managing supporting learning environment

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EDC2100 Managing Supportive Learning Environments

Assignment TemplateSemester 2, 2013
Name:
Student No:

Mode of Study: On Campus Toowoomba /WEB (highlight)
Weighting: This assignment contributes 60% of the marks for the course.
Due Date: Monday October 21, 2013

Instructions
1. Use 1.5 line spacing and 12 point font (Times New Roman).
1. Use APA referencing style.
1. Cited references arenot included in the word count.
1. Completed assignments should be submitted via the EASE system.
(An assignment cover sheet is not required)
1. Submit only the completed Assignment Template.
(Donotmodifythe assignment template)
1. Only a Marking Sheet, which includes marks and comments, will be returned to you. Comments will not be made on the actual assignment. Retain a copy of your assignment for possible future reference.

Marking Criteria
There is no marking rubric for this assignment. The variety of types of questions in this assignment precludes one standard set of marking criteria or rubric. However, where appropriate, the following criteria will be used to assess student responses:
1. The expectation is that for all questions you will demonstrate in your responses an insightful knowledge and understanding of information presented in the course. Most questions require you to integrate your overall course knowledge and insights into classroom management and support to develop appropriate answers.
2. Only Part 2 questionslend themselves to demonstrated research (reading) beyond course readings and other course sources of information. A small number of highly pertinent references are much better than half a dozen or more, many of which have a dubious link to the topic.
3. Carefully planned and concise responses that focus immediately and directly on the specific question or task and which remain within the word limit are essential.
4. How you express your responses are important. You may have the basis of a correct response, but if it is poorly communicated, marks will be deducted.
5. Markers will be looking for and will expect correct use of APA referencing.
6. Up to five marks may be deducted for incorrect referencing. In addition, up to five marks may be deducted for modifying or not adhering to the assignment template format.
7. Word length guidelines are provided throughout the assignment. In line with the university’s policy on assessment word length, students may exceed the totalassignment word length by up to 10%. Marks may be deducted for assignments that go over the plus 10% guideline.

Complete and submit your assignment using the Assignment Template.

Complete all questions in both Part 1 and Part 2.

PART 1 (No referencing required)

Answer the questions in this part one of the assignment taking into account your specific sectors (Early Childhood, Primary, Secondary, and Vocational Education & Training). Support your answersutilising practical examples that are relevant to your sector.

Question 1

(5 marks)

Over the past two decades we have seen a gradual shift from ‘control’ to ‘management’ to ‘support’in how behaviour management is viewed. Provide a concise explanation of what is meant by these three terms as they relate to the education context. Keep in mind that ‘control’ does not necessarily mean autocratic and punitive behaviour and that all three approaches to behaviour management still have a place in education. To supplement your concise explanations, provide a practical example for each, relevant to your sector.
(Word length: 300 words)

Provide your answer here
Control –
Management –
Support –

Question 2

(5 marks)

The ‘establishment phase’ of the school year is critical in organising and managing a supportive learning environment. Identify and explain three of the important considerations and include practical examples of how each is achieved in your sector.
(Word length: 300 words)

Provide your answer here
1.

Question 3

(5marks)

When developing proficiency in supporting behaviour, teachers can lose sight of the importance of balancing acknowledgement and correction of behaviour. Why is it necessary to achieve a balance between the two? Provide two situations of effective acknowledgement and two situations for appropriate correction that are specific to your sector.
(Word length: 250 words)

Provide your answer here
Why is it necessary to achieve a balance between the two?
·
Acknowledgement
1.
2.
Correction
1.
2.

Question 4

(5 marks)

It is accepted that building positive relationships with students enhances the ability of the teacher to manage supportive learning environments. While it is also acknowledged that students bring many variables to the context that are outside the domain of the classroom, identify and explain two distinctive strategies that can be enacted effectively within the classroom in your sector to foster this positive teacher student relationship.
(Word length: 200 words)

Provide your answer here
1.
2.

Question 5

(5 marks)

Classroom Scenario:
You have spent some time explaining a maths concept and now you want the students to work quietly and independently on a work sheet you have prepared to reinforce what you have taught. Just as you set the class to work, Sarah calls out a question about a procedural matter related to the work sheet. You go to her and give your answer, but she doesn’t seem that interested in what you tell her. As you turn to walk back to the front of the room, Sarah has somehow managed to let her folder drop on to the floor. Sheets of paper are everywhere. She slowly begins to pick them up, grinning to other students as she does. There’s a ripple of laughter around the room.

When responding to the various behaviours in the above classroom scenario, what is essential for the teacher to consider when selecting appropriately from the Hierarchy of Basic CorrectiveManagement Strategies?
Identify 4 effective responses to the chosen behaviours and justify your selection with a rationale for each.
(Word length: 250 words)

Provide your answer here.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Question 6

(5 marks)

Teachers’ body language provides opportunities for engaging,motivating and managing students’ behavioursthrough the utilisation of space, gaze and gesture. The video ‘Body Language Techniques’ (Alexander St- Education in Video)
http://ediv.alexanderstreet.com/view/1737655/play/true/
provides an insight into the usage of non-verbal strategies to –
1. Start a Lesson
2. Establish Relationships
3. Engage and Motivate
4. Reinforce Learning
5. End the Lesson
From your sector, identify an appropriate body language technique for each of the five components above and describe how and why they would be used.
(Word length: 250 words)

Provide your answer here
1.
2.
3.
4.

PART 2 (References are required for responses to this question.)

Question 1

(15 marks)

School Wide Positive Behaviour Support (SWPBS) is a common approach to behaviour support within school contexts. Research SWPBS and identify through five points the distinguishable core components that are foundational to this approach.
In alignment to these core components how can teachers construct a personal approach to meet their contextual classroom needs whilst remaining consistent to SWPBS? Support and justify your response utilising suitable references?

(Word length: 500 words)

Provide your answer here

Question 2

(15 marks)

Select, describe and reflect upon thebehavioural attributes of one of the three conduct disorders contained within the course.
Outline an example student profile examining these attributeswithin your sectorand the management and pedagogical strategies required within a supportive learning environment. Justify your response with appropriate references.
(Word length: 500 words)

Provide your answer here

References

chapter.zip

Behaviour Management Chapter 1

Behaviour
Management
The Essentials for
Pre-service Teachers

Barry Fields

Faculty of Education
University of Southern Queensland

Contents

Chapter 1 Behaviour in Context 3
Chapter 2 Classroom Organisation & Management 25
Chapter 3 Managing Low Level Disruptive Behaviour 62
Chapter 4 Managing Challenging & Antisocial
Behaviour 97
Chapter 5 Teacher-Student Relationships 155
Chapter 6 State, National & International Exemplars of
Contemporary Practice 177
References
Appendices

Chapter 1
Behaviour in Context

No other topic in education receives greater attention or causes more
concerns for teachers and parents and students than classroom
discipline…. The lack of effective classroom discipline or
behavior management skills is the major stumbling block to a
successful career in teaching.
(Long, Newman & Morse, 1996)

Good classroom management implies not only that the teacher has elicited
the cooperation of the students in minimizing misconduct and
can intervene effectively when misconduct occurs, but also that
worthwhile academic activities are occurring more or less
continuously and that the classroom management system as a
whole (which includes, but is not limited to, the teacher’s
disciplinary interventions) is designed to maximize student
engagement in those activities, not merely to minimize
misconduct.
(Brophy, 1988)

We believe that the intended modern school curriculum, which is designed to
produce self-motivated, active learners, is seriously undermined
by classroom management policies that encourage, if not
demand, simple obedience, We advocate that a curriculum that
seeks to promote problem solving and meaningful learning must
be aligned with an authoritative management system that
increasingly allows students to operate as self-regulated and
risk-taking learners.
(McCaslin & Good, 1992)

Overview
Chapter 1 lays the scene for an in-depth discussion of student behaviour and
behaviour management. The focus is primarily on school education, but much of
what is said here is relevant to non-school early childhood and adult education
settings.
Everyone, by virtue of having progressed through many years of primary and
secondary school education, are familiar with and to some extent knowledgeable
about teaching and the behaviour management functions of teaching. Those
coming to a pre-service teacher education program carry with them this history and
are influenced in their thinking and in their actions by it. These experiences
however, have been seen largely through the lens of a student. Beginning pre-
service teachers have not been privy to all the school and school system level
factors that impact on teacher thinking, decision-making and behaviour. Beginning
pre-service teachers are not normally familiar with the research and writings
around the topics of student behaviour and behaviour management. They may be
able, from their experience, to come up with ways of responding to misbehaviour if
so asked, but whether these responses are likely to be effective or appropriate is
another matter. When one steps into the role of the teacher, the world of education
and the realities of the classroom require one to take a different perspective.
Chapter 1 is designed to get you thinking about behaviour and the task of
managing behaviour, in the classroom or other educational setting, from the
perspective of one in the role of teacher. It is designed to expose you to a number
of ideas and developments that need to be taken into account when learning about
students; how they behave, what influences their behaviour and what might be the
most appropriate ways of responding to both positive and negative behaviour from
a contemporary education perspective. You will relate with some familiarity to some
of the information presented in the chapter, but much of what is presented here will
be new to you and may conflict with your current thinking. Keep an open mind,
because you have begun a new learning journey.
Another purpose of this chapter is to give you a sense of how perspectives on
student behaviour and behaviour management have changed over time and where
we might be heading in the future. Ideas about and approaches to the
management of behaviour have changed over the past several decades and it is
an area that is hotly debated. There are many different perspectives on how it
should be approached. Thankfully, there is an emerging body of research and
evidence that might be described as „best practice‟ and the chapters in this
monograph will tap into these findings. However, in learning about behaviour
management you will be doing so in an environment where there are conflicting
and competing ways of seeing things and ways of operating.

Introduction

Student behaviour continues to be a concern for schools and school systems in
Australia and elsewhere around the world (Australian Education Union, 2009;
Bushaw & Lopez, 2010; Lewis, 2006; Levin & Nolan, 2010; McDonald, 2010; Steer,
2009). More recently in Australia, the topic has become a priority for politicians,
policy makers and school administrators. School discipline is seen as a major

social issue and for better or worse, is viewed in concert with growing community
concern about youth alienation and antisocial behaviour among young people
(Weatherburn & Indermauer, 2004). In this environment it is not surprising then that
media coverage and public angst have led policy makers to seek answers and
politicians to call for action (Fields, 2005). Of particular concern for educators has
been (1) the negative impact of disruptive behaviour on the learning of well-
behaved students (Ministerial Advisory Committee for Educational Renewal
(MACER), 2005; Steer, 2005), (2) evidence of widespread bullying in schools (ABC
News, 2008; Rigby & Slee, 2008) and (3) the damage to teacher efficacy and
wellbeing caused by the demands of managing uncooperative and unruly students
(Barker, Yeung, Dobia & Mooney, 2009).

Periodically, the Australian Education Union surveys beginning teachers as to their
professional concerns. In 2008, behaviour management ranked second to
workload as the major concern. Pay and class size came in third and fourth
(Australian Education Union, 2009). The management of student behaviour was
the major concern of secondary teachers, with 74.4% of secondary teachers
ranking it as their number one problem. Worryingly, the number of secondary
teachers identifying behaviour management as a concern rose from 65.2% to
74.4% between 2007 and 2008. A similar increase over the same period was found
for primary teachers with an increase from 59.3% to 68.3%.
Beginning teachers in Australia, Britain and the United States regularly report being
under-prepared to manage disruptive behaviour in the classroom and are loud in
their criticism of their pre-service teacher education in not devoting enough time to
the topic (O‟Neill & Stephenson, 2011)). Some teacher education programs,
reportedly, allocate just a few hours to the topic (Akerman, 2012). The effects of
limited preparation and low levels of efficacy in regards to the management of
student behaviour are far reaching. The stress of coping with disruptive behaviour
on a daily basis has been identified as a major contributing factor to teachers
seeking to transfer to another school and for leaving the profession (U.S.
Department of Education, 2005). More recently, the effect on teacher pedagogy
when teaching is constantly interrupted because of the need to respond to
misbehaviour has been explored. Surveys indicate that a third of all teachers report
that their lessons are regularly interrupted because of disruptive student behaviour
(National Center for Educational Statistics, 2009). Often this results in teachers
shying away from or limiting the use of instructional methods, the effective
implementation of which may depend on high levels of student cooperation and
engagement (Lotan, 2006). Significantly curtailed teaching repertoires can result in
diminished learning opportunities for students. It also means that teachers become
frustrated and disillusioned at not being able to teach as well as they know they
can and should.

Why Do Students Misbehave?

Teachers ask this question partly out of exasperation at having to constantly deal
with misbehaviour, but mostly because they believe the answer to that question
might assist them in better understanding and better managing the behaviour.
Interestingly though, if students were given the opportunity to put forward their
reasons for misbehaviour, the answers might be very different. It will be
enlightening to purse this line of thought and we will do so in this chapter.

Teacher Perspectives

In the „Big Debate‟ television program produced by Teachers TV in the United
Kingdom, the findings of a survey of 500 teachers about the causes of
misbehaviour in schools were provided. Sixty-six percent of the surveyed „frontline‟
i.e. classroom teachers, identified that there was a discipline crisis in schools. They
attributed the major cause of misbehaviour to lack of parental support for the
school. Interestingly, just 25% of the respondents saw inadequate and
unimaginative curriculum as a contributing factor and only 17 % of teachers
identified poor teaching as a cause of misbehaviour. In contrast, a survey of 144
parents at an inner city school in the UK revealed that “unfairness of teachers‟
actions was the major cause. Unfairness was exhibited by teachers having
favourite pupils, picking on pupils and being rude to children in their classes (Miller,
Ferguson & Moore, 2002).

External Causal Factors

What is clear from surveys of teachers is that they are strongly inclined to attribute
the causes of misbehaviour to what can be described as „external‟ factors, factors
over which they have little or no control. These include (1) the students‟ home
environment, including poor parenting skills; (2) the extent to which parents
cooperate with and support teachers and schooling; (3) negative peer influence;
(4) models of aggression and other forms of antisocial behaviour in films, television
and other electronic media; (5) student personal characteristics, particularly
inclinations towards aggression, opposition and defiance towards adult authority
figures. To this one needs to add the small but significant number of students with
disabilities, including emotional and behavioural disorders.
In the „Big Debate‟ television program referred to earlier, debate panellists and
invited audience members posed a number of other influences on student
behaviour. Noteworthy were (1) the growing „rights culture‟ among students, where
students express that teachers can‟t tell them what to do and had no right to apply
punitive consequences when they misbehaved; (2) the growing lack of respect for
people in the professions, including the teaching profession; and (3) the failure of
society‟s pillars (established institutions) to provide and to reinforce the boundaries
for behaviour (Clapshaw, 2005). These social institutions include the family, the
church, the government and the school. It has been argued that as society has
become more diverse, the influence of these institutions has been eroded and their
capacity to „patrol‟ the boundaries for behaviour has diminished. In many
circumstances, the school is the only institution still formally and overtly trying to
maintain and teach traditional prosocial values and behaviours. However, without
the concurrent support of the other institutions, the ability of schools to contribute to
citizenship and social cohesion is significantly undermined.
Student Perspectives

Students are rarely asked for their perspective on causes of misbehaviour. What
little research that has been conducted clearly indicates that students, unlike
teachers, do not identify home life as a significant contributor (Cothran, Kulinna &
Garrahy, 2009). Students do however identify „attention seeking‟ as a cause along
with „boring‟ and „irrelevant‟ curriculum (Cothran, Kulinna & Garrahy, 2009). The
attention seeking, „look at me‟ behaviour of students can be viewed as means of
enhancing „social status‟ in the classroom, but is also related to student attempts,

albeit distorted, to be acknowledged and to develop a relationship with their
teacher. Where such a relationship is not developed and where students do not
feel accepted in the classroom, they can become alienated from the teaching-
learning experience, with resultant disengagement and hostility toward teachers.
It is not hard to understand the link between a curriculum which is perceived by
students as meaningless and uninteresting and disengagement and misbehaviour.
Students spend a considerable amount of their lives in classrooms; one would
expect that that time should be well spent, with clear and valuable outcomes for
engagement. Unfortunately, this is not always the case (Glasser, 1992).
Teacher Competence

As what students are to learn (curriculum) and how it is taught (pedagogy) are
closely related, it is also not hard to see that a teacher‟s competence in teaching
will have an influence on student behaviour; particularly the level of student
attention and engagement and the extent to which students will cooperate with and
participate in learning tasks and activities. All the features of good teaching, for
example, enthusiasm, clarity of presentation, sequencing and scaffolding, guided
practice and supportive feedback will act to maximise student confidence,
motivation and on task behaviour and as such will minimise the likelihood of
misbehaviour. Behaviour problems will be more evident (1) in classrooms where
teachers are not passionate about what they teach, (2) where teachers do not get
down to the level of their students or do not make an effort to relate to them, (3)
where the purposefulness and meaningfulness of tasks and activities are not
conveyed, (4) where lessons are disorganised, (5) where teaching is not inspired,
(6) where all students are not involved and (7) where some students sense that the
teacher believes that they are not capable of learning. Teacher competence is also
related to the extent to which students accord teachers expert power and the
authority and the influence that goes with it (Kounin, 1970). Poor teaching limits the
teacher‟s authority and the capacity of the teacher to obtain student cooperation
and compliance (Tanner, 1978).

Schools – Unnatural and Restrictive Environments

Schools and classrooms are unique social environments. While they mirror much
of what exists in the broader community they are never-the-less different and
unusual in many ways. One of the consequences of bringing large numbers of
children together in school and class units is that there needs to be considerably
more regulation of the behaviour of children than would normally apply outside of
the school environment. These regulations and restrictions, codified in the form of
school rules and procedures, are deemed necessary for the orderly conduct of
teaching and for the safety and security of children.
While most students eventually adjust to and perhaps even accept these
restrictions, it is a fact that achieving such compliance is an arduous task for
teachers. Furthermore, a small but significant percentage of students are unwilling
or unable (as with some children with behaviour or emotional disorders) to accept
the school‟s behaviour expectations and are constantly in conflict situations with
teachers and school administrators.
Borrowing a term from special education, educators now are encouraged to think of
creating the „least restrictive environment‟ for children, in order to minimize conflicts
between students and teachers. It is argued that keeping rules and regulations to a

minimum, involving students in the creation of those rules, making sure the
rationale for restrictions is made clear to students, recognising individual student
differences (cultural and developmental), and providing as much opportunity for
choice as possible in instructional situations, will considerably reduce teacher-
student tensions and behaviour problems.
Whatever the reasons for school discipline problems and however conscious
teachers and school administrators are of keeping restrictions to a minimum, the
rules and regulations guiding student behaviour which do exist need to be
enforced. This invariably means teachers will be faced with a continuous behaviour
management challenge in each class they teach and more broadly around the
school.
Complex Task Demands

Teaching is a complex and demanding occupation. The day to day activities of the
classroom are characterised by unpredictability and uncertainty and for the
necessity for teachers to engage in rapid situational decision making. While the
classroom can be complex demanding for the teacher, it can be equally if not more
complex and demanding for students.
Students regularly function in a work environment which many adults would find
intolerable. Not only are behaviour expectations and standards frequently vague
and changeable, but the academic tasks that students are required to engage in
and on which they are evaluated, are often ambiguous and fraught with risk (Doyle,
1983). Increasingly, as students move through the grades they are faced with
activities and tasks which demand more sophisticated levels of thinking. This
development is built into the school program and reflects the goals and objectives
of the curriculum. Tasks which demand more higher level cognitive skills are
generally more difficult for students to successfully complete. The learning
strategies necessary for their solution may be less well defined and there is often
uncertainty as to whether the quality of response will meet the teacher‟s
expectations.
Confronted with such demands students may passively (e.g. through cheating) or
more actively (e.g. by continually seeking help and clarification or by demanding
changes in grading standards) resist the teacher to the point where task demands
are dramatically reduced. Students, either individually or as a group may simply
refuse to do the task (cooperate in its completion) until it is clarified or until its
difficulty is diminished. This is not an uncommon occurrence, even in primary
classrooms. Such a situation invariably leads to a teacher-student power struggle
which poses a major threat to the teacher‟s authority and discipline.
Compulsory Attendance

A factor that is closely related to the restrictive nature of the school environment is
the fact that attendance at school in Australia is compulsory. Children are
compelled to attend school whether they want to or not.
While most students, for the major part of their school life want to go to school and
in fact enjoy the experience, many students do not. It is a constant concern to
educators and to the community that a large number of children and teenagers see
little relevance in the school curriculum to their life and to their view of the future.
Many young people, because of lack of motivation, lack of ability, or because of
unsympathetic teachers, find school an unpleasant, punitive experience. The task

of securing the cooperation of these students and involving them in classroom
tasks and activities is extremely difficult. Teachers who have one or more students
who fall into this category will find classroom management to be a constant
challenge.
Class Assignment
Few teachers at the early childhood, primary or secondary levels have much say in
what class or classes they will be assigned. Even fewer opportunities exist for
teachers to select the students who will make up their class group. Just as students
may like or dislike a teacher, so too will teachers develop preferences for working
with some students and not with others. In both instances there is little opportunity
for teachers and class groups to be re-assigned or organised so that a more
desirable teacher-student, student-teacher or student-student match is achieved.
Inevitably teachers will find themselves responsible for students for whom, if given
the choice; they would prefer not to teach. Establishing trust and rapport with these
students and ultimately gaining their cooperation may be a problem despite the
teacher‟s best efforts to disguise his or her displeasure at having to work with them.
Teacher-Student Relations
In recent years, increasing attention has been given to the teacher-student
relationship and its impact on student behaviour. Look carefully at the following
comments: “Kids don‟t learn from teachers they don‟t like” (Aspey & Roebuck,
1977); “Most resistance to teacher directions occurs in classrooms where students
report disliking their teachers” (Cusick, 1994); and “By the end of Grade 7 more
than fifty percent of students believe that teachers and principals are their
adversaries” (Glasser, 1992). All three quotes highlight the importance of teachers
being liked by their students and, indirectly, of there being good relations between
teachers and students. Certainly, teachers would prefer not to be working in a
setting where their students disliked them and where they were viewed as the
„enemy‟. Classrooms should not be battlefields, and where they are, it is difficult to
imagine that the teaching-learning experience would be productive or enjoyable for
anyone. Clearly, where students dislike and have little respect for their teachers, it
is hard to see where these students will be willing to cooperate with the teacher
and to engage in the teacher‟s learning tasks and activities.
The topic of teacher-student relations will be addressed in more fully in Chapter 5.
At this point it is sufficient to say that we know a lot about the characteristics of
liked teachers and teachers should be well aware of these and responsive to them.
Those characteristics relate to teachers treating students fairly and with respect.
They also relate to how a teacher teaches and motivates students to learn; their
ability to maintain a safe and supportive learning environment; their willingness to
get to know students and their approachability and friendliness.
Today, a strong emphasis is also placed on the capacity of the teacher to impart to
students a sense of belonging in the classroom and in school; with a particular
focus on helping students feel capable (able to learn), connected (to peers and the
teacher) and contributing (being recognised for their input and contributions in the
teaching-learning process).

Basic Needs
Influential psychologist William Glasser drew attention to how the five basic human
needs drive the behaviour of students (Glasser, 1992). Increasingly, educators are
seeing value in understanding how students strive to meet their needs and how
this behaviour sometimes conflicts with the efforts of others (including teachers) to
have their needs satisfied. The five basic human needs are survival, belonging,
power, freedom and fun. A very readable commentary on how these needs play
out in the school context has been provided by Laura Frey and Kathi Wilhite, a
summary of which is provided below (Frey & Wilhite, 2005).
The basic need of survival is most often associated with our physical need for food,
water, air, sleep, safety, shelter, warmth, health and sex. Where any of these
needs are not satisfied, for example, a student who has not had breakfast or who
had minimal sleep the night before, this can impact on their concentration and can
make them irritable and uncooperative.
The need to feel that one belongs is important in all social contexts including the
school and classroom. Students need to feel accepted by their peers and teachers;
they need to know that their contributions in conversations, their ideas and their
work products are considered worthwhile and that their presence is considered
valuable to the people who are important to them. Students who do not feel that
they belong can become depressed and withdrawn or can develop a growing
feeling of anger and alienation, often leading to the desire to exact revenge on
those who they perceive have rejected them.
The need for power is all about an individual‟s desire to feel capable and is related
to one‟s sense of achievement, accomplishment, pride, importance, competence
and self-worth in social settings. Power in the school context is all about these
outcomes and is linked to the capacity of the student to control events in their lives.
This means having the ability and freedom to make choices and to have a say in
the design and nature of classroom tasks and activities so that their success in
those tasks and activities is more likely.
The basic need for freedom is related to the desire for independence and
autonomy – the ability to make choices, to move around and to freely express one
self. Schools can be and often are settings where restrictions are placed on student
freedom – freedoms that students would normally have outside of the school
environment. The regulation of student behaviour is necessary to ensure the safety
and security of all students and school staff and the orderly conduct of the school
program. When these regulations are excessive or are perceived as excessive by
students this impinges on students‟ sense of autonomy and liberty and can result in
oppositional and non-compliant behaviour.
The final basic need is that of fun. Having fun is about enjoying life‟s activities and
experiences and this includes schoolwork. Students spend many hours in
classrooms doing work; it is reasonable to expect that much of this time should be
experienced as pleasurable. Students get great enjoyment from being with their
friends and from achieving success and gaining competence from the learning
experience. When these things do not happen, school becomes an unpleasant
place to be in. Feelings of isolation and alienation come to the fore and can result
in deterioration in peer-peer and teacher-student relations.

It needs to be kept in mind that the five basic needs apply to all people, not just
students. When we think about it, we can see how these needs operate in our own
lives. They make sense and for this reason teachers should be understanding of
how they function in the lives of students. It has been argued that behaviour is an
attempt to satisfy unmet needs (Chandler & Dahlquist, 2002). That behaviour can
be socially acceptable or it can be inappropriate or antisocial in nature.
Understanding the function of behaviour, most especially serious behaviour
problems, is one of the first steps in designing behaviour improvement programs
for students. More will be said about this topic in Chapter 5.

The Media & School Discipline

The role of the media in shaping public perceptions and opinions about significant
political and social issues has long been the subject of much speculation and
debate (Maeroff, 1998; Spitzer, 1993; Wilson & Wilson, 2001; Wimmer and
Dominick, 1991). It is widely accepted that what we know about, think about and
believe about what happens in the world, outside of personal first-hand experience,
is shaped, and some would say orchestrated, by how these events are reported in
newspapers and communicated through the medium of radio and television.
Few people experience first-hand a terrorist attack, most don‟t know what it is like
to be held in a foreign prison while undergoing a trial for suspected drug trafficking.
Thankfully, relatively few of us are the victims of a violent crime or are close to
those who are the victims or even the perpetrators of such acts. The reality of
those events and our responses to them are experienced vicariously through the
word pictures created by journalists and the visual and auditory realism of
television reports. The mass media brings simulated reality into our lives and we
find ourselves relying on those sources to provide a conceptualized image of the
real world.

This view of the influence of the media is elaborated on in what is called
„Cultivation Theory‟ (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan & Signorielli, 1980). Cultivation
Theory holds that the popular media, such as television, has the power to influence
our view of the world and it is “primarily responsible for our perceptions of day-to-
day norms and reality” (Infante, Rancer & Womack, 1997, p. 383). Television, in
particular, is our major source of information today and has become a part of us
and part of our family life. George Gerbner likened it to a “key member of the
family, the one who tells the most stories most of the time” (Gerbner et al 1980, p.
14). Research has taken this one step further. According to Severin & Tankard
(1997) heavy television viewers are more likely to perceive the world as it is
portrayed on the television screen. The limitations of such a „world view‟ are
strikingly portrayed by the character Chance in the movie Being There, the story of
a gardener who had spent his entire life in the house of an old man and whose only
knowledge of the world outside the house was through television. When the man
dies, Chance is put out on the street with no knowledge of the world except what
he had learned from television.

„Cultivation Theory‟ is not without its critics, particularly those who argue that the
capacity of the mass media to shape our thinking is exaggerated. Another
explanation of the influence of the media, „Agenda-Setting Theory‟, places
somewhat less emphasis on the impact of the media on public opinion and more
emphasis on what issues are actually covered in the media (Dearing & Rogers,
1996). Bernard Cohen was one of the earliest authorities to pick up on this in

respect of the print media when he stated “the press may not be successful much
of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its
readers what to think about” (Cohen, 1963, p. 13).
It is likely that both theories and explanations of the media‟s influence describe, to
some extent, what actually happens. The media can and often does decide what is
reported, and these stories, in whole or in part, are assimilated and accommodated
into the emotional fabric and cognitive structures of individual readers and viewers.
How the media chooses to report and to comment on those events and issues will
also have an impact too and will inevitably influence the thinking of many.

Unlike many world events, when it comes to education and schools, almost
everyone has first-hand experience of the teaching-learning process. For most, that
has entailed six years of primary and six years of secondary education – a very
long exposure indeed to the workings of the classroom, school curricula and the
dynamics of school life. Parents relive that experience from another perspective
when their children go to school. Many in the community would regard themselves
as knowledgeable about the education process and some would regard
themselves as „experts‟ on every school education related topic or issue.

One could expect that with this level of experiential background on the subject of
education, the public would be well informed and far less susceptible to distorted,
biased, or in any way manipulated media coverage of the education enterprise.
This is not the view taken by educational researchers and commentators David
Berliner and Bruce Biddle. In their controversial book The Manufactured Crisis they
provide a sharp critique of U.S. media coverage of school reform initiatives and
student achievement data. They claim the public is being manipulated into
believing that the schools, particularly public schools in the United States, are
failing in their responsibilities to students and the community (Berliner & Biddle,
1995).
Berliner and Biddle‟s report card on press coverage of educational issues lists
seven deficiencies. These included the media‟s propensity to cover negative
stories over more positive news, its simplistic and incomplete treatment of what are
often complex social as well as educational problems, and the misuse and abuse
of statistical data when reporting on national and international student achievement
studies (Berliner & Biddle, 1995).
It‟s not just the weaknesses and limitations of educational reporting that Berliner
and Biddle write about. At the heart of their criticism of the media is their argument
and belief that, in America, there exists an orchestrated conspiracy in the media to
criticise and undermine the public school system. The schools are blamed for the
reported (some would say distorted) poor results of American school students in
international comparative studies of achievement in Science and Mathematics. And
the schools are also seen as sharing in the blame for perceived soaring levels of
youth violence and crime. The interests of the wealthy and of those who would
promote the privatization of schools are behind this conspiracy Berliner and Biddle
believe, and in the media they appear to have a willing ally:

Powerful people were… pursuing a political agenda
designed to weaken the nation‟s public schools… To
this end they have been prepared to tell lies, suppress
evidence, scapegoat educators, and sow endless

confusion. We consider this conduct particularly
despicable (Berliner & Biddle, 1995, p xi)

Conspiracy theory aside, Berliner and Biddle do more than just hint that in Agenda-
Setting Theory there is a perfect explanation for how the U.S. media approaches its
coverage of educational issues.

Not everyone, including educators, share Berliner and Biddle‟s conspiracy
hypothesis, but these same authorities are not shy in expressing their frustration
with educational reporting in the media. A constant source of concern is the
targeting of the more dramatic problems confronting schools for news items, the “if
it bleeds, it leads” mentality. Newspapers are businesses and as such are driven
by economic not philanthropic forces. Editors are constantly demanding and
fashioning news items that will attract the attention of readers or viewers and in
turn advertisers. Stories about declining levels of student respect for teachers, of
declining test results, of teachers with poor literacy and numeracy skills, of out of
control classrooms, of drug trafficking, theft, vandalism and shootings will get
coverage over promising educational reforms, innovative teaching techniques,
exceptional and dedicated teachers and poor and disadvantaged students who
have managed to achieve at the national average on academic achievement tests.
Another equally disheartening approach evident in much of the U.S. media is what
is known as the “gotcha” mentality of many investigative reporters, where someone
or some agency is found to be at fault and is exposed for incompetence or actions
not in the best interests of students or the public.

In their defence, journalists and reporters argue that they are simply covering what
happens in schools. Discipline is an issue in many schools as is safety. They point
to public opinion polls, particularly in the U.S., that have for decades found that the
public considers discipline the biggest problem facing schools, along with drugs,
violence, declining moral behaviour and lack of respect for authority. Other things
happen in schools, but the public is less interested in these problems or
achievements. It is little wonder then that the media shares this lack of interest.

The power and influence of the media in Australia is no less than that of its
American counterpart (Balsom, 1999). Australian journalists and reporters are
known for their aggressive pursuit of a story. Politicians and big business cross
media barons at their peril. On the subject of media coverage of schools and
school education though, we know very little. There is little, however, to suggest
that the print or television media engage in an orchestrated campaign to undermine
or to favour either our public or private school systems nor indeed any education
agency or interest group.

Behaviour in Schools

Media coverage of bullying, violence and drugs in schools would suggest that
discipline in schools is in crisis. Beyond the media hype, the picture i.e. the reality
is far less dramatic. Two major inquiries on behaviour in schools, one in the United
Kingdom and one in Queensland report that schools are not in crisis and that
indeed the vast majority of students are normally well behaved. Serious behaviour
problems do occur but they are less frequent than many commentators would have
us believe (Fields, 2000). What we do know is that most behaviour problems are

mild in nature, albeit it frequently occurring. These behaviours often referred to as
low level disruptive behaviour.
This is not an exhaustive list but it gives a good idea of the nature of the problem
teachers‟ face. To this it needs to be added that low level disruptive behaviour is
exhibited by many students – even those who are normally well behaved. Indeed, it
is the combination of these types of behaviours, the frequency with which they
occur and the fact that they are exhibited by many students, that makes the
management of low level disruptive behaviour the biggest challenge facing
teachers. The issue is not that this type of behaviour is difficult to manage because
it is not. It is more the case of it frequency that teachers find frustrating, draining
and often stressful. Many educators argue that pre-service and beginning teachers
need to understand that the management of low level disruptive behaviour will be a
day to day feature of their work as a teacher and that the task will continue to be a
major issue right throughout their career.
Recently school systems have taken to depicting the behaviour of students using
what has been described as the behaviour pyramid. The pyramid as seen below
(Figure 1) represents the population of school students. As can be seen from the
diagram, the great majority of students, some 80%, are categorised as normally
well behaved, but with many students exhibiting low level disruptive behaviour from
time to time. About 10 – 15% of students will exhibit more frequent misbehaviour
(low level) and occasionally more serious forms of misbehaviour. About 1 – 5% of
students will exhibit frequent low level misbehaviour and serious forms of
misbehaviour, which may include illegal behaviour (e.g. physical violence,
possession and use of weapons, theft, vandalism, arson etc.) and will be a major
challenge for individual teachers and the school to manage. While many students
in the 10 – 15% group and virtually all students in the 1 – 5% group are best
managed using a whole of staff, whole school approach, when these students are
in class, which is most of the time, they are the classroom teacher‟s responsibility.
The same pyramid is used to depict the range of services needed to support
students at the different levels to behave more appropriately. The focus of support
for students in the 80% group is good teaching, the recognition and reward of good
behaviour and the use of basic classroom and behaviour management strategies
to redirect students back to more appropriate behaviour, including on task
behaviour.
The behaviour management pyramid is useful to get a handle on the magnitude
and nature of the behaviour management task facing schools. Its application to
individual classrooms needs to be viewed cautiously however. There will be much
greater variance from classroom to classroom within a school, so the proportions
illustrated as applicable to the population of students may not apply in smaller
groups such as specific classrooms. There may be, for example, fewer students in
the normally well behaved group and more students in the 10 – 15% group.
What teachers should be striving to achieve in their behaviour management is to
continually be reinforcing appropriate behaviour in order to maintain the „critical
mass‟ of students within the „cooperating‟, normally well behaved group. At the
same time they will always be looking for opportunities to increase this group by
working to encourage better behaviour form the 10 – 15% group.

