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Running head: TOPICS IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY

1

TOPICS IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY 2

Topics in Industrial/Organizational Psychology

John Q. Student

Columbia Southern University

Abstract

The paper presents an overview of seven topics in industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology. These topics include (a) authenticity and the future of I/O psychology, (b) reliability and validity of assessment measures within scientific research, (c) personality assessments, (d) organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) and counterproductive work behaviors (CWB), (e) 360 degree feedback systems, (f) the multi-hurdle staffing model, and (g) the role of needs analysis in the training process. For each topic, the paper presents an overview, as well as the reason for selecting the topic. In addition, the paper presents information about the importance of each topic to the I/O psychology profession, plus any relevant social, ethical, or legal concerns.

Keywords: I/O psychology, authenticity, reliability, validity, personality assessments, OCB, CWB, 360 degree feedback, multi-source feedback (MSF), multi-hurdle staffing model, needs analysis in training development

Topics in Industrial/Organizational Psychology

The paper presents an overview of selected topics from each of seven chapters in the text by Landy and Conte (2009) addressed in the course. The key topics include authenticity, reliability and validity of research measures, personality assessments, organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) and counterproductive work behaviors (CWB). In addition, the paper presents an overview of 360 degree systems, the multi-hurdle staffing model, and the role of needs analysis in developing a training program.

The topics follow the same order as the textbook chapters, and the paper presents a brief overview of each one, along with reasons for choosing the various topics and a brief description of how those topics are important to the I/O psychology profession. In addition, the paper presents any social, ethical, or legal concerns related to each topic. The paper does not present a central theme, but rather serves to demonstrate a grasp on key concepts within each chapter of the Landy and Conte (2009) text.

History and Future of I/O Psychology: Authenticity

Landy and Conte (2009) refer to the concept of authenticity as something or someone that is “real, genuine, not artificial” (p. 7). Authenticity is a new trend in I/O psychology—not found in the literature prior to 1999—reflecting society’s desire to grasp onto things and people that seem “real” in a world of ever-increasing virtual connectivity. I/O psychologists are noting that authenticity is “reflected in the search for ‘good work’ and inspirational leadership” (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 8). Authenticity and the perception of how authentic a thing or person is will be important in future studies in the I/O psychology profession.

The primary reason for choosing authenticity is that I have long been interested in transformational leadership, integrity, and character development. Authenticity is a big factor in the success of each of those areas, and I am excited to see it becoming a factor in I/O psychology research and application.

Importance to Profession and Career

Authenticity is important to I/O psychologists because it helps them understand the quest for balance between work and personal life. In addition, this concept is important to the discipline of leadership (Landy & Conte, 2009). Leadership trainees and those already leading realize that credible and respected leadership today consists of “integrity and genuineness, not projecting an artificial persona” (p. 564).

Authentic leadership is becoming even more important as the compensation gap between highly-paid executives and the rest of an organization’s workforce grows, especially in the United States (Joseph, 1999). In addition, the societal dislike for “big business” and the characterizations of many companies by the mainstream media organizations propel that dislike until it becomes distrust (Indiviglio, 2011). Authenticity can help overcome these issues. It can also help individuals and organizations stand out in the crowded business world (Joseph, 1999).

In my consultancy, authenticity helps builds trust with clients. It helps me stand out in a competitive marketplace because even if I am an expert in digital marketing or (eventually) I/O psychology, but I cannot relate to clients, they will choose another consultant with perhaps less expertise but a greater authenticity.

Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues

Eagly (2005) expressed a social issue related to authenticity. She was concerned that female leaders demonstrating authenticity would experience adverse results as compared to male leaders. If women reveal their true selves—egalitarian, nurturing, and process-oriented—their colleagues and subordinates may perceive them in a negative way (Eagly, 2005).

