriented China, seven-clay work weeks with long hours and ferv days off are common’ A study of
average work hours in various countries conducted by Steers i’ound that Koreans worked longer
hours and took fewer vacation days than worket’s in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore’
India, Japan, and Indonesia.lT The study concluded that the Koreans’ hard work was attributable
to loyalty to the company, group-ot’iented achievefilent’ and enrphasis on gloup harmony and
business relationshiPs.
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Chapter 1l ” Motivating and Leading 385
Studies on the meaning of work in eight counl.ries were caffied out by George England
and a group of researchers who are calleci the It4eaning of Work (MOW) International
n”t””.!fr i”u*.ts Their research sought to determine a person’s idea of the relative importance
of work compared to that of ieisure, community, religion, and family. They called this
concept of work work centrality, defined as “the degree of general importance that working
has in the life of an inclividual at any given point in time.” The results showed, lbr example’
that the Japanese hold work tn be ulry important in their lives; the Brits, on the other hand
(in this uuihor’, birth country) seem io like their leisure tinte more than those in the other
countries surveyed. However, given the complexity of cultural and economic variables
as
involved in people’s attitude toward work, the results are difficult to generalize, in particular
concerns the implications of on-the-job rvork motivation. More relevant to manaSers (as an aid
to understanding culture-based differences in motivation) are the specific reasons for vaiuing
work. What kinds of needs does the working environment satisfy, and how does that psycho

logical contract differ among populations?
The MOW research team provided some excellent insights into this question when it asked
people in the eight countries what they valued about work anlreru pqoialttuilor”t ot ftltlqn eql se ‘{‘v’us sseursnq 1eqo18
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394 Parl4 ‘ Global Human Resources Management
in motivation and leadership around the world. More and more often, companies like Italtel Spa-a5
using technology such as the intranet to share knowledge and product information throughout their
glob-al operations. In the case of Italtel, this required wide delegation and empoweffnent of their
employees so that they could decentralize.
Individual manage1s are rcalizing that the Internet is changing their leadership styles and
interactions with employees, as well as their strategic leadership of their organizations. They
have to adapt to the hyplrspeed environment of e-business, as well as to the need for visionaty
leadership in a whole new set of competitive industry dynamics. Some of these new-age leader

ship issues are discussed in the Management Focus: Leadership in a Digital World’
MANAGEMENT FOCUS
Leadership in a Digital World
What does leadership mean in a digital world in which organizations are flexible and fluid and the
pace of change is extremely rapidl Whatt it like to lead in an e-business organization? Jomei
if’ang of VitrL Technology iescribes it as fqllows: “Thereb no place to hide. [The lnternet] forces
you t6 be on your toes ev”e’ry minute, every second. ” ‘ls leadership in e-businesses really all that dif

ierent from tiaditional organizations? Managers who’ve worked in both think it is’ How? Three
differences seemio be mJst evident: the speed at which decisions must be made, the importance
of being flexible, and the need to create a vision of the future’
triaking Decisions Fast. Managers in all organizations never have all the data they want
when makinf decisions, but the problem is multiplied in e-business..The situation is changing
rapidly and tie competition is intense. For example, Meg Whitman, then president and CEO of
efiay, iaid, “We’re giowing at 40 percent to 50 percent per quarter. That pace absolutely changes
the’leadeiship chaiienge. Every three months we become a different company. ln one year’.we
wentfrom:b employeesto 140, and from 100,000 registered usersto 2’2 million’ At Hasbro
[where she was pievibusiy an executive], we would set i yearlong strategy, and then we would
simply execute against it. At eBay, we constantly revisit the strategy-and revise the tactics'”
Leaders in e-businesses seb themselves as sprinters and their contemporaries in traditional
use the term “lnternet time,” which is a ref-
businesses as long-distance runners. They frequenily
erence to a rapid-ly speeded-up working environment. “Every [e-business] leader today has to
unlearn one lesson that was drilled into each one of them: You gather data so that you can make
considered decisions. You can’t do that on lnternet time’ ”
Maintaining RexiUility. ln addition to speed, leaders in e-businesses need to be highly
flexible. They have to be able to roll with the ups and downs. They need to be able to redirect their
group or organization when they find that something doesn’t-work’ They have to encourage
!*perimentaiion. This is what Vtirk Cuban, presideni and co-founder of Broadcast.com. had
to’say about the importance of being flexible. “When we started, we thought advertising would
be the core of our business. We were wrong. We thought that the way to define our network was
to distribute servers all over the country. We were *tong. We’ve had to recalibrate again and
again-and we’ll have to keep doing it in the future'”
Focusing on the Vision. Although visionary leadership is important in every organization,
in a hyperspeeJ environment, people require more irom their leaders. The rules, policies, and reg-ulations
that characterize more iraditional organizations provide direction and reduce uncertainty for
Such formalized guidelines typically don’t exist in e-businesses, and it becomes the
“*ptoyees.
i.rponui5itiry of the leadeii to”proviOe direction-through their vision. For instance, David Pottruck,
co-CEO o{ Chartes ScfrwJ, gatfrered nearly 100 of the company’s senior managers at the southern
end of the Golden Cut” Aiiig*. He handei each a jacket inscribed with the phrase “Crossing the
Chasm,, and led them across ihe bridge in a symbolii march to kick off his plan to turn Schwab into
a futt-+teOged lnternet Urolerug”. Getiing people to buy into the vision may require even more radi