Figure 1. The Behaviour Pyramid
The Immediacy of Behaviour Management

Classrooms are complex workplaces for teachers. Just how complex has been
thoroughly researched and reported on by Brophy (2006) and Doyle (2006).
Drawing on the findings of these researchers we are able to get a real sense of the
challenges facing teachers in their day to day work. Classrooms have multiple
„actors‟ (teachers and students) with different agendas. There are numerous
activities that need to be planned for and implemented throughout each lesson
and/or the entire school day. Many events occur simultaneously and rapid teacher
decision making is necessitated. There is very little time for teachers to stop and
reflect on what next needs to be done and how best to proceed.
The immediacy of managing teaching and learning activities is further complicated
by the parallel task of behaviour management. While teachers can do some
planning around the task of behaviour management and can introduce preventative
management strategies, much of what happens in the way of student behaviour is
spontaneous and unpredictable. The difficulty for teachers is that most
misbehaviour requires an immediate response. The capacity of teachers to make
rapid and good decisions about how to best manage problem behaviour is critical
to teaching success. Teachers need to be able to (1) assess the events leading up
to and contributing to the behaviour, (2) identify who is involved and correctly target
the student or students for response, (3) decide whether to intervene, (4) decide on
how to intervene and (5) implement the corrective strategy or response. All this
cognitive and behavioural activity can and often should play out in a matter of
seconds. The task can only be effectively be accomplished by the teacher having a
good understanding of his or her students, by having a decision framework or
strategy, by having a repertoire of behaviour management strategies and through
experience in knowing with whom, when and how to apply those strategies.
10 – 15 %
80%
1 – 5 %

Prior Experience

It is often overlooked that pre-service teachers, on entry to a teacher education
program, have already acquired considerable practical knowledge of school
education, based on their many years in classrooms as early childhood, primary or
secondary students. They have been exposed to good and not so good teaching
and have had first-hand experience of disruptive and challenging behaviour and
may have exhibited some of this behaviour themselves. And, they have seen how
dozens of teachers have responded to this behaviour. In addition, we have all
experienced, again for many years, our parents parenting style and strategies and
how our behaviour and that of our siblings was managed. These experiences form
strong and lasting images and ideas in our minds about behaviour and how to
should be responded to (Hollingsworth, 1989; Holt-Reynolds, 1992; Sexton, 2004;
Tatto, 1998; Weinstein, 1990; Wubbels, 1992).
While related experience is normally helpful in any profession or occupation, in
teaching there are some potential problems. It all depends on the nature of the
experience. First, as a student or child our experience and understanding of life‟s
events are not seen through the lens of a teacher or parent. To a large extent, the
thinking and decision-making of a teacher or parent is invisible to us, we only see
their actions. So, the picture and our experience are incomplete. Only when we
learn to become a teacher or when we become a parent does our understanding
become more comprehensive and insightful. Perhaps, more importantly, some life
experiences and perspectives formed because of them can be detrimental to how
we might function as a teacher or parent. If our school experience was largely
authoritarian and controlling when it came to behaviour, then this might guide our
thinking about how behaviour should be managed, particularly given that there are
plenty of models of such behaviour in schools and society more generally today.
The influence of a 15 week semester course on behaviour management, for
example, one where a more contemporary, child-centred, relationship and support
model is espoused, may not be sufficient to change ingrained thinking. The latter
model may be challenging for a pre-service teacher to learn and to implement
during teaching practicum. It may contrast with the mentor teacher‟s approach and
it is the mentor who will be evaluating the pre-service teacher‟s competence. The
pre-service teacher, with his or her relatively low status and with limited skills in
behaviour management, may call on their past experiences in classrooms when
faced with disruptive student behaviour. Those experiences and the actions which
follow from them may or may not be appropriate for Twenty-first century school
education. The implication is not that one should be fearful or dismissive of prior
experience; rather this needs to be brought to the surface and reflected on in the
light of new and different perspectives on how to think and act (Jones, 2011). Pre-
service teachers in particular, but teachers at all stages of their careers need to be
open to new learning and constantly seeking to improve their teaching skill and
their understanding of the students they teach.

Changing Perspectives on Behaviour and Behaviour
Management
Our understanding of and approach to behaviour in schools has not remained
static over the past several decades. Perhaps the most significant development in
recent times has been the gradual movement away from what could be described
as controlling approaches to the management of misbehaviour (Freiberg, 1999). In
this approach teachers set the standards and boundaries for behaviour (rules) and
applied consequences (often punitive) to students who did not meet behaviour
expectations. Through the influence of behaviour theory and behaviour
modification techniques in the 1960‟s and 1970‟s, control was further enhanced by
reinforcing appropriate behaviour through praise and other forms of recognition
and reward. So essentially, behaviour was controlled by applying unpleasant
consequences for unacceptable behaviour and by applying pleasant
consequences for appropriate behaviour. Behaviour management was very much
what teachers‟ did to students‟, there was less emphasis on other contextual
factors (including teacher behaviour) that might be contributing to students‟
misbehaving.
A teacher‟s authority and control is enhanced by drawing on several sources of
power (French & Raven, 1960; Levin & Nolan, 2010). The power sources for
teachers exercising discipline through control include legitimate power and
coercive power. Legitimate power is power that is inherent in the role of the teacher
and is available to and exercised by all teachers. This power is bestowed by
society and in some instances is backed by the legal system. Teachers have
formal and legal authority for maintaining appropriate behaviour in the classroom. It
is understood and accepted that students should comply with all reasonable
directions from the teacher. Coercive power relates very much to actions taken by
teachers to manipulate student behaviour and is linked to the teachers use of
rewards and consequences. Teachers have control over how and to whom these
are distributed. They are used to manipulate behaviour to achieve outcomes
acceptable to the teacher. Note here that coercion does not mean the use of
verbally aggressive behaviour by the teacher, for example, shouting, threatening,
excessive forms of punishment and the use of sarcasm and put downs. Many
teachers do display this type of behaviour and it is used to control students. It has,
however, never been condoned as an appropriate nor acceptable form of
behaviour management. It should also be noted that the use of corporal
punishment in schools, a highly controlling procedure, was disbanded in
government schools in all Australian states and territories during the 1990‟s. So,
when referring to controlling approaches to school discipline the focus is on the
teacher‟s reliance on authority and the power associated with the position of
teacher.
Teachers have access to two other forms of power. These are expert power and
referent power (Levin & Nolan, 2010). Expert power relates to the students
perception that their teacher has important knowledge and skills and pedagogical
competence and that by cooperating with the teacher they will acquire (learn)
something of value. Understandably, all teachers would like to have this power and
influence when working with students. Referent power is linked to the relationship
that is developed between teachers and students. The power is acquired when the
relationship is a positive one, when students trust, respect and/or like their teacher.
With this outcome, students are more likely to cooperate with the teacher, adhere

to behaviour expectations and engage actively in learning tasks and activities. As
with expert power, all teachers would like to acquire a good dose of referent power.
You may well ask the question whether a teacher whose dominant approach to
student behaviour is a controlling one, is likely to generate much in the way
referent power.
During the 1960‟s and 1970‟s a considerable amount of teacher effectiveness
research was conducted. Much of this research involved direct observations in
classrooms and the identification of effective and ineffective teaching practices
(Seidel & Shavelson, 2007; Walberg & Paik, 2000; Wittrock, 1986). The findings of
this research had far reaching implications for how teachers teach, for classroom
organisation and management and for behaviour management. With this
knowledge and skill base, the management role of teachers was given greater
prominence. Reference to control and discipline gave way to the terminology –
behaviour management. This didn‟t mean that behaviour control through rewards
and consequences was abandoned. Their value and effectiveness was recognised,
if not universally embraced, and these strategies were incorporated into an ever
growing repertoire of additional behaviour management strategies. So, there was a
gradual, but overlapping shift from a focus on control to one of management.
Teacher effectiveness research and its spin off for the field of behaviour
management, led to a closer relationship between pedagogy and behaviour
management, and a view that both shared a common goal, that of enhancing
student learning. Pedagogy is all about helping students learn. Behaviour
management is aimed at encouraging student behaviour (on task behaviour) that
will maximise their opportunity to learn. It was also recognised that there existed a
reciprocal relationship between teaching and behaviour management. Good
teaching is likely to result in greater student engagement and as such will reduce
the behaviour management demands on teachers. Effective behaviour
management will result in a reduced level of disruptive behaviour, meaning it is
easier for the teacher to get on with the job of teaching. It is not hard to understand
that good teaching and effective behaviour management represent a powerful
combination with significant benefits for both teachers and students.
The 1980‟s and 1990‟s saw the rise of models of behaviour management (Freiberg
& Lapointe, 2006; Hardin, 2012). Some of these were elaborated and more
comprehensive versions of management approaches as described above. Many,
however, where attempts to move away from teacher focussed approaches to
more student focussed approaches and to greater emphasis on teacher-student
relationship building. Most models were underpinned by a behavioural, cognitive-
behavioural, ecological or social theory of one kind or another. Some had a
research support base, many did not. Most were associated with a single author
and proponent. Many have been aggressively promoted to the education
community in much the same way a business might go about marketing its product.
It was often difficult for schools to evaluate different models and frequently their
adoption at the school level came down to personal preference.
Never-the less, out of this smorgasbord of approaches several directions and
principles began to emerge. Already mentioned was (1) the desire to move beyond
a controlling orientation to student behaviour and (2) the recognition that the
teacher-student relationship is absolutely critical in achieving positive learning and
behaviour outcomes (Freiberg, 1999; Slee, 1995).

A third emerging principle in behaviour management is that of support. Rather than
setting rules for behaviour, expecting students to follow them and applying
consequences when they didn‟t, there is now greater emphasis given to teaching
students how to behave and otherwise supporting students to behave
appropriately. This approach and its relation to traditional behaviour management
thinking is best illustrated with a comparison to teaching and learning in a broader
sense. When, for example, a teacher is faced with a student who has difficulty with
reading, teachers will make adjustments to their pedagogy (differentiated
instruction) and/or provision of individual assistance to support the student to learn.
Unfortunately, too often, when a student is having difficulty meeting behaviour
expectations, the response is often a punitive one. More and more now teachers
are encouraged to make efforts to teach students how to behave and to reward
them when they do so. The shift then is towards a support focus when responding
to misbehaviour.
As with the move from control to management, the shift from management to
support has been gradual and overlapping. The shift to support has not been one
of moving away from a management focus; rather it has involved a combination or
integration of the two. One should not assume that these shifts in focus on how
teachers and schools respond to student behaviour are well defined and widely
understood in the profession. The reality is that in any one school all three
approaches will be evident and indeed there will be occasions when all three are
necessary. Implied in the shift however, is that control should not be the dominant
modus operandi and that management and increasingly support should be what is
evident in schools.
Just as approaches to behaviour management have evolved over time, so to have
views about student behaviour and these don‟t necessarily fit neatly with the shift in
behaviour management approaches. The view that behaviour needed to be
externally controlled and shaped has had a long history in school education and
remained strong into the early 1970‟s when behaviour theory and behaviour
modification held sway. The advent of cognitive psychology, along with
dissatisfaction with just how completely behaviour theory was able to explain
human behaviour, saw a shift away from the view that behaviour is externally
controlled through contingencies of rewards and punishments. Cognitive research
demonstrated that much of behaviour is the conscious result of an individual‟s
thought processes and resultant decision making. In other words humans choose
to behave as they do and this applies to both adults and children. There are
several implications for schools and teachers of this perspective on student
behaviour. On the one hand it can be interpreted in this way – “Students know how
to behave but some choose not to”. This view does not align well with the move to
support. Indeed the implication is that an acceptable response in these
circumstances is to apply an appropriate consequence, one that is more than likely
to be experienced as aversive. Of even greater concern is that fact that if teachers
believe that students know how to behave there is then no need to devote time and
energy to teaching good behaviour. Another educational interpretation is that
attempts to coerce students into behaving in certain ways are likely to be
unsuccessful and that what is needed by schools and teachers is encouragement
and support to assist students to make good decisions about how they will behave.
The latter view is incorporated into a number of models of behaviour management
including the widely applied Choice Theory (Glasser, 1998). This view aligns well
with supportive management. Further, school systems often identify the importance
of students arriving at an appreciation of their social responsibilities and of

becoming self-disciplined. These goals cannot be achieved when behaviour is
constantly under external control. Students need to have opportunities to make
decisions for themselves and to learn from the outcomes of those decisions i.e. the
impact on themselves and others.

Pedagogy, Behaviour, Behaviour Management Link

The primary focus of school education and most forms of education and training is
student learning. Teachers understand that their role is to facilitate learning and
that how they teach will have a big bearing on how much learning occurs. Integral
to the success of this task is the teacher‟s capacity to engage students in learning
tasks and activities and to redirect students back on task when their behaviour
interferes with learning and teaching.
Increasingly, the significance of the relationship between pedagogy, student
behaviour and behaviour management is being stressed in discussions around
teaching and learning and is captured in the „behaviour for learning‟ focus of recent
reports into schooling in the United Kingdom and Australia. Until recently,
behaviour management was viewed as a task running in parallel with pedagogy,
not part of or integrated with the process of teaching. Now the two are seen as very
much related and contributing to the common goal of student learning. Good
teaching has the potential to facilitate learning by capturing student attention and
attention to task. Behaviour management also has as its goal student learning. It
helps achieves this goal through strategies that encourage learning behaviour (on
task behaviour) and discouraging behaviour that is disruptive of learning and
teaching.
The relationship between pedagogy and behaviour management is complementary
and reciprocal. Good teaching maximises student engagement, thus reducing the
occurrence of off task behaviour and misbehaviour. Good behaviour management
encourages greater levels of appropriate behaviour and reduced levels of
inappropriate behaviour. This outcome allows teachers to teach with significantly
reduced needs to manage behaviour at the same time. It is recognised that both
good pedagogy and good behaviour management are needed to obtain the
necessary levels of appropriate student behaviour to allow learning to occur.
There is one further way pedagogy and behaviour management are related. It is
not uncommon for teachers to view behaviour management as something that is
done to students. A student misbehaves, which results in the teacher responding to
the behaviour; a response aimed at re-directing the student to more appropriate
behaviour. This view all too readily sees the „problem‟ as residing with the student
and it is the student who needs to change for the problem to be fixed. The cause of
the problem isn‟t always the student and teachers are now being encouraged to
think more broadly and to look at factors that operate within the teaching-learning
environment (factors they have some control over) that might be contributing to the
behaviour. For example, it may well be that the learning task is too difficult, hasn‟t
been well explained and is viewed by the student a irrelevant and meaningless.
Under these circumstances it is difficult for the student to fully engage with the task
and to cooperate with its completion. In these situations students become bored,
restless and inattentive – all precursors to misbehaviour. The implementations of
behaviour management strategies to re-direct the student back to task are unlikely
to have more than a short-term impact. What is needed is for the teacher to change

his or her thinking and behaviour; to think (plan) carefully the learning task, to
introduce it more thoroughly and to provide well-structured and supportive guided
practice and feedback.
It is useful for pre-service teachers to have an understanding of the factors that
most directly impact on student behaviour and learning in the classroom. Of most
value are factors over which teachers have some control. These include the nature
and relevance of the curriculum to students, the teacher‟s pedagogy, the teacher‟s
skill in organising the classroom environment, the relations teachers develop with
their students and the teacher‟s skill in managing behaviour. All these factors are
important and success in all is necessary to achieve student engagement and
learning.

Whole School Behaviour Management

The power of a whole of school focus in the operations of schools has long been
recognised by school administrators and educators in general. Having its roots in
school effectiveness research (Townsend, 2007), the whole school approach is
premised on the view that school and student outcomes are enhanced when the
school has a coordinated approach to its functions and where all staff and ideally
the broader school community are understanding and supportive of common goals
and strategies. The whole school approach has been applied to a variety of school
functions, but over the past decade there has been a dramatic increase in interest
and activity around the whole school approach to behaviour and its management.
We have seen in recent years school systems (1) promulgating behaviour policies,
guidelines and/or disciplines codes to facilitate a consistent approach to student
behaviour in all schools, (2) requiring schools to develop, with input from the
broader school community, school behaviour plans that are based on system
policies, guidelines and codes, and (3) adopting or promoting various whole school
models of behaviour management and support (Department of Education &
Training, 2006a; Department of Education & Training, 2006b; Department of
Education & Training, 2008). One such whole school model or approach is School
Wide Positive Behaviour Support (SWPBS), also known as Positive Behaviour
Support (PBS) (Lewis & Sugai, 1999). This approach has as its focus the
development of school-wide expectations for behaviour (rules), the recognition and
teaching of positive behaviour and a coordinated strategy for the assessment and
management of student behaviour. Schools „buy into‟ the approach and all staff are
expected to actively support its implementation.
Recent concerns about bullying in schools and the media coverage that this
behaviour has received has prompted action by education authorities at both the
state and national levels. The problem has been acknowledged as real, policies
and guidelines have been developed, schools have enacted anti-bullying plans and
a rich array of resources around how to deal with bullying have been developed
and made readily available to teachers and schools and parents (Department of
Education & Training, 2010; Department of Employment & Workplace Relations,
2010). Anti-bullying initiatives at the school level are very much whole school
based as guided by research findings indicating that this is the most effective way
of reducing and managing the problem.
More and more now teachers are being drawn into working within a whole of
school framework for a variety of pedagogical, curriculum and behaviour matters.

Working in this environment requires a high level of collegiality, as well as
communication and collaboration skills. For many teachers, this is a new way of
working.
A whole school orientation to behaviour management contrasts with the experience
in many schools where there are few if any common or agreed ways of operating
and responding to misbehaviour. In this situation, teachers manage behaviour as
they see fit. While this approach may be seen as recognising the professional
competence and decision-making abilities of teachers and the importance of being
responsive to the unique dynamics and needs of individual class groups (i.e. the
„one size doesn‟t fit all‟ view); it can also result in teachers working in isolation from
one another, a limiting of available support for carrying out the task of behaviour
management and an increase in the likelihood that students will experience an
inconsistent and sometimes conflicting response to behaviour.

Final Comments
Here is a summary of the issues, trends and key points to consider arising from
Chapter 1. Keep these in mind as you work through the other chapters in the book.

1. When considering why students misbehave, it is more useful and
constructive for teachers to focus on those factors over which they have
some control.

2. Understand that prior experiences, particularly of classrooms and teachers,
for better or worse, will have an influence on how pre-service teachers
think about and respond to misbehaviour.

3. In behaviour management, redirecting and correcting unacceptable
behaviour is important, but just as important is the acknowledgement
(praise and reward) of students who exhibit „good‟ behaviour.

4. Pedagogy and behaviour management are not two separate processes.
They work together to maximise student opportunity to learn.

5. The great majority of students are normally well behaved. Teachers need
to recognise this and to keep the „critical mass‟ of students „on side‟ and
cooperating.

6. While some 80% of students are normally well behaved, many of these
students do exhibit low level disruptive behaviour from time to time.
Indeed, most of the low level disruptive behaviour in classrooms (which
constitutes the major management task for teachers) comes from the 80%
group.

7. Low level disruptive behaviour needs to be managed quickly and with as
little disruption to the flow of the lesson as possible.

8. The management of low level disruptive behaviour is the major
management task that teachers face. This type of behaviour occurs
frequently throughout lessons and is exhibited by many students.

9. The management of student behaviour is a major concern for pre-service
teachers, beginning teachers and experienced teachers as well. It will be a
feature of the work of teachers‟ right throughout their career.

10. Approaches to behaviour management have evolved slowly over the past
several decades, from an orientation to control (reliance on teacher
authority), to management (the teacher as manager of the classroom
environment) to more recently one of support (guiding and teaching
students how to behave). All three approaches have their place, but
behaviour management based predominantly on control is often
counterproductive and damaging to teacher-student relationships.

11. There has been a strong movement in recent years to a „whole school‟
approach to behaviour management i.e. everyone in the school community
working together with a common understanding of behaviour expectations
and strategies to ensure that those expectations are met.

12. The management of student behaviour is experienced subjectively and
emotionally by teachers. Teachers need to keep these emotions under
control in order to respond rationally and appropriately to the challenges
that misbehaviour presents.

Behaviour Management Chapter 2

Chapter 2
Classroom
Organisation
& Management

Good classroom management is not an end in itself. It’s important because it
establishes conditions that enable students to learn better and because poor
classroom management creates conditions that interfere with desirable
educational outcomes. A substantial body of evidence on the relationship of
good classroom management to student learning has accumulated over
several decades of research. It demonstrates that good classroom
management consistently predicts desirable student outcomes.
(Evertson & Emmer, 2013)

Research clearly indicates that teachers are the single most important factor
affecting student achievement (Haycock, 1998; Marzano, 2003). Research
also supports the fact that classroom management skills are perhaps the
most important set of teacher skills influencing student learning.
(Jones & Jones, 2013)

Classroom management is an enterprise of creating conditions for student
involvement in curricular events …. The emphasis is on cooperation,
engagement, and motivation, and on students learning to be part of a
dynamic system, rather than on compliance, control and coercion.
(Osher, Bear, Sprague & Doyle, 2010)

Overview
Teachers have a significant management task and challenge in working to gain
and maintain student cooperation and involvement in learning tasks and activities.
An additional management task relates to the organisation of the classroom and
learning environment. Part of this task involves the physical organisation and
appearance of the classroom, but it goes far beyond this to include the
orchestration of teaching and learning activities, the use of resources and
equipment, the daily schedule, routines and procedures and the formulation,
communication and teaching of expectations for behaviour.
None of these responsibilities and tasks can be taken for granted. All need to be in
place and working well for teaching to be effective and for student opportunity to
learn to be maximised. The magnitude and importance of this task really hits home
when a newly qualified teacher contemplates the impending first day of their
teaching career. There is no supporting mentor teacher at hand as was the case in
their student teaching experiences. They are on their own and 25 or more students
need to be productively occupied for a 60 – 90 minute lesson (secondary schools)
or for the entire day (early childhood or primary school settings). One of the first
expectations students will have of their new teacher is that he or she will be able to
establish a well organised, safe and supportive classroom environment. They will
have the expectation that their teacher will be competent and confident in this
regard.
In this chapter you will be guided through how to plan for and to carry out the most
important classroom organisation and management functions. As you can imagine,
many of these functions need to be in place immediately at the beginning of the
school year or certainly within a matter of days. Most educators give considerable
priority to this task in the first two to three weeks of the school year, often referred
to as the establishment phase of teaching. All the while the job of teaching needs
to be carried out. Little wonder that new teachers experience physical and mental
exhaustion, along with periods of exhilaration during this time.

Classroom Physical Environment
How a teacher organises and manages the learning environment, not only effects
student learning, but also student behaviour. Carefully structured and effectively
run classroom learning experiences, are essential if the teacher hopes to achieve
high levels of student on task behaviour and maximum student learning. One of the
first considerations in achieving a well organised and managed classroom is the
physical environment of the classroom.
Thinking about and planning for how your classroom will be organised and
managed should, ideally, not be left to day one of the new school year. There is too
much involved at this time and if you are trying to get this task accomplished from
scratch during the first week of school, you will not be paying enough attention to
other important aspects of the establishment phase of teaching. So, do your
thinking in advance. Do some imaging; imagine how you would like your classroom
to look and to function, then do some serious planning. Establish some basic
guidelines, use a classroom organisation and management checklist of things to
do. Act on these immediately you know what room or rooms you have been

assigned, what furniture and equipment the room contains and the room’s
configuration.
Planning the physical layout of the classroom is a good starting point for getting
organised for teaching. This involves more than just working out where chairs and
table go, or how they are configured. You need to consider other items. For
example, computers, filing cabinets, bookcases, audio-visual equipment and
storage containers etc. How you will use notice boards and wall space needs to be
considered. If you have your own room, you may like to add some personal
touches, such as plants, a television, even an aquarium. The ideal positioning of all
these items needs thought and planning.
Creating a pleasant, good looking classroom environment is important, but the
primary consideration in organising and managing the classroom
environment is how learning and teaching can be facilitated. The goal here is
to have a classroom that functions smoothly and efficiently, so that teaching and
learning can occur, and that time for these processes is maximised.
Much of what is done in organising and managing the classroom is done to
minimise time ‘off task’, including wait time and dead time. ‘Wait time’ occurs when
students are waiting for the teacher to check their work or to provide assistance.
‘Dead time’ occurs when students are not engaged in a learning activity because,
for example, they have completed the assigned task and don’t know what to do
next. Dead time also occurs during transitions between activities or between
lessons, when the lesson is interrupted, as when a visitor comes to the room or
when a non-instructional task needs to be carried out, such as the collection of
lunch or excursion money. Evidence from classroom research tells us that during
these times, wait time and dead time, students often engage in misbehaviour
(McLeod, Fisher & Hoover, 2003).
Room Arrangement Guidelines
Drawing on the work of Evertson & Emmer (2013) and Emmer, Evertson &
Worsham (2000) there are five major considerations when making decisions about
your classroom. These are:
1. Room arrangement should be congruent with and supportive of pedagogical
goals and learning activities.

2. Thus, for example, if you plan on using group work extensively, have desks and
chairs arranged in small groups as your primary layout.

3. Keep high traffic areas free of congestion.

The important thing to think about here is points in the classroom that students
frequently go to and from e.g., to computer stations, to the rubbish bin and to
storage areas containing equipment or materials that often need to be accessed.
High traffic areas should be kept away from each other; they should have plenty of
space and should be easily accessible.

4. Be sure that all students can be easily seen by the teacher at all times and from
any position in the room.

In rooms where there are a variety of work areas, often furniture, such as partitions
and book shelves are used to screen off one area from another making it difficult to
see all students. Clear lines of sight need to be planned for and will involve the
teacher experimenting with line of sight from any position in the room.

5. Keep frequently used teaching materials and student supplies readily
accessible.

Where these items are accessible, far less dead time will occur as students gather
up and then later return those items. The same applies to materials and resources
that the teacher will need for the lesson.

6. Be careful students can easily see instructional presentations and displays.

This is particularly important and often problematic in classrooms where students
might be spread out in work areas all over the room, or where they are in small
groups with some students having their back to the teacher. In these
circumstances it might be necessary to ask students to move closer, or to turn their
chairs around. The younger the students, the more practice will be needed to
achieve these actions quietly and efficiently. As a general rule, where you want the
focus of student attention (eyes and ears) to be on you, you should not begin until
this has happened.

Suggestions for Arranging the Room

Arrange your furniture and equipment so that you can easily observe students from
all areas of the room in which you work. Students should be able to see you as well
as the whiteboard, screen, television, chart etc., which will be the focus of attention.
Very often teachers have to work in less than ideal conditions because of the
limitations imposed by the actual room. You can only do your best in this regard
and give priority to those aspects of floor space usage based on frequency of use.
The following points are drawn from the work of Evertson & Emmer (2013) and
Emmer, Evertson & Worsham (2000) and relate to specifics in respect to room
arrangement and cover the key considerations in planning.

1. Floor space.

The main things to think about and to plan for in relation to floor space are where
you will deliver most of your whole class presentations, the location of computer
stations, the allocation of space around frequently used points in the room, your
desk and finally designated activity areas e.g., the class library or quiet reading
area.

2. Desk arrangement.

Many different arrangements of student desks are possible, but be sure to arrange
them so that all students can, with a minimum of effort, look to where the teacher is
delivering whole group instruction and ideally without having to get out of their
seats. Also, avoid having students sit with their backs to the whole group
instruction area. Try to avoid having students face potential sources of distraction,
such a windows, the doorway, an area where small groups of students will work, or
eye-catching displays. If it is not possible to have all desks configured in this way,

make sure your most distractible students are assigned to the desks where
distractions are at a minimum. Consider having all desks facing you for the start of
the year. Later when you get to know the students and when you have established
good behaviour management you can go to a different arrangement. Finally, try not
to put desks near high traffic areas or points where students frequently go.
Remember to leave ample room around desks for easy access by you.

There are many seating plans that would (1) allow easy access for teachers and
students, (2) maintain line of sight (the teacher’s view of the students), (3) bring the
teacher closer to the students (proximity), and (4) allow the teacher to ‘work the
crowd’ (Jones, 2000). Working the crowd involves the teacher garnering student
attention and engagement in the lesson through eye contact, proximity, movement
and energy. Two seating plans that meet the above criteria are offered by educator
and behaviour management consultant Fred Jones (see Figures 2 and 3). Both
designs contain an ‘interior loop’ – a pathway around which the teacher can move
and access all the students easily. Figure 2 is a loop design for a group
configuration. Figure 3 is a variation on typical straight-row seating. In both cases
the teacher’s desk is moved to the side of the room to allow students to be brought
forward and closer to the teacher.

Figure 3 Interior Loop Seating Plan 2

3. Small group work.
Many classrooms have small group work as part of the teaching-learning
experience. Often students engage in cooperative work within these groups.
Students unfamiliar with this type of learning will need to be gradually introduced to
the process, with lots of supports to get then used to their roles and responsibilities.

As many as five or six groups could be operating at the same time. The groups
should be placed around the room in such a way that the teacher is able to see
them at all times. As you move from group to group checking and offering
assistance you will need to be conscious of positioning yourself to keep all groups
within sight. Where students need to move from their desks into their groups, this
process needs to be carefully managed. Establishing a routine for such movement
with clear directions to follow will help minimise students bumping into one another,
unnecessary noise and wasted time.

4. Small group work.
Many classrooms have small group work as part of the teaching-learning
experience. Often students engage in cooperative work within these groups.
Students unfamiliar with this type of learning will need to be gradually introduced to
the process, with lots of supports to get then used to their roles and responsibilities.

with clear directions to follow will help minimise students bumping into one another,
unnecessary noise and wasted

5. Computer stations.

Many classrooms are now equipped with computers. This technology can greatly
expand the learning opportunities available to students, but it must be managed
carefully. Where you locate computer stations may be limited because of the
positioning of wall sockets and the phone line. For this reason the placement of
computers often comes first in classroom planning. Place computers in an area
away from chalk dust, liquids and magnets. When arranging the room, make sure
that you are able to monitor the entire class from where you stand at the computer
station. You may also need to plan for space to store paper, software, the printer,
ink cartridges, and so on.
Large groups of students around a computer can create a disturbance and
students can get off task easily. Limit the number of students working on the
computer to no more than four. Make sure the students who are using the
computer have a purpose and a time limit. Teach students to save their work so
that they will not become upset if they are not able to finish their projects in the
given timeframe.

6. The teacher’s desk.

The teacher’s desk should be placed where it is functional. If you intend to use your
desk to store instructional materials, it should be adjacent to the whole-class
instructional area. If you spend time working at your desk, make sure it is
positioned so you have a clear view of all the students. Consider traffic patterns
near your desk and be careful of more than one or two students at your desk at any
one time. Anymore and your ability to see the remainder of the class will be
significantly restricted.

7. Furniture, equipment, bookcases and dividers.

Furniture and equipment should be placed where they are functional. There use as
barriers or screens need to be carefully considered. Items that are not used on a
regular basis can be stored away and out of sight. Items used frequently need to
be close to where they will be used. Bookcases often double as a means of
partitioning off specific learning centres. This is fine, but they must not obstruct the
teacher’s view of the students. By now, you should be getting the picture. Your
ability to see all the students at all times in the class takes priority over all other
considerations in the physical layout of the classroom.

8. Centres.

A centre is an area in the classroom where students come to work on a special
activity. Examples of centres at the primary level include a classroom library or
reading area, a computer station, centres devoted to specific subjects such as
science, etc. It is not uncommon to find a free time centre in many classrooms for
young students. This may be set up with comfortable seating such as bean bags
and cushions and used as a reward for achievement or good behaviour. In
classrooms where space is limited, centres may serve a number of functions – a
music centre one day and an art centre on another day. Many centres are set up

with specific equipment. It is important the procedures for the correct use of such
equipment be taught, directions for use displayed, along with reminders to ‘put
away’ and ‘tidy up’ when finished. Centres where activities can involve talk and
some noise should be positioned away from other student work areas.

9. Storage space and supplies.

Frequently used materials need to be readily accessible, but not positioned
immediately near student desks, as there may be a constant flow of traffic to and
from the area which might be distracting to students working nearby.

During the course of the year, large amounts of student work can be collected and
stored in the classroom. Teachers should have a designated storage space or
container for such work and some effort should be expended to keep the items
organised and protected. Student worked dumped or thrown into filing cabinets or
boxes will send the wrong message to students about the importance of such
products.

At some point early in the year teachers will need to decide whether they are going
to have a store of everyday supplies such as paper, exercise books, pens and
pencils, glue, tape, erasers etc. There will always be students who fail to bring
these items or who find at the last moment that they no longer work.

Classrooms are full of both school and personal items. Teachers will need to spend
some time right from the beginning of the year inculcating in students that all
property should be looked after. Many teachers have a specific rule related to
property and how one should respect it.

10. Pets, plants, aquariums and other special items.

These items can add a personal touch to a room as well as providing specific
learning experiences for students. They make the classroom a warm and inviting
place for students. They can be a source of distraction however, and it is advisable
not to add these items until two to three weeks into the school year. During the
establishment phase of the year, usually the first two to three weeks, the focus of
attention should be on establishing rules, procedures and routines, and getting the
students to focus on schoolwork. Unusual items can be added gradually over the
term. As with all other items they need to be placed in a way as not to obstruct
teacher or student vision and where they are not easily visible during teacher
presentations.

11. Student belongings and personal space.

Teachers need to consider how to deal with student belongings. There may be a
storage space outside the classroom for bags and items of clothing, while items
essential for lessons throughout the day can be placed in student desk trays. In
classrooms for younger students a container for lost-and-found items almost
always will be necessary. The primary consideration here is to avoid clutter and to
have essential materials readily available.

Some researchers have found that students consistently list having adequate
personal space and private places in the classroom as a significant concern. The

emphasis on collaborative group work in many contemporary classrooms can
diminish the time have to work quietly and independently in the classroom. This
can become stressful and irritating to some students and may lead to negative
peer-peer interactions. With 25 – 30 students in most classrooms and classrooms
not be very spacious, making allowances for personal space is a challenge.
Teachers should keep in mind at least two things in this regard. The first is to allow
as much space between student desks as possible and secondly to planned for
adequate periods of quiet time and independent work during the lesson or day.

Safety

We conclude this discussion of the physical environment of the classroom with
reference to one final and very important point – that of safety. All teachers have a
duty of care to ensure that they and their students remain safe from accidents and
injuries in the classroom or wherever teaching and learning activities are carried
out. Thoughtful placement of furniture and equipment, clear directions and
procedures for handling potentially dangerous items, and constant surveillance will
minimise the likelihood of accidents and injuries. In some secondary and technical
education classrooms, rigorously enforced safety procedures are a necessity and
teachers will need to focus specifically on these procedures from day one of the
school year.

The Characteristics of Effective Classroom Managers
One of the most significant pieces of research on classroom management was
conducted by Jacob Kounin in the 1970’s (Kounin, 1970). His findings continue to
influence our understanding of how teachers can effectively manage the class as a
group (Hardin, 2012). Kounin video recorded the interaction between teachers and
students in 40 elementary school classrooms. His intention was to analyse the
lessons so that he could identify effective procedures for managing student
behaviour. Interestingly, he was unable to distinguish effective from less effective
classroom managers by the way teachers reacted to student misbehaviour. He
was, however, able to differentiate between good and poor classroom managers by
the way teachers planned and presented their lessons to prevent or to limit
disruptions and misbehaviour. The better managers were able to maintain lesson
momentum, keep students actively engaged in lesson tasks and deal with potential
behaviour problems before they became serious. Kounin’s work was virtually
ignored until the early 1980’s when several large scale classroom management
studies confirmed his earlier findings. Kounin’s work changed the way educator’s
viewed classroom and behaviour management, by transferring the focus of
management from correction (what teachers do when faced with misbehaviour) to
prevention (strategies aimed and limiting the occurrence of misbehaviour).
Kounin identified eight teacher and instructional variables related to effective class
group management. These are: (1) withitness, (2) overlapping, (3) smoothness, (4)
momentum, (5) group alerting, (6) accountability and (7) challenge arousal, and (8)
variety (Kounin, 1970). Each of these variables is discussed below:

Withitness
The ‘withit’ teacher is often the teacher referred to as “having eyes in the back of
the head”. He or she is able to convey to students that he/she knows what’s going
on in the classroom. There is little that happens in the classroom that this teacher
isn’t aware of. When problems arise the teacher acts quickly to correct them. Not
only is the teacher aware of what is going on, but the students also know that the
teacher knows.
Classroom applications of ‘withitness’ include (1) continually being alert to the
multitude of classroom sights and sounds, (2) structuring the physical environment
of the classroom so that all students can be seen at all times, (3) continually
scanning the room, particularly when occupied with assisting individual students or
groups, (4) positioning oneself when assisting individuals or groups so few if any
students are behind you and out of sight, and (5) briefly and unobtrusively
acknowledging misbehaviour when it first occurs to prevent its escalation.
Overlapping
Overlappling refers to the teacher’s ability to monitor and manage more than one
classroom event at the same time. In more modern parlance this would be referred
to as multitasking. An example of this skill would be a teacher who is able to
provide assistance to one student while at the same time directing another student
to return to his seat and continue working. For overlapping to be effective, the
teacher must also be able to demonstrate withitness.
Smoothness
This management practice refers to the teacher’s ability to maintain the flow of the
lesson and to avoid unnecessary disruptions to teaching and learning. It has
particular reference to the teacher remaining mentally and verbally on track i.e.
avoiding digressions and divergences. These, Kounin termed ‘jerkiness’. Using
equally colourful language, Kounin defined four types of jerkiness. These are
Dangle.
The teacher begins a thought and then leaves it without completion. For example:
“Let’s turn now to the exercise on page 57. What I want you to do here now… But
before that let’s correct what you did on exercise 5.”
Flip-Flop.
The teacher terminates an activity, begins another, then returns to the original
activity. For example: “Ok! Look over here at this example … which reminds me. I
want to see your completed homework on your desks now. Look at this example
now … “.