Authenticity can carry with it ethical and legal issues, particularly if it leads to inappropriate relationships at work, politically incorrect language or hate speech, or if it takes one beyond the bounds of the laws of society. Like one’s reputation, authenticity is hard to gain, easy to lose in an instant, and difficult to regain (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Science and Research in I/O Psychology: Reliability and Validity

Landy and Conte (2009) note that in order to ensure an accurate statistical interpretation of any research project, the measures used to collect the data must be reliable. Reliability means there was “consistent information on which to base decisions” (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 82). I/O psychology researchers should be aware of several types of errors that can interfere with a measure’s reliability, including: (a) test-retest reliability, (b) equivalent forms reliability, (c) internal consistency, and (d) inter-rater reliability (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Landy and Conte (2009) also note that another “characteristic of good measurement is validity” (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 82). Validity means that the measurements were “taken accurately and completely represent what we had hoped to measure” (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 82). Three ways to test for validity include: (a) criterion-related validity, (b) content-related validity, and (c) construct-related validity (Landy & Conte, 2009).

The primary reason for choosing reliability and validity is an innate skepticism for statistics. As someone anonymously once said, “Facts are stubborn things, but statistics are more pliable.” The researcher can easily manipulate the statistical results of any research study to fit a bias or to match the proposed hypothesis.

Importance to Profession and Career

Reliability and validity have been important throughout the history of psychology as a science (Landy & Conte, 2009). Without these two concepts, the findings of any study are not scientific (Putka & Sackett, 2010). Personal ethics enter the picture as well and high moral character on the part of the researcher is necessary to ensure the accurate use of statistics (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Reliability and validity will remain important to the I/O psychology profession because psychology is, in some ways, still fighting for its rightful place in the realm of science, and these two concepts are foundational in any scientific endeavor. Any research measure utilized in any I/O psychological study must take into consideration both concepts (Putka & Sackett, 2010).

In my consultancy, I work with small and medium-sized business owners. In the future, I intend to work in I/O psychology primarily as a management consultant and possibly as a certified personality assessment administrator. In both cases, the reliability and validity of the measures I recommend for use will be important. When giving recommendations to the C-suite managers, I will want to ensure that I am not setting them up for legal concerns due to either reliability or validity of specific measures. When choosing assessments to administer, I will absolutely want to know that the assessments are as reliable and valid as possible to ensure correct results.

Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues

Social issues are possible because many assessment measures involve self-reporting. Some people may attempt to “fake out” the assessment or may not answer honestly, especially concerning private or potentially embarrassing topics. The main ethical concern around reliability and validity in assessment measures involves the appropriate use of statistics resulting from the measurements—not bending them to fit the hypothesis (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Landy and Conte (2009) note that the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the resulting Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, made validity in assessment for hiring and promotion a legal concern. The courts are primarily concerned with criterion-related validity, though they also consider the other two types mentioned above. Unfortunately, as Landy and Conte (2009) also note, with passing time the ways to measure validity have changed but the courts and legal precedents have not, and thus the federal guidelines in discrimination cases are often out of date.

Assessment of Individual Differences: Personality Assessments

Steel, Schmidt, and Schultz (2008) note that within I/O psychology there is agreement that personality predicts general behavior and happiness (Steel et al., 2008). Landy and Conte (2009) also note that personality predicts behavior at work, including “performance, absenteeism, counterproductive work behavior, and team effectiveness” (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 109). In other words, taking time to identify a worker’s personality can assist the organization in job placements where candidates will likely be the best fit, and thus perform to the highest level.

The primary reason for choosing personality assessment is that I have long been fascinated with personality and the benefits to understanding people more easily. My MBA program spent a significant amount of time on psychology and communication at work, particularly via the Myers-Briggs Temperament Instrument (MBTI). I took a shortened version of the MBTI and began to read at length about my personality type, resulting in a much deeper understanding of why I behave the way I do. It also has been useful in gaining insight into why my husband, family, colleagues, former business partners, and clients think, feel, and behave in specific ways. That sparked an interest in Kroeger, Thuesen, and Rutledge’s book Type Talk at Work, which I use to this day to help me identify personality traits and deal with the inevitable “people challenges” in my business.