cal actions. For instance, whei tsao Okiwa, chairman-of Sega Enterprises, decided to remake his
;;p;;y into an e-business, his management team resisted-that is, until he defied Japan’s consen

sus-charged, lifetime-empioyment cult-ure by announcing that those who resisted the change would
ne {ired,iiskinE shame. Not so amazingly, resistance to the change vanished overnight
ffiM.coulter,Managemeni,7thed.(Upper5addleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall,
2001), used with Permission’
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398 Part 4 ” Global Human Resources Management
gxtj,BlT ‘t t-? comparative Leadership Dimensions: Participation and tnitiativeTg
Managerial Initiatlve, Managers’ Extent to Which Leaders Delegate
Sense of Drive and Responsitrility AuthoritY
0 = lnw; 100 = high 0 = low; 100 = high
USA 73.67 Sweden 75.51
Sweden ‘t2.29 Japan 69.27
Japan 12.24 Norway 68.50
Finland 69.58 USA 66.23
Korea 67.86 Singapore 65.3′,1
Netherlands 67.11 Denmark 64.65
Singapore 66.34 Canada 64.38
Switzerland 65.71 Finland 62.92
Belgium/Luxembourg 65.47 Switzerland 62.24
Ireland 64.76 Netherlands 61.33
France 64.64 Australia 61.22
Austria 62.56 Germany 60.85
Denmark 62.79 New Zealand 60.54
Italy 62.44 Ireland 59.53
Australia 62.A4 UK 58.95
Canada 61.56 Belgium/Luxembourg 54.55
Spain 61.55 Austria 54.29
New Zealand 59.46 France 53.62
Grcece 58.50 Italy 46.80
UK 58.25 Spain 44.31
Norway 54.54 Portugal 42.56
Portugal 49.74 Greece 3″1.95
Netherlands, the United States, Denmark, and Great Britain believe that empioyees should participate
in problem solving rather than simply be “fed” all the answers by managers, compared
with managers in those countries on the higher end of this scale, such as ltaly, Indonesia, and
Japan. Laurent’s l’indings about Japan, however, seem to contradict common know.ledge about
Japan’s very participative decision-making culture. In fact, research by Hampden-Turner and
Trornpenaars places Japan as second highest, after Sweden, in the extent to which leaders delegate
authority.TT Findings regarding the other countries are similar-shown in Exhibit 11-7′
Horveve1, participative leadership should not mean a lack of initiative or responsibility.
Other classic studies indicate cross-cultuml dift’erences in the expectations of ieadership
behavior. Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter surveyed more than 3,000 nanagers in 14 countries’ They
fbund that, although managers arouncl the world consistently tavored delegation and participation,
those managers also had a low appreciation of the capacity and willingness of subordinates
to take an active role in the management ptocess.TS
In addition, several studies of individual countries or areas conclude that a participative
leadership style is frequently inappropriate. Managers in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the
Philippines were found to prefer autocratic leadership, whereas those in Singapore and Hong
fong are less autocratic.so Similarly, the Turks have been found to prefer authoritarian leadership,
as do the Thais.8l
in the Middle East, in particulaq little delegation occurs. A successful company there must
have strong managers who make all the decisions and who go unquestioned. Much emphasis is
placed on the use of power thro-ugh social contacts and family influence, and the chain of command
must be rigidly follorved.82
The effects of participative ieadership can vary even in one location when the employees
are from