Thrust.

The teacher interrupts classroom momentum with comments or directions that
have the effect of distracting the students. For example: The students are working
independently and silently on a seatwork task. The teacher says “Keep working,
but this is a reminder that I should have your excursion money by now.”

Truncation.

The teacher initiates an activity, interrupts it, but does not return to it. For example:
“Do the first three maths problems and we’ll check how you are going with them.
Have your completed home work on your desk.” After collecting the homework the
teacher directs the students to move into their reading groups. The three maths
problems have not been reviewed.
Smoothness also relates to how the teacher manages the transition from one
activity to another. Valuable instructional time is often lost in the process of
transition, particularly where students need to move from one part of the room to
another. This can be a noisy time and students can take some time to settle. It is
also a time when misbehaviour can and often does occur. Kounin identified that
being able to achieve smooth and efficient transitions is one of the most import
techniques in maintaining student involvement and control. Difficulties can be
avoided by forewarning the students of the impending change, reminding them of
your expectations for how the transition should occur, having a routine for students
to follow and praising students who transition in an orderly and timely manner.
Momentum
Momentum refers to the teacher’s ability to keep the lesson moving. An effective
lesson is one that has a brisk pace and which pulls students along. Maintaining the
flow of the lesson is an important strategy used in gaining and maintaining student
attention and task engagement. Effective classroom managers have few
slowdowns in their lessons. One ‘enemy’ of maintaining momentum is what Kounin
calls ‘overdewelling’. This is where too much time is spent on procedural matters
and setting up activities. For example, the distribution of materials takes too long
and the teacher’s explanation of the task is overly lengthy and detailed.
Group Alerting
This is very much about the teacher’s skill in whole class instruction. It involves the
capacity of the teacher to gain and maintain the attention and interest of all the
students even when individual students are being called on to respond. Central to
group alerting is how teachers distribute response opportunities around the class.
To avoid students tuning out during whole class instruction, opportunities to
respond e.g. how many questions the teacher asks, need to be large and efforts
need to be made to involve as many students in responding as possible. Too often,
only those willing to respond and the very able are the ones who get to participate.
All students need to sense that at any time they may be called on to respond.
Accountability
In the context of school learning accountability refers to the teacher communicating
to students that participation is expected and that they will be observed and
evaluated. This strategy is linked to the teacher’s group alerting activities, but is
most closely associated with getting overt and tangible responses from all
students. For example, asking the class raise hands if they agree or disagree with
a student’s response and then to randomly select students to give a reason for
their choice. A task that would be difficult to check and hold students accountable
for would be “When you have finished the sheet, read the next chapter in your
novel until we are ready to check answers.” The work on the sheet can be check,
but perhaps not the ‘reading on’ task. One way to hold students accountable for

this latter activity is to have them turn to their neighbour to recount what happened
next in the story.
Challenge Arousal
These are techniques used by the teacher to maintain student attention and
interest. Student attention span can be quite short, particularly when working on
repetitive tasks and tasks that have no apparent intrinsic interest for students.
Three types of activities aimed at maintaining attention through challenge are
described below:
1. Challenge.
An activity which is challenging to the class and which provides an incentive to
attend and to try hard, e.g. “This next problem is really tricky. I don’t think anybody
will get this right. Here it is …

2. Race.
Used on practice tasks and tasks that students can do well. Races are stimulating
activities that can be used periodically to help improve the rate of response, e.g.
“Ok! Here are ten problems. See if you can solve them before I do. Go!’

3. Fooler Game.
An activity in which the teacher presents a sequence of answers or responses,
one of which is an error or incorrect. An excellent listening activity, e.g. “See if I can
fool you. Listen carefully. 4 + 3 = 7, 2 + 6 = 8, 4 + 9 = 13, 5 + 4 = 9 …”
Variety
Student engagement can be enhanced by varying classroom tasks and activities.
Where applicable, the daily schedule can be broken up with quiet activities, noisy
activities, seated activities, group or independent work and movement activities.
For older students variety can be achieved through reading activities, discussion,
group work, problem solving, peer tutoring and question and answer sessions.
Students should not be overwhelmed with variations to tasks and the lesson or
daily schedule. A balance needs to be achieved here, with an emphasis on
creating comfortably familiar activities, routines and procedures. These make life
easier for the teacher and give students the security that comes with consistency
and certainty.
The characteristics which distinguish more effective from less effective classroom
managers continued to be the focus of research into the 1980’s with large scale
classroom observation studies conducted by researchers at the Research and
Development Center for Teacher Education in Austin, Texas, and carried out in
both elementary and secondary classrooms (Emmer, Evertson & Anderson, 1980;
Evertson & Emmer, 1982a; Emmer, Sanford, Evertson, Clements, & Martin, 1981).
These studies and many more related to teacher effectiveness research were
summarised and reviewed by Wang, Haertel & Walberg (1993) and later
comprehensively reported in the Handbook of Classroom Management: Research,
Practice, and Contemporary Issues (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). Much of the
advice given in this chapter has been drawn from these sources.
The first set of classroom management studies identified five factors that
distinguished effective classroom managers, particularly in what they did at the
beginning of the school year. These factors are:

Analysis of the First Weeks of School.
Better managers had a more detailed and clearer ‘behavioural map’ of the
classroom in the first two to three weeks of the school. They seemed to know
exactly what they wanted. These teachers had clearer expectations for student
behaviour, quickly and effectively established a system of rules and procedures,
and acted immediately to eliminate inappropriate behaviour when it first occurred.

Rules and Procedures.

As part of the ‘curriculum’ for the first few weeks of school, effective managers
introduced and taught important class rules and procedures. These teachers
explained the rules and procedures, modelled them where possible, monitored
compliance, gave feedback to students, both positive and negative when called for,
and acted when behaviour did not conform to expectations.

Pupil Sensitive.

Better managers were aware of and sensitive to student needs and concerns when
planning for teaching, establishing expectations and defining routines and
procedures. Requirements were reasonable and were explained carefully.
Information overload was avoided.

Monitoring.

Better managers actively monitored pupil behaviour during the first few weeks.
Inappropriate behaviour was never ignored in these teachers’ classrooms.

Importance and Meaningfulness.

Better managers acted in a way which made it clear to the students that their
school work is important and of value to their lives. They conveyed that class time
is a precious resource to be used to maximise student opportunity to learn.

The foregoing information will orient you to how you should be thinking about
classroom management and what you should be aiming to achieve. What follows is
detailed information about the most important considerations for teachers in their
preparation for teaching at the beginning of the school year. The emphasis here is
on establishing the conditions through which appropriate behaviour is more likely to
occur – in other words preventative management.

Planning for Classroom Management
Planning for classroom management should begin before the start of the new
school year. It is at this time that the teacher can reflect on the type of classroom
environment he or she would like to have without the worry of on-going
management and instructional concerns. Planning for classroom management
before the school year begins should involve at least three considerations. These
are (1) clarifying expectations for student behaviour, (2) translating expectations
into rules and procedures, and (3) identifying consequences for inappropriate
behaviour. Each of these processes will be discussed below in sections to follow.

Clarifying Expectations for Student Behaviour

Effective classroom managers have very clear expectations for how they want
students in their classroom to behave. They have thought about these behaviours
and have mentally created a picture of how they would like their classroom to
operate. Their expectations are flexible enough to accommodate variations in the
established rules and procedures as the context of teaching changes e.g. from
whole class to small group teaching. In addition, their expectations cover behaviour
in all facets of teaching and operations of the classroom. For example, effective
managers have mental plans for student behaviour as it relates to the beginning
and end of the school day, movement around the classroom, use of materials and
equipment, talking, seeking help, personal belongings, participation in class
discussions, entering and leaving the room, passing out books and other items,
handing in homework and assignments, etc.

Translating Expectations into Rules and Procedures

As a planning activity before the start of the school year, it is advisable that the
teacher translate expectations for behaviour into concrete rules and procedures.
Rules and procedures should put in writing. This is particularly important in the
case of procedures which cover a wide variety of classroom activities.

The distinction between rules and procedures is important and needs to be
understood. Rules define broad patterns of expected behaviour that cut across all
lessons and all activities during the day, for example, behaving in a way that does
not interfere with the learning of others or that respects the property of others,
including school property. Teachers would have a small set of rules; five to six is
considered the maximum number. Procedures, on the other hand, are defined
expectations for how specific events, activities and tasks are to be carried out.
Typically teachers would have procedures for entering and leaving the classroom,
accessing and using equipment, how to ask for help during seatwork, responding
to teacher questions directed to the whole class, moving around the classroom,
etc. While rules are few in number, teachers can have literally dozens of
procedures.

Rules and procedures will need to be introduced, explained and in many cases
taught to students. Teachers need to think carefully about when and how rules and
procedures are introduced. As a general guideline, rules should be introduced
during the very first lesson of the year. Procedures are best introduced when the
activity or task associated with the procedure is first encountered. For example,
when students are to complete an activity using the classroom computers for the
first time, this is the ideal time to introduce and explain the expectations for the
appropriate use of that resource. Written directions for using the computer can be
pinned to the noticeboard or wall near where the computers are located.

Where possible, teachers should plan to involve the students in the formulation of
rules. This will have the effect of reducing the level of imposition students often feel
about teacher constructed and imposed regulation of behaviour. Additionally,
students are more likely to accept and adhere to rules that they have had some
input into their creation. Student input should not be open slather. The discussion
around rules for behaviour should be guided discussion, carefully managed by the
teacher and where the teacher already has identified areas that need to be

covered. A more comprehensive discussion of how to develop and implement class
rules follows.

Class Rules in Detail

Rules should be and often are based around a discussion of rights and
responsibilities. Students appreciate teachers who recognise that students have
rights, e.g. the right to have some say in their school and classroom experience;
the right to learn and the right to feel safe within the school environment. When
rights are acknowledged it is not too difficult for the teacher to talk about
‘responsibilities’ and to have students agree that they cannot behave in ways that
negatively impact on the rights of others, other students and teachers. This then is
an excellent starting point for a discussion of rules.

Another consideration for teachers is the relationship between their rules and those
of the school. We know that when there is consistency of approach to behaviour at
the school and classroom level, that behaviour management is a lot easier. For this
reason a teacher’s class rules should be congruent with and supportive of the
school rules, and in turn the expectations, policies and goals of the school system.
All of this relates to having a whole school approach to behaviour and behaviour
management, a topic that will be address more fully in Chapter 6.

The major reason for having class rules is the clarification of expectations for
student behaviour. In classrooms where these expectations are not made clear,
right from the beginning, students are exposed to uncertainty and often to
inconsistency in responses from the teacher – this is a recipe for chaos. In addition,
rules help to create a safe and warm environment in the classroom, they help to
ensure that teaching and learning are not hindered, and they help foster an
environment in which individuals are treated with respect and dignity.
Rules are intended to cover the very basic things that govern and guide behaviour
in the classroom. What teachers consider important can vary from classroom to
classroom, but the very basic and recommended areas to be covered are Respect
(how we talk to and behave towards one another), Safety (behaving in a way that
does not expose others to injury or harm), Property (how we look after our own
property and the property of others, including school property), and Learning
(behaving in a way that does not interfere with the learning of others). Rules
around these four basic considerations pretty well capture much of what most
teachers would like to see in their classrooms.

One good way of getting rules established is to focus on a rule that has obvious
benefits for students. The property rule is one that can do this. Most students have
personal items they bring to school and would appreciate a rule that helps protect
their property. You will get about one hundred percent agreement for such a rule. It
is then just a short step to getting students to support an extension of the property
rule to include teacher property and school property. A similar strategy can be used
in the discussion of a safety rule. Start with personal safety and move the
discussion on to the safety of others and behaviour which is safe in the classroom
and around the school. In Table 1 you will find example of rule statements for all
fours areas discussed above. Note the language used. How a rule is stated needs
to be in language that is appropriate to the students’ age and year level. In
addition, concepts such as ‘safety’, ‘respect’, “courteous’ and ‘potential’ may not be
fully understood by some students, particularly young children. These need to be

explained. However, understanding will only come with examples and feedback
when student do and do not follow the rule.

Here are some useful guidelines for developing rules. First and foremost, teachers
should involve students in the formulation of rules where possible. This is
particularly important for older learners, but with the guidance of the teacher,
younger students can make some contribution as well. The more students have an
input into class rules, the more they will commit to following those rules.
Remember, you have already thought about the rules you would like to have or at
least the areas that need to be covered. When you invite students to discuss class
rules, it is a guided (by you) discussion. Also, do not talk about negotiating rules
with students. The implication of ‘negotiation’ is that often each party might need to
‘give ground’ on things that they want to have. Teachers should not find
themselves having to modify or dilute their expectations for student behaviour. The
same warning applies to consequences for rule infringements. There needs to be
much more emphasis on what the teacher expects here as opposed to ‘ideas’ that
students come up with. Again, the nature of consequences is not to be negotiated
and certainly there should be no negotiation about whether or not a consequence
should or should not be applied.

It is recommended that the number of rules be kept manageable, 5 – 6 is normally
sufficient. Anymore and they will lose their impact with students. There are many
other ‘regulations’ teachers will need to have for the business of teaching and
learning to run smoothly e.g. procedures for handling certain items of equipment,
arriving late for class etc. These are very specific and are referred to as
procedures. Teachers have many of these. Rules are more general and relate to
behaviour at any point in time during the lesson or day.

When rules are decided on they should be written up and prominently displayed in
the classroom. Secondary teachers may find it more practical to have these glued
to the inside cover of the students subject folder or exercise book. The teacher
should refer to them from time to time to keep them in the forefront of the student’s
minds. It is also useful to communicate with parents what the rules are in the hope
that these might be applied in the home environment. Most importantly, teachers
should not expect that students will intuitively understand and automatically follow
the rules. They need to be reviewed frequently and ‘taught’. The best way to do
this is to regularly point out and highlight examples of behaviour that is indicative of
students following the rules. As well, teachers should identify behaviour that
infringes rules and if necessary to explain why. In this way, with regular reference
to rule following behaviour and rule infringing behaviour students will fully
understand what is expected of them.

Identify Consequences for Unacceptable Behaviour

Many students will follow the class rules and procedures as a matter of course.
Most students will however, need some incentive to maintain their cooperation. As

Table 1. Example Rule Statements

Area

Rule

Safety

 I will behave in a safe manner at all times.
 Always consider the safety of yourself and
others.
 Show respect for the safety and well-being
of yourself and others.

Respect

 Treat others with courtesy and respect.
 Be courteous and respect other people’s
property, beliefs, ideas and efforts.

Property

 We respect the property of others.
 Look after the property of the school,
yourself and others.
 We ask before we touch other people’s
belongings.

Learning

 Respect the right of all students to learn
and reach their potential.
 Produce your best efforts in learning.
 Always be prepared for the day’s work.

such the teacher should plan to praise and or otherwise acknowledge and reward
appropriate behaviour when it occurs. Likewise, for students who infringe class
rules or who do not follow class procedures, some consequence will need to be
applied to counteract continued violation of regulations. Planning these
consequences in advance adds to the likelihood that they will be logical and
otherwise reasonable ones. Further, planning helps avoid the inconsistent
application of consequences, especially punitive ones, the application of which
provokes considerable resentment from students.

The types of consequences that are available to teachers are limited in number.
They typically include a verbal reprimand, loss of privileges, time out away from
classmates and/or a desirable activity, detention, and demerits or the loss of points
(the accumulation or loss of which over time leads to a more significant penalty).

As most rule infringement in classrooms is of a minor nature, albeit annoyingly
persistent, the use of significantly punitive consequences is not necessary. For mild
offences, what is called low level disruption, the following general strategy is
recommended. More detailed information about how to respond to disruptive
behaviour is provided in Chapter 3.

For cases of mild rule or procedure infringement:

 Direct the student to stop the unacceptable behaviour.
 Check that the student understands the rule or procedure.

 Where called for, ask the student to demonstrate the appropriate
behaviour.
 Monitor the student’s behaviour as follow up.
 When more than one student infringes the rule or procedure, consider re-
teaching the behaviour to the class. This can include having students
model the behaviour.

Management at the Beginning of the School Year
One of the basic tenets of ‘practitioner wisdom’ is that teachers should work
vigorously to establish and control of their class at the beginning of the school year.
It is believed that if this is achieved, discipline will be far less of a problem for the
remainder of the year. Research on classroom management supports this
contention. The task is not an easy one however, as many classes and class
groups come with a history of behaviour developed during earlier years of
schooling and not all of that behaviour is positive. The task is made even more
difficult as teachers need to be focussing on teaching as well as on classroom and
behaviour management.
The classroom management research conducted in the 1970’s and more especially
in the 1980’s and which has been reviewed and documented by Wang, Haertel &
Walberg (1993) and Evertson & Weinstein (2006) provide some solid guidelines for
how teachers should be going about the business of establishing their classroom
and behaviour management during the first 2 – 3 weeks of the school year. What
we know is that effective classroom managers (1) exhibit behaviours that convey
the importance and meaningfulness of class tasks and activities; (2) have
procedures to ‘teach’ students how to behave, and (3) understand and respond to
student needs. Some specific examples of what good managers do in each of
these follows:
Behaviours That Convey the Importance and Meaningfulness of Class Tasks
and Activities.
1. Effective managers require students to complete work within the allocated
time.
2. Reminders were provided as to the time remaining to finish work,
3. Effective managers timetabled regular review periods to check that work
had been completed and understood. Students who were having difficulties
were given assistance at the time,
4. Effective managers frequently and systematically circulated around the
room during seatwork to check the students work,
5. Effective managers required all students in the class to participate. In this
way students had little opportunity to drift off task,
6. Effective managers established procedures for handing in work and
recording results,
7. Effective managers provided rapid systematic feedback on all work
completed by students,
8. Effective managers had more task oriented communications with students
and fewer non-instructional, managerial encounters, and
9. Effective managers did not waste time on procedural matters e.g. making
announcements, collecting lunch orders etc.

The above eight teacher behaviours together convey to the students that the work
they do is important and relevant. They also convey to the students that here is a
teacher who is interested in their performance and who genuinely wants them to
learn. Tasks in the classroom are not perceived by the students as ‘busy work’
designed only to keep them occupied and to fill in time.
For this and the following two sections, what you have to imagine is the impact on
students and the effect on classroom management and student behaviour, of
teachers whose behaviour is the opposite of that listed above. Keep in mind too
that students, even very young students, are keen observers of teacher behaviour
and can easily conclude from what teachers do and say whether the teacher is
capable, is interested in them and wants them to learn.
Procedures that Teach Students How to Behave
A feature of the behaviour of effective classroom managers is that they do not
expect students to behave appropriately simply because they have established
rules for behaviour and procedures for carrying out classroom tasks and activities.
These teachers actively and consistently set about to teach students how to
conform to expectations. Specifically, effective managers:
1. Developed a clear understanding of what was acceptable and what was
not acceptable behaviour in the classroom. They then communicated these
expectations to the students through a set of rules and procedures. Unlike
effective managers, the less effective managers tended to not have
conceptualised how they wish students to behave and they often waited for
problems to occur before they imposed rules and procedures. Good
managers were proactive; less effective managers were reactive,
2. Following the formulation of rules and procedures they carefully monitored
student behaviour to see if they had the necessary understanding of what
was expected and the skills necessary to carry out those expectations.
These teachers did not assume that their students had the knowledge and
understanding necessary to follow instructions,
3. When inappropriate behaviour was exhibited, acted immediately to correct
or re-direct that behaviour. Rules and procedures were restated and
explained and where appropriate, the desired behaviour was modelled or
demonstrated. The students were then asked to perform the expected
behaviour.
4. Provided information to the students about appropriate behaviour through
specific praise and correction. Positive and negative feedback clearly
indicated what it was about the behaviour that was acceptable or
unacceptable.

The above four features of effective management clearly indicate that appropriate
behaviour and rule compliance needs to be taught in the same way that a teacher
would plan and teach an academic task. Less effective managers seemed to view
management as something to be carried out and enforced through their ‘authority’
as teachers. Problems in adherence to rules and procedures are viewed by less
effective managers as breakdowns in students’ willingness to cooperate, not as the
failure of the teacher to teach appropriate behaviour.

Teacher Skills in Understanding and Responding to the Needs of Students
Effective classroom managers are sensitive to the needs of students. They are
able to put themselves in the position of the students so they can judge the
reasonableness of the learning and behaviour demands teachers make on the
class. They are also aware of the student needs for information and direction and
are conscious of impediments to maintaining attention to lesson tasks. Behaviours,
procedures and techniques that convey the teacher’s sensitivity and awareness
include the following:
1. The teacher arranges the students desks so that they are able to easily
face that part of the room where instruction is most often delivered,
2. The teacher uses a variety of ‘tricks’ to gain and maintain student attention.
These may include changes in voice modulation, lesson pace and
movement,
3. The teacher scheduled activities at the beginning of the day and after
recess that allowed the students to ease into the work. Such activities
captured the students’ interest, focussed attention on the lesson task, and
evoked a minimum of anxiety.
4. Transitions between activities within a lesson and between lessons were
clearly preceded with warnings about the change-over, not thrust upon the
students without warning or without due consideration of the students’
focus and where they were up to in the current learning task.
5. The teacher had techniques for interrupting activities (when this was
warranted) and then restarting them without undue disruption to the
momentum of the lesson.
6. The teacher spaced directions for two or more activities so that the
students would not be overloaded or confused with information all
presented simultaneously.
7. When the focus of attention needed to be on the teacher, the teacher
required that unnecessary and possibly distracting, books and equipment
be removed from the desk or placed out of the way.
8. The teacher scheduled seatwork in a number of short segments
interspersed with correction and feedback. Long and potentially boring
periods of seatwork were avoided.

Gaining and Maintaining Student Attention
It has often been stated that teachers who do not gain and maintain the attention of
students are wasting their time teaching. This point is clearly illustrated by an
example from the teaching of hearing impaired students. Profoundly deaf students
are almost totally dependent on visual cues (sign, finger spelling, speech reading,
etc) to pick up information. Experienced teachers of the deaf will cease teaching
when they lose the eye contact of their students. They know that without that
without eye contact all their efforts at communication will amount to so much
useless verbalisation and gesticulation. This example may be an extreme one, but
it is equally true of teachers of students who do not have a disability. Even the best
efforts of teachers in these circumstances are wasted when the minds and senses
of students are elsewhere but on the teacher and the learning task.
Student attention is considered to be the basic prerequisite for effective teaching
and learning. Students who are not attending to the teacher or the task are unlikely

to learn or to learn in an efficient manner. While inattentive students might be
learning something, they will certainly not be learning what has been planned by
the teacher.
Gaining and maintaining one hundred percent attention is realistically, not always
possible. With between twenty and thirty student in a class, at any point in time the
attention of some students will wane. However, teachers should strive for, under
normal circumstances, the attention of ninety percent of the students at any given
time.
Measuring Attention
Obtaining an accurate and valid measure of student attention is not an easy task.
Most studies of classroom interaction have used student ‘on task’ behaviour as an
indication of the level of attention and also of student engagement. Here a
judgement is made as to whether a student is engaged in an activity which has
been assigned by the teacher and/or which is relevant to the lesson task or
objective. Thus, students who are watching the teacher during a teacher
demonstration are considered to be on task or attending. Students who happen to
be looking away at the time the measure was taken would be rated as ‘off task’ or
non-attending.
This type of observable measure of student attention is possibly quite valid when
employed with very young children, but is suspect when employed with older
primary, secondary and adult learners. For older students, covert activity (what the
student is thinking about) is a more accurate indicator of attention and
engagement. While a student may appear to be attending to the teacher or task, he
or she may very well be thinking about something unrelated to the task and to
school work in general. Brophy and Evertson (1976) found that even students as
young as seven or eight years were able to ‘fake’ attention. Clearly, teachers need
to engage both the minds and bodies of their learners to ensure attention and
genuine task engagement.
Gaining Attention
Securing attention is not as difficult as some think; it involves the systematic and
consistent use of a chain of strategies, none of which are beyond the capacity of
most teachers. The following series of steps to gain student attention during
instruction are based on sound principles of behaviour and reinforcement. Many
teachers may argue that they use these or similar strategies, often without
success. They are probably guilty of the ‘sometimes yes, sometimes no’ approach
to their application. This, like giving undue attention to unacceptable behaviour,
often has the opposite effect to the one desired, i.e. it strengthens tardiness in
attending. The teacher who wishes to gain student attention must be consistent in
their approach to this goal. The following sequence of steps is what teachers
should be aiming to be proficient in:
Step 1.
Use a simple, relevant cue e.g. “Look”, “Listen”, ‘Watch’, consistently when calling
for attention.

Step 2.
State what it is that will happen when students attend e.g. “Watch the board and I’ll
show you how to do it”, “Listen carefully and you’ll hear …”

Step 3.
Pause after stating the cue word and the contingency (what will happen if you
attend), and wait for the students to attend.
Step 4.
Use a hand signal e.g. hand up, to hold the attention of the students momentarily
while surveying the class with your eyes to assess attending behaviour.
Step 5.
Praise children who are attending. Note, teachers typically attend to the students
who are not paying attention and doing so often reinforces negative behaviour.
Always state why the praise is being given (specific praise) e.g. “Good by Mark,
you were the first to watch me,” “Linda, Sue and Jason are looking this way, well
done.”
Step 6.
Do not direct your attention immediately to students who are not attending. Bring
them around by praising the attending behaviour of a student near the non-
attenders (adjacent peer reinforcement).
Step 7.
Repeat the cue e.g. “Look this way” then immediately present the task that
students were called on to observe. The task, whatever it might be, is the payoff
(reinforcer) for attending.
Step 8.
Ensure that what it is you want the students to pay attention to is worthwhile and
rewarding.
Maintaining Attention
There are several techniques and strategies that a teacher can use to keep
students on task throughout a lesson. These are:
1. Involve all students in the lesson. In the main, this means keeping a high
rate of teacher questions and student responses going. Opportunities to
response should be distributed across all students. No student should
feel that they can disengage from the task or activity. All students should
sense that at any time they may be called on.

2. The teacher should vary his or her voice. Such variations represent a
novelty, a change from the usual and resultant interest and attention.

3. Teacher proximity and touch are important factors in maintaining student
attention. Touch is a feasible option in the very early years of care and
education as practitioners and teachers in these sectors invariably need
to come into physical contact with the children as a normal part of their
work. In the primary and secondary physical contact with students as a
management procedure and particularly as a behaviour management
procedure is almost always not appropriate, nor is it recommended. In
very rare instances, physical restraint may be necessary. The appropriate
use of such a procedure is discussed in Chapter 4. Within the classroom
they can be used to regain a student’s attention and to reinforce a
student for appropriate behaviour. An effective substitute for coming into
contact with students is to touch the student’s desk or book.

4. Always place yourself in a position where you can see all students at all
times. Students who know that their behaviour is visible to the teacher will
be less likely to wander of tasks and/or to misbehave. “Line of sight’
should be a major consideration in how teachers design, organise and
use classroom space i.e. the physical environment of the classroom.

5. Move to that part of the room where restlessness is evident or where it is
clear some students are wandering off task.

6. Use a variety of interesting and challenging activities to ‘break up’ the
lesson and to prevent boredom. Activities such as change ups, fooler
games, races and challenges are particularly useful, but almost any
appropriate variation of activity or task will be effective.

7. Where possible vary the stimuli or medium of communication used in the
classroom. Don’t rely only on oral communication to carry instruction.

8. Maintain eye contact with the class at all times. Monitor, in particular,
students who have a habit of drifting off task.

9. Periodically, require the active physical involvement of students.
Intersperse long periods of listening with activities where the students are
doing something e.g. working at a computer, completing a worksheet,
preparing a chart, checking spelling words with a partner, discussing a
topic with peers in a small group, etc.

10. Show enthusiasm for teaching and the subject being taught. Enthusiasm
is infectious. A teacher who is a model of energy and interest will have
fewer difficulties in motivating students to engage in learning tasks.

11. Use humour periodically to attract attention and to maintain a relaxed and
friendly relationship with students.

Maintaining an Effective Management System
A set of excellent and practical guidelines for implementing and maintaining a
classroom management system has been developed by Evertson & Emmer
(1982b). Their guidelines were derived from earlier classroom management and

teacher effectiveness research identified earlier in this chapter and centre around
(1) monitoring student behaviour, (2) managing inappropriate behaviour, (3)
establishing student accountability and (4) teacher clarity in directions and
instructions. These researchers have produced two books that bring together all of
their findings and recommendations. These are Classroom Management for
Elementary Teachers (Evertson & Emmer, 2013) and Classroom Management for
Middle & High School Teachers (Emmer & Evertson, 2012).
Monitoring Student Behaviour
Monitoring as defined by Evertson & Emmer (1982b) refers to both watching and
attending to student behaviour in the classroom and keeping track of student
progress in learning tasks and activities. Their research, updated and reported in
Emmer & Evertson (2012) identified a number of monitoring behaviours identified
with effective management. These are:
1. At the beginning of the school year concentrate on student behaviours
related to following directions and procedures, and completing work. The
effective manager sets up a system of procedures and expectations
(including rules for behaviour), communicates these to the students and
actively checks that they are followed.

2. Monitor the performance of students as they complete their class and
homework assignments. When there are indications of lack of
understanding (high error rate or failure to complete work) re-teach or re-
explain the task.

3. Frequently review written work and assignments. Check for confusion,
copying from other students, early completion but poor quality work and
slow progress. These outcomes may indicate a lack of understanding of
the task and the need for re-teaching.

4. Continually look for attending behaviours. Are the students, for example,
watching you and the whiteboard as you explain a maths problem, and
are their eyes on the book in front of them during oral reading turns, etc.

5. Maintain eye contact with the class at all times.

6. Position yourself so that you can see all the students at all times.

7. Scan the room frequently. Pay particular attention to students at the sides
and back of the room and in learning centres that might be obscured by
partitions of one kind or another.

8. During seatwork and guided practice activities move around the room
checking the students work.

9. Limit contact time with individual students or small groups. Move quickly
from student to student or group to group to ensure that all students in
the class are supported and alert to your surveillance. Move in, help out
and be gone (Jones, 2000).

10. Keep your lines of sight open. Avoid students milling around you and
blocking your vision.

11. After setting students to work on a seatwork assignment, watch the
students for a while to ensure that they all get started. Only then should
you begin individual or some other activity.

12. Check work regularly.

13. Maintain records of students’ performance and progress.

14. Observe and investigate misbehaviour. Note when it occurs and who is
normally involved, etc. Use this data to guide selection of prevention
strategies and your response to the behaviour.
Managing Misbehaviour – General Guidelines
In responding to unacceptable behaviour in the classroom Evertson and Emmer
(1982b) provide the following guidelines for teachers:
1. In general, unacceptable behaviour should not be ignored. Such
behaviour will only increase in frequency and intensity when it is allowed
to continue. The teacher must respond quickly and decisively to such
behaviour.

2. Work avoidance and the failure of students to complete assigned work
can lead to major management problems when students are allowed to
get away with it. The longer the problem goes unchecked the more the
students will devalue classwork and homework and the more they will
resist the teacher’s efforts to achieve task completion.

3. Intervene early when problems arise. Insist upon appropriate behaviour
and follow through on your expectations. Early intervention reinforces in
the minds of students that the teacher is serious about the system of
rules and procedures that have been established for the class, and that
he or she will act to establish and maintain that system.

4. When unacceptable behaviour does occur the teacher should avoid over-
reaction and emotionality. Such responses put great strain on teacher-
student relations and generally create a very uncomfortable and
unpleasant classroom environment. Remember, misbehaving students a
generally few in number at any one time. The great majority of well-
behaved students should not be subjected, albeit as the audience, to
unpleasant teacher-student exchanges.
Despite the best planned lessons and the most well thought out classroom
management system, problems will still occur and the teacher must be prepared to
respond to them. Most classroom management problems are mild in nature and
can be dealt with quite effectively without recourse shouting, threats and punishing
consequences. What follows is a basic plan for responding to misbehaviour of a
mildly disruptive nature:

1. Politely but firmly request that the inappropriate behaviour cease.
Continue to observe the student or students involved until the behaviour
does cease and the offenders are back on task.

2. State or remind the student of the rule or correct procedure. Alternatively
ask the student to state the rule that has been infringed or the procedure
that was not followed.

3. Impose a consequence for rule or procedure violation. In the first instance
and where appropriate, this might involve having the student
demonstrate the correct behaviour e.g. where a student slams his or her
desk lid, the student can be required to lift the lid up again and then close
it quietly – “Carla, that was very loud. Show me how you can do that
quietly.”

4. Where a student knows the rule or procedure but deliberately chooses
not to follow it, the consequence should be more punitive, e.g. “Leonard,
you know our rule about interfering with the learning of others. Come out
of your group now and work on your own over here.”

5. There will be many other students who will be behaving. Make a special
effort to acknowledge their good behaviour. Aim to be making these
positive comments more often than comments about negative behaviour.

6. If necessary, change the activity. Misbehaviour can be a result of
prolonged involvement in one task or difficulty in completing a task.
Unfortunately, teachers are often reluctant to do this and doggedly persist
with a task or activity they know is not working out well.
While in general it is recommended that teachers act immediately unacceptable
behaviour occurs, there are times when such action is unnecessary and may
disrupt the flow of the lesson. There are five situations where an immediate
intervention is not necessary or not advised. These are:
1. When the problem is unlikely to last for any length of time,
2. When the problem is not serious or when there is no danger to other
students,
3. When teacher intervention or attention to the problem would disrupt the
lesson task or activity,
4. When the student or students involved are normally well behaved and the
students are likely to quickly return to more appropriate behaviour, and
5. When the problem involves just one or two students.
When minor infringements of rules and procedures are ignored for the sake
maintaining lesson momentum, the teacher should note the infringement and
carefully monitor future activities to ensure that the behaviour does not continue or
escalate.
Establishing Student Accountability
A major factor in the successful maintenance of a successful management system
is the teacher’s ability to foster a sense of accountability in the students. In this
situation accountability refers to the students’ acceptance of responsibility for

actively participating in class activities and completing work to the best of their
ability. Research on effective classroom management has found that accountability
can be encouraged by (1) presenting clear directions for lesson tasks and
activities, (2) monitoring student work (scanning, circulating and checking), (3)
correcting work frequently, (4) providing feedback, and (5) having students
maintain a record of their marks and progress.
Teacher Clarity in Directions and Instructions
Students are more likely to engage in class tasks and activities when those tasks
and activities are clear and understandable to them. An investment of time and
energy in the explanation of class work will pay off handsomely in terms of student
cooperation and work completion. Under these circumstances management and
behaviour problems are less likely to occur.
Clarity is aided by the teacher (1) knowing well what is to be taught and how it is to
be presented, (2) communicating information in a way that is understood, and (3)
using clear, precise oral expression. It is further recommended that teachers
should:
1. Anticipate likely problems with assigned tasks and make a particular point
of explaining the tasks in a way that would help students overcome these
problems,
2. Check student understanding periodically so that errors or frustrations do
not creep into the students work, and
3. Practice good oral communication e.g. using a lesson or task summary
on the whiteboard to help avoid digressions in presentations.
All of the above recommendations are linked very much to efforts by the teacher to
understand learning tasks from the student’s perspective. In this way unrealistic
expectations and other problems are more likely to be avoided. Students will know
what to do and how to go about it and will be more like to cooperate in completing
the task.
Managing Noise Levels in the Classroom
While the noise levels in classrooms isn’t always an indication of a class that is out
of control, there are occasions related to particular classroom activities were
excessive noise is a problem. Indeed, in a survey of teachers in the UK, sixty
percent of teachers reported that noise was a major classroom management
problem. At the other end of the scale teachers should not expect total silence in
the classroom. Contemporary classrooms can be busy places where cooperative
group work and student-student interaction are the norm. These activities will
require a level of noise.
The question is what is an appropriate level of noise for all the many and varied
learning activities that take place in classrooms? Another way of framing this
question with particular reference to the classroom and to learning is to ask what is
productive and what is non-productive noise? In the end, it is the teacher who will
determine what is and is not an appropriate level of noise. However, to provide
guidance to students so that they learn how to control how loud they speak,
teachers often associate different activities with various noise levels. One such
level system (Alexander, 2013) is outlined below.