Importance to Profession and Career

The Big 5 or Five Factor Model (FFM) is the historic foundation of personality assessment (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 110). Personality assessment has been important to understanding work behavior for some time, and will continue to be important for the near future. It has become equally important to organizations as cognitive ability (Landy & Conte, 2009), and numerous assessments exist to fit any organizational assessment budget. Goldstein and Goldstein (2002) note that a “great deal of effort and work is required to begin to understand the complex question of predicting job performance” (p. 139).

In my consultancy, I attempt to identify clients’ personalities and deal with them according to what I know about those specific personalities. In the future, I intend to administer personality assessments and look forward to a greater understanding of how insight into personality can improve customer relations, spousal and familial relationships, and worker/employer relationships. I already study this topic regularly on my own, and look forward to continually improving my knowledge base and achieving certification and credentials to work more specifically in this area.

Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues

Two social issues involve faking and response bias (Heggestad, Morrison, Reeve, & McCloy, 2006). Ethical issues in the use of personality assessment include informed consent from the candidate or worker and confidentiality of the results (Knauss, 2001).

As with any assessment used in hiring or promotion decisions, the use of personality assessments may make an organization vulnerable in the courts if invalid or unreliable assessments are used, or if those assessments are unfair to a specific gender, race, or minority group (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Job Analysis: OCB and CWB

Landy & Conte (2009) define organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) as “behavior that goes beyond what is expected” (p. 182). In other words, OCB encompasses the attitudes, intentions, and actions at work that make the employee want to help others and exceed the employer’s expectations. The actions can be both good and bad, as the text notes in its hypothetical scenario of a steel worker going beyond his or her job to help out, but instead causing an accident (Landy & Conte, 2009).

In contrast, Landy & Conte (2009) define counterproductive work behaviors (CWB) as “voluntary behavior that violates…organizational norms and threatens the well-being of the organization, its members, or both” (p. 186). In other words, CWB harms co-workers or the company, whether because of job dissatisfaction or intentional sabotage. The actions are usually unethical and negative and often create a ripple effect in the organization unless leaders deal with the behaviors quickly.

The primary reason for choosing OCB and CWB is that they are age-old concepts that are simultaneously emerging trends and new buzzwords in I/O psychological research. This intrigues me because, as King Solomon said in Ecclesiastes 1:9, “there is nothing new under the sun” (Bible Gateway, n.d.), and it is humorous that the science of psychology has caught up to the common sense of the ages while thinking it has discovered something new.

Importance to Profession and Career

Studying OCB and CWB is important to the profession because it builds upon the idea of personality assessment’s usefulness in predicting work behavior. Landy and Conte (2009) note that personality measures “do a better job of predicting OCB performance,” whereas cognitive ability is more likely to predict task performance (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 198). In addition, as work teams continue to dominate modern workplaces, understanding what drives OCB and CWB will be even more useful.

In my consultancy, I would like to explore the relationship between OCB and enabling less-than-satisfactory employees. I intend to be able to give management recommendations for how to predict which candidates will be capable of OCB or CWB, and how to build a culture that supports a working balance between the willingness to help versus enabling a lazy colleague.

Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues

Bergeron (2007) states that OCB may have unintended social consequences in the workplace. She considers extra variables such as zero-sum limits on time at work and the relationship between task performance, OCB, and career advancement. She notes the “potential paradox of OCB,” which is that within a fixed amount of time, workers who spend more time on task performance than on OCB will have “higher career outcomes” than workers who do the opposite (p. 1086). In other words, too much time spent going above and beyond to help others or the organization is not always the best thing to do if career advancement is something the worker hopes to achieve.

An ethical concern involves whether to consider OCB in performance assessments, as compared to workers who merely perform only the job assigned (Landy & Conte, 2009). Another ethical concern centers on the ostracizing of workers who do not want to go above and beyond but do perform well in their own jobs. Legal issues may arise from some CWBs, such as theft or sabotage, as could rare cases of OCB gone bad that resulted in accidents and injury or death (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Performance Measurement: 360 Degree Systems

Landy & Conte (2009) state that performance management is the “link between individual behavior and organizational strategies and goals” (p. 233). In other words, it is the measurement of how well a worker’s behavior matches the company’s big-picture goals with input from both the worker and his or her manager.