Level 1. Silence
No talk at all. Best illustrated when students are completing a test or when a
student is giving a presentation. Also applicable when the teacher is using direct
instruction, providing explanations or giving directions.
Level 2. Whisper
The voice a student would use when involved in an activity where silence is
expected, but where necessary talk is allowed e.g., as when a student turns to a
student next to him to seek clarification about the lesson task.
Level 3. Partner voice
Students are allowed to talk quietly to their ‘neighbour’ at half the volume of normal
conversation.
Level 4. Table voice
Table voice is the loudest level of classroom noise that is sanctioned and is most
often found when students are working collaboratively in groups.
An alternative system for identifying appropriate noise levels is to use distances as
the measure. For example, a one metre voice used in one-on-one conversations or
working in pairs and a three metre distance when working in groups. Some teacher
find it useful to define noise levels in non-classroom settings such as the
playground or in a crowd cheering on a team at a sports carnival. The level of noise
would be labelled as appropriate for these contexts but not appropriate for the
classroom.
There really is no definitive answer to the question of appropriate noise levels or to
how best to manage noise in the classroom. The subject has attracted very little
research. What we do have are guidelines and advice derived from the practical
experiences of teachers including ‘expert’ teachers. Their value lies in that they
make sense and in many ways support or align with how other classroom
processes e.g., teaching procedures, are understood. A summary of advice about
how to manage classroom noise follows:
1. As with class rules, teachers need to think about and develop a set of
expectations that apply to the many different activities students are
involved in during the lesson or day.

2. Talk with students about noise in the classroom during the establishment
phase. Where appropriate, involve students in a discussion around
expectations just as you would have a discussion about class rules.
Students have a vested interest in classroom noise levels as they relate
to classroom climate, opportunity to learn and to stress levels. Because
of this interest, it will be possible to enlist the support of students in
monitoring noise and reporting when they exceed expected levels.

3. Think about what might be appropriate consequences for repeated or
serious noise offences. Where possible, these should be logical
consequences and should relate to the class rule about learning and how
student behaviour should not interfere with the learning of others. As with
any type of unacceptable behaviour and where a consequence is

expected to be applied, teachers should follow through and apply the
consequence.

4. Keep in mind that interesting lesson tasks and activities and engaging
pedagogy will invariably result in students adhering to noise level
expectations.

5. Don’t expect that students will fully understand the noise levels that apply
to different activities e.g., teacher directed instruction and small group
cooperative learning. Understanding what are appropriate noise levels for
different activities and settings, is a significant discrimination task and will
require good teaching and time for learning. Expectations will need to be
explained and modelled. Students will need to have feedback on whether
or not they are meeting expectations.

6. Praise or otherwise acknowledge students who meet the expectations.
Link the teaching of noise levels to the teaching of procedures and the
development of routines. Often procedures have noise expectations
associated with them. Teach these together. The more familiar students
are with various procedures, the greater the likelihood that they will
become routine – behaviour that students exhibit that is automatic i.e.,
behaviour that needs little or no prompting by the teacher.

7. Don’t try to ‘talk over’ noise. Get the attention of the students before you
begin to teach. Use the attention gaining strategy outlined earlier in this
chapter. Use novel devices to gain attention e.g., tapping a glass, playing
music, turning the lights on and off, clapping your hands etc. An excellent
strategy is the ‘Count Down’. This is where to gain attention and/or to
bring the noise level down, the teacher raises his or her arm and counts
down slowly e.g., ten, nine, eight … etc. By the time the teacher reaches
one, the students are expected to be quiet and attending. The number
you start the count down from can vary depending on the age of the
students, how much time is reasonable for the class to settle and even
how quickly the teacher wants the students to respond.

8. Controlling noise in the classroom can begin outside the classroom, in
the hallway and at the classroom door. Students can be unsettled and
noisy at this time. If they go into the classroom without being settled and
quietened, they will continue that way for some time in your lesson. It is a
feature of many classrooms in the UK that the teacher stands at the door
to settle and greet the students. The students enter in single file past the
teacher. This procedure not only helps settle the students but it also
conveys that this is your room and you manage what goes on in it.

9. Be sensitive to student needs, particularly after recess when their bodies
and minds have been highly active. Allow ‘cooling off’ time. They have
been using their loud outside voices and will need a little time and a
reminder to switch to classroom and learning voices.

10. For early childhood education and primary classes a visual indicator of
noise levels can be helpful. Typical of these is a chart in the shape of a
semi-circle. There are various segments along the semi-circle indicating

the expected noise level for different class activities e.g. whole class
discussion, talk in small groups, quiet talk to share ideas, partner talk,
own work , but can help a partner and quiet individual work. A movable
arrow on a pin is used to indicate the expected noise level. An alternative
device depicts via different colours various noise levels right through to
shouting and screaming. An indicator can be used to identify the current
noise level which students can compare with the expected noise level
explained at the beginning of the activity.

Wait Time, Dead Time and Non-Instructional Time
In many classrooms, particularly primary classrooms, as much as 40 – 50 percent
of class time can be consumed by procedural activities e.g. making
announcements, marking the roll, setting up equipment, distributing materials etc.
(Fields, ___). In addition, during the lesson and between lessons, students can
spend a considerable amount of time waiting for the learning task or activity to get
underway, or waiting for teacher assistance or correction. At other times students
may simply be in ‘dead time’ as when the teacher is called away from the room or
when students have completed their work and have nothing to do. Teachers should
be aiming to reduce such non-instructional time to as little as possible. Teachers
who are efficient in this regard are conveying to students the importance of school
work and teaching and learning time.
While it is not possible to have one hundred percent of lesson time devoted to
teaching and learning, teachers should minimise the amount of wait time, dead
time and non-instructional time in their lessons. There are two main reasons for
doing this. First, more instructional time means more opportunity to learn, and
secondly, student misbehaviour occurs most often during periods of wait time,
dead time and non-instructional time.
Wait time and dead time is more evident during seatwork when students are
waiting to access materials or equipment, waiting for teacher assistance, or waiting
(dead time) because they have finished their work and have no direction as to what
to do next. Time wasting can be avoided under these circumstances by having a
procedure for students to continue working e.g. on a new task while waiting for the
teacher to come to them, and by making available ‘buffer’ activities for the student
to complete. These are learning tasks, often of a fun variety, that students can
select from while waiting for the next lesson segment to begin.
Of particular importance are transitions between activities with lessons and
between lessons. These are times when the normally tight and routine procedures
of the day give way to a less structured period of time. Students need these breaks
from the demands of learning, sometimes referred to as ‘down time’, but as with
other forms of unproductive time, there is a greater likelihood of increased noise,
clowning around and other forms of disruptive behaviour occurring at this time. It is
essential from a classroom and behaviour management point of view that these
transitions are achieved as quickly and as smoothly as possible. Routines for
starting and finishing activities are very helpful as is careful planning on the part of
the teacher who needs to know what are the potential problems or delays e.g.
distributing or collecting materials, so that actions can be taken to minimise
transition time.

Managing Transitions
Transitions in the classroom are defined as the interval between any two activities
(Evertson & Emmer, 2013), for example, between a whole class teacher
explanation and group work. Transitions also occur at the beginning and end of
lessons as students get ready for a different lesson or go to and from recess. In
primary classrooms students are involved in approximately 30 major transitions
each day, amounting to nearly 15 percent of available class time (Rosenshine,
1980). Behaviour problems can and often do occur at this time if the interval is
unduly long and/or if the students are unsure about what to do.
Effective management of transitions is aided by the teacher establishing a
procedure for the transition and then teaching that procedure via explanation and
modelling. When regularly and consistently applied, this procedure will become a
routine – behaviour that is understood and automatic.
The effective management of transitions involves both time and behaviour
management. The following advice, drawn from Evertson & Emmer, 2013) is
designed to assist teachers to achieve the most efficient outcome for this important
feature of the teaching-learning process:
1. Teach, as a procedure, regularly occurring transitions. Work to establish these
events as routines that require a reduced level of management.

2. Develop and post a daily schedule so students are aware of what activities will
take place and when they will occur.

3. Have all necessary resources and materials ready for the new activity.

4. Minimise the number of transitions in any one lesson.

5. Forewarn students of an impending change of activity so that they can
prepare for it e.g., quickly finish their current activity and get ready for the
next.

6. Use a signal and/or timing device to identify when an activity is finished and to
pace student’s transition to the new activity.

7. Bring the class to attention before any change or movement. Deliver
instructions for the new activity. Be clear and specific about what the students
are to do.

8. Communicate expectations for how transitions should occur and model
appropriate transition behaviour.

9. Check the students understand what to do before releasing them to the new
activity. Ask a student to repeat back to you what it is that they have been
asked to do.

10. Give a transition signal that communicates the need to be quick e.g. “Go!”

11. In the early stages students may need practice in transitioning. Give feedback
on their performance.

12. Younger students often respond well to game-like activities as part of the
transition. For example, a ‘beat the buzzer’ game. Here a kitchen timer or
similar device is activated to sound a buzzer noise at a predetermine interval,
at which time the students are expected to be in their places and ready to start
work. Having students put their hands on their head when seated and ready is
a variation on the buzzer game.

13. Actively monitor the transition. Acknowledge students who are doing the right
thing and quickly re-direct students who are not e.g. too noisy, not moving
quickly enough etc.

14. Consider assigning task to students as an aid to more efficient transitions.
Students can be put on a roster system for being ‘leaders’ during transitions
and for other classroom activities. Generally students like to have these ‘jobs’
or ‘responsibilities’. Jobs can include collecting and distributing materials,
‘group leader’ responsible for getting all students in his/her group together and
ready to start etc.

Managing Seatwork
Seatwork refers to classroom tasks and activities where students are working
independently and without the direct guidance or supervision of the teacher. In
general, seatwork is completed at the student’s assigned desk or work station.
Classroom observation studies throughout the 1970’s and 1980’s revealed that
seatwork was a major learning activity in both primary and secondary classrooms
and could occupy as much as fifty percent or more of class type. These studies
found that direct teacher instruction ranged between 10 – 30 percent of classroom
time. Reviewers of classroom observation research have commented that students
are interacting more today with texts, computers and other instructional material
than they were with the teacher. To this, one might add that students are also
interacting more with their peers as small group work, particularly cooperative
group work, increases in popularity as a pedagogical practice.
The observational studies referred to above also looked closely the level of
academic engaged time associated with various teaching practices, including
seatwork. Academic engaged time (also known as ‘academic learning time’ and
‘active learning time’) is the amount of time a student is on-task and engaged in
learning activity. A study by Rosenshine (1978) found that when students worked
independently engaged time reached about 60 – 70 percent of allocated time (the
actual time available for the activity).This compared with about 85 percent when
students were working directly with the teacher. As there is a strong relationship
between academic engaged time and learning, the importance of effectively
managing periods of seatwork became obvious. What follows are a series of
guidelines and strategies for the smooth management of seatwork. The
recommendations have been derived from teacher effectiveness research
conducted over several decades and also research by Helmke, & Schrader (1988).
They are grouped under five heading, namely (1) time allocation for seatwork, (2)
seatwork tasks, (3) structuring and presenting seatwork tasks, (4) monitoring
seatwork, and (5) managing seatwork. Additional ideas for the management of
seatwork can be found in Rock & Thead (2009).

Time Allocation for Seatwork

The time allocated to various instructional activities will vary depending on the age
and ability of the students. The following advice provides some parameters for
teachers in this regard:

1. The total amount of time for seatwork should not normally exceed fifty
percent of class time.

While there is no research specifically supporting the reduction of seatwork
time, the data indicating lower engagement rates during seatwork as
compared with teacher directed activities, suggests that independent
seatwork should not, as a general practice, be the dominant classroom
activity.

2. No single, uninterrupted segment of seatwork activity should be longer than
fifteen minutes in duration.

While the total time for seatwork in the lesson may exceed fifteen minutes,
students should not be expected to work continuously and independently
with little or no teacher monitoring and feedback for fifteen minutes at a time.

Seatwork Tasks
1. Independent seatwork assignments should involve work on previously
introduced, taught and to some extent practiced tasks.

The purpose of seatwork is to provide further opportunity for practice leading
to proficiency on that task or topic. During this time the student should have
access to teacher assistance if needed. This is typically provided as the
teacher circulates around the room. Seatwork assignments should not
normally involve difficult or totally unfamiliar tasks. Where this is not the case
high error rates and frustration can occur and may lead to off task and
disruptive behaviour.

2. Seatwork assignments should be structured in a way and should involve
tasks that will result in high success rates.

Generally, tasks should be of an easy to medium level of difficulty providing
just sufficient challenge to the students while keeping errors to a minimum.

3. Students should be asked to make an observable and/or recordable
response during the seatwork period for which they will be held accountable.
Response requirements should be very clear and the teacher needs to have
some observable evidence of task completion “Do the five problems written
on the board, “Complete all the exercises on the worksheet,” “Listen to the
recording first and then write down the five points made by the speaker.”
Vague and ambiguous directions such as “Practice your number facts’ or go
on to the next section in your Maths book” can lead to misinterpretation,

confusion, disagreement and disruption. If you direct a student to practice
her maths fact flash cards at her desk, there is not response that you can
examine later and there is no way to ensure that the child has actually
performed the desired response. However, you could direct the student to
practise the number facts at her desk and then using a work sheet without
reference to the answers, write down the answers. In this case, the teacher
has accomplished three things. These are (1) definite response boundaries
in the task demanded, (2) added a response that can be examined later, and
(3) created student accountability by demand a specific response that can
be verified.
Structuring and Presenting Seatwork Activities
1. Explanation of seatwork assignments should be clear and precise.

Whether the directions for completing the seatwork task are given orally or
are written as on a student worksheet, they must clearly describe what it is
that the student needs to do. A useful procedure for ensuring
understanding of the task is for the teacher to demonstrate completion of
one or two examples of the task on the board or to work the first couple of
examples on the worksheet with the entire class.

2. Students should be given clear and reasonable time limits for completing
the work.

The teacher should make clear when the task is to be completed or how
much time is given to complete the task. To reinforce this condition the
teacher should occasionally remind the students of the time, e.g. “You
have five minutes left to complete the activity.” A clock should be available
and visible so that the students can monitor the time for themselves and
can know how much time they have remaining.

3. The teacher’s expectations for how students should behave during
seatwork should be made clear before the activity begins.

Such expectations can relate to movement around the room, talking to
other students, what to do when waiting for help from the teacher or when
the work is finished etc. It is not expected that teachers spend several
minutes outlining and elaborating on behaviour requirements for every
seatwork period. Expectations can be quickly explained and for many
subsequent seatwork sessions a brief reminder would be sufficient.

4. The teacher should let the students know that their work will be checked.

This procedure is often referred to as ‘alerting’. Essentially the procedure
provides an incentive for the students to not only complete their work in the
allotted time but to ensure its correctness. Having indicated to the class
that work will be checked the teacher must follow through on this advice.

5. Provide ‘back up’ or ‘buffer’ activities for children who finish their work
before other children in the class or group.

What to do with students who finish their work early is one of the major
managerial concerns of a teacher during seatwork. Many of the behavioural
problems that occur during seatwork to students having ‘nothing to do’ either
because they are waiting for teacher assistance or because they have
finished their work. While the planning for and production of additional or
supplementary activities may represent an additional burden for teachers,
the reduction in disruptions resulting from having those activities available
during seatwork will be well worth the effort.

6. Managerial problems during seatwork are reduced and confusion and errors
minimised when only one type of response is demanded of students during
seatwork.

Problems are more likely to occur in situations where a variety of tasks and
type of responses is required e.g. where a maths worksheet requires the
completing of addition and subtraction questions, a few story problems and a
skip counting exercise. Only where each of these tasks has been previously
taught to proficiency and where discrimination of tasks is also being
assessed would this worksheet be appropriate.

Most teachers aim to provide a variety of activities in seatwork assignments
in the belief that such activities will capture and hold the students attention
and interest. While for many students this may work, the good that is done is
often offset by the confusion aroused in the minds of some students as to
what each task demands. Questions such as “What do I do now?” are more
frequent in situations where seatwork assignments have a great deal of
variety. Also, it is not an uncommon experience to find some struggling
learners complete the first set of problems (e.g. addition) and then continue
on adding when the next task actually calls for subtraction.

If a variety of response types is an objective for the lesson, the different
tasks could be included on separate worksheets. Where discrimination
learning is the objective, as when the teacher wants the class to be able to
discriminate addition and subtraction operations, a concurrent presentation
is needed. In this instance problems will not occur if the students have been
well prepared for that type of activity, as in the teacher completing an
analogous exercise on the board before getting the students to work on their
own.

7. Use standard formats that students easily recognise.

Presenting tasks on the board or on worksheets in a way that the students
come to recognise them immediately reduces the need for lengthy oral or
written directions. The student can tell from the appearance of the exercise
what type of response is required. This does not mean that the teacher uses
just one or a few formats. It means that a format should be used until it
becomes familiar to the students. Once this point is reached, another format
can be introduced. With this kind of gradual introduction, a number of
presentations formats can be used in teaching without causing the students
to become confused.

Monitoring Seatwork

1. The teacher should regularly and systematically circulate around the room.

The purpose of this procedure is twofold, (1) to make one’s presence felt so
that the students will stay on task, and (2) to check the students work and to
provide corrective feedback if necessary.

2. Check all Seatwork.

It is imperative that the teacher engender a sense of accountability in
students in respect of seatwork. The teacher who systematically checks the
work of students during seatwork is conveying to the students that the work
is important and that the teacher wants them to learn. The teacher who fails
to regularly and systematically check seatwork will have difficulty in
convincing students that seatwork is important and that it is not just ‘busy
work’ designed to fill in time.

Management of Seatwork

1. Keep interruptions to a minimum.

Learning during seatwork is maximised when interruptions to student work
are minimised. Three types of teacher interruptions are evident in seatwork.
These are (1) clarifications of directions and expectations e.g. as in a re-
statement of the seatwork of the seatwork task, (2) managerial directions
(most frequently a call for one or more students to get on with their work, and
(3) public feedback on or corrections of student work i.e. the correction of a
student ‘aloud’ so that all students can hear. All of these teacher behaviours
are rational responses to what is seen as a particular need at the time.
Teachers re-state directions when they find students doing the wrong thing
or not knowing what to do. Teachers discipline students aloud to get those
students to ‘behave’ and as a warning to other students. Teachers make
public corrections to correct errors and as a preventive measure to cut short
other students making the same error. While rational and logical responses
to real and perceived needs, other consequences of those behaviours are
overlooked. The principal problem is the disturbance of students who know
what is expected and want to get on with the task of completing the activity.
Frequent interruptions break the concentration of students and draw them
away from completing the assigned task.

There are alternatives to the teacher actions described above. If the
seatwork task was explained clearly in the first instance, there would be little
need to repeat the requirements again and again to individual students (and
indirectly to the whole class). If further explanation is needed, it should be
done privately and quietly on an individual basis. Likewise disciplinary
actions should be specific to the student or students involved and should be
done quietly so as not to attract the attention of other students. Finally,
corrections should likewise not be made public. Correct the student who has
been having difficulties ad do so at the student’s desk. If the error is serious
and there are indications that other students may also be making the same
error, the teacher should call the entire class to attention, terminate the

seatwork activity and go over the task again. Once it is clear that the
problem has been remediated, the whole class can return to the seatwork
activity.
2. Position yourself so that you can see all the students at all times.

Teachers who demonstrate withitness remain continually aware of what is
going on in all parts of the classroom, and they communicate this awareness
to students. They remain aware by relying on a combination of good habits,
such as situating themselves in the room so that they can monitor all of the
students, scanning the classroom frequently to keep track of what is going
on, even when working with individuals and groups, and intervening when
necessary to prevent minor inattention and off task behaviour from
escalating to major disruption.

3. Avoid prolonged contact with individual students and groups.

The recommendation here is for the teacher to avoid working with one
student or group for an extended period of time. While such activities are
undertaken to assist students who are having difficulty with their work, they
reduce the teacher’s ability to monitor the other students in the class. In such
circumstances, many students with questions will have them unanswered,
wait time will be extensive, and off task behaviour will go unnoticed.

4. Keep contact with students during seatwork brief.

If the seatwork task is appropriate and if the students have been prepared
well for the task, the need for lengthy explanations and corrections with
individual students will be reduced. Minor misunderstandings and errors can
be remediated quickly and with little fuss. Fredric Jones refers to this advice
in the following way – “Move in, help out and move on” (Jones, 2000). More
lengthy contacts with students should be confined to the one or two students
who are in most need of individual assistance. Even in this situation, the
teacher needs to efficient in the delivery of support.

5. Move to that part of the room where off task behaviour and minor
disturbances are evident.

6. Teacher proximity has long been recognised as an important factor in
classroom management. It is a key component of the teacher’s ability to
“work the crowd” i.e. to maintain the focus of the whole class (Jones, 2000).
Problems are less likely to occur or to continue in the immediate presence of
the teacher (Kounin, 1970). In moving around the room and moving to an
area of potential disturbance however, it is important for the teacher not to
do or to say anything that might exacerbate the problem or draw the
attention of other students away from their work.

7. Minimise ‘wait time’.

A considerable amount of off task behaviour and a large number of
behaviour problems during seatwork are directly related to students who are
waiting, waiting for materials or for teacher assistance. Teachers should be

conscious of how much time students are left waiting and should plan to
avoid or to minimise this situation. Buffer activities can be used to occupy
those students who finish early. The seatwork task can then be corrected
with the entire class participating. This is, in most situations, the most
efficient procedure for supervising and correcting seatwork.

One procedure which is generally inefficient and fraught with all kinds of
potential managerial problems is where the students come to the teacher to
have their questions answered or work checked. In these situations the
teacher is quickly ‘surrounded’ by students or confronted with a long line of
waiting students. In these circumstances the teacher is often too
preoccupied and indeed unable to see what the remaining students in the
class are doing. The students standing around are in unproductive wait time.

Conclusion
Teachers have many roles in their day to day work in the classroom and in the
broader curriculum and operations of the school. One of their most important and
demanding roles is that of classroom management. Classroom management not
only involves the orchestration of learning tasks and activities but also the
management of the twenty-five or so students in the class – where they sit, what
they do during lessons, their access to materials and equipment and their
movement around the room. The whole operation needs to run smoothly so the
business of teaching and learning can proceed in the most efficient and productive
manner. So, while the primary role of the teacher is learning leadership and
management, the ‘nuts and bolts’ activity of classroom organisation and
management is also very important. In addition, as we have seen form the
information presented in this chapter that classroom management and behaviour
management are closely related. The two operate together to maximise learning
behaviour.

Behaviour Management Chapter 3

Chapter 3
Managing
Low Level Disruptive
Behaviour

Regardless of how effectively a teacher creates a community of
support or how skilfully instruction matches the
academic skill levels and interests of learner,
there will always be times when students act in
ways that disrupt the learning environment.
(Jones, 2011)
The single most important factor in determining the learning
environment is teacher behaviour. Intentionally or
unintentionally, teachers’ verbal and nonverbal
behaviours influence student behaviours.
(Levin & Nolan, 2010)
Behaviour management is an array of interventions created to help
teachers influence the behaviour of children and
teach them to behave in positive and safe ways.
These interventions are designed not merely to
alleviate teacher anxieties of losing control but to
help these professionals and the children they
love create social atmospheres of cooperation,
contexts in which children and adults can learn
together, play together, and build quality
relationships.
(Danforth & Boyle, 2000)

Overview
It‟s time now to look more directly at students whose behaviour disrupts the
teaching-learning process. Our focus in this chapter will be on what is called low
level disruptive behaviour. This is behaviour which is mild in nature, but which still
can interfere with student learning and the capacity of teachers to teach.
Behaviours typical of low level disruption include: unnecessary talk or noise,
inconsistent engagement in lesson tasks, not listening to or following directions,
slow to get started or failing to fully complete tasks in the allotted time, etc. These
behaviours may not seem very significant or serious. Individually they are not, but
the challenge comes when it is realised that low level disruptive behaviour occurs
frequently throughout the lesson or day in many classrooms and is exhibited by
many students, even normally well behaved students. It is a sobering thought that
teachers who are unable to effectively manage low level disruptive behaviour, are
unlikely to be successful in managing more serious and more challenging student
behaviours. Strategies for the management of low level disruptive behaviour are in
a sense the building blocks or foundations for effective and positive behaviour
management and support.
Teachers can reduce the burden of managing children‟s behaviour in classrooms
through good pedagogy, relevant and engaging learning tasks and activities, and
due attention to establishing and maintaining positive teacher-student relations.
However, even with the best intentions and best efforts of teachers, there will
always be some students who misbehave, often for reasons outside of the
teacher‟s control. Teachers need to accept that they have an on-going behaviour
management task and that they will need to acquire a repertoire of strategies to
redirect students back to more appropriate behaviour. We refer to this process as
corrective management. While it is fair to say that teachers need to invest time and
energy into preventing inappropriate behaviour in the classroom, it is unrealistic to
assume that good teaching and preventative strategies will eliminate all
misbehaviour. At best, preventative actions can minimize or reduce the occurrence
of behaviour problems.
The chapter begins by looking at what low level disruptive is, and the importance of
managing it in the least intrusive and least confrontational way. Two levels of
behaviour management skills and strategies are then introduced. The first – The
Essential Skills for Classroom Management covers ten basic management skills
that provide pre-service and early career teachers with a framework for
encouraging good behaviour and strategies for re-directing and correcting
unacceptable behaviour. The Essential Skills are not, however, sufficient to sustain
effective behaviour management; so these are supplemented with an additional 31
strategies from what is called the Hierarchy of Basic Corrective Management.
Finally, a number of guidelines for the deployment of corrective management and
the application of consequences are introduced to assist teachers in making
appropriate decisions when responding to student behaviour.

Before We Begin
A word about the terminology used in this chapter and the thinking that underlies
the terms used. Reference has been made above to management and to
correction. These words conjure up in the mind of many educators a view of the
education process that it is very much teacher centred, controlling and even
coercive. Critics might also suggest that a corrective orientation to student
behaviour centres the „problem‟ of student misbehaviour within the student and as
such inhibits consideration of other important social and educational factors which
might also be contributing to inappropriate and unacceptable behaviour. These are
certainly valid concerns and particularly where behaviour management is viewed
as synonymous with teacher control.
The current thinking about behaviour management is that it is a process of
promoting and facilitating acceptable (pro-social) behaviour and that correction
involves the redirection of unacceptable behaviour to more appropriate behaviour,
not the punishment of that behaviour. In addition, the behaviour management
process is ideally structured in a way to maximize student opportunity to manage
their own behaviour and to learn to make good decisions about how they will
behave. Part of this learning process is the application of appropriate and where
possible – logical consequences for unacceptable behaviour. Such consequences
are intended to be educative rather than punitive in nature and are aimed at
teaching students about their behaviour and its impact on them and others. This is
the orientation of this book and is a constant theme throughout. The term
„management‟ continues to be used despite the reservations of some, because it is
a valid descriptor of what teachers do. Teachers manage the teaching-learning
process with the goal of facilitating student learning. They also have the
responsibility of managing student behaviour with the ultimate goal of facilitating
behaviour which allows teachers to teach and students to learn.
Reference has been made earlier in this book to the concept of positive behaviour
support. This also is a contemporary perspective on student behaviour and
behaviour management which has been adopted in this reference. The use of the
term „positive‟ turns traditional behaviour management thinking on its head.
Traditional behaviour management has focused almost entirely on unacceptable
behaviour and how to correct it. In positive behaviour support the emphasis is on
appropriate behaviour and how to encourage more of it. Of course, both correction
and support are needed. The shift in thinking that has occurred recently relates
very much to the balance between the two. Correction will be needed but there
also needs to be recognition of and reward for positive behavior.
The term support in the context of behaviour management relates to actions taken
by the teacher to help students behave in a more positive manner. For example, a
teacher who calls on a student to stop running in the classroom and follows up with
a reminder about the class rule on safety, is actively supporting that student to
come to a better understanding about the reason for and importance of having
boundaries for behaviour and the consequences which might follow for engaging in
certain behaviours. The student then is afforded the opportunity to think about their
actions and to make an informed decision about their subsequent behaviour.
As you can see from the above commentary, the task of managing student
behavior is much more than acquiring a collection of strategies that one can apply
when faced with unacceptable and disruptive behavior. Teachers need strategies,

but they also need a conceptual framework for the appropriate use of those
strategies and one that takes into account how contemporary education is
expected to unfold in the school and classroom. In this and subsequent chapters in
this book we will develop such a framework, a framework that is intended to guide
teacher thinking and decision making.
Defining Low Level Disruption
The „Smart Schools, Smart Behaviour‟ report commissioned by the Queensland
government to look at behavior and behavior management in Queensland state
schools, noted that the great majority of school children are generally well behaved
and, despite media reports to the contrary, research on behaviour problems in
schools also confirms this view (Ministerial Advisory Committee for Educational
Renewal [MACER], 2005). Some 80 – 90% of students fall into this category and
many would be considered largely self-managing. Most misbehaviour exhibited by
these students is of a minor nature and class teachers would be expected to have
the knowledge and skills necessary to deal with it effectively without the need for
school level support or intervention. Having said this, minor misbehaviour is not
without its challenges. The difficulty for teachers is that this type of behaviour
occurs frequently and is exhibited by many students. The behaviour is
manageable, but teachers find that the task is constant; that it needs to be done
simultaneously with teaching and that it can result in teachers feeling frustrated,
irritated and physically and mentally drained by the end of the day.
There are a large number of behaviours that could be classified as minor in nature.
The list is too large to include here and students seem to be inventing new ones
every day. Several examples are identified here to give you a basis for what would
be considered low level disruptive behaviour:
 Inappropriate talk
 Restless or fidgety
 Not listening
 Slow to get started, dawdling
 Playing with pens, pencils and other items equipment
 Inattentive
 Poor concentration
 Daydreaming
 Calling out answers
 Lounging on chairs and equipment
 Rocking back on chair
 Interrupting/distracting other students
 Asking questions to deliberately interrupt and/or annoy the teacher
 Not bringing/having essential materials/equipment for the lesson
 Late for class
 Calling out across the room
 Uncontrolled giggling
 Using the feet to play with or annoy other students
 Out of seat
 Passing notes
 Impolite in addressing the teacher
 Inappropriate noises e.g. singing, drumming, whistling
 Eating in class

 Using a mobile phone
 Name calling
 Not following directions
 Throwing objects around the room
 Drawing on materials or on self
 Inappropriate gestures
 Failure to complete class work/homework
 Ridiculing other students responses/put downs
 Repeated negative comments about the lesson task/activity
 Showing off/clowning around
 Interrupting the answers of other students
 Inappropriate use of uniform e.g. adjusting, modifying

It needs to be kept in mind that all behaviour can, if taken too far, become more
serious and more difficult to deal with. For example, a student throwing a ruler
across the room could, in one instance, be an inappropriate way of passing an item
to another student (low level disruption). Or, it could be a dangerous form of
aggressive behaviour intended to cause harm (serious misbehaviour). Who
determines whether behaviour is minor or serious? The teacher of course, the
teacher is in the best position to do this, having the greatest understanding of the
students involved and the context i.e. the events preceding and surrounding the
occurrence of the behaviour. This is just one of the many types of decisions
teachers need to make when teaching and when managing the behaviour of
students.

Intrusion and Confrontation

Low level disruptive behaviour makes up about 90% of all misbehaviour in the
classroom. It is exhibited by many students, not just chronic misbehavers. In
managing this type of behaviour teachers will need an extensive range of
strategies to be able to appropriately address the many and varied forms of low
level disruption that students engage in. Most of all, teachers will need a
mechanism to help them choose a management response that doesn‟t interrupt the
flow of the lesson (least intrusive strategies) and which does not result in
unpleasant or emotionally charged exchanges with the offending student(s) (least
confrontational strategy). Let‟s explore these important guiding principles a little
further.

The teacher‟s primary task is to teach, and while behaviour management runs
along side of this activity, it is important that the management of student behaviour
is carried out in a way that does not interfere with teaching and does not interrupt
the „flow‟ of the lesson. This won‟t always be possible, especially with repeated
forms of minor misbehaviour. However, it will be a continuing goal to have as few
disruptions to the teaching-learning process as conditions allow, even when it is
necessary for the teacher to act on misbehaviour. To achieve this goal, teachers
need to employ management strategies that are the least intrusive of the lesson
flow, and to only use intrusive strategies, those that result in an interruption to the
lesson, when absolutely necessary. Keep in mind that minor forms of misbehaviour
occur frequently throughout the lesson and day, so, costly interruptions to teaching

and learning will result if the teacher is not skilled in the use of least intrusive
strategies.
Teacher-student confrontation occurs when teachers need to directly and
assertively confront students who are misbehaving. By their nature, behaviour
management strategies that are „high‟ in confrontation are also highly intrusive.
There will be occasions when teachers will need to stop the lesson and to speak to
a student about his or her behaviour and teachers should not shy away from this
responsibility, when it is necessary. However, for most minor forms of
misbehaviour the goal will be management and redirection of behaviour with little
or no confrontation – certainly not forms of confrontation that have high levels of
emotional arousal both for the teacher and the student.
The degree of confrontation used in managing student behaviour is also important
because it is linked to the social-emotional climate of the classroom. Emotionally
charged exchanges between a teacher and a student can send a „ripple effect‟ of
discomfort around the classroom. This uncomfortable feeling is felt by all students,
including the great majority of students who are not misbehaving.
Confrontation in behaviour management exchanges occurs when the teacher stops
the lesson, issues desists i.e. directions to „stop‟, gives explicit repeated directions,
issues warnings and makes demands, shouts and argues, expresses personal
offence at the student‟s behaviour, verbally blocks the child from talking back and
applies punitive consequences. As you can imagine, such exchanges can be
physically and emotionally exhausting for the teacher.
While understandable, many of the above teacher reactions are not appropriate
and not recommended when responding to student misbehavior. When teachers
need to directly intervene when a student misbehaves, this needs to be done
assertively, but also calmly and respectfully.

The Essentials Skills for Classroom Management

The Queensland Government‟s report on behaviour in state schools (MACER,
2005) identified that exciting curriculum and good teaching alone were not the
answer to behaviour problems in classrooms. The understanding was that teachers
needed specific behaviour management skills in order to better manage behaviour
so that teaching and learning could proceed. The Queensland Government
accepted one of the report‟s recommendations that all teachers should be provided
with opportunities for professional development in the area of behaviour
management. Within a relatively short time Education Queensland had produced
an in-service training program called the „Essential Skills for Classroom
Management‟. The program was based on the work of Christine Richmond, an
Australian behaviour management consultant (Richmond, 1996). In 2009 all
Queensland state school teachers in their second or third year of service
completed program which was offered as a two-day workshop.

Richmond defined the „minimum‟ behaviour management skills that teachers
needed to be effective classroom behaviour managers. These involved the least
amount of „intrusion‟ (i.e. interruption) to the lesson so that teaching and learning
could continue. Ten micro skills were identified around three core elements: (1)
setting clear expectations for behaviour, (2) the acknowledgement of appropriate
behaviour, and (3) the correction of inappropriate behaviour (Richmond, 2002).

As a further basis to the essential skills Richmond highlighted the importance of
teacher-student verbal interactions. Two broad forms of interaction were defined –
„managing conversations‟ and „learning conversations‟. Managing conversations
are all the interactions associated with re-directing and correcting student
misbehaviour. Learning conversations are all those interactions and activities
associated with teaching and learning. How much time teachers spend on each
type of interaction is critical. In classrooms where managing conversations take up
a large part of lesson time, teaching is less enjoyable and student opportunities to
learn are dramatically reduced. Clearly, the goal for teachers is to manage
behaviour quickly and effectively so that there is minimal interference to teaching
and learning.
Richmond also defines what is called „The Balance Model‟. The image of a balance
beam is used to depict the model. At the centre or fulcrum of the balance beam are
the expectations for behavior defined for the class. At one end of the beam are the
teacher‟s acknowledgement strategies (i.e. strategies for the recognition and
reward of appropriate behaviour). At the other end of the beam are the teacher‟s
strategies for re-directing and correcting unacceptable behaviour. The ideal is for
there to be a balance between acknowledgement and correction. In many
classrooms, the opposite occurs; with teachers focusing on the correction of
behaviour and devoting very little attention to praising and other wise rewarding
appropriate behaviour. At the individual student level the balance disparity is even
greater, with some students – behaviour problem students being in receipt of mostly
correction and very little acknowledgement, even when they are on task and
behaving. While there is an argument for having a balance between
acknowledgement and correction, later on in Chapter 6 there is a strong case put
for the value of acknowledgement to far outweigh correction.
What follows is a brief description of the ten micro skills that make up the Essential
Skills for Classroom Management. For a more detailed coverage you are referred
to the following resource:

Essential Skills for Classroom Management
http://hendrass.eq.edu.au/wcms/images/documents/Behaviour/escmcorelearning.p
df

Classroom Management Micro Skills

Skills Linked to the Language of Expectations

1. Establishing Expectations

Clearly define the boundaries for behaviour in the classroom – what is and is not
acceptable behaviour. Guidelines for establishing expectations include:

1. Involve the students, where possible in the formulation of the class
rules.
2. Display the rules where they will be visible to students at all times.
3. Keep the rules short, simple and phrased in observable terms.
4. Make the rules positive, emphasising the behaviour expected rather
than the behaviour that is not wanted.
5. Refer to the rules frequently.

http://hendrass.eq.edu.au/wcms/images/documents/Behaviour/escmcorelearning

6. Be a model of adherence to the rules.

Pre-service teachers undertaking their Professional Experiences will have little if
any opportunity to establish rules for their class(s). These would have been
developed by their mentor teachers and it would be expected that pre-service
teachers would follow and apply these. In lessons however, pre-service teachers
would have the opportunity to quickly explain their expectations for behaviour with
each new task or activity they introduce. So, for example, when students are to
move into groupwork, expectations for behaviour during groupwork can be
emphasized. This should not take any more than 15 -20 seconds to do.

2. Giving Instructions
Clear, short instructions help students understand what you expect them to
do. Useful advice when giving instructions includes:

 Where possible, start with a verb e.g. “Watch the board carefully and I‟ll
show you how to do it.” Keep instructions short. Avoid stringing several
instructions together at the same time. Where several instructions need to
be given, space these with a pause to allow each to be heard and
understood.

 After giving an instruction, stop and scan the class to check that the
students are complying with the direction.

 Give instructions only for the most important information you want to get
across.

 Punctuate an instruction with „‟thanks” rather than “please”. Thanks,
carries the message that you expect the instruction will be followed. Please
conveys a lack of strength in your need for the instruction to be followed.

 Use „Now!‟ if the group or student hasn‟t complied with the direction.

 Give the instruction in a firm, calm and measured voice e.g. “Move to your
group areas now”, “Stop what you are doing and look here”, “Walk down
the stairs thanks”.

3. Waiting and Scanning
Waiting and scanning the class after giving an instruction allows you to monitor
compliance. It gives students a reasonable amount of time to process the
instruction and to carry it out. It helps avoid you talking too much which can
inadvertently train the class to stop listening to your voice. Things to consider when
using this strategy:

 While waiting and scanning „manage‟ the class through body language.
Stand still in a central position facing the students with assertive facial and
body language.

 Identify and acknowledge students who have complied with the instruction.
Teachers typically do the opposite i.e. identifying and admonishing the
students who do not or who are slow to comply. Remember the Balance
Model.

 If you need to respond to non-complying students, do so quickly, firmly, but
calmly e.g. “In your seat now Jason”.

4. Cueing with Parallel Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement of students who are doing the right thing as a prompt (cue) to
others who are yet to comply. This strategy is sometimes referred to a as „Adjacent
Peer Reinforcement‟. The strategy also acts as a more positive correction in
comparison of directly targeting the non-complying student(s) with a re-direction or
reprimand. In using this strategy:

 Choose to acknowledge a student in close proximity to the non-complying
student.

 Praise the complying student specifying the behaviour that is being
praised. Do this in a loud enough voice so that the nearby non-complying
student will hear.

 If the non-complying student then follows the instruction, provide a brief
acknowledgement of this.

 This strategy is most effective with younger students, but can be used
periodically with upper primary and secondary students in some situations.
Teachers are encouraged to experiment with its use.

Skills Linked to the Language of Acknowledgement

5. Body Language Encouraging
Between 70 to 90 percent of communication is influenced by nonverbal
communication, and is referred to as body language. The great advantage of body
language is that it is relatively easy and quick to use, and is generally unobtrusive.
Things to consider when employing body language encourage are:

 Moving in close to a student (proximity) who is off task or misbehaving is a
powerful means of conveying to the student that he or she needs to get
back to work.

 Smile and make eye-contact with students. These are powerful, positive
signals that help students feel welcome and noticed.

 Make discrete head nodding movements and finger signals that you are
pleased with how a student is working and/or behaving.

 Avoid the following:

– standing too close to a student. This can be intimidating and can cue
hostility.
– holding eye contact, as it can become a „stare-down‟ challenge.
– using overly assertive body language that conveys that you are
waiting for compliance. Instead, give your direction, walk away, gibe
„take up‟ time, get on with teaching and scan back to check
compliance.
– showing irritation through foot tapping, pointed or exaggerated
frowning, or pursing lips. If something is irritating and this needs to
be expressed, say so and repeat the direction or behaviour you want
to see.

6. Descriptive Encouraging

Various ways teachers encourage positive behaviour and recognise students when
they exhibit positive behaviour. Most often this involves the use of verbal praise.
Descriptive encouraging provides useful feedback to students on their
performance, it reinforces class rules, it strengthens the teacher-student
relationship and it reinforces appropriate behaviour i.e. it increases the likelihood
that the behaviour will be exhibited again under similar circumstances.

When using descriptive encouraging:

 Describe exactly the behaviour you want to see. For example:

“Steven has started work”.
“This group is on task”.
“Melissa is doing what you were asked to do”.
“Most students have moved to the right place”.

 Deliver in a genuine fashion.

 Some students will prefer to be praised or encouraged privately.

 Group encouragers and group praise is appropriate on occasions, but
always be looking to target individual students.

 Use praise frequently.

– It will be easy to praise some students because they do their work
well and are cooperative. Make a special effort to find things to
praise when the student is not a good performer and often
misbehaves.

– General praise statements and words such as good, great, well
done traffic etc., have limited long-term benefit. Most of the time,
specify what it is that was praiseworthy.

Skills Linked to the Language of Correction

7. Selective Attending

Selective attending, sometimes referred to as planned or tactical ignoring is where
the teacher notices a student misbehaving but decides not there and then to
respond to it.
8. Re-directing to Learning

A re-direction to learning is a verbal or non-verbal prompt to a student who is off
task or not behaving as expected. In many respects it is a mild form of correction
aimed at getting a student back on task with the least amount of confrontation and
intrusion on the lesson. Re-directions are not intended to be threats or punishers,
they are delivered positively, firmly, calmly and with a minimum of language. Body
language plays a big part in re-directions.
Here are some suggestions for re-directing behaviour:
 Use proximity (move close to the student), a gesture (direction using a
hand signal) or facial expression (e.g. a frown).
 Interrupt the unacceptable behaviour with a question e.g. “Shane, what
question are you up to?” “Shane, are you working on the writing task now?‟
 Make an offer of assistance e.g. “Shane, do you need some help getting
started?” This acts as a direction if Shane knows what to do but is slow to
get started. If Shane doesn‟t know what to do, help can then be provided.
Both act to interrupt the off task behaviour.
 Where a student continues to misbehave or to be off task. Re-direct again,
perhaps with a different and slightly strategy e.g. a specific direct to return
to the task. Continued misbehavior would result in the teacher giving the
student a choice (see next strategy).

9. Giving a Choice
Every effort to re-direct behaviour should be made before using this strategy. Here,
the student is typically given two choices, (1) comply with the teacher‟s direction, or
(2) a less desirable consequence such as being moved out of his or her group to
work on their own or to complete the work after the lesson and during recess. The
choices might be expressed in the following way: “Patrick, this task needs to be
completed today. You have a choice now. Return to your seat and get on with your
work, or complete the task during recess.” As with all re-directions and corrections,
the choices need to be delivered firmly, calmly and not in threatening manner.
The „You have a Choice‟ strategy is used when re-direction has not been
successful, when the behaviour becomes more disturbing to the class or when the
student becomes strongly oppositional, defiant or hostile.
While, in many respects this is a „last resort‟ strategy, it does have several
advantages. Firstly, it strongly conveys to the student and to the class that you are
serious about your behaviour expectations. Secondly, it allows the student some
opportunity to take responsibility for their own behaviour. Students need to have
these opportunities if they are to become more self-disciplined. Of course, students
often make the wrong choices, but this too is a learning experience.

10. Follow Through
Teachers are notoriously inconsistent in following through on the directions and
choices that give to students. For example, a teacher places a student on detention
for misbehaviour during the lesson. For much of the remainder of the lesson the
student is on task and behaving. The teacher lets the student off the detention. Not
following through diminishes the effectiveness of re-direction and correction efforts
and undermines efforts to establish and maintain expectations for behaviour.

Following through has advantages. It (1) clearly establishes that you mean what
you say, (2) it models assertive behaviour in face of a threat, and (3) it models
morally courageous behaviour. Pre-service and early career teachers often
struggle with the implementation of this strategy. It does require directly confronting
the offending student, it takes considerable confidence to „hold firm‟ in the face of
protests and even threats form the student, and it can be embarrassing as the
implementation of the strategy is invariably done in full view of the other students in
the class. It is understandable that teachers will feel nervous and anxious about
following through on a consequence. As with many aspects of behaviour
management, such feelings should not become visible to students. You must look
and act confident and in control, even when your emotions are telling you
something different.

While the ten micro skills are a good basis for thinking about and enacting
behaviour management in the classroom, additional skills and guidelines are
necessary to adequately meet all the behaviour challenges that teachers face in
their day to day work with students. It is essential that teachers develop a large
repertoire of corrective management strategies and procedures. Teachers with few
options for managing misbehaviour will too quickly go from a mild re-direction to a
stronger, more intrusive and more confrontational response, often resulting in a
premature and inappropriate exclusion of the student from the classroom (office
referral). In the remaining sections of this chapter additional strategies for the re-
direction and correction of misbehaviour will be discussed. They will be situated
within what can be described as a hierarchy of corrective management strategies,
a hierarchy based levels of intrusion and confrontation. Some of the strategies
identified in the „Essential Skills for Classroom Management‟ program will be re-
visited here so that you can see their place within the hierarchy. The list of
strategies is not a definitive one. You are encouraged seek out and to add to the
repertoire through readings, professional development opportunities and by talking
to and modeling the good practices of mentor teachers.

Strategies Low in Intrusion and Confrontation
We turn our attention now to coverage of additional strategies for correcting and
redirecting low level disruptive behaviour. The ten micro skills introduced above
should be considered by pre-service teachers as the basic framework for their
approach to behaviour management in the early stages of their teacher education
program. With each additional student teaching placement (Professional
Experience) preservice teachers should be capable of using many if not most of
the additional strategies identified here. Nineteen strategies are described here
and in the section immediately following a further thirteen strategies that involve
greater levels of intrusion and confrontation will be covered. The strategies are

based on a hierarchical sequence of corrective management strategies developed
by Levin & Nolan (2010) and which have been expanded in other teacher
professional development resources including Education Queensland‟s Better
Behaviour Better Learning Online Course (Department of Education, Training &
Employment, 2013). Levin and Nolan (2010) employ the dimensions of intrusion
and confrontation to order their strategies from the least to the most intrusive and
from the least to the most confrontational. This format has been adopted for the
sequencing of the thirteen strategies described below.
Planned or Tactical Ignoring
This is the least intrusive and least confronting strategy. Essentially the teacher is
aware of the misbehaviour but chooses to do nothing about it i.e. to ignore it. The
behaviour is monitored but the teacher does not intervene to stop it. You would
choose to use this strategy for the following reasons: (1) the behaviour is minor in
nature, (2) the behaviour is not interfering with your teaching or the learning of
other students, (3) the student or students involved are normally well behaved and
will, in due course, return to more appropriate behaviour. There is another very
practical reason why planned or tactical ignoring might be employed and this is the
presence of another behaviour problem which is more serious and which requires
an immediate response.
Most teachers are aware of the piece of practitioner wisdom that warns teachers of
the dangers of ignoring misbehaviour. The rationale being that if ignored, the
behaviour might continue, escalate and/or draw in other students who might be
encouraged to also misbehave. As with all practitioner wisdom there is an element
of sound advice in this warning. However, the judicious use of ignoring can reduce
the behaviour management burden on teachers and can help lesson pace and
flow. Further, such a strategy provides students with the opportunity to take
responsibility for their own behaviour. Students need these opportunities if they are
to ultimately become self-managing and self-disciplined.
Non-verbal Message or Signal Interference
Here the teacher uses non-verbal communication such as gestures, hand signals
and other forms of body „language‟ to signal that the behaviour is not acceptable
e.g. a finger to the lips to signal „no talking‟ or „quiet‟; a shake of the head, a frown
or a stern stare. Into this category of strategy would fall the „pregnant‟ pause. This
is where the teacher simply stops talking, looks in the direction of the offending
student and waits until the student has stopped the inappropriate behaviour. This is
a non-verbal strategy, but obviously it is more intrusive of the lesson flow and more
personally confronting for the student. A similarly intrusive non-verbal strategy
would be for the teacher to clap. This is used most often when a number of children
are involved or when the whole class needs a reminder e.g. to reduce the noise
level or to pay attention and listen.
Proximity
Proximity involves moving to that part of the room where the inappropriate
behaviour is occurring. For most students, it is difficult for them to continue to
misbehave when the teacher is so close. In its least intrusive and least confronting
form, the teacher stands nearby the student and does not necessarily make eye
contact with him or her. This strategy can be maximise by moving closer to the
offending student and, in the terminology of Frederick Jones, „camping out‟ near

the student until he/she is back on task (Jones, 1987). Directly facing the student
with hands on hips is an even more powerful procedure, but is significantly more
confronting. Jones also advocates dropping down to eye level at the student‟s desk
to reinforce the message that the unacceptable behaviour must cease. In Chapter
5 when we talk about students who display aggressive or oppositional defiant
behaviour, we will see that these latter types of teacher responses can be
perceived as very provocative by some students and possibly unwise and
counterproductive to use.
Touch Interference
Touch interference is another strategy that needs to be considered carefully. Here
the teacher moves in on a student (proximity) and places a hand on the student‟s
desk or book as a signal that the teacher is aware of the student‟s behaviour and
wants it to stop. Once upon a time teachers would actually touch students e.g. by
placing a hand on the student‟s shoulder. In primary and secondary classrooms
and indeed in most situations, it is advised that teachers do not come into direct
physical contact with students in this way for the purpose of behaviour
management. Teachers working with very young children will have more direct
contact with children and this is seen as appropriate to their role. Touching the
desk or a student‟s book on the desk is just as effective as direct physical contact.
More often than not, the strategy is used together with a verbal direction.
So, the first four strategies in the hierarchy of corrective strategies are non-verbal
strategies i.e. the teacher says nothing. They are seen as the least intrusive in the
main, in that in most instances the lesson continues while the teacher is
simultaneously intervening. They are in most cases, low in confrontation. They are
also quick and easy to employ, a very important consideration in the choice of
strategies for the management of student behaviour. We now move on to verbal
strategies. Keep in mind though most non-verbal strategies can also be used in
conjunction with verbal strategies e.g. shaking the head and saying „No!‟
Distraction or Diversion
This is a strategy that parents use and often perfect. Here the teacher notices a
student misbehaving and distracts or diverts the student‟s attention by, for
example, asking the student a question or asking the student to undertake a task
such as handing out materials. While the teacher doesn‟t directly say anything
about the inappropriate behaviour, often the student is aware why the teacher has
acted in that way. The distraction or diversion acts as a break from the behaviour
and increases the chances of the child not returning to or continuing the offending
behaviour.
Adjacent Peer Reinforcement
The teacher notices that Jill has not started on her mathematics sheet. Instead of
directly targeting Jill i.e. confronting Jill, the teacher praises a nearby student who
has commenced work. In most situations, Jill will pick up on the teacher‟s comment
and realise that she needs to get underway too. This is a useful strategy to employ
from time to time, and is most effective with younger students. With older students
there is a greater chance of embarrassing the student singled out for praise – so be
careful. Again, this is another decision that the teacher will need to make and like
most behaviour management decisions will need to be made on the spot with not a
lot of time to think about it i.e. a split second decision.

Calling on the Student
In this strategy, the teacher directs the student back on task or to more appropriate
behaviour by asking the student a question about the task or activity. While similar
to a distraction or diversion, this strategy is distinguished by being directly related
to the lesson activity. When using this strategy it is advisable to call on the student
first to alert them that they are going to be asked a question. Teachers sometimes
do the reverse, knowing that if the student is not attending they will most likely not
hear the question, and will not be able to provide an answer. This procedure
directly calls attention to the student‟s off task behaviour, but is very public and
potentially exposes the student to considerable embarrassment. Teacher‟s often
think that correcting in this way really teaches the student a lesson. However, the
cost to the teacher-student relationship is not worth it. Call on the student first and
then ask the question. Your goal should be to redirect behaviour not to make the
student feel uncomfortable or embarrassed.
Name Dropping
Name dropping involves inserting or dropping a student‟s name, into the teacher‟s
verbal instruction, during the lesson, to alert the student that he or she is not
behaving as expected, and that he or she should get back on task. This can be a
very unobtrusive procedure as not all students will register with the „dropped‟
name. But, the offending student will, even if the child was not attending in the first
place. Somehow, our brain picks up on our name when it is uttered even when our
attention is elsewhere.
Cueing Good Behaviour
In this strategy the teacher redirects an offending student by specifying the
behaviour that the teacher wants the student to display. For example, “Ben, we‟re
all sitting down and working in our groups”. Where the student complies, this is
followed with “Great! Ben‟s sitting in his group”. This is quite a simple strategy, but
one which, if employed more often by teachers, will help shift the focus from
misbehaviour to appropriate behaviour. For example “When everyone is sitting
quietly with eyes to the front, I‟ll be able to let you go for recess”; rather than “No
one is going to recess because there‟s too much noise and I don‟t have eyes this
way.” Teachers are adept at identifying and drawing attention to unacceptable
behaviour; it seems the logical and natural thing to do when faced with
misbehaviour. So, at the end of the lesson or day the tally of negative comments
about student behaviour often far outnumbers positive comments.
Humour
Students are used to teachers criticising them for „doing the wrong thing‟; so much
so that they often „tune out‟ when the teacher is „going on and on‟ about what is
wrong. When the teacher uses humour, even for correction, the novelty effect is
such that students are more likely to attend to the teacher‟s message. Using
humour as a strategy to alert children to some problem, for example, too much
noise in the classroom is doing something unexpected and will attract more student
attention and possibly greater compliance. The teacher might say “I‟m hearing all
these noises in my head. I can‟t think. How can I make them go away?”
You might not find the above example of humour particularly clever or amusing. As
with all humour, it‟s very much dependent on the context and who is involved. You

will have your own unique sense of humour that students in your class will come to
understand and hopefully appreciate. Humour is a powerful tool in building positive
relationships and we know from research that students enjoy teachers who have a
good sense of humour. Be careful though, teachers are verbally capable and can
use their command of the language to create very pointed and sarcastic comments
in response to students who are a persistent irritant to them because of their
misbehaviour. There are very few things more than sarcasm that will damage
teacher-student relations, particularly where adolescents are involved. Sarcasm in
the classroom isn‟t funny. You are well advised not to have it in your repertoire.
Note on the Desk
As the name implies, a brief note (e.g. using a „yellow post it‟) indicating what the
student should be doing (e.g. “Stop talking”) is unobtrusively placed on the
student‟s desk as the teacher moves around the room. This strategy is most
effective for younger students and when it is used occasionally. Teachers of older
students might use it in association with humour. But again, its novelty effect will
quickly wear off so use it sparingly.
Casual Question/Rhetorical Question
Using a question or a rhetorical question, the teacher alerts the student to his/her
inappropriate behaviour and the teacher‟s awareness of that behaviour, e.g. “John,
should you be out of your seat now?” Rhetorical questions are not meant to be
answered. If the student displays defiant or oppositional behaviour by answering
the question, e.g. “Yes, what‟s wrong with that?” the teacher should follow up with
an explicit direction, e.g. “I‟d like you to sit down in your seat now John”. Following
this statement the teacher would look away and continue with the lesson. This
gives what Bill Rogers calls „take up time‟ for the student to comply (Rogers, 2009).
Above all, avoid being drawn into a protracted verbal exchange with the student.
Do You Need Assistance?
Where unacceptable behaviour is associated with slowness to get started or to
complete an assigned task, the teacher can offer assistance to the student. This
acts as a gentle reminder of the requirement to get the work done where a student
can do the task but chooses to delay or chooses not to do it. Where it is found that
the student doesn‟t know how to complete the task, assistance can be provided.
Contrast the positive nature of this strategy with what is a more typical response to
students who are slow to engage with the lesson task, “Leisa! You were asked to
start 5 minutes ago. Get started or you‟ll be finishing this at recess”.
Try That Again/Overcorrection
On some occasions it is appropriate for the teacher to ask a student to repeat a
behaviour, but this time in a more appropriate manner. For example, a student
rudely asks another student for a piece of equipment. The teacher might say
“Jason, I think you can do that more politely. Would you like to show me how you
can do that?” Depending on the behaviour, it might be appropriate for the teacher
to ask for the behaviour to be repeated more than once, as in the use of some
equipment in a science laboratory or in an industrial technology and design
workshop. Be careful though, do not to turn it into a punitive correction. The focus
should be on the opportunity for the student to learn a more appropriate behaviour,
not punishment.

Questioning Awareness of Effect
Here the teacher alerts the student to the negative impact of his/her behaviour, e.g.
“Sally and Dale, with all that noise it‟s hard for others around you to concentrate on
their work” and “Alex, you and Trent are going to run out of time to complete this
activity if you continue to talk to one another”. This strategy is expanded on with
the use of an „I – Message‟.
„I‟ Message/Assertive Statement
This is a strategy which has origins and applications far beyond the school
education settings. Employed in the classroom, the teacher describes the
disruptive behaviour, indicates how it is negatively impacting on the teacher and/or
other students, and describes how he or she feels about the situation, e.g.
“Melissa, when you call out answers like that it denies other students the chance to
participate. I don‟t like that because I want everyone to have a fair go”.
„I – Statements‟ that focus on the impact on the teacher are effective when
correcting normally well behaved students. They are less effective for students who
don‟t particularly care whether what they are doing is negatively affecting the
teacher. Indeed, for some students, mostly oppositional defiant students, the
knowledge that what they are doing is affecting the teacher can act as a reinforcer
for the continued use of that behaviour. So, as with all strategies select strategies
which are appropriate to the behaviour and to the student or students involved.
Direct Appeal
With a direct appeal, the teacher politely, but firmly requests the student to cease
misbehaving, e.g. “Sit down in your seat now Michael so that we can start the
activity”. Teachers can add „please‟ to their direction if they wish. This softens the
impact of the strategy and makes it less confrontational. Later in the hierarchy of
corrective strategies you will be introduced to the „explicit redirection‟ strategy. This
is a more forceful strategy where the use of „please‟ is not recommended.
Are Not For‟s
Here, for example, in response to a student who is drumming on his desk with a
pencil, the teacher says “Sam, pencils are not for drumming”. This strategy targets
the inappropriate use of materials or equipment. As you could imagine, this
strategy is more appropriate for younger students. However, used in a humorous
fashion, it can be suitable for older students to. As with the Note on the Desk
strategy, include this strategy in your repertoire of corrective strategies, but only
use it occasionally.
All of the strategies covered in this section, in one way or another, alert students to
their inappropriate behaviour, but then allow them to take the next step i.e. to
decide whether they will continue or cease the inappropriate behaviour. This
process gives students the opportunity to make decisions about their own
behaviour without the teacher demanding compliance and using the threat of
negative consequences if the behaviour continues. Students need these decision
making opportunities if they are going to have any chance of ultimately reaching
the goal of being self-disciplined.

Strategies High in Intrusion and Confrontation
We continue our exploration of strategies aimed at correcting and redirecting low
level disruptive behaviour. The strategies introduced in this section appear further
along the hierarchy of corrective strategies and involve a gradual increase in the
level of intrusion and confrontation. While the aim of basic corrective management
is to redirect student misbehaviour with as little intrusion and confrontation as
possible, there will be occasions when stronger interventions are needed. These
occasions relate to when initial attempts to correct and redirect haven‟t been
successful and/or where the behaviour is such that a more direct response is
required.
To reiterate, „intrusion‟ relates to the degree to which the implementation of a
strategy interrupts the lesson i.e. the teacher needs to stop teaching and to focus
on behaviour which is disruptive. In the context of this discussion, „confrontation‟
simply relates to the need for the teacher to directly communicate to a student
about their unacceptable behaviour. This contrasts with the commonly held view
that confrontation in interpersonal communication is characterised by high levels of
emotion and verbal hostility. Certainly teachers need to be assertive when
addressing misbehaviour but this needs to be done as objectively as possible and
always in a polite and respectful manner. A total of twelve strategies are described
below.
Private Reminder/Private Talk
Here, the teacher calls the student aside and explains that his or her behaviour is
not acceptable and needs to change. This is a very direct and assertive form of
correction and is often used when it is necessary to carry out a correction away
from the audience i.e. other students, who may be either directly or indirectly
encouraging the student‟s behaviour.
Rule Reminder
Teachers formulate class rules in order to make explicit to students what behaviour
is expected in the classroom and what is not acceptable. More and more now,
teachers are encouraged to develop rules together with the students at the
beginning of the school year. When students have some input into class rules, they
are more likely to commit to them. So, when misbehaviour does occur the teacher
can remind the student of the class rule that the behaviour infringes e.g. “Ann,
what‟s our rule about … (respect, property, safety, learning etc)”. On many
occasions this is sufficient to redirect the behaviour.
Defusing/Partial Agreement
This strategy is used when the student becomes agitated, angry, belligerent or
aggressive. Teachers are well advised not to get into verbal battles with students
who are exhibiting these emotions or behaviours. Rather, the teacher should aim to
calm the situation down. One way of doing this is to acknowledge the student‟s
concerns and/or feelings, but at the same time politely insisting that his/her
directions are to be followed e.g. Lenny is reprimanded for moving in and out of his
group. He argues that other students are doing the same thing. The teacher says
“That may be true and I understand you are upset, but right now you need to sit
down and get on with your work. We can talk about this later”.

Glasser‟s „Triplets‟
William Glasser is a well-known and leading expert on student behaviour (Glasser,
1998). One of the procedures he recommends when teachers encounter
misbehaviour is for the teacher to ask three questions of the offending student:
What are you doing? What should you be doing? What are you going to do now?
The aim is to have the student accept that their behaviour is not appropriate and to
commit to change it. The exact wording of the questions can change from situation
to situation and the second question can make specific reference to a rule e.g. Is it
against the rules? The strategy works best when the behaviour has just occurred
and where it was actually witnessed by the teacher. Some students will deny that
they have done anything wrong i.e. won‟t accept responsibility for their behaviour.
In these circumstances the teacher may need to ask the first question again,
rephrased such as “What were you doing?” If the student continues to argue than
the teacher should state the rule or make reference to the inappropriate behaviour
and follow up with an explicit direction.
Blocking Statement
Here the teacher acts to terminate any further discussion about a behaviour
incident that has occurred and any comments or directions the teacher may have
made e.g. “I‟m not going to discuss this now. I want you now to do what you have
been asked to do”. This strategy is particularly useful when the exchange with the
student begins to deteriorate into a verbal battle.
Explicate Redirection
This strategy involves the teacher giving an explicit direction for the student to stop
misbehaving and usually to get back on task e.g. “Michael, put that away now and
get back to your desk”. The direction is given firmly but politely.
With blocking statements, explicit directions, and all firmly delivered directions, the
direction should be given and then the teacher should turn away from the student
and get on with the lesson , allowing „take up‟ or „face saving‟ time for the student.
Where a teacher delivers a firm direction and then stands over or „eye balls‟ the
student until they comply, this will be seen as a challenge and a battle of „wills‟. The
student will not want to back down in front of his or her peers and as such will be
highly motivated to continue the battle with the teacher and to win.
Canter‟s „Broken Record‟
Lee Canter is another well-known authority on behaviour management and
developer of the Assertive Discipline model of behaviour management (Canter,
1976). In the „broken record‟ strategy, the teacher repeats his/her direction as
many as three times to unequivocally indicate that the inappropriate behaviour
must cease. In response to arguments or excuses the teacher would respond
“That‟s not the point. I want you to …. (repeat the direction).” Excessive repetition
of the direction will be counterproductive, so three times is the maximum.
Verbal Warning/Warning Card
In this strategy a verbal warning is given that consequences will be applied if the
behaviour is continued. Some schools have teachers employ a colored card
system with yellow signaling a warning and red meaning the application of a

consequence such as a detention. A tick on the board next to a student‟s name
when misbehaviour occurs is a similar procedure. A subsequent tick might mean
ten minutes of detention. A further tick might mean twenty to thirty minutes of
detention. It‟s not the place here to discuss the merits or otherwise of such
systems. The fact is, such systems are frequently employed, most often at the
primary level and many teachers believe that it is not possible to gain student
cooperation without them.
You Have A Choice
When a student fails to comply with an explicit direction and continues to
misbehave, the teacher can give a final direction and can accompany this with a
statement of a consequence if the direction is not followed e.g. “Either you stop
calling out and disrupting others or I‟ll have to move you out of the group.”
Depending on the behaviour, the consequence referred to could be removal from
the class.
One important point here, if the student chooses to continue to misbehave than the
teacher must follow through with the consequence. There should be no more
directions, commands or warnings. Teachers are notoriously inconsistent with their
disciplinary practices and this inconsistency will be quickly picked up by students
with a resultant reduction in the effectiveness of the teacher‟s continuing efforts to
manage student behaviour.
Relocation in the Classroom
Seating a student elsewhere in the classroom and often away from peers who
might be encouraging the student‟s inappropriate behaviour, can be used as a way
of interrupting the behaviour and as one close to final effort to redirect the
behaviour before the application of a consequence.
Time Out
Using an in-class time out is a form of withdrawal that takes away sources of
reinforcement for unacceptable behaviour or factors that may be triggering
misbehaviour. This strategy requires a physical arrangement within the classroom
where the student, is largely out of view of other students (but not the teacher).
Time out is one step below the more severe consequence of withdrawal from the
classroom. While time out is the most frequently used descriptor for this procedure,
increasingly it is being referred to as reflection time or the thinking place. These
terms are linked to Ed Ford‟s behaviour management model called the
Responsible Thinking Process (Ford, 2003). In this model misbehaving students
can be sent to the Responsible Thinking Room where, in association with the
teacher assigned to the room, students are supported to think about their
behaviour and to plan ways of behaving more appropriately.
Buddy classroom.

The offending child is sent to another classroom for a period of time. Out of the
environment and away from the factors that acted as antecedents to misbehaviour,
the student‟s inappropriate behaviour is often quickly defused. The procedures
related to buddy classroom arrangements are jointly planned and understood by
the teachers involved.

Office Referral
The teacher has now exhausted all his or her repertoire of corrective strategies.
Continued misbehaviour results in the student being sent from the classroom. Most
often the student is sent to the principal, deputy principal or head of department.
This is described as an office referral or disciplinary referral. One increasingly
popular and very effective procedure is to send the student to a „buddy‟ classroom
i.e. the class of another teacher with whom you have an arrangement; an
arrangement which of course should be reciprocal. Out of the class where the
behaviour occurred the student generally calms down quickly and does not
normally continue to misbehave.
A succinct summary of the above strategies 33 strategies in the context of a
hierarchy based on level of intrusion and confrontation is provided in Table 2.
Maximising Compliance & Cooperation
Making your strategies work (effective) is an important consideration. How a
strategy is implemented will have a big bearing on whether it will achieve
cooperation and compliance. Jensen (1996) provides some useful advice about
how to maximise compliance and cooperation:
Format
The use of questions instead of direct requests reduces compliance e.g. “Would
you please stop teasing”? is less effective than “I need you to stop teasing now”?

Distance
It is better to make a request up close to the student i.e. one to one and a half
metres from the student or one desk length distance; than from longer distances
e.g. seven metres or from one side of the room to the other.

Two Requests
It is better to give the same request only twice than to give it several times (i.e. to
nag). Do not give many different requests rapidly or at the same time e.g. “Please
give me your homework, behave today and do not tease the girl in front of you.”

Loudness of Request
It is better to make a request in a soft but firm voice than a loud voice e.g. yelling
when calling the class to attention.

Time
Give the student time to comply after making a request (3 – 5 seconds). During this
short interval, do not converse with the student, restate the request, or make a
different request. Do not „eye ball‟ the student while waiting for compliance.

Start Requests
It is more effective to make positive requests of a student to start an appropriate
behaviour (e.g. “Matt, start or maths assignment thanks”) than to request him to
stop an inappropriate behaviour (e.g. Matt! Stop talking‟).

Table 2
Hierarchy of Basic
Corrective Management Strategies

The following strategies have been ordered from the least to the most
intrusive and from the least to the most confrontational

Intrusion – refers to the extent to which the lesson is interrupted in order for the teacher
to correct or redirect unacceptable behavior.

Confrontation – refers to the extent to which a student needs to be singled out and
directly communicated with in respect of his or her unacceptable behavior.

Strategies:

 Planned or tactical ignoring. The teacher is aware of but chooses to ignore the
inappropriate behaviour.

 Non-verbal messages/signal interference. The teacher uses nonverbal
communication to signal that behaviour is not appropriate e.g. finger to the lips,
shake of the head, a frown, a stern stare.

 Proximity and body language. The teacher moves to that part of the room
where the inappropriate behaviour is occurring. The teacher may remain there
(„camp out‟) until the student(s) are back on task.

 Touch interference. The teacher moves in on the student and places a hand on
the student‟s desk or book.

 Distraction or diversion. The teacher notices a student behaving
inappropriately and distracts or diverts the student from that behaviour by e.g.
asking the student a question, asking the student to undertake a task such as
handing out materials etc.

 Adjacent peer reinforcement. The teacher indirectly reminds a student of what
he/she should be doing by commenting on the appropriate behaviour of a nearby
student.

 Calling on the student. The teacher directs the student back on task or to more
appropriate behaviour by asking the student a question about the lesson
task/activity.

 Name dropping. During verbal instruction the offending student‟s name is
inserted („dropped‟) into the dialogue to alert him/her to get back on task.

 Cueing/descriptive encouragement of good behaviour. Targeting the
offending student, the teacher specifies the behaviour that he/she wishes the
student to use.

 Humour. The teacher defuses a tense situation or directs students back on task
by making a humorous or entertaining comment.

 Note in desk. A brief note („yellow sticky‟) indicating what the student should be
doing (e.g. “Stop talking”) is unobtrusively placed on the student‟s desk as the
teacher moves around the room.

 Casual question/rhetorical question. Using a question or a rhetorical question,
the teacher alerts the student to his/her inappropriate behaviour and the
teacher‟s awareness of that behaviour, e.g. “John, should you be out of your
seat now.