A high-level view of performance management shows that it is different from a performance appraisal alone. Performance management has three components. The first is the definition of performance, including company strategies and goals (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 234). The second component is the performance measurement process. The third component of performance management is the follow-up communication between worker and manager that lets the worker know how well he or she aligns with the company’s goals and ways in which to improve performance (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 234).

The primary reason for this choice is that I want to understand the best way to gather and deliver feedback that helps both others and I become more self-aware. Fletcher & Baldry (2000) state that the multi-source feedback system (MSF), or 360 degree system, compares “individuals’ self-assessments with others’ ratings of them on various performance dimensions” (p. 303). The outcome of this type of review is often a measure of self-awareness achieved by the candidate or worker, and that self-awareness often relates to performance outcomes (Fletcher & Baldry, 2000).

Importance to Profession and Career

Performance measurement and MSF or 360 degree feedback systems are important to the I/O psychology profession because the current models for hiring, promotion, and rely on performance at work. Continued research into finding the best ways to collect and deliver feedback that supports decisions made in the above three areas is likely to be an ongoing priority, especially as the nature of work changes with the advent of technology (Landy & Conte, 2009).

In my consultancy, I intend to both recommend and use the 360 degree system when appropriate. Even the scaled-back process of an MSF can assist in reducing blind spots in my own business and leadership style, as well as in the organizations and leadership styles of the business owners with whom I consult.

Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues

One social concern involves the adoption and overuse of MSF systems in organizations. This type of performance assessment, originally intended for use in management development, has become so popular that it is replacing the traditional performance appraisal (Toegel & Conger, 2003).

Landy and Conte (2009) note three types of justice issues: (a) distributive, (b) procedural, and (c) interpersonal (p. 235). Distributive justice involves fair rewards or punishments matched to performance. Procedural justice involves the actual system of evaluation and considers whether it is fair. Interpersonal justice involves the fairness of the delivery method chosen for evaluation feedback. Each of these issues can serve as a basis for ethical or legal concerns, especially if there is gender or ethnic bias inherent in the ratings, unfair rewards or punishments given, or poorly-communicated evaluation results.

Staffing Decisions: Multi-Hurdle Staffing Model

Landy & Conte (2009) state that the hurdle system is a “noncompensatory system,” that does not allow applicants to “compensate at a later assessment state for a low score in an earlier stage of the assessment process” (p. 296). In other words, each stage of the assessment serves similar to a hurdle on a track, and applicants must successfully clear each hurdle before gaining the opportunity to approach the next assessment stage. If the number of candidates that pass all of the hurdles is greater than the number of open positions, the hurdle system usually becomes a compensatory system and combines scores to “allow for relative strengths and weaknesses to offset each other” (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 297).

The primary reason for choosing this topic is that the straightforward nature of the process is appealing. In addition, as a consultant who works directly with business owners, I am aware of the bottom-line motivations behind each business activity, and this type of process is likely to be the most effective for smaller companies and simultaneously be the most cost-effective.

Importance to Profession and Career

The multi-hurdle staffing model is important because, as Landy and Conte (2009) note, its use continues within human resource departments at organizations across the globe, especially when finances are tight. One reason for its importance is that it shows the most-qualified candidates quickly. Another reason is that it reduces the number of expensive tests the organization or its testing center must administer. A third reason is that it is scalable and useful for any size organization (Landy & Conte, 2009).

In my consultancy, I intend to recommend it as a preferred staffing model to my small and medium-sized business clients. Understanding even more about this particular model, as well as others in existence, will broaden the range of recommendation options for hiring and promotion at my disposal.

Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues

Validity, utility, and fairness each play a role in evaluating staffing decisions. Validity is the measure of accuracy in the assessments used. Utility is a measure of staffing strategy and has to do with the cost-to-benefit ratio of a strategy. Fairness in staffing decisions is important, since any stakeholder who experiences feelings of unfairness in the process and acts upon them costs the organization time and money (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Landy and Conte (2009) discuss two main types of employment litigation issues resulting from staffing decisions. The first is intentional employment discrimination, and the second is adverse impact or statistical discrimination. This unintentional discrimination results when the staffing or promoting procedures a company uses do not meet the “80 percent” or “4/5ths” rule set by the 1978 Uniform Guidelines (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Training and Development: Needs Analysis

Landy and Conte (2009) note that before any training format is determined, I/O psychologists and organizations should take time to conduct a needs analysis. This will pinpoint “where training is needed, what needs to be taught or trained, and who will be trained” (Landy & Conte, 2009, p. 318-319). In other words, the needs analysis must answer the following questions before creating any training program: (a) What are the big-picture goals and challenges in the organization? (b) What training methods will produce high performance and competency? and (c) Who should receive training? Landy and Conte (2009) note three areas of analysis: organizational, task, and person (p. 319).

The primary reason for choosing this topic is that I realize the need for planning in any endeavor. I know from my business and marketing consulting work how much time and money a good plan can save an organization. I also find it exciting to dig into the who, what, and why of an organizational challenge and then recommend a solution. In addition, taking time to plan in this way helps to ensure the most efficient and effective pathway to accomplishing the identified goals.

Importance to Profession and Career

Needs analysis is important to the profession because training development is a major pathway toward making a living for many I/O psychologists. Training is a major expense for organizations, and skipping the needs analysis may result in training that does not deliver as requested. As a result, the organization has wasted time and money, and the I/O psychologist has lost important credibility and reputation. It is like Ready! Fire! Aim! Such an approach is not a great way to enter a systematic process such as training. Despite the urge to jump quickly into training and other recommendations, this stage is critical, as doing so will likely result in higher costs to the organization in terms of poorly trained employees and unmet performance goals.

In my consultancy, needs analysis is critical and is something that I do with every client, regardless of the type of project. The needs analysis lets me dig into my client’s business and determine with them what the goals are, what needs to be improved, and what training is necessary for improvement. Whether I continue as a business/marketing consultant or add I/O psychology consulting to my business mix, needs analysis will be a critical first step for any assistance, recommendations, or collaboration with any of my clients.

Social, Ethical, and Legal Issues

Social concerns are likely to arise if the needs of all types of employees and bottom-line organizational goals are not considered. The analysis must find answers to questions such as: (a) Is the work force primarily male or female? (b) Is the workforce comprised primarily of teams or individual workers? (c) Where is the work performed?, and (d) What is the culture of the environment? (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Two ethical concerns are: (a) fairness in identifying training needs for all employees, and (b) understanding and compensating for learning disabilities among workers. Legal concerns can arise from a failure to account for gender, cultural, or disability differences in the analysis and from skewing the resulting training designs toward a particular race or gender (Landy & Conte, 2009).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the paper did not follow a central theme or introduce a hypothesis. Instead, it presented an overview of selected key topics from each of the Landy and Conte (2009) textbook chapters covered during the course. The paper presented the following topics: (a) authenticity, (b) reliability and validity of research measures, (c) personality assessments, (d) OCB and CWB, (e) 360 degree feedback systems, (f) the multi-hurdle staffing model, and (g) the role of needs analysis in training program development.

The paper presented an overview of each topic, along with the reason for choosing each one. In addition, the paper presented a brief description of the relevance and importance to both the I/O psychology profession and the author’s career. The paper also presented an overview of any social, ethical, or legal concerns related to each topic.

The topics were interesting and I learned much from this course.  The concepts addressed in the course have sparked an interest in further developing my consultancy. This information was practical for my current profession and with more and more companies utilizing I/O psychology I can see the importance of achieving expertise in this field.

References

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http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ecclesiastes+1&version=NIV

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