 Do you need assistance? Where inappropriate behaviour is associated with
slowness to complete an assigned task or failure to complete work, the teacher
can offer assistance to the student. This acts as a gentle reminder of the
requirement to get work done where a student can do the task but chooses to
delay or chooses not to do it.

 Try that again/overcorrection. Immediately aware of an inappropriate
behaviour, the teacher asks the student to repeat the behaviour but this time in a
more appropriate way. Depending on the situation the teacher may ask the child
to repeat the behaviour several times.

 Questioning awareness of effect. The teacher alerts the student to the
negative impact of his/her behaviour e.g. “Peter, you and Michael are going to
run out of time to complete this activity if you continue to talk to one another”.

 „I‟ message/assertive statement. The teacher describes the disruptive
behaviour, indicates how it is negatively impacting on him/her and/or other
students and describes how he/she feels about the situation, e.g. “Lisa, when
you call out an answer it denies other students a chance to respond. I don‟t like
that because I want everyone to have a fair go”.

 Direct appeal. The teacher politely, but firmly requests the student to cease
misbehaving, e.g. “I‟d like you to sit down in your seat now please Michael so
that we can start the activity”.

 Positive phrasing. Disciplinary actions are phrased, where possible, in positive
language as opposed to targeting and stressing negative behaviour, e.g. “When
everyone is sitting quietly I‟ll be able to let you go for recess”.

 „Are Not For‟s‟. In response to a student who is, for example, drumming on his
desk with a pencil, the teacher says “Pencils are for writing Sam, they‟re not for
drumming”.

The above strategies provide the student the opportunity
to self-regulate their own behaviour

The following strategies are highly teacher directed.

 Private reminder/private talk. The teacher calls the student aside and explains
that his/her behaviour is not acceptable and it needs to change.

 Rule reminder. When misbehaviour occurs, the teacher reminds the student of
the class rule which that behaviour infringes.

 Defusing/partial agreement. The teacher acknowledges the student‟s concerns
and/or feelings but insists that his/her directions are followed, e.g. “That may be
true, but right now you need to get on with your work”.

 Glasser‟s „Triplets‟. A set of questions is asked of the student to alert him/her
that their behaviour is inappropriate and to direct the student to more appropriate
behaviour. The questions are of this type:
What are you doing?
Is it against the rules?
What should you be doing?

 Blocking statement. The teacher acts to terminate any discussion about the
student‟s behaviour and any comments or directions the teacher may have
made, e.g. I‟m not going to discuss this now. I want you now to do as you are
told”.

 Explicit redirection. The teacher gives an explicit order for the student to stop
misbehaving (and usually) to get back on task, e.g. Michael, put that away now
and get back to your desk”.

 Canter‟s „Broken Record‟. The teacher repeats his/her direction as many as
three times to unequivocally indicate that the inappropriate behaviour should
cease. In response to arguments or excuses the teacher would respond “That‟s
not the point. I want you to …”

 Warning/warning card. A verbal warning is given that consequences will be
applied if the behaviour is continued.

 “You have a choice”. When a student fails to comply with an explicit direction,
the teacher gives a final direction and accompanies this with a statement of the
consequence if the direction is not followed e.g. “Either you stop calling out or I‟ll
have to move you out of the group (class)”.

 Relocation within the classroom. Seating a student elsewhere in the
classroom, and often away from peers who might be supporting his
inappropriate behaviour can be used as an alternative to giving the student a
choice.

 Time out/reflection time/ thinking place within the classroom. Using an in
class timeout is a form of withdrawal that takes away sources of reinforcement
for inappropriate behaviour or factors that may be precipitating misbehaviour. It
is one step below the more severe consequence of withdrawal from the class.

 Buddy classroom. The offending child is sent to another classroom for a period
of time. Out of the environment and away from the factors that acted as
antecedents to misbehaviour, the student‟s inappropriate behaviour is often
quickly defused. The procedures related to buddy classroom arrangements are
jointly planned and understood by the teachers involved.

 Office Referral. The student is sent to the principal or deputy principal‟s office.

Guidelines for Use:

1. Use the least intrusive and least confrontational strategy as is possible.
2. Start by selecting a strategy from the hierarchy that best suits the
particular situation.
3. Strategies can be used in sequence e.g. proximity followed by touch
interference, or in combination (together) e.g. positive phrasing and
name drop.

Non-emotional Requests
It is better to control negative emotions when making a request i.e. avoid yelling,
name calling and guilt-inducing statements. Emotional responses decrease
compliance and aggravate the situation.

Descriptive Statements
Requests that are positive and descriptive are better than global or ambiguous
directions e.g. “Carl, sit in your chair now with feet on the floor and hands on the
desk” is better than “Carl! Pay attention.”

Reinforce Compliance
It is too easy to request a behaviour from a student and then to ignore the positive
result. If you want more compliance, than genuinely acknowledge compliance
whenever it occurs.

This concludes our description and initial coverage of basic corrective management
strategies. Thirty strategies were covered, with the rationale that teachers need an
extensive repertoire of responses to low level disruptive behaviour to better match
a response to the type of behaviour and for the teacher to feel confident that they
have an effective response to any kind of behaviour challenge that comes their
way. Just as important as a set of strategies is a framework of guidelines for
choosing the most appropriate strategy and evaluating new strategies that come to
the attention of the teacher through conversations with colleagues, professional
reading and other professional development activities. In the following section we
will look at what might constitute such a framework.
Putting It All together
It would be simplistic and less than helpful to think about behaviour management
as a process of pulling out from a collection of strategies the one that will terminate
misbehaviour. Having a repertoire of corrective strategies is important but there is
an equally important set of decisions that need to be made when executing a
correction. These include selecting a response that best fits the particular student,
the nature of the behaviour and the impact of the behaviour and the intervention on
teaching, learning and relationships within the classroom. More about these later;
for now though let‟s focus on a few basic operational principles when applying
corrective management strategies.
First, choose a strategy from the hierarchy of corrective strategies that is
appropriate for the specific behaviour problem of concern. That strategy, may
appear anywhere along the hierarchy of intrusion and confrontation. While a
teacher should be conscious of choosing a response that is least intrusive and
least confrontational; often the most appropriate strategy may necessarily involve
an interruption to the lesson and the teacher directly and assertively confronting a
student about his or her behaviour. It would be naïve to take the view that you
should start with the first strategy – planned or tactical ignoring, and systematically
work your way through the hierarchy until you find a strategy that „works‟. That
would be a clumsy, time consuming and most likely ineffective way of going about
the business of behaviour management.
Second, think in terms of more than one strategy at a time, either in sequence or in
combination, to get the job done. For example, in response to a student who is
giggling and making inappropriate comments during another student‟s „show and
tell‟, the teacher might use signal interference (a look and a shake of the head) in
combination with a name call. A further strategy might involve calling on the
offending student to answer a question about what has been reported in the „show
and tell‟. The combination or sequence of strategies adds power to the intervention
and, where the additional strategies involve just a gradual increase in intrusion and
confrontation, the correction is achieved without further disturbance to the lesson.
Finally, think one step ahead. Think of what your follow up response might be if
your initial effort to redirect the behaviour was unsuccessful. Not only will you be
prepared if and when this happens, but you will most likely have thought of an

appropriate strategy. When faced with repeated misbehaviour teachers can
become irritated and angry and as such their capacity to think clearly and to
respond sensibly and fairly is reduced.
Guidelines for Corrective Management
Acquiring a repertoire of behaviour management strategies is important and the
bigger the repertoire the better. Teachers with a limited set of strategies all too
quickly resort to coercive and punitive actions when their initial attempts to manage
behaviour are unsuccessful. But having a collection of strategies is only part of the
process of becoming an effective manager of student behaviour. Just as important
as a set of strategies is a framework for how, when and with whom these strategies
should be applied and how the work of behaviour management supports, or at
least should support, pedagogical and broader educational goals (Fields, 2005a).
In this section you will be introduced to an extensive list of considerations aimed at
guiding your thinking and decision making when responding to unacceptable and
disruptive student behaviour.
You should be aware that we have already begun the process of developing a set
of guidelines for corrective management, so we will begin with these considerations
and then move on to other important guidelines.
Guideline 1. The strategy must be aimed at redirecting student behaviour to
more appropriate behaviour.
The first guideline relates to the primary purpose of corrective management i.e. to
re-direct student behaviour to more appropriate behaviour. The goal of correction is
not punishment and it is not primarily to exercise control. It is a means by which the
teacher aims to minimise disruption to the lesson, to teaching and to student
learning.
Guideline 2. The strategy must cause the least amount of interruption to the
flow of the lesson.
Guideline 2 is all about keeping the primary purpose of the classroom experience
to the forefront of what happens in that setting. The primary purpose of the lesson
is student learning and teaching to support learning. Behaviour management
needs to happen, but it should not dominate proceedings. So, teachers are
encouraged to choose and apply strategies that intrude as little as possible on the
teaching-learning process.
Guideline 3. The strategy should involve as little teacher-student
confrontation as possible.
Classrooms should be places of learning and positive interpersonal interaction.
They should not be battlegrounds where teachers and students are adversaries.
As such, teachers have a responsibility to create an environment that is supportive
and respectful. Teachers should be models of pro-social behaviour and of positive
and constructive interpersonal communication and problem solving. In this respect,
corrections that are emotionally charged and which involve harsh language,
shouting, demands and threats should not be part of the teacher‟s corrective
management repertoire or approach. Where these personally targeted and
coercive behaviours are employed the damage to teacher-student relations can be

significant, making it difficult thereafter to get the respect and willing cooperation
from the student or students involved.
So, these are the three really important guidelines that we have already directly
addressed in this chapter. Ten other guidelines are included her to provide a
comprehensive set of principles for corrective management.
Guideline 4. The strategy must target the offending behaviour not the student
personally.

You no doubt are familiar with the advice to parents when faced with a „naughty‟
child. The advice goes something like this. Parents should convey in their response
that they „like the child, but not the behaviour‟. The advice also applies to teachers.
In responding to misbehaviour it should be clear to the student that it is the
behaviour that is a concern and that the teacher‟s relationship with the student
remains friendly and supportive, even where correction is necessary and possibly
less than pleasant consequences need to be applied. Teachers can take some
comfort in the fact that most misbehaviour isn‟t deliberately targeted at the teacher
and therefore personal offence shouldn‟t be taken. Having said this, some students
do target teachers with their behaviour. Oppositional defiant students are an
example. These students often deliberately set out to annoy and upset teachers.
However, even in these cases the teacher is advised to „keep their cool‟ and to
remain objective in dealing with the situation. While it will be difficult to say you
must like these students, you should at very least aim to have a supportive working
relationship with them.

Guideline 5. The strategy must be administered calmly and non-emotionally.

Irritation, exasperation and anger are common responses to unacceptable and
disruptive student behaviour. These are natural responses to annoying and
unsettling behaviour in the classroom. In other words, it‟s OK to have these
feelings. The issue is how these feelings impact on teacher behaviour. Sometimes
it is appropriate to express our feelings, in our body language, but preferably in
words, as in an “I‟ Message‟. More often than not, it is more appropriate to convey
that we are calm and in control of ourselves. This will be beneficial in interacting
with the offending student and it will put other students at ease. All too often we
forget that when we as teachers become emotional and let this emotion out, as in
raising our voice and giving orders, it sends a ripple effect of discomfort right
around the classroom, impacting on all students, including well behaved students.
The important thing is for teachers not to let their emotions get the better of them
i.e. to adversely influence how they think and behave. When teachers respond
emotionally to misbehaviour they are more likely to respond irrationally, as in the
application of a consequence which is out of all proportion to the behaviour. As you
will see in Chapter 5 when faced with more serious and challenging behaviour,
remaining calm and in control of one‟s emotions is absolutely essential.

Guideline 6. The strategy must involve speaking politely and respectfully to
the student.
Teachers like and expect students to show them respect. Respect will more likely
be forthcoming if teachers in turn treat students with respect and this includes at
those difficult times when teachers are responding to misbehavior. Teachers are
powerful role models in the lives of students and for some students they are one of
the few models of pro-social behaviour they come into contact with. Many do not

know how to respond appropriately in situations involving interpersonal conflict and
will often react defensively and sometimes aggressively when disciplined.
Teachers who take offence at these responses and counter with harsh words and
criticism only reinforce in the minds of students that disrespectful and defiant
responses are appropriate when they are challenged.

Guideline 7. The strategy must not deliberately or unnecessarily embarrass
the student in front of his or her peers.
There are numerous instances where a teacher correction can expose students to
public embarrassment. Sometimes this is difficult to avoid and students will vary in
their response and sensitivity to correction and real or perceived criticism. What is
important here is for the teacher not to engage in actions that are deliberately
designed to make students feel uncomfortable in front of their classmates. This is a
highly punitive action to take and extremely damaging to teacher-student relations,
particularly when adolescents are involved. Any short-term „satisfaction‟ gained
from getting „one up on‟ or putting a student down will be rapidly offset by the
knowledge that the student will never forgive you and that you have created an
enemy most probably for life.

Guideline 8. The strategy should, where appropriate, provide an opportunity
for the student to change their own behaviour.
The long-term goal of behaviour management is for students to be able to make
appropriate choices about their own behaviour and to manage their own behaviour
i.e. to become self-disciplined. This can only happen if students are invited to think
about their behaviour and its consequences, on themselves and others; and given
the opportunity then to decide for themselves how they will behave. Behaviour
management that is always structured around strategies that require the student to
immediately comply with what the teacher wants leaves little room for self-
regulation. So, the strategies that are at the beginning of the hierarchy of basic
corrective management, the ones that are the least intrusive and least
confrontational, are the ones which best give students opportunities for self-
regulation. They alert students to their inappropriate behaviour and give them the
opportunity to decide to change their behaviour.
Guideline 9. The strategy must focus on the specific behaviour of concern
and not tangential issues or secondary behaviours.
This guideline states that the strategy must focus on the behaviour of concern to
the teacher and not on related less concerning behaviours and the student‟s past
history of problem behaviours. For example, a teacher might ask a student to pick
up some paper rubbish under his or her desk and put it into the bin (primary
behaviour). The student argues that he or she didn‟t put the paper there. The
teacher politely repeats that he or she would still like the paper placed in the bin.
The student begrudgingly complies but makes a bit of a fuss doing it, muttering
complaints about fairness and such as it is done. Unless there is a good reason not
to, the teacher should thank the student for complying and ignore the other
inappropriate behaviour, called secondary behaviour (Rogers, 2009). The idea is
for the teacher to avoid expanding the problem into a bigger issue and thereby
inviting more confrontation than is really necessary. Another habit of teachers is to
bring up the student‟s past history and add that to the immediate correction. For
example, “This is the third time this week I‟ve had to ask you to pick up rubbish
from under your desk”. While this may be true and can be taken up later with the

student, it is not necessary or helpful for the immediate correction and can
seriously elevate the level of intrusion and confrontation involved.
Guideline 10. The strategy must involve a minimum of teacher-student verbal
interaction.
Corrective exchanges with students should be brief and to the point. There are two
reasons for this. First, lengthy interactions take the teacher‟s focus away from the
lesson and can seriously interrupt the continuity of the lesson. The second reason
relates to control. Teachers are verbally more capable than most of their students
and can use this capacity as a coercive and punishing mechanism – talking down
to the student and talking the student down. These exchanges can deteriorate into
a verbal battle of wills where the student is prepared to take the teacher on and the
teacher is determined to exert their authority. It has often been said that there is
only one winner in such battles – and it is most often not the teacher. The teacher
may achieve temporary compliance from the student, but at the cost of a badly
damaged teacher-student relationship with the student.
Guideline 11. The strategy must be quick and easy to use.
Again, the goal of correction is re-direction so that teaching and learning can
continue. Time consuming or complicated corrections disrupt the flow of the lesson
and are self-defeating. Lengthy corrections are also a strain on the teacher and
can lead to emotions such as irritation and frustration.
Guideline 12. The strategy must be appropriate to the type and severity of the
offending behaviour.
Strategies that involve high levels of intrusion and confrontation should be reserved
for behaviours that warrant such significant intervention. Applied to minor forms of
low level disruption and off task behaviour, they lose their impact and effectiveness
when it comes to a situation where they are actually needed. In addition, the
inappropriate use of a highly teacher directed correction severely limits the capacity
of the teacher to manage the problem within the classroom. After a highly intrusive
and confrontational strategy the teacher‟s options in the face of continued
misbehaviour are few and premature exclusion from the classroom may result.
Guideline 13. The strategy must ensure every opportunity for the
management of the behaviour within the classroom and before a decision is
made to send the student from the classroom.
Disciplinary office referrals are usually the first step along a path leading to
suspension from school (Morrison & Skiba, 2001). While most office referrals are
warranted a significant number are for relatively trivial matters (Landon &
Messinger, 1989: Safran & Safran, 1984), which normally would be expected to be
dealt with by the teacher within the classroom. Repeated exclusions from the
classroom, even for minor misbehaviour, can set a student on a trajectory for
school level disciplinary interventions and suspension. Suspension carries with it
many messages for the student involved. It signals that the school does not
tolerate certain behaviours. It also carries the message that the student is, albeit
temporarily, no longer accepted as part of the school community. This can lead to
feelings of rejection and alienation, hardening the student‟s negative view of school
and teachers. Class teachers have a role to play in minimizing the number of
student suspensions. And this role involves management of behaviour within the

classroom where possible and the use of an office referral only when every effort
has been made to re-direct or defuse the unacceptable behaviour.
Teachers have much to think about as they go about managing unacceptable and
disruptive behaviour in the classroom. It is a highly skilled professional and human
endeavour and sophisticated decision making process. It goes far beyond the „bag
of tricks‟ mentality which unfortunately many teachers still have. Bag of tricks and
„quick fix‟ orientations represent not only narrow thinking but are also unproductive.
They emanate from the view that behaviour management is all about doing
something to students. As we have already seen in this and earlier chapters in this
book, student behaviour, including misbehaviour, results from a combination of
factors including quality teaching and relevant and engaging curriculum.
Choosing and Applying Consequences
When redirecting low level disruptive behaviour, most times consequences for
misbehaviour are not needed or necessary. However, for some behaviours and for
continued or repeated misbehaviour, consequences may need to be applied. In the
past we would have used the term „punishment‟ rather than „consequences‟ to
describe these teacher actions. Punishment is most often associated with coercion,
and coercion is no longer considered appropriate in the school context.
Consequences can, and often are, experienced as „unpleasant‟ by students but
their purpose is to educate students about the effects of their behaviour – on others
and on themselves. The ideal, but not always possible, is to apply a consequence
that is a logical outcome for a specific behaviour e.g. if a student acts aggressively
towards other students in the playground, he or she may be restricted in their
access to the playground. In this section we will discuss further the concepts of
punishment and consequences, we will look at the types of consequences
available to teachers and a set of guidelines for applying consequences in the
school and classroom will be outlined.
An important part of corrective management is the application of consequences for
repeated misbehaviour and more serious forms of unacceptable behaviour.
Teachers need to have a very clear understanding of when and how
consequences should be applied and what types of consequences can be used in
the school context.
Consequences are typically experienced as unpleasant by the offending student,
are intended as formal sanctions for unacceptable behaviour and as a deterrent to
continued misbehaviour. The general public is more familiar with the term
punishment when the subject is how teachers should respond to misbehaviour.
Indeed the terms share much in common. Punishment involves the administration
of an aversive i.e. unpleasant stimulus following the occurrence of a behaviour. It
has the effect of reducing the likely reoccurrence of that behaviour.
In the broader community punishment has several functions. It is intended to be
„educative‟ i.e. it is intended to teach an individual something about their behaviour,
and that typically is that the behaviour is not acceptable. Punishment is seen as
having a „reforming‟ function in that it acts as an encourager to the individual to
change their behaviour. In a judicial sense, punishment has a „justice‟ function,
fulfilling society‟s expectation that inappropriate or anti-social behaviour will result
in some kind of sanction and/or retribution. That function is often interpreted by the
public and the media to mean revenge for harm that has been done. The concept

of consequences in an educational sense takes on the educative and reforming
functions associated with punishment, but it does not fully embrace the view that
consequences have a justice function, certainly not a revenge function.
Another major distinction between punishment and consequences, is that
consequences have, or at least should have, some kind of logical relationship to a
behaviour. For instance, a student who neglects to bring his sports uniform to
school may not be able to participate in sport. A student who repeatedly
misbehaves on class or school excursions may be denied participation in future
excursions. Punishment is often arbitrary and without a logical relationship to the
behaviour. A $200 speeding fine is a punishment not a consequence in the sense
that the term is now applied in schools. It is interesting that the judicial system does
attempt to apply logical consequences where it feels that this is an appropriate
response. The use of community service for someone who commits arson or
vandalism is a good example of this shift in focus of how justice should be applied.
It is also informative that such judicial responses are often criticize by members of
the public as being too much of a „soft‟ option and where harsher punishment is
thought to be more appropriate. It would be worthwhile to reflect on these latter
points as we all have personal views about anti-social behaviour in society and
how it should be dealt with. Those views will no doubt carrying over to what we
think of misbehaviour in school and how the school and teachers should respond
to it.
So, we have talked about logical consequences. Sometimes people refer to natural
consequences and often in a context that makes them synonymous with logical
consequences. Are they the same? The technical answer is that they are similar,
but not the same. Natural consequences are as the name implies, naturally
occurring. If we fail to wear warm clothing on a freezing day, we will get cold. If we
skip a meal we will most likely get hungry later. Teachers and parents do not have
to „teach‟ natural consequences, they just happen and we learn about them from a
very young age. Logical consequences do not happen naturally or automatically.
They do, however, have a meaningful relationship to the behaviour they follow. In
many respects they reflect the reality of the social order, and we can see this in
operation in schools where there is an emphasis on rights and responsibilities.
Where students behave in a way that infringes on the rights of others, they have
not acted responsibly. Their behaviour may result in some restrictions on what
normally would be seen as their rights. If a student repeatedly starts fight in the
playground, he or she may be restricted to a room during recess. A student who
disrupts the work of others during group work, may be moved to another group or
required to work on their own. These are all logical consequences.
While schools now aim to employ logical consequences to support the correction of
unacceptable behaviour, it is often difficult to identify a logical response to the
myriad of types of misbehaviour that occur in the classroom and around the school.
It is also important for consequences to be applied as soon after the misbehaviour
as possible, so that the consequence is clearly linked to the behaviour in the
student‟s mind. The need for a timely response to misbehaviour means that often
arbitrary and general forms of consequences are applied. Detention is a perfect
example of this. It is easy to apply and is applied to a whole host of seemingly
unrelated behaviours.

Types of Consequences
Schools have an array of responses available for when students misbehave.
As one would expect, these vary depending on the frequency and
seriousness of the behaviour. The ultimate consequence is suspension or
expulsion from school. These options are only called on when the behaviour
is significantly disruptive, dangerous, anti-social or illegal, and where
repeated attempts to encourage the student to adopt more pro-social
behaviour have failed.
Here is a list of typical consequences used by schools. They are roughly
ordered from the least to the most restrictive:
 Warning, name on board
 Loss of privileges
 Making up time lost
 Changed classroom seating arrangement
 In-class time out
 Teacher conference
 Classroom „community service‟
 Letter of apology/verbal apology
 Walking with the teacher on playground at recess
 Restitution
 Restricted access to play areas or other student during recess
 Sent to „buddy class‟
 Referral to the „Thinking Room‟
 Teacher-parent conference
 Confiscation of dangerous or prohibited item
 Office referral
 School behaviour level change
 Alternative recess and/or class timetable
 In-school suspension
 Parent call
 Police referral
 Suspension
 Expulsion

Guidelines for Choosing and Applying Consequences
As with corrective management strategies you will need a set of guidelines for
identifying, choosing and applying consequences. Consequences should be
logical, where possible; they should be reasonable and fair; they should be applied
as soon after the offending behaviour as possible; they should be applied
consistently and respectfully. They should be focused on the behaviour not the
person and they should be uncomplicated and easy to administer. You will notice
here a similar refrain to the guidelines introduced earlier in the course for corrective
management.
Teachers should have some idea in advance of what consequences might apply to
specific and more frequently occurring behaviour. When a teacher has to rapidly
think of a consequence at the time of the misbehaviour and possibly while feeling

frustrated and angry, there is a greater likelihood of the application of an
inappropriate consequence e.g. too severe for the type of misbehaviour.
Depending on the maturity of the students, you could include a discussion of
consequences along with your discussion about rules with students at the
beginning of the school year. If you intend communicating the class rules to
parents, some details about the type of consequences that will be applied for
unacceptable behaviour could be conveyed at the same time. All consequences
should be communicated i.e. explained to students and understood. The link to the
behaviour needs to be made clear.
When applying consequences the teacher needs to be conscious of the impact of
the teacher-student exchange on other students in the classroom. The correction
and subsequent application of a consequence can make all students in the
classroom feel uncomfortable. Sometimes this is unavoidable. Where possible
however, the teacher should speak privately with the offending student and avoid
public corrections that might unnecessarily distract or disturb other students.
Finally, teachers need to be always conscious of the educative purpose of
consequences and of choosing and communicating consequences that give the
opportunity for the student to accept and take responsibility for their behaviour.
Consequences are an important component of the school‟s overall approach to
discipline. The nature of those consequences and how they are applied play a
significant role in the development of school climate. The school‟s responsibility in
this respect is clearly indicated in one Brisbane suburban primary school‟s
guidelines for consequences is summarised below in Table 3 (Aspley State School,
2013). The school „Code‟ referred to in the guidelines is the Queensland
Department of Education & Training „Code of School Behaviour‟. The Code lays
down a set of parameters for behaviour and its purpose is to provide a basis of
certainty and consistency in standards of behaviour for all state school
communities.
Balancing Correction and Acknowledgement
As mentioned earlier, low level disruptive behaviour occurs frequently and is
exhibited by many students. The constant demand of managing such behaviour
puts a considerable strain on teachers and all too often teachers find that their
interactions with students appear to be dominated by negative verbal exchanges
Corrective management is important and needs to be carried out, but done in such
a way that teaching and learning are the major focus of what happens in the
classroom and that relations between the teacher and student are positive and
supportive. While low level disruptive behaviour occurs often, it can, as we have
seen in this chapter, be managed with minimal disruption to teaching and learning
and in a way that maintains mutual respect between the teacher and students.
There is one other very important point to be made here. In most classrooms, the
vast majority of students are well behaved for the vast majority of the time. Often in
the hurly burly of classroom activity this fact is overlooked. It is very easy for
teachers to concentrate most of their attention on misbehaving students and to
neglect the cooperating and engaged students. While this is patently unfair to the
good students, it also doesn‟t serve well the efforts of teachers to improve the
overall behaviour of students in the class. It is a well-established principle of
behaviour that what is not acknowledged and rewarded will be less likely to be

displayed in the future. So, behaviour management is as much about
acknowledging good behaviour as it is about correcting not so good behaviour. Do
both, but with the emphasis more on acknowledgement and the outcome will be
more productive than if the focus is only responding to misbehaviour. This
perspective is now finding its place in the literature on behaviour management and
is a distinguishing feature of the Positive Behaviour Support model (Lane, Kalberg,
& Menzies, 2009) which is growing in popularity and acceptance worldwide and
which will be discussed in Chapter 6. As we have seen too, achieving a balance
between acknowledgement and correction has also featured in the work of
Australian academic and behaviour consultant Christine Richmond, whose ideas
have found their way into Queensland state education department professional
development training packages for teachers.

Table 3
Aspley State School
Guidelines for Consequences

 Is the consequence consistent with Education Queensland‟s
Code of School Behaviour?

 Does the consequence focus on education and learning i.e.
will the consequence provide students with the opportunity to
reflect on their behaviour and to make plans for more
responsible choices in the future?

 Is the consequence consistent with our school philosophy?

 Will the consequence contribute to productive relationship and
partnership construction?

 Is the consequence appropriate to the incident?

 Is it defendable i.e. are those enforcing the consequence
prepared to accept accountability

 Is the consequence constructive, protecting of rights – rights of
the individual in balance with the rights of others – and
consistent with a safe, supportive learning environment?

 Will the consequence deliver an unambiguous message about

 standards for acceptable behaviour?

 Is the consequence non-violent, non-coercive and non-
discriminatory?

Summary
This chapter has focused on how best to manage low level disruptive behaviour in
the classroom. Some thirty strategies aimed at redirecting and correcting minor but
frequently occurring forms of misbehavior were described along with practical
information about choosing and applying appropriate consequences when students
engage in those behaviours. A conceptual framework for how teachers should go
about the business of behaviour management was introduced, with its key „drivers‟
– the concepts of intrusion and confrontation explored in detail. This framework
was further expanded to include a comprehensive set of guidelines for corrective
management. The chapter concluded with a reminder to readers of the importance
of teachers achieving in their day to day interactions with students, a balance
between acknowledgement of appropriate behaviour and correction of
misbehaviour.

Behaviour Management Chapter 5

Chapter 5
Teacher-Student
Relationships

In a recent meta-analysis of more than 100 studies we found that the
quality of teacher-student relationships is the keystone for all other
aspects of classroom management. In fact, our meta-analysis indicates
that on average, teachers who had high quality relationships with their
students has 31 percent fewer discipline problems, rule violations, and
related problems over a year’s time than did teachers who did not have
high-quality relationships with their students.
(Marzano, Marzano & Pickering, 2003)
Effective teachers are those who, in addition to being skilled at
teaching, are attuned to the human dimension of classroom life and
can foster positive relationships with their students.
(Leitao & Waugh, 2007)
“… he didn’t really connect with our high school, he didn’t really
connect with our town. I never saw him with anyone. I can’t even think
of one person who associated with him”.
(Comments by former classmates of Adam Lanza; killer of 20 children and 6 adults,
Sandy Hook Elementary, December, 2012).
(Dowsley, 2012)

Overview

Most pre-service teachers have an intuitive understanding of the importance of the
teacher-student relationship and especially how it relates to the management of
student behaviour. But exactly how significant is the relationship to classroom and
behaviour management? Marzano, Marzano, and Pickering (2003) analysed the
findings of more than 100 studies. They found that positive teacher-student
relationships were the foundation of effective classroom management and had the
capacity to reduce behaviour problems by 31 percent. More recent research
supports this view. Gregory and Ripski (2008) found that teachers who used a
‘relational’ approach in their interactions with students reported experiencing lower
levels of defiance from students in comparison to teachers who placed less
emphasis on building strong relationships with their students.
Reviewing the research on the characteristics of liked teachers Jones (2011) found
that while students had high expectations in relation to how teachers taught, much
of what they valued in teachers centred around social and emotional factors. Liked
teachers were understanding of student needs, caring, supportive, fair, trustworthy,
friendly, compassionate and respectful. In classrooms where these qualities were
evident, students felt safe, happy and much more ready to engage cooperatively in
the teaching-learning enterprise.
In this chapter we look more closely at the characteristics of liked teachers and
what actions teachers can take to maximise their acceptance by students. We will
look at the nature of interpersonal communication – the very basis of relationships.
We will look at what constitutes both effective and ineffective communication
behaviour. Much of the chapter however, will be devoted to student connectedness
to the school and the school education experience. Particular attention will be
given to students’ sense of belonging, now viewed as a critical factor in the social-
emotional lives of students as well as their learning.
The vast majority of children and young people readily ‘find their place’ in school,
thrive in the school environment, and derive tremendous enjoyment from it. Others
do not. A minority, but a significant minority. For many of these students school can
be an unpleasant place. They derive little or no value from the curriculum, they
attract negative responses for their learning efforts and behaviour, find teachers’ to
be unsupportive and often hostile, have few friends, and experience strong feelings
of rejection. Rejection leads to a sense of alienation and anger. Little wonder that
these students represent significant behaviour challenges for teachers and school
administrators.
Teachers need to be skilled in ways to maximise student sense of belonging. This
often takes teachers outside of their curriculum and pedagogical knowledge base
and hence the level of practice and/or commitment may not be sufficient to make a
real impact. Many teachers, however, see that a focus on the social-emotional
domain is part of the ‘new curriculum’ that more and more educators, policy makers
and the public see as a necessary responsibility and role of school education and
teachers in the 21
st
Century.

Introduction
With Chapter 5 we make a major shift in our discussion of student behaviour and
behaviour management. We move away from looking at strategies for preventing
and correcting behaviour problems in the classroom to look at another dimension
of the classroom experience, one that is of growing importance in the ‘big picture’
of creating conditions in the classroom that are conducive to teachers teaching and
students learning.

Right at the beginning of this book you were alerted to the factors that contribute to
student learning. These were the curriculum, the quality of teaching (pedagogy),
the skill of the teacher in organising and managing the learning environment and
the skill of the teacher in managing student behaviour. There is a fifth factor – the
nature of the relationship developed between the teacher and his/her students. So,
in summary we want:

1. A curriculum that is interesting and relevant to students.
2. Pedagogy that captures students’ attention and engages them in
learning tasks and activities.
3. Classrooms and classroom experiences that are planned organised and
managed in a way that facilitates learning.
4. A teacher who is skilled in ways of promoting positive behaviour and
redirecting unacceptable behaviour back to one where students are on
task and engaged in learning.
5. A teacher who gives priority to and is successful in developing positive
teacher-student relationships.

Establishing good relationships with students (anyone for that matter) is very much
a matter of who we are – our personality, our social skills, our communication
skills, our sense of humour and outlook on life, the interest we have in and show
about other people, our skills in managing interpersonal conflicts, and how we
recognise, cope with and try to overcome our personal limitations. For better or for
worse, all these factors play a part in our capacity to have positive relations with
others.

This might be beginning to look daunting to you and your comfort level might
deteriorate a little more when you consider the unique features of the school
education context. As a teacher, you will need to develop a good working
relationship with twenty-five or so students (many more for secondary teachers). It
will be relatively easy developing good relations with students who are good
learners, who are cooperative and generally well behaved. More challenging, but
just as important are the relations with students you struggle to like – who are poor
or reluctant learners (difficult to teach), who have to be ‘pushed’ to do schoolwork
and whose behaviour is negative, uncooperative, oppositional, defiant or hostile.
Another complicating factor is the nature of the teacher-student relationship, given
one is in the role of teacher, and the other in the role of student. There is no parity
in this relationship, but a positive relationship nevertheless has to be developed.
Finally, we all vary in our natural ‘likeableness’. Some of us are blest with lots of
natural appeal and people, including students, like to be associated with us and
like to work with us. Most of us however, have to work at being liked. That’s fine,
just so long as we are honest about it, know what to work on and have the

knowledge and skills necessary to make our social relations with others positive
ones.

Characteristics of Liked Teachers

Teachers are significant people in the lives of students if only because of the many
hours, days and months spent together in the classroom. Students are well aware
of the role teachers’ play in their academic, social and emotional development.
Their opportunity to learn, their capacity to derive enjoyment from the school
experience depends to a large extent of the skill and personality of teachers
students come into contact with.

The evidence from multiple studies has been clear and unequivocal about what
characteristics of teachers are liked and disliked by students. What is also clear is
that students have high expectations in respect of teacher behaviour. Pre-service
teachers are well advised to have a good understanding of these characteristics
and to regularly assess their performance against them. What follows is a summary
of characteristics of liked teachers. Student ‘dislikes’ are generally the opposite to
the ‘liked’ features. The liked characteristics have been grouped based on those
that relate to teachers pedagogical skills and those that relate to the teacher as a
person.

The Teacher’s Pedagogical and Competence

 Is enthusiastic about teaching and passionate about what is taught.
 Teaches in a vibrant and animated manner.
 Creates lessons that are interesting, engaging, challenging and fun.
 Offers up-to-date, relevant information beyond the textbook.
 Inspires students to work harder.
 Structures lessons to give all students an opportunity for success.
 Is willing to support students in their learning.
 Believes and communicates that all students can learn.
 Doesn’t ‘give up’ on students.
 Has clear ground rules and expectations that are tough but fair.
 Sets realistic limits.

The Teacher as a Person
 Has a good sense of humour.
 Can relate to students at their own level.
 Does not threaten or punish.
 Provides a safe and secure classroom.
 Shows an interest in students and what their interests are outside of
the classroom.
 Conveys respect for students.
 Is approachable and supportive.
 Has a genuine capacity to listen to students.
 Is warm, friendly, caring and compassionate.
 Provides a remedial attachment or compensatory relationship for
troubled students.

It is the latter set of characteristics that students see as most important. They
represent the human side of the teaching-learning experience. They should remind
teachers that they are there to teach children and young people, not just the
curriculum. In this respect, there are an equally large number behaviours that
teachers need to exhibit on a daily basis if they are to come anywhere need
meeting the expectations of their students. These behaviours include:

 Using a supportive tone of voice.
 Showing that you can have fun with the students.
 Maintaining a high ratio of positive to negative statements.
 Getting to know the students.
 Listening to students and taking them seriously.
 Appreciating the uniqueness of individual students.
 Showing interest in and respect for their outside interests.
 Demonstrating an interest in the things that are important to students.
 Creating opportunities for personal discussions.
 Communicating high expectations for students.
 Looking for improvement, not perfection, in student work and
behaviour.
 Letting students know that it is OK to make mistakes.
 Applying reasonable consequences for inappropriate behaviour.
 Giving students a sense of positive power over their lives.
 Being willing to assign students responsibilities and showing faith
that they will meet these expectations.
 Involving students in making decisions the class and the curriculum.
 Letting the students know that the classroom belongs to them as well
as the teacher.
 Speaking courteously to students.
 Treating students with respect and dignity.
 Treating students in ways you would like them to treat you.
 Being patient with students.

This is by no means a definitive list, but is indicative of what the teacher’s role is
outside of considerations of planning, curriculum and pedagogy. For pre-service
teachers, the expectations may appear daunting, even unrealistic. As with your
competencies in teaching, classroom management, classroom organisation, and
behaviour management, skills can be built up overtime. With the ‘relationship’ side
of teaching you will also need to accept that this too is part of what you do as a
professional. Without that understanding and commitment you will not become a
truly great teacher, one who is recognised as such and has the respect of students,
parents and all in the school community.

Communication: What You Need to Know

It has been stated that good teachers are first and foremost effective
communicators. The task of teaching involves many aspects including imparting
knowledge, organising and managing the class and looking after the social
development and welfare of students. In all these responsibilities, communication
and especially effective communication is a key factor. Indeed, communication is
the major factor which underlies all that a teacher does.

There is no universally accepted definition of communication, although many
definitions share similar features (Eunson, 2005). Often the definition depends on
the context, e.g. business, government, school education etc. Mohan, McGregor,
Saunders, and Archee, (2004) indicate that definitions tend to focus on one or
more of the following:

 Communication is the transition of messages.
 Communication is social interaction through messages.
 Communication is the reciprocal creation of meaning in a context.
 Communication is the sharing of meaning through information, ideas
and feeling.

In the school context communication is all of the above factors.

Given these four explanations of the function of communication, one can say
that effective communication involves:

 The clear and unambiguous transmission of information.
 The active and mutually satisfying involvement of all who are
engaged in the communication exchange.
 The shared involvement of all in the creation of meaning and
understanding of the messages conveyed.
 The opportunity for all engaged in the communication process to
contribute to the communication for the purpose of sharing their
information, ideas and feelings.

It would be hard to say that communication in the teaching-learning process does
not involve all four of the above characteristics. However, because of the dominant
position of the teacher, there is the danger that students will be assigned a lesser
role in the process and will as such be denied the opportunity to contribute
substantially to the creation of meaning and to experience mutually satisfying
outcomes from the communication exchange. Teachers are well advised to be
aware of the issue of parity and mutual contribution in communicating with
students. These play a major part in how students view their teachers and in the
nature of the relationship that is developed between teachers and students.

At the level of information transmission and exchange, i.e. how teachers present
information in the classroom, effective communication involves both verbal and
nonverbal elements. Teachers need to make their message audible and clear, i.e.
the teacher’s voice needs to be loud enough, projected well enough, with words
articulated clearly to be heard and understood by students. The pitch and pace of
the teacher’s voice, along with the use of emphasis and pausing, all can assist in
the teacher’s message being conveyed clearly with important information singled
out and highlighted.

Effective classroom communication also involves supplementing what is said with
visual information provided on the board, on OHT, chart, picture or other visual aid.
Many students need this multi modal input for them to make sense of what the
teacher is saying and trying to get across. In communicating with students,
regardless of age, teachers need to be aware of and responsive to the different
learning styles that students have. Many students are not good auditory learners

and will be disadvantaged by teachers who mainly use their voice and verbal
messages to get across information and ideas to students. Some students need
visual representations of information for it to make sense for them. Others will learn
best by ‘doing’. If the goal of teaching is to get across information to students and
to help them learn, teacher communication that is most effective is communication
which is responsive to student learning preferences and styles (Brady, 2003).

Nonverbal Communication
There is some debate as to how important nonverbal communication is to the
overall effectiveness of communication. The research of Mehrabian (1981) is often
quoted as say that as much as 55 percent of what is communicated is via
nonverbal means. This figure is a misinterpretation of Mehrabian’s work and
findings; however, it is clear that strong messages are conveyed through various
nonverbal means. In teaching and particularly in behaviour management, teacher
nonverbal behaviour – proximity, eye contact, movement around the room,
gestures and posture, all help maintain student attention and convey messages
about a teacher’s enthusiasm, confidence and control of the teaching-learning
experience (Jones, 2000). In fact, through our body language we are always
communicating, whether we want to or not!
Nonverbal messages are the primary way that we communicate emotions. We do
this largely via facial expressions and posture and gestures. The face is perhaps
the most important conveyor of emotional information. A face can light up with
enthusiasm, energy, and approval, express confusion or boredom, and scowl with
displeasure. The eyes are particularly expressive in telegraphing joy, sadness,
anger, or confusion.
Our body postures can create a feeling of warm openness or cold rejection. For
example, when someone faces us, sitting quietly with hands loosely folded in the
lap, a feeling of anticipation and interest is created. A posture of arms crossed on
the chest portrays a feeling of inflexibility. The action of gathering up one’s
materials and looking towards the door signals a desire to end the conversation.
Listening Skills
Effective communication in the classroom also relies of good listening skills, not
only on the part of students, but teachers as well. The key to receiving messages
effectively is listening. Listening is a combination of hearing what another person
says and psychological involvement with the person who is talking. Listening
requires more than hearing words. It requires a desire to understand another
human being, an attitude of respect and acceptance, and a willingness to open
one’s mind to try and see things from another’s point of view.
Listening requires a high level of concentration and energy. It demands that we set
aside our own thoughts and agendas, put ourselves in another’s shoes and try to
see the world through that person’s eyes. True listening requires that we suspend
judgment, evaluation, and approval in an attempt to understand another is frame of
reference, emotions, and attitudes. Listening to understand is, indeed, a difficult
task!

When we listen effectively we gain information that is valuable to understanding the
problem as the other person sees it. We gain a greater understanding of the other
person’s perception. After all, the truth is subjective and a matter of perception.
When we have a deeper understanding of another’s perception, whether we agree
with it or not, we hold the key to understanding that person’s motivation, attitude,
and behaviour. We have a deeper understanding of the problem and the potential
paths for reaching agreement. Listening then:
1. Requires concentration and energy.
2. Involves a psychological connection with the speaker.
3. Includes a desire and willingness to try and see things from another’s
perspective.
4. Requires that we suspend judgment and evaluation.
Nonverbal Listening Skills
Teachers need to give their full physical attention to students when they are
communicating. Effective attending is a careful balance of alertness and
relaxation that includes appropriate body movement, eye contact, and
‘posture of involvement’. Fully attending says to the speaker, “What you are
saying is very important. I am totally present and intent on understanding
you”. We create a posture of involvement by:
 Leaning gently towards the speaker.
 Facing the student squarely.
 Maintaining eye contact with the student.
 Maintaining an open posture with arms and legs uncrossed.
 Maintaining an appropriate distance between us and the students (no
closer than a metre to a metre and a half).
 Moving our bodies in response to the speaker, i.e., appropriate head
nodding, and facial expressions e.g. smiles or frowns.
Active Listening Skills
Teachers who emphasise ‘active listening’ i.e. where an effort is made sure the
message received is the one intended, are more alert to misunderstandings and
distortions and as such can act to clarify the original message. Friend and Cook
(2007) have identified a number of useful active listening skills. These are:
 Paraphrasing – a brief, succinct statement reflecting or mirroring the
content of the student’s message e.g. “You said that you thought he was
saying something bad about your sister. Have I got that right”?
 Summarizing – a statement of the main ideas and feelings to show
understanding e.g. “Nathan is saying that you deliberately pushed him.
You’re saying it was an accident”.
 Questioning – asking open questions to gain information, encourage the
speaker to tell her story, and gain clarification e.g. “I want to hear your side
of the story so I can better understand what happened.”
 Reflecting Feeling – a statement, in a way that conveys understanding, of
the feeling that the listener has heard e.g.” It seems to me that you
understand now that what you said to Kathy has made her very unhappy

and you’d like to do something to undo some of the harm that has been
done.”

All of these statements and questions are conveyed in a non-judgemental way to
maximise the opportunity for all participants to have their say and to feel that they
have some control over the outcome.
Communication Barriers
There are many factors in human interaction that can act to create a breakdown in
communication and deterioration in teacher-student relationships. These include:
 Teachers assuming that students share their goals, needs and beliefs.
 Messages translated into another language may carry different meanings
to that intended.
 Misinterpretation and mistransmission of nonverbal messages.
 Preconceptions and stereotypes may keep teachers from being objective.
 Premature judgements about a student’s actions or statements bias our
view and shut down communication before it starts.
When teachers are rushed for time, confronted with challenging behaviour or
otherwise under stress they are more likely to act emotionally and often irrationally.
In communicating with students this can lead to doing and saying things that
reduce the effectiveness of teacher-student verbal exchanges and may result in
deterioration in the teacher-student relationship. Teachers may later on regret their
actions. In some cases, they may not even be aware of the impact of their actions.
Thomas Gordon, author of the Parent Effectiveness Training program (PET) and
the parallel Teacher Effectiveness Training program (TET) has identified that in
conflict situations (parent-child, and teacher-student) communication impediments
and barriers dominate interaction (Gordon, 1974, 2000). A summary of the most
common communication barriers follows:

 Attacks (interrogating, criticising, blaming, name calling, shaming).

“So, everyone in your group get a fail because you didn’t do your job”.
“You’re just a thug! You’re an embarrassment to your classmates and your
school”.
“Where were you lunch time? Do you know what ‘out of bounds’ means?
You know what’s going to happen now don’t you?

 “You Messages” (lecturing, moralizing, preaching, advising, diagnosing).

“If I were you, I’d stay away from that group’.
“I’ll tell you where you’re heading if you keep this behaviour up”.
“You don’t seem to care that your behaviour is really upsetting to all the
kids around you’.

 Power Assertions (dominating conversations, warning, ordering,
threatening, commanding, directing).

“Keep that up, and there’ll be a letter home to your parents’ quick smart”.
“You! Over there now and keep your mouth shut”.
“Get back into your seat now!”

 Other Verbal Barriers (shouting, name calling, withdrawing and refusing
to speak).
Nonverbal Communication Barriers
1. Flashing or rolling eyes.
2. Restless body movements.
3. Arms crossed, legs crossed.
4. Gestures made with exasperation.
5. Slouching, hunching over.
7. Doodling.
8. Staring at people or avoiding eye contact.
9. Excessive fidgeting with materials.
These nonverbal behaviours convey the message that (1) the listener isn’t really
interested in what the speaker has to say or doesn’t believe it is of any value; (2)
disagrees with what the speaker is saying and/or is hostile towards the speaker;
and (3) wishes the conversation to cease.

Students’ Sense of Belonging at School

Increasingly schools are placing a greater emphasis on the social and emotional
experience of students. The impetus for this more formalised focus centres around
a realisation that many students face difficulties in this area and those difficulties
can and often do negatively impact on students’ psychological well-being, on their
engagement with the school curriculum, their relationships with peers and
teachers, and their behaviour in general. The aspects of the social and emotional
school experience that have received the most attention include the students’
sense of belonging within the classroom and broader school community, and
associated psychological constructs such as of ‘connectedness’ and ‘relatedness’.

Schools are well placed to provide support to children and young people in the
social-emotional domain, if only because of how much time students spend at
school. However, it is questionable whether teachers are adequately prepared to
offer support and whether they see this as part of their role in the school. Having
said this, teachers are, whether consciously or not, significant agents in the social
and emotional experience of students at school.

In this chapter we will explore the concept of ‘sense of belonging’ and its
relationship to student psychological development, engagement with the
curriculum, academic achievement and behaviour. We will also look at ways
teachers can facilitate in students a strong sense of connectedness to school, to
peers and to teachers.

Belonging Defined
Sense of belonging is not a simple one dimensional construct. Its development and
impact are mediated by a whole range of variables. Our coverage here will not
attempt to capture or address this complexity. The emphasis will be on what it
means for students and how, in practical terms, teachers can encourage a strong
sense of belonging in the classroom and broader school environment.
There is any number of definitions of school belonging but most authorities
maintain that it refers to
… a student’s sense of being accepted, valued, included
and encouraged by others in the academic classroom
setting and of feeling oneself to be an important part of
the life and activity of the class (Goodenow, 1993a, p.
25).
Belonging is closely associated with concepts such as ‘connectedness’ and
‘relatedness’. Relatedness is often viewed as a term interchangeable with the
concept of belonging. However, these similar concepts and constructs focus mainly
on affective components, whereas ‘belonging’ includes both affective and cognitive
aspects.
An element of school belonging is ‘place attachment’. Outside of the home, the
school is the most significant physical and social setting for children and young
people, with many hours over many years being spent at school. It is for some
students the only stable and supportive environment in their young lives.
Unfortunately, the school can also be an unpleasant and punitive place for some
students. This is often the case for students who are unable to accept and/or to
conform to school norms and expectations or where they do not experience
success in learning. Where interactions with fellow students or with teachers are
unrewarding, and where students feel unwelcomed, unsupported and rejected, the
result is often withdrawal and disengagement from the learning experience or
acting out behaviour and other forms of anti-social behaviour (Jack, 2008).
Obviously, a sense of belonging can only be achieved within a social setting i.e.
through interaction with others. Having said this, it needs to be kept in mind that a
sense of belonging is more than the need for social contact. Certainly social
interaction is an essential feature of belonging, but for it to bring about a sense of
belonging it needs to be meaningful, regular and reciprocally fulfilling. When social
interaction fails to bring about these outcomes feelings of social isolation,
loneliness, rejection and alienation can result (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
A sense of belonging is now widely recognised as a basic human need
(Baumeister & Leary, 1995) along with other basic needs such as the need for
survival, safety and self-esteem (Maslow, 1971). These basic needs must be met
(satisfied) if the individual is to go on to achieve higher levels of intellectual
development; needs that, in the lives of children and young people, are most often
met through their school education. Unmet needs have a significant negative
impact on individuals. Many negative psychological and behavioural outcomes,
including mental illness, criminal tendency and social isolation can be explained by
the lack of a sense of belonging. Maslow (1968) has stated that underlying most

emotional breakdowns lies for a need for belonging, being loved and being
respected.
Psychological & Educational Outcomes
Several decades of research has clearly identified the negative effects of a poor
sense of belonging. Osterman’s (2000) review of the research found low sense of
belonging to be related to mental and physical illness and behaviour problems
including criminality and suicidal tendencies. A lack of belonging brings with it
significant feeling of rejection which in turn can lead to anxiety, depression, grief,
loneliness and jealously. Adolescents have been a particular focus of research on
the effects of belonging. A study by McNeely, Monnemaker, and Blum (2002) is
typical of this research. They concluded that when adolescents feel cared for by
people at their school and feel like part of their school, they are less likely to use
substances (drugs), to engage in violence, or to initiate sexual activity at an early
age.
With respect to the link between a sense of belonging and academic outcomes
there are some mixed results. On balance though a well-developed sense of
belonging correlates positively with improved academic achievement (Vaquera,
2008). Gonalez and Padilla (1997) concluded from their study of high school
students that a sense of belonging was the only factor that effectively predicted
academic achievement. In an updated review and commentary on the effect of
belonging on academic achievement (Osterman, 2010) support for the link was
reaffirmed.
The sense of belonging experienced by students from ethnic minorities, from
economically disadvantaged families and other special needs and marginalised
groups has received considerable attention from researchers. Goodenow (1992)
argues that because of their differences students from these groups may struggle
for acceptance and in fact may experience rejection by peers and even teachers.
Students who do manage to acquire a strong sense of belonging are less self-
conscious, experience less stress, and report higher levels of happiness, interest
and confidence in class. On the other hand, students who struggle to find their
place in school report greater levels of anxiety and stress, boredom, frustration and
sadness in class. When struggling to cope with these experiences and emotions it
is almost inevitable that academic performance will deteriorate. Dropout rates are
much higher for students from these groups.
The research suggests that belonging may have a direct influence of students’
motivation (Goodenow, 1993b). A sense of belonging and the perceived support
that comes along with it are understood to increase students’ beliefs in their likely
success. This then enhances their motivation and willingness to engage in learning
tasks and activities. Goodenow (1993a) noted that this was particularly important in
middle years schooling. One of the reasons he says that there is a poor fit between
the opportunities provided by middle school environments and the developmental
needs of young adolescents is that middle school environments do not respond
adequately to students’ need for belonging and support, which leads to a decrease
in student academic motivation (Furrer & Skinner, 2003).
The positive outcomes from having a strong sense of belonging also need to be
noted. Rowe and Steward (2009) identify a strong sense of belonging as a

powerful protective factor for child and adolescent health, education and social
well-being. Even when exposed to challenging circumstances, students who have
a strong connection to the school and school community are often able to ward off
any negative impacts from the problems they face.
From Osterman’s (2000) comprehensive review of the research we know that
students who have a strong sense of belonging exhibit more prosocial behaviour
and more positive attitudes, motives, expectancies, values, goals and emotional
functioning. In addition, these students develop important learning related
fundamental psychological processes including intrinsic motivation, self-regulation,
internalisation and autonomy. They are also more likely to have more positive self-
concepts, self-esteem and self-efficacy.
Role & Importance of the School & Teacher
Belonging is now established as an important factor in helping children and young
people achieve their potential within the school community. Because it is
recognised as a basic human need it is acknowledged that all students will benefit
from schools which attempt to harness a sense of belonging in their students
(Benner, Graham, & Mistry, 2008). It is also recognised that efforts to help students
feel that they belong are beneficial in maintaining students’ psychological well-
being (Howell, 2012). Many educators agree that the need to belong is one of the
most important needs of all students to function well in all types of learning
environments (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Deci & Ryan, 1991; Finn, 1989;
Osterman, 2000).
The concept of belonging is rooted in the view that education is a social rather than
an individualistic process, where learning and behaviour in general is a result of
relationships and interactions with others in their environment; specifically with
teachers and other students. Increasingly school systems and curricular are
recognising the importance of the social and emotional needs of students, and the
importance of a sense of belonging being central to efforts to support positive
social and emotional development.
When students experience a sense of belonging they like school and are more
willing to engage in learning. They have more positive attitudes towards
themselves and others and are more likely to interact with others, peers and adults,
in positive and supportive ways. They are more accepting of authority and more
empathetic to others. Conversely, the sense of rejection is associated with
emotional distress as well as a full range of behavioural, social and academic
problems (Osterman, 2010).
What is clear from the research is that teachers have the strongest and most direct
effect on students’ psychological experience in the classroom. Teachers directly
influence students’ sense of belonging through interpersonal support, the
encouragement of student autonomy, and pedagogy that supports positive
interaction with peers (Osterman, 2010). Teachers also exert an indirect influence
on student belonging by the way they encourage and support peer-peer
relationships in the classroom.
The importance of the teacher is further realised through the understanding that
belonging is linked to the actual experience in school and far less to factors outside

of the school (e.g. parents and carers) and very much outside of the teacher’s
control (Osterman, 2010). A student’s sense of relatedness and belonging in a
particular classroom is associated with events and experiences in that classroom,
and the key events and experiences are those that relate to the relationships that
teachers develop with their students. From this perspective, students interpret good
teaching as ‘caring behaviour’:
To the extent that teachers establish a positive
relationship with students, utilize instructional strategies
that enable students to learn, and empower them as
learners within the classroom, students feel cared for –
and they are more likely to be engaged in learning
(Osterman, 2010, p. 240)
Strategies for Enhancing a Sense of Belonging
The strategies introduced here all are premised on the view that the teacher is a
key player in the creation of a strong positive sense of belonging in students.
Osterman (2010) depicts the teacher’s influence within three broad domains – the
teacher as a person, the teacher as instructional leader and the teacher as a
model. The strategies reviewed here are ordered using these three categories and
are based on the research and findings of Certo, Cauley, and Chafin (2003);
Cothran and Ennis (2000); FitzSimmons (2006); Lewis and Kim (2008); LoVerde
(2007); and Osterman (2000, 2010).
Teacher as Person
When considering how teachers can encourage belonging we move into a series of
personal and professional behaviours that go far beyond the usual curriculum and
pedagogical skills covered in pre-service teacher education programs. While still
‘teacher practices’ they very much relate to the teacher as a person and his or her
willingness and capacity to communicate and interact with students at a personal
level.
Teacher behaviours and practices that support student engagement and
belonging:
1. Genuine expression of care for students.
2. Interacts with students frequently throughout the lesson.
3. Shows enthusiasm for teaching and learning through words and body
language.
4. Disciplines proactively rather than punitively.
5. Conveys messages of acceptance.
6. Has a deep, personal and professional understanding of students.
7. Is aware of and responsive to students’ special circumstances.
8. Is tolerant.
9. Provides supportive, non-threatening corrective feedback.
10. Provides personal as well as academic support.
11. Encouraged and supported student autonomy. Cares about
student achievement. Wants students to learn.
12. Knows students names.
13. Is approachable and available for students. Listens to students.

14. Has and conveys a sense of humour. Jokes with students.
15. Avoids situations where students might be embarrassed in front of
their peers.
16. Interacts with students outside of the classroom.
17. Treats students as individuals.
18. Willing to work with students.
19. Demonstrates an interest in and concern for the personal life and
welfare of students.
Teacher as Instructional Leader
The act of teaching and all the professional skills and qualities associated
with teaching all have a significant bearing on students’ sense of belonging.
Leithwood, Cousins, Jantzi, and Patsula (1996) in their research found that
quality of teaching accounted for 46 percent of the variation in students’
sense of belonging. From this research and the findings of the research cited
earlier the following instructional practices have been found to contribute to
students’ sense of belonging. The teacher:
1. Had expectations for student learning and achievement.
2. Had a mastery orientation to teaching and learning. Instruction and
practice continued until the students’ understood the task.
3. Utilised relevant and engaging methods of teaching.
4. Provided challenge and variety in teaching and learning activities.
5. Developed relevant lessons.
6. Respected and supported student autonomy in the learning
process. Offered choices.
7. Gave regular and supportive feedback on learning.
8. Scheduled regular review sessions and opportunities to relearn
information and skills.
9. Provided sufficient time to complete lesson tasks and activities.
10. Did not compare a student’s performance with the achievements
of other students.
11. Interacted with students frequently.
12. Continually checked for understanding.
13. Offered extra help as needed.
14. Organised the classroom and instruction to permit and maximise
opportunity for self-direction.
15. Used language that was encouraging and accepting.
16. Avoided the use of coercive or controlling comments.
17. Utilised ‘hands on’ opportunities where possible as well as
opportunities for active participation, including discussion and
debate.
18. Involved students in decision-making in the class including
decisions about class rules and genuinely listed to students’ ideas.
19. Was fair in dealings with students.
20. Helped students’ understanding and learning by providing clear
explanations and examples.
21. Had a problem solving orientation to learning and taught students
to have a similar orientation.
22. Conveyed to students that they could succeed. Wanted students
to do well.

23. Were enthusiastic about the subjects they taught.

The Nature & Experience of Rejection
Students, who have little sense of belonging in school or in the classroom,
experience strong feelings of rejection, loneliness and, in some cases, anger.
Sadly, teachers are major contributors to these outcomes. In every day interactions
with students in and outside of the classroom, through how they teach, what they
say, their body language and tone of voice, teachers communicate their thoughts
and feelings about their students. Do they like them; do they view them as ‘difficult’
or ‘problem’ students? Do they see them as capable and committed learners, or do
they view them as students who do not value their education, do not try, and
cannot succeed (Osterman, 2010)? It is interesting that terms used to describe
problematic students such as “disruptive’, ‘unmotivated’, ‘oppositional’,
‘nonconformist’, ‘daydreamer’, ‘withdrawn’ etc., are all outcomes of or related in
one way or another to low sense of belonging.
These teacher perceptions and feelings are difficult to hide, even in cases where
teachers try to do so. How teachers perceive students – their ability, engagement,
their behaviour and their academic performance, influences dramatically the quality
of the teacher-student relationship. Some students will be favoured over others;
some will be recipients of high levels of encouragement, praise and reward, others
will not. Some students will be the ‘go to’ students for answers, opinions,
responsibilities and leadership opportunities and privileges; others will be
overlooked, ignored and shunned.
The differential treatment of students has had a long history of research, but was
kick started by the work of Thomas Good and Jere Brophy in the 1970’s (Good &
Brophy, 2008). They studied how teachers interacted with low achieving students
and identified twelve ways teachers treated these students in comparison with
other students and particularly with high achieving students. These are
summarised below:
1. Seating low performing students farther from the teacher or in a group,
making it harder to monitor low achieving students and to treat them as
individuals.
2. Paying less attention to low achieving students in academic situations
(smiling less often and maintaining less eye contact).
3. Calling on low achieving students less often to answer classroom
questions or to make class presentations.
4. Waiting less time for low achieving students to answer questions before
giving the answer or re-directing the question to other students.
5. Not ‘staying with’ low achievers in failure situations (providing prompts or
clues, or asking follow-up questions).
6. Criticising low achievers more frequently than high achievers for
incorrect public responses.
7. Praising low achievers less frequently than high achievers after
successful public responses.
8. Praising low achievers more frequently than high achievers for marginal
or inadequate public responses.

9. Providing low achieving students with less accurate and less detailed
feedback than high achievers.
10. Failing to provide low achievers with feedback about their responses
more frequently than high achievers.
11. Requiring less work and effort from low achievers than from high
achievers.
12. Interrupting the performance of low achievers more frequently than that
of high achievers.
Out of these findings Good and Brophy developed a model of teacher expectations
that traced how what the teacher expected of the student eventually became a
reality for the student. The model appears as follows:
1. The teacher expects specific behaviour and achievement from particular
students.
2. Because of these varied expectations, the teacher behaves differently
toward different students.
3. This treatment communicates to the students what behaviour and
achievement the teacher expects from them and affects their self-
concepts, achievement motivation, and levels of aspiration.
4. If this treatment is consistent over time, and if the students do not resist
or change in some way, it will shape their achievement and behaviour.
High expectation students will be led to achieve at high levels and will be
rewarded as such. The achievement of low expectation students will
decline and will be targeted for criticism and other forms of negative
feedback.
5. Over time, students’ achievement and behaviour will conform more and
more closely to the behaviour originally expected of them.
Low achieving students, whether because of lack of motivation or ability, are
problematic for teachers because of the extraordinary effort required to support
their learning. Often this involves separate planning and differentiated instruction –
all demanding of teacher time and energy. With continued low achievement or
minimal improvement at best, these students provide teachers with very little
reward for their efforts and may explain why they devote so much attention to
highly motivated, engaged and well performing students. It is not too difficult to see
how students with other characteristics that makes teaching difficult and/or
stressful e.g. students with disabilities and other special needs and behaviour
problem students, may receive a less than favourable response from teachers.
Of particular concern are recent findings in relation to the model provided to
students in the classroom by teachers. Through their words and actions teachers
establish in their classrooms their values, standards and norms. It appears too that
teacher perceptions and patterns of interaction with students influence the nature
of peer relations, with peer to peer acceptance mirroring the teacher’s preferences
(Osterman, 2010). Peers as well as teachers prefer students who are academically
competent and engaged, and shun those who are less capable or less engaged.
Popular students are perceived as ‘good’ students while those who are rejected or
preferred less by teachers and peers were perceived by both as ‘poor’ students
(Wentzel & Asher, 1995). The perceptions of popular and less popular students
tend to be maintained over time even when the student’s behaviour and/or
academic work shows improvement (Hymel, Wagner, & Butler, 1990). Where peer

perceptions are reinforced or altered over time these are invariably based on social
comparisons with other students (Anderman & Maehr, 1994).
Popularity with peers and favoured treatment by teachers set popular students
apart from other students socially as well as academically. They often form
exclusive cliques with similarly popular students. Students low in popularity, by
comparison, found their social worth in membership of anti-social and anti-school
groups and gangs or by distancing themselves from peers, just as teachers
distance themselves from less capable students.
Knowledge of the influence they have in the classroom, for better and for worse is
the first step to improving the school experience for all children and young people.
Teachers then need to realise that they are very much in control of the conditions
in the classroom under which students interact. Osterman (2010) provides some
general guidelines for the creation of more positive relations in the classroom.
These include:
1. Communicating an enforcing prosocial norms and values.
2. Providing opportunities for students to exercise autonomy.
3. Encouraging and engaging students in dialogue about democratic
values, tolerance and acceptance of others.
4. Providing students with the opportunity to work collaboratively (e.g.
cooperative group work).
5. Participating in group problem solving and decision making.
6. Providing opportunities for supportive interactions in and outside of
the classroom (e.g. teamwork).
All of the above relational and supportive practices enhance a sense of community
in the classroom and go a long way to helping students find their place in school
and a real sense of belonging.

Autonomy and Belonging
One other factor needs to be considered here in the belonging equation. This is the
experience of autonomy which is closely associated with the need of students to
have some control over what happens in their lives. Much of the literature on
student autonomy derives from research with middle school and secondary
students. Critiques of education in these sectors have highlighted a significant
disconnect between adolescents growing need for independence and decreasing
opportunities for student autonomy in the classroom (Anderman & Maehr, 1994;
Hargreaves, Earl & Ryan, 1996). For many students this leads to the experience of
being a ‘pawn’ in the hands of teachers and other adults, with very little control over
their lives (deCharms, 1968). Many adolescents experience strong feelings of
alienation, resentment and anger through this experience leading in some cases to
outright hostility towards those in authority.

There are considerable variations in perceptions of autonomy from classroom to
classroom; ranging from absolute feelings of powerlessness to feelings that one
could change anything within the teaching-learning environment (Allen, 1995).
Much depends on the confidence and willingness of teachers to relinquish some of
their control in the classroom. Secondary classrooms typically provide fewer
opportunities to experience autonomy, ironically, when the need for autonomy
appears to be at its greatest.

Tragically, a vicious cycle develops in many classrooms. The lack of opportunity for
autonomy has a negative effect on student motivation. Relations with teachers
deteriorate, peer relations are put under strain, learning loses its appeal, students
begin to disengage and the sense of belonging and wanting to belong starts to
wane. Off task behaviour increases as does the frequency of low level disruptive
behaviour and passive aggressive behaviour involving previously well behaved
students. Faced with these challenges many teachers react with more control and
reduced opportunities for autonomy (Connell & Wellborn, 1991). For many
adolescents this experience is mirrored in their home environment in interactions
with parents. Children who become more demanding for their ‘freedom’ and less
cooperative are often confronted with hostility, reduced support and further
reductions in independence and the capacity to make decisions for themselves
(Connell & Wellborn, 1991).
What is emerging from the literature on control and autonomy in the home and in
the classroom is that the careful introduction and management of opportunities for
autonomy, actually leads to greater levels of motivation, engagement and sense of
belonging in students (Battistich, Solomon, Kim, Watson, & Schaps, 1995; Kagan,
1990). Autonomy has been shown to lead to a greater, not less, acceptance of
adult authority and to an increase in the level of prosocial behaviour in the
classroom. The reaction of teachers to many forms of challenging behaviour and
student pressures that takes them outside their ‘comfort zone’ is often one greater
control to restore their ideal state of affairs. Turning this thinking around appears to
be a major challenge in itself.

Linda Albert’s Cooperative Discipline Model
Linda Albert has made a significant practical contribution to our understanding of
student behaviour and in particular student sense of belonging. Her ideas and
advice to teachers (Albert, 2003) deserves coverage in this chapter on teacher-
student relations. Albert’s Cooperative Discipline Model was influenced by the work
Rudolf Dreikurs, child psychiatrist, and Alfred Adler, psychiatrist and author of
individual psychology. Dreikur’s believed that students (all children) are driven by a
fundamental social need to belong and that when they are unable to achieve a
sense of belonging, misbehaviour results in the form of attention seeking, power
seeking, revenge seeking, or avoidance.
According to Dreikurs, when speaking to students, teachers should use the
following guidelines to enhance a sense of student belonging:
 Always speak in positive terms; never be negative.
 Encourage students to strive for improvement, not perfection.
 Emphasize student strengths while minimising weaknesses.
 Help students learn from mistakes, which are valuable in learning.
 Encourage independence and the assumption of responsibility.
 Show faith in students; offer them help in overcoming obstacles.
 Encourage students to help each other.
 Show pride in students’ work; display it and share it with others.
 Be optimistic and enthusiastic – a positive outlook is contagious.

 Use encouraging remarks such as, “You have improved,” “Can I help you?”
“What did you learn from that mistake?”
As useful and insightful as Dreikurs’ strategies are, they fall short in tangible,
practical recommendations for classroom discipline. Linda Albert’s Cooperative
Discipline began with Dreikurs’ approach; and then clarified and extended his work
by creating concrete methods for preventing and redirecting student misbehaviour.
According to Albert, to improve our classrooms, the change starts with the teacher.
Albert went on to say that we need to learn how to interact with students so they’ll
want to choose appropriate behaviour and comply with class rules. Like Dreikurs,
Albert believes the student’s fundamental need is a sense of belonging. To foster a
sense of belonging, a teacher’s primary role in Cooperative Discipline is helping
students see themselves as capable, connected with others, and contributing
members of the class – the Three C’s. Examples of how each the Three C’s can
be achieved are summarised below.
Capable
Students need to feel capable of completing their school work in a satisfactory
manner. Teachers can assist by:
 Creating an environment where is it OK to make mistakes. Everyone
makes mistakes (including the teacher) and mistakes or errors in learning
tasks and activities need to be understood as part of the learning process.
Talk to students about how mistakes fit with the learning process. Equate
mistakes with effort i.e. you must have been actively engaging in the
learning task for a mistake or error to occur. Minimize the negative effects
of mistakes by not highlighting every error and by giving selective feedback
– targeting the most important points.
 Build confidence by focusing on improvement and past successes.
Emphasise that learning is about improving, not perfection every time.
Explore why and how they succeeded on past occasions. Where possible
always steer the conversation towards ability and willingness to work,
rather than luck. Always acknowledge the times when struggling learners
make the effort to engage, participate and/or contribute. Convey faith in
students that they can do the work e.g. “I know you can get this right”.
Acknowledge that some tasks are difficult, but encourage students to
“hang in there”. Avoid labelling a task as easy. When students struggle to
successfully complete ‘easy’ tasks, their confidence levels slump. Set
reasonable time limits for lesson tasks and activities, so students know
they have a ‘fighting chance’ to get the work completed.
 Focus on past successes. Balance corrective feedback with recognition
of prior successful achievements. Analyse past successes. Students
attribute achievements to five factors: belief in their ability, effort, help from
others, a task’s difficulty level, and luck. Students only have control over
their belief in their ability and their effort. It is these two factors that
teachers need to focus on in interactions with and feedback to students.
Always refer back to earlier successfully completed task and periodically
have the students complete those tasks or very similar tasks again.

 Make progress tangible (e.g. work products and rewards) to demonstrate
how much was learned. Young students enjoy having an ‘I Can’ Can, a can
into which that placed notes about their achievements – no matter how
small. Other tangible indicators of student successes include scrapbooks
or portfolios, checklists of skills, and flowcharts of concepts mastered. Link
what is to be learned today with past learnings and what will be done in the
future. Many students don’t see the connection between on lesson and
another and as such developmental learning becomes fragmented. Make
the continuity of learning explicit.
 Recognise achievement. Give attention to the accomplishments of
students, both in and outside of the classroom. Ways this can be done
include applause, clapping and standing ovations, stars and stickers,
awards and assemblies, exhibits, positive time out (free time), and self-
approval (positive self-talk).
Connected
Students need to believe that they can develop positive relationships with teachers
and classmates. They need to feel connected with each other and the teacher.
Albert talks about the Five A’s as the way to achieve these outcomes. The Five A’s
are acceptance, attention, appreciation, affirmation, and affection.
 Be accepting of all students, regardless of their economic or cultural
backgrounds, their disabilities or other special needs, their personal
lifestyle choices, and their past misbehaviour.
 Give attention by listening and showing interest in their activities outside
of class. Other ways to show attention to students is by greeting students
when they come into class, chatting with students outside of class, eating
your lunch with the students, asking students’ about their lives outside of
school, attending and participating in extra-curricular activities, recognising
birthdays, displaying students’ baby pictures, sending messages home to
absent or sick students, and expressing a real interest in students’ part-
time work or hobbies.
 Show appreciation through praise and written comments. Emphasise that
the appreciation is for the behaviour, more so than the person. Always be
specific about what behaviour is be recognised and rewarded.
 Use affirmation statements that are specific and enthusiastic about a
student’s good qualities and personality traits. Be on the lookout for
opportunities to recognise positive traits. Traits and characteristics to look
for include: effort, creativity, enthusiasm. Fairness, friendliness,
helpfulness, honesty, kindness, originality, neatness, organisation,
patience, persistence, politeness, punctuality, and wit.
 Build affectionate relationships with simple acts of kindness. Affection is
not a tool to be used to induce or to reinforce a particular behaviour. It is a
genuine gift with ‘no strings attached’. Students need to know that their
teacher likes them. This can be displayed verbally, but affectionate touch –
handshake, pat on the back and hugs are powerful demonstrations of

affection. Such displays are much more ‘natural’ and ‘expected’ in early
childhood settings, and female teachers find these to be more natural and
acceptable than male teachers. The appropriateness of nonverbal forms of
affection will depend very much on the context and individuals involved.
Discretion and commonsense are the guidelines to follow here.
Contributing
Students need to have the opportunity to contribute to the operations of the
classroom and welfare of the class. They need to sense that their contribution
makes a difference in social and educational functions of the class.
 Allow student to participate in the development of the class code of
behaviour.
 Involve students in maintaining a positive learning environment through
class meetings, for example through ‘circle time’ for younger students.
 Always look for opportunities to gather suggestions from students about
how to better complete work and how to manage class activities.
 Use cooperative group activities on a regular basis.
 Facilitate the use of ‘learning buddies’ and the use of peer tutoring.
These are just some of the ideas and strategies developed by Linda Albert to
enhance a sense of belonging in students. For more ideas and information out the
Cooperative Discipline model you are referred to Albert’s most recent book: Albert,
L. (2003). Cooperative Discipline. Circle Pines, MN: AGS Publishers.
This concludes our discussion of teacher-student relationships. We now move on
to look at behaviour management at the system and school level.

Behaviour Management Chapter 4

Chapter 4
Managing
Challenging &
Antisocial
Behaviour

Research indicates that those students most at risk for delinquency
and violence are often those who are most alienated from the school
community. Schools need to reach out to build positive connections to
marginalized students, showing concern, and fostering avenues of
meaningful involvement.

(Astor, et al., 2012)

People take time. Dealing with discipline takes time. Children are not
fax machines or credit cards. When they misbehave, they tell us that
they need help learning a better way. They are telling us that there are
basic needs not being met which are motivating the behavior.

(Mendler, 1992)

I have come to the frightening conclusion I am the decisive element in
the classroom. It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It is
my daily mood that makes the weather. As a teacher, I possess
tremendous power to make a child’s life miserable or joyous. I can be a
tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration; I can humiliate or
humour, hurt or heal. In all situations it is my response that decides
whether a crisis will be escalated, and a child humanised or de-
humanised.

(Ginott, 1972)

Overview

We turn our attention now to more serious and more challenging student
behaviour. It is this behaviour that attracts most attention when behaviour and
behaviour management is the focus of discussion by educators, politicians, the
media and the general public. It needs to be kept in mind however, that it is not,
thankfully, the most frequently occurring form of misbehaviour in the classroom.
Most misbehaviour is low level disruptive behaviour and teachers spend a
considerable amount of time and energy managing this behaviour. It also needs to
be kept in mind that teachers are unlikely to be successful in managing more
serious forms of misbehaviour unless low level disruption is effectively dealt with.

Serious forms of challenging and antisocial behaviour are exhibited by a relatively
small percentage of students. These students also exhibit frequent low level
disruptive behaviour. The goal in working with these students is to minimise the
occurrence of milder forms of misbehaviour and to act to avoid escalation of these
behaviours to more serious misbehaviour.

With low level disruptive behaviour, where efficient re-direction back on task is the
primary goal, teachers need not devote too much time to investigating student
factors that might be contributing to the misbehaviour. Of course, teacher and
pedagogical causal factors will need to be considered in order to prevent continued
occurrence of misbehaviour. With students who exhibit more serious forms of
misbehaviour, student factors need to be considered. There is often something
going on in the lives of these students both within and outside of school that are
contributing to their rule breaking and antisocial behaviour. In conversations with
these students, with other teachers and with the parents, teachers can build a
picture of factors that might be influencing student behaviour and can use this
information in planning how to better respond to the behaviour. Having said this,
there is only so much that a teacher can influence and control in order to minimize
misbehaviour in the classroom and school. These factors relate to what is taught,
how it is taught, a teacher’s organizational and managerial skills, a teacher’s
behaviour management skills and the nature of the relationships a teacher is able
to develop with his or her students. A teacher’s focus of attention in dealing with
serious forms of misbehaviour should be on these factors. It should not be
assumed that in doing so a teacher’s impact will be diminished because external
factors such as the home environment or conditions such as emotional or
behavioural disorders cannot be directly controlled by the teacher or school.
Research clearly indicates that teachers have a significant and powerful role to
play in shaping the behaviour of students. Munk and Repp (1994) for example,
found that as much as ninety percent of problem behaviour in the classroom is
related to teacher and instructional variables.

Teachers need to assume almost total responsibility for the management of low
level disruptive behaviour. For more serious forms of misbehaviour the full
resources of the school and school community will often need to be activated. This
doesn’t mean that class teachers pass responsibility for the management of
serious misbehaviour over to other authorities and services. Teachers will remain
the ‘front line’ of response to difficult and challenging behaviour and will be
expected to be responding appropriately to incidents of serious misbehaviour. But
teachers should not feel that they are working alone and unsupported. Other

school personnel and support staff need to be involved in a planned and
coordinated way to reduce the occurrence of unacceptable behaviour and to
encourage more appropriate ways of behaving.
Background
Along with literacy and numeracy achievement levels, school discipline ranks as
one of the major concerns voiced by the public about schools and the school
system (Australian Education Union, 2009; House of Representatives Standing
Committee on Employment, Education & Training, 1994; MACER, 2005). These
concerns are echoed in frequent and often dramatic media reports of disruptive
students, bullying, and violence in classrooms and playgrounds across the country.
There is a continuing, and some would say, growing perception that behaviour
problems are endemic in schools, that teachers are struggling to maintain order,
and that school authorities are unable to guarantee the safety of students.

Concern for discipline is evident in many Western countries and increasingly in
Asian countries as well (Spice, 1997). This concern is reinforced by surveys of
public opinion, research on the problems faced by teachers in their day to day
work, reported levels of teacher stress, and evidence of the growing number of
disaffected and alienated youth in society at large. The annual Gallup Poll of
community attitudes toward the public schools in the United States has consistently
found discipline to be a major concern, in company with drugs, smoking, teenage
pregnancy, fighting, and gangs (Bushaw & Lopez, 2012). A similar national survey
of teachers in the United States found that fifty-eight percent of respondents
reported their lessons were regularly disrupted by student misbehaviour (Langdon,
1997) and this figure is mirrored by findings in the United Kingdom (Steer, 2005).

Concern about disruptive and anti-social behaviour in schools is fuelled by media
coverage of incidents of gun-carrying students in U.S. schools, and of recent `thrill’
and `revenge’ shootings by students as young as eleven years; the most recent
incident being at the Sandy Hook Elementary School in Connecticut, resulting in
the death of twenty students and six school staff. While it is acknowledged that
these incidents are atypical, sporadic and largely unpredictable in nature, media
reporting has left the public with the strong impression that all is not well in the
nation’s schools. The U.S. media has chosen to link the shootings of the past
several years as a trend, with throw-away lines such as `an-all-too-familiar story’,
and `another in a recent trend’ exacerbating the fears of many parents about the
safety of their children at school.

There is a similar feeling of disquiet about student behaviour in Australian schools
as evidenced by the findings of the Federal Government’s inquiry and report on
violence in schools (House of Representatives Standing Committee on
Employment, Education & Training, 1994). The data for Western Australia drawn
from the report is indicative of the situation in other states and territories. Over four
thousand seven hundred teachers reported having experienced in their career
incidences of verbal assault. Over one thousand three hundred teachers had
experienced physical violence, and just over six hundred cases of damage to
teacher property were reported. Union and public concern about discipline has
prompted the Australian Government and State Departments of Education to move
quickly to develop and institute behaviour management policies and plans to
support schools in their efforts to create environments where both teachers and

students are safe and can function without impediment or intimidation. In 2003 the
Australian government released the National Safe Schools Framework. The
framework which has been adopted by all Australian states and territories,
incorporates advice to school systems and individual schools about
…existing good practice and provides an agreed national
approach to help schools and their communities address
issues of bullying, harassment, violence, and child abuse
and neglect (Ministerial Council on Education,
Employment, Training and Youth Affairs [MCEETYA],
2003, p.3).
The Queensland government initiated its own report on behaviour in schools –
Smart Schools Smart Behaviour (MACER, 2005), which resulted in the
development of its Code of School Behaviour (Department of Education & Training,
2006a) for all state schools and the requirement of all schools to develop, in
consultation with the broader school community, detailed school behaviour
management plans, called the Responsible Behaviour Plan for Students
(Department of Education & Training, 2006b). State and Territory Departments of
Education behaviour management policies and guidelines have been modified to
reflect a stronger emphasis on safety. The Queensland Department of Education,
Training & Employment behaviour management policy is now called the Safe,
Supportive and Disciplined Learning Environment Policy (Department of Education,
Training & Employment, 2011). The focus on safety is also reflected in teacher
training, with Standard 4 of the National Professional Standards for Teachers being
the requirement of teachers to “create and maintain supportive and safe learning
environments” (Australian Institute for Teaching & School Leadership, 2011). While
these actions are positive and constructive, discipline is still ranked as a major
problem by teachers and is widely viewed as a significant contributing factor to
teacher stress (Kyriacou, 2000).

A Closer Look at Discipline Problems in Schools
The emotionally charged and highly politicized reaction to discipline problems in
schools has, for many observers, contributed to a distorted view of the situation
which exists in schools today. While acknowledging that there are problems, many
commentators and researchers have set out to examine more closely the specific
nature of the problem confronting schools, and teachers in particular. The picture
presented by these investigations and analyses is a very different one to that which
captures news headlines and which motivates politicians and the public to call for
action. A brief review of some of these investigations, both in Australia and abroad,
follows.

The so called Elton Report on discipline in schools in England and Wales was the
product of a national inquiry set up in response to growing public dissatisfaction
about discipline in schools (Department of Education & Science, 1989). The
findings of that report were enlightening, and for many, surprising. While there was
evidence of widespread concern among teachers about disruptive student
behaviour, and instances of violent and otherwise criminal behaviour were
reported; the problems which confronted most teachers were relatively minor in
nature. It was the continuous nature and cumulative effect of these problems,

rather than their magnitude, which irritated, frustrated, and ultimately exhausted
teachers (Department of Education & Science, 1989). This inquiry confirmed the
findings of earlier small scale investigations of the kinds of student behaviour
problems teachers encountered in their day to day work in the classroom. Across
these studies, the types of behaviours identified as troublesome to teachers were:
talking out of turn, not listening, poor concentration, hindering others, lack of
manners, rudeness, clowning, and restlessness (Houghton, Wheldall & Merrett,
1988; Jones, Charlton & Wilkin, 1995; Lawrence & Stead, 1986; Merrett &
Wheldall, 1984; Wheldall & Merrett, 1988). None of these behaviours in themselves
would be considered seriously disruptive by most authorities, and even their
collective impact would hardly be headline news. Sixteen years later, a further
report on discipline in UK schools produced similar results (Steer, 2005).

The data which is often used to dramatise the state of discipline in U.S. schools
can, when analysed objectively, provide a more moderate assessment of the
severity of behaviour problems in schools in that country. This is particularly the
case with the results of the annual Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup Poll of community
attitudes towards the public schools. For a decade up to and including 2002 ‘Lack
of Discipline in Schools’ was identified as the number one concern of the public. In
that year, discipline, along with fighting, gang violence and drugs was rated as the
major concern by 35 percent of respondents. Interestingly, that percentage had
dropped to 13 percent in 2012, with lack of financial support of schools emerging
as the biggest concern (Bushaw & Lopez, 2012). Of further interest is the finding
that for the third year in a row, three out of four Americans said that they have trust
and confidence in the men and women who teach children in the public schools.
This is in contrast to the generally negative reporting on the performance of
teachers in the media, first highlighted by Berliner and Biddle (1998) and still
evident today.

The findings from teacher surveys are even more informative. At the time when
public concern for discipline in schools was at its strongest, the Fourth Phi Delta
Kappa Poll of teachers’ attitudes towards the public schools found that just two
percent of teachers reported physical attacks on themselves, colleagues, or
students; two percent reported theft of property by force or the use of weapons; five
percent indicated that they had experience of students carrying weapons; and
fifteen percent reported drug use by students at school (Langdon, 1997). The poll
concluded that the more dramatic, news-making incidences of violence and crime
in schools were relatively uncommon and tended to be isolated to urban,
disadvantaged schools, where such incidents were also prevalent in the broader
community. For the vast majority of teachers in U.S. schools, first-hand experience
of weapon carrying students, assault, theft, extortion, and drug use is very rare.
According to the National School Safety Center in the United States, there were 93
incidents in which a student murdered someone at school during the ten years from
the 1992-93 school year to the 2001-02 school year (National Center for
Educational Statistics, 2003; National School Safety Center, 2003). Considering
that 93 incidents occurred in ten years, one could anticipate 9.3 incidents per year
in the nation’s 119,000 schools. Based on these figures, the probability of any one
school experiencing a student-perpetrated homicide is 9.3 ÷ 119,000, which is
.0000781 or about 1 in 12,804. In other words, one could expect a student to
commit a murder at his or her school once every 12,804 years (Cornell, 2011).

Discipline in Australian Schools

There is little research on the nature of problem behaviour in Australian schools
and this is particularly the case for secondary schools. Studies conducted in the
1980’s and 1990’s however, shed some light on the types of behaviour problems
experienced by Australian teachers. Fields (1986) surveyed thirty teachers in a
Queensland provincial city. The teachers were asked to identify and describe the
student from their class who presented the most difficulty to them in respect of
discipline and control. Each teacher then completed a teacher rating scale, the
Walker Problem Behaviour Identification Checklist (WPBIC; Walker, 1970), on the
selected student. In addition to the rating scale, the teachers were asked to list the
specific behaviours which the child exhibited and which were of most concern to
them in the classroom. Nine of the thirty students selected as presenting
troublesome behaviour were found to be behaviour disordered based on the criteria
employed in the WPBIC instrument. However, across the entire sample, the
behaviours found to be of most concern to teachers were:

 Needs constant supervision.
 Does not listen to directions/instructions.
 Continually plays with pens, pencils, and other items of equipment.
 Needs to be `pushed’ to get started on lesson tasks.
 Talking, whispering, giggling, inappropriate laughing.
 Unmotivated.
 Easily distracted.
 Continually seeks attention.

Fields concluded that despite focussing on the most troublesome student in the
class, a procedure which would bias the findings towards more serious types of
inappropriate behaviour, the results of the investigation supported the view that it is
low level disruptive behaviour that is most frequent in classrooms and of most
concern to teachers.
In a study of preschool and primary school teachers in the northern suburbs of
Brisbane, Burke, Jarman, and Whitmore (1994) gathered information about the
frequency of occurrence and severity of ten key `incidents’ of disruptive and anti-
social behaviour in the classroom and in the playground. The incidents specific to
the classroom environment were: verbal disruption, physical disruption,
unwelcomed teasing, displays of inadequacy, and verbal and physical resistance.
The most frequently occurring disruptive behaviour reported by the teachers in this
study were verbal disruptions, defined as `inappropriate student talk’ and
`interrupting the teacher or another student’. The second most frequently occurring
behaviour was physical disruption followed by verbal or physical resistance and
unwelcomed teasing. The study’s authors noted the similarity of their findings to
studies in Britain on teacher reported troublesome behaviour (see earlier
discussion). They also made the point that none of the most frequently occurring
disruptive and anti-social behaviours in the classroom were in any way physically
threatening to the teacher or students in the classroom.

An extensive survey of teacher perceptions of discipline problems in South
Australian primary schools was conducted in 1990 (Johnson, Oswald, & Adey,

1993). One thousand two hundred teachers in Adelaide were surveyed. These
teachers were asked to report on the occurrence of specific types of discipline
problems in their classrooms. Using the data for problems occurring daily or almost
daily, it was found that both verbal abuse and physical aggression to teachers was
very rare. Physical aggression directed at teachers by students was reported by 0.0
percent of junior primary teachers (Grades 1 – 3), and 0.3 percent of primary
teachers (Grades 4 – 7). Verbal abuse of teachers was reported by 0.7 percent of
the junior primary teachers surveyed, and by 1.8 percent of the primary teachers.
Physical aggression was evident in the schools used in the study but it was
directed at other students and occurred mostly outside of the classroom.
The discipline problems most often reported by junior primary teachers as occurring
on a daily or almost daily basis were: hindering other pupils (34.2%), idleness and
work avoidance (30.1%), talking out of turn (28.1%), infringing class rules (25.8%),
not being punctual (25.2%), and making unnecessary noise (25.2%). The findings
for primary teachers were very similar, with hindering other pupils reported most
frequently (39.3%), followed by idleness and work avoidance (33.1%), talking out of
turn (30,5%), infringing class rules (28.7%), making unnecessary noise (27.7%),
and getting out of seat (25.9%).

The most telling statistic from the research, however, was that about 80 percent of
teachers reported that discipline problems both inside and outside the classroom
were not very serious or not a problem at all. In line with British investigations and
the studies by Fields (1986) and Burke et al. (1994) the problems encountered by
most teachers were `relatively minor’ in nature and by and large manageable
(Johnson et al., 1993).

One other Australian study of relevance to our understanding of student behaviour
is worthy of mention here. A study by Hart, Wearing, and Conn (1995) looked at the
evaluation conducted on the Whole School Approach to Discipline & Student
Welfare (WSADSW) program which was implemented in Victorian schools between
1989 and 1991. The program was based on the assumption that student
misbehaviour was a major contributing factor to teacher stress. It aimed to institute,
in schools, comprehensive discipline policies and plans which were the product of
collaboration between all stakeholders in the broad school community. It was
believed that the development and implementation of such policies and plans
would act to reduce discipline problems in schools and in turn have a positive
impact on teacher stress levels.

A total of 4,072 primary and secondary teachers participated in the evaluation of
WSADSW. Along with a number of other data gathering measures the teachers
were asked to indicate on a 100-point scale the percentage of time they spent
dealing with student discipline. Responses ranged from 0 to 80 percent with a
mean of 24.5 percent, a figure which is considerably less than for similar
investigations conducted in Britain and in the United States (Langdon, 1997;
Merrett & Taylor, 1994).

While it is generally believed that student misbehaviour is one of the major causes
of psychological distress experienced by teachers (Klassen & Chiu, 2011;
Richards, 2012), the Hart et al. (1995) findings did not support this view. Hart and
his colleagues showed that stressors due to student misbehaviour accounted for
less than ten percent of the variance in teachers’ levels of psychological distress.

They concluded that while student misbehaviour may make teachers feel anxious
and uncomfortable; most teachers were able to cope with these experiences and
that these feelings would have little long-term impact on overall levels of
psychological distress.
The above picture of the status of discipline in schools presented by these studies
is not the one which is most often conveyed by the media in this country, in the
United Kingdom, and in the United States. While we have come to expect and to
some extent to accept media hype and sensationalist reporting, there are very real
dangers in allowing distorted images of the schools and schooling to be
promulgated unchallenged. Schooling initiatives based on inaccurate assessments
of what actually happens in schools can lead to poor policies and can divert scare
resources to away from where they are most needed.

School System Depiction of Behaviour in Schools
School systems often depict the nature of student behaviour by using what has
come to be called the ‘Behaviour Pyramid’ (see Figure 1). The pyramid
encompasses all students within the school system. The greater proportion of the
pyramid is made up of students who are normally well behaved and cooperative.
Many of these students will, however, exhibit low level disruptive behaviour from
time to time. Approximately 80 – 90 percent of students fall into this category.
Teachers will be working hard to maintain this ‘critical mass’ of cooperating
students through engaging curriculum, effective pedagogy, will organised
classrooms, good behaviour management and positive teacher-student
relationships.
Despite the best efforts of teachers, about 10 – 15 percent of students will exhibit
more frequent low level disruption and some more serious forms of rule breaking
and antisocial behaviour. They will require what is called ‘targeted’ behaviour
support including closer monitoring and, for some, additional school level supports
and services to assist them to behave more appropriately. The class teacher may
need advice or direct assistance from specialist support staff e.g. guidance officer
or behaviour support teacher, to help manage behaviour in the classroom. The
student’s parents/carers may need to be contacted with a view to enlisting their
cooperation in planned behaviour interventions. Behaviours exhibited by these
students include, but are not restricted to:
 Disrupting the class, talking and interrupting.
 Rude and/or disrespectful behaviour.
 Disobedience and defiance.
 Repeated failure to bring required materials.
 Repeated failure to complete class work and/or homework.
 Making inappropriate noises.
 Frequently late to class/skipping class.
 Not wearing the required uniform (numerous offences).
 Not adhering to school policy with regard to jewellery, make up or hair
style.
 Eating in class (numerous offences).
 Calling out.
 Throwing objects.

 Wilful damage of materials/equipment.
 Entering the classroom without permission.
 Cheating.
 Lying.
 Bullying.
 Physical aggression e.g. fighting, kicking, pushing, tripping, biting, hair
pulling.
 Verbal aggression e.g. verbal abuse, swearing, making threats etc.
 Inappropriate use of the internet/email.
 Obscene gestures, verbal or written comments.
 In possession of pornography.
 Failure to report to detention.
Playground behaviour can include: playing in or near toilets, not staying within
designated play areas, in ‘Out of Bounds’ areas, graffiti, lighting fires, leaving the
school grounds without permission etc.
Approximately 1 – 5 percent of school students will require individual behaviour
plans and intensive behaviour support. These children are chronic behaviour
problem students who exhibit frequent low level disruptive and many of the more
serious behaviours summarised above and one or more extreme forms of antisocial
or illegal behaviour. Their behaviour has led to numerous suspensions from school.
They require intensive support from a range of school and community services. In
many cases, an alternative educational program or placement is required.
Examples of the types of antisocial and illegal behaviour displayed by these
students include:
 Truancy.
 Theft.
 Arson.
 Possession and/or use of illegal and/or dangerous substances e.g.
aerosol cans, petrol.
 Bringing weapons to school e.g. knives, razor blades, etc.
 Cigarette smoking.
 Alcohol possession or consumption.
 Possession of and use or sale of illegal drugs.
 Indecent behaviour e.g. intentional exposure or other indecent act,
inappropriate contact, sexual harassment, sexual assault, inappropriate
relationships.

Teachers are well advised to view the above categories and their respective
percentages with some caution. The proportion of students falling into each
category has its greatest validity at the school system level. Variations will exist at
the individual school level and certainly at the individual class level. In most
classes, however, the majority of students will fall into the ‘cooperating’ category
with some, manageable, low level disruptive behaviour exhibited. All too often
teacher attention is drawn to the more troublesome minority. These students do
need to be managed, but teachers also need to acknowledge and reward the
positive behaviour of the majority of students. To neglect this group means that
teachers run the risk of seeing more and more of the normally well-behaved

students gravitating towards the middle group and exhibiting more frequent and
more serious forms of misbehaviour.

Types of Serious Behaviour Problems
From a clinical perspective, children and adolescents who are diagnosed as having
Conduct Disorder present the greatest challenges to teachers. The essential
feature of Conduct Disorder is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behaviour by a
child or teenager in which the basic rights of others (including teachers) or major
age-appropriate societal norms or rules are violated. These behaviours fall into four
main groupings: aggressive conduct that causes or threatens physical harm to
other people, nonaggressive conduct that causes property loss or damage,
deceitfulness or theft, and serious violations of rules time and time again.
The presence of three (or more) of the following criteria in the past 12 months, with
at least one criterion present in the past 6 months is required for formal diagnosis
(BehaveNet, 2013):
Aggression to people and animals

 Often bullies, threatens, or intimidates others.
 Often initiates physical fights.
 Has used a weapon that can cause serious physical harm to others (e.g.,
bat, brick, broken bottle, knife, gun).
 Has been physically cruel to people.
 Has been physically cruel to animals.
 Has stolen while confronting a victim (e.g., mugging, purse snatching,
extortion, armed robbery).
 Has forced someone into sexual activity.
Destruction of property
 Has deliberately engaged in fire setting with the intention of causing
serious damage.
 Has deliberately destroyed others’ property (other than by fire setting).
Deceitfulness or theft
 Has broken into someone else’s house, building, or car.
 Often lies to obtain goods or favours or to avoid obligations (i.e., “cons”
others).
 Has stolen items of nontrivial value without confronting a victim (e.g.,
shoplifting, but without breaking and entering; forgery).
Serious violations of rules
 Often stays out at night despite parental prohibitions, beginning before age
13 years.
 Has run away from home overnight at least twice while living in parental or
parental surrogate home (or once without returning for a lengthy period).
 Is often truant from school, beginning before age 13 years.

The disturbance in behavior causes clinically significant impairment in social,
academic, or occupational functioning. Approximately 6 to 16 percent of boys and 2
to 9 percent of girls meet the diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder. The incidence
of conduct disorder increases from childhood to adolescence.
Two subtypes of Conduct Disorder are recognised based on the age at onset of the
disorder (Cannon Neurofeedback & Therapy Center, 2009). These are Childhood-
Onset Type and Adolescent-Onset Type:
Childhood-Onset Type. This subtype is defined by the onset of at least one
criterion characteristic of Conduct Disorder prior to age 10 years. Individuals with
Childhood-Onset Type are usually male, frequently display physical aggression
toward others, have disturbed peer relationships, and may have had Oppositional
Defiant Disorder during early childhood and usually have symptoms that meet full
criteria for Conduct Disorder prior to puberty. These individuals are more likely to
have persistent Conduct Disorder and to develop adult Antisocial Personality
Disorder than are those with Adolescent-Onset Type.
Adolescent-Onset Type. This subtype is defined by the absence of any criteria
characteristic of Conduct Disorder prior to age 10 years. Compared with those with
the Childhood-Onset Type, these individuals are less likely to display aggressive
behaviours and tend to have more normative peer relationships (although they
often display conduct problems in the company of others). These individuals are
less likely to have persistent Conduct Disorder or to develop adult Antisocial
Personality Disorder. The ratio of males to females with Conduct Disorder is lower
for the Adolescent-Onset Type than for the Childhood-Onset Type.
Conduct disorder may occur with other conditions such as Attention
Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or depression, and there are correlations
between conduct disorder and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Students
with conduct disorder generally exhibit more severe forms of chronic behaviour
than students with oppositional defiant disorder. Many young children with
oppositional defiant disorder may develop conduct disorder as they get older. Mild
forms of conduct disorder tend to improve as the child grows older; however,
without intervention conduct disorder can lead to school failure, injuries, teenage
pregnancy, mental health issues and conflict with the law.
Table 4 provides a detailed assessment report on an eight year old boy diagnosed
as having Conduct Disorder.
Guidelines for the Management & Support of Students
with Conduct Disorder
Drawing on a combination of research supported psychological and educational
interventions; the following advice is useful for schools seeking to provide a
comprehensive and planned approach to working with students who have conduct
disorder (Hughes, Crothers, & Jimerson, 2010). Most of the recommendations
require the direct and active involvement of class teachers.

Table 4
Case Study – Conduct Disorder
Eight year old Dylan had recently been suspended from school for the fourth time for
violent behaviour towards other children, often resulting in injuries. He had only been
attending this current school for nine months.
Background
Dylan lives at home with his mother and only sees his father occasionally, during
school holidays. His father had a history of anti-social behaviour, with a number of
juvenile offences, and there was a family history of alcohol abuse. Dylan had been in
child care since he was one. His mother reported a ‘very normal’ childhood. No
records of his previous behaviour or development were available, as Dylan’s family
had moved from interstate.
His mother’s job required her to be away from home for long periods and child care
arrangements were ad hoc and poorly planned. The mother initially did not see
Dylan’s behaviour as problematic for her and blamed the school for his behavioural
problems. In fact she was quite hostile to the school as a report had been made to
the Department of Human Services’ Protection and Care Branch, with concerns
about his care. The Child Protection Service investigated this matter and concluded
that the child was not at significant risk at this stage.
The school urgently referred Dylan to the Department of Education psychologist,
who found it very difficult to gain a complete assessment as Dylan did not cooperate
during the interview. Dylan was then referred to a Child Mental Health Service.
Assessment by the Child Mental Health Service
The clinician assessed Dylan’s main problem behaviours to be:
 Hitting, kicking, and bullying behaviour at school.
 Lack of remorse about his behaviour.
 Lack of understanding of how others felt.
 Sexualised behaviour and language.
Risk Factors
 The psychologist also noted that there were multiple risk factors:
 Poor or non-existent family networks or support.
 Inadequate supervision at home and in the neighbourhood.
 Exposure to media violence due to lack of supervision during leisure time.
 Lack of consistency in parenting styles due to frequent changes of primary
care givers.
 Family history of anti-social behaviour and substance abuse.
After a number of sessions with the family, a cognitive assessment was able to be
conducted at the Child Mental Health Service. Results of the test showed that
although Dylan’s verbal skills were in the lower than average range, he performed
very poorly in non-verbal tests and had severe difficulties in visual-spatial and
sequencing relationships. Testing helped explain his very poor understanding of
social cues and the consequences of this behaviour. Recommendations were
provided to assist with his learning and behavioural problems.
Diagnosis
Conduct Disorder and Specific Learning Difficulties.
Adapted from: North East Valley Division of general Practice (n.d.) Conduct disorder and
associated challenging behaviours in children. Retrieved from
http://www.nevdgp.org.au/info/printit/print.php

http://www.nevdgp.org.au/info/printit/print.php

Planning and Awareness
The school/teacher should:
 Meet with the student and parents early in the school year to discuss how
the school can support the child’s needs related to conduct disorder. This
could include finding out about: (1) the student’s strengths, interests and
areas of need, (2) specific symptoms that may affect the student at
school, (3) any other associated disorders that need to be considered at
school, (4) successful strategies used at home or elsewhere that also
could be used at school.
 If the student is taking medication during the school day, discuss with the
parents possible side effects. Follow school and/or school system policies
and protocols in storing and administering medication.
 Learn as much as you can about how conduct disorder may affect
learning and social and emotional well-being.
 Read, ask questions and talk to qualified professionals to build your
understanding and to help you make decisions to support the student’s
success at school.
 Provide supervision, as needed, to ensure the safety and well-being of
the student and others at the school.
 Be aware that some students with conduct disorder may exhibit frequent
fighting, bullying, threatening, intimidation of others, deliberate
destruction of property, and alcohol or drug abuse.
 Collaborate with the school and/or jurisdictional team to identify and
coordinate any needed consultation and supports, such as behaviour
plans/interventions or other program or services.
 Develop a system for sharing information with relevant staff members
about the student’s behaviour and successful strategies.
 Pay particular attention to the physical environment. The physical
placement of the student with conduct disorder should be chosen
carefully (e.g., who to sit beside, physical distractions, room to move, and
proximity to the teacher). It is important to avoid choosing a physical
location that isolates the student, since this may make other students less
willing and able to interact positively with the student.
 Create pathways for movement. Pathways should eliminate the need to
step over objects or between people.
 School staff working with the student should be trained in crisis
management and nonviolent crisis intervention techniques.
 Know what your own triggers are to avoid being drawn into a negative
interaction pattern with the student.
Implications for Instruction
 Determine the implications of the student’s academic difficulties related to
conduct disorder. Students with conduct disorder also may show low
cognitive functioning, low academic achievement and reading disabilities.
 Use “start” requests rather than “stop” requests. “Do” requests are more
desirable than “don’t” requests.

 Make one request at a time, using a quiet voice and, when in close
proximity, using eye contact.
 When appropriate, offer a choice (e.g., “Do you want to work at your desk
or at the table?”).
 Describe the desired behaviour in clear and specific terms to reduce
misunderstanding. Avoid entering into a discussion or argument about
the behaviour.
 Recognize that most behaviour has a function. Use observation and data
to determine the function of the behaviour as this will help in determining
appropriate strategies to implement.
 Develop a behaviour support plan in which inappropriate behaviours are
replaced with appropriate ones. When appropriate, involve the student in
the development of this plan.
Implications for Social and Emotional Well-being
 Maintain predictable classroom routines and rules for all students.
 Provide encouragement and praise.
 Reward appropriate classroom behaviour.
 Speak to the student privately about his or her behaviour instead of in
front of others, to prevent loss of face and avoid escalation.
 Explicitly teach, reinforce and provide opportunities to practise social and
life skills, including how to: understand one’s own feelings, be friendly,
read social cues, talk to peers, manage anger, make good decisions,
solve problems, succeed in school.
 To ensure the safety of other students in the classroom, explain to
students the importance of walking away from possible confrontations
that may lead to aggression.
 Encourage students to get help as soon as they feel the situation is
getting out-of-hand.
Whether a child is formally diagnosed as having Conduct Disorder or not the
presence of behaviours associated with the disorder is of significant concern to
teachers. The patterns of behaviour of most concern to teachers and those which
are most frequently occurring in schools are hostile aggressive behaviour,
oppositional defiant behaviour and passive aggressive behaviour. Within the
classroom, oppositional defiant behaviour is most common. Hostile aggressive
behaviour, when it does occur involves primarily verbal aggression, however,
physical aggression can also occur. Passive aggressive behaviour is a particularly
insidious and difficult behaviour for teachers to deal with. It involves far fewer forms
of overt or ‘acting out’ behaviour but is nevertheless disruptive and particularly
damaging to the teacher-student relationship. We will now look at these three types
of behaviour in more depth, giving special attention to oppositional defiant
behaviour.
Hostile Aggressive Behaviour
Hostile aggressive behaviour includes all those behaviours associated with the
aggression dimension of Conduct Disorder and can include other forms of anti-

social and rule-breaking behaviour. Hostility is directed towards peers, teachers
and parents.
Hostile aggressive students intimidate other children and teachers; they hit and
push, they damage property, they antagonise others and they are easily angered.
These students view aggression as a means of getting what they want. Over time
the need to physically dominate and intimidate others becomes an established
pattern of behaviour, and often carries over into adult life. Hostility and aggression
are behaviours that are particularly difficult to deal with. Such behaviour disrupts
the academic program of the classroom and school and creates an environment of
fear, intimidation and insecurity.
To expand your understanding of hostile aggressive students we will look briefly at
the origins and causes of aggression, the difficulties many hostile aggressive
students have social cognition, and because anger is such a feature of the
behaviour of these children, we will look at anger and anger management.
Origins & Causes of Aggression
Psychoanalytic theorists argue that aggression is a response to rejection and
frustration when an individual’s attempts to achieve his or hers needs or goals are
thwarted (Plaut, 1998). This produces what they call ‘rage’, which needs to be
released by being expressed or acted act against someone or something. This
view, while popular in literature and movies, has been challenged. It is argued that
aggression is not the only response to rejection or frustration. It is possible for an
individual to experience disappointment rather than the need to be aggressive.
Many individuals analyse a conflict situation and seek to find solutions that are
constructive, certainly pro-social, and often mutually satisfying. It is argued too that
encouraging the release of aggression, legitimises the expression of anger and
hostility and reinforces the appropriateness of aggressive responses. Further, when
such beliefs are held by significant adults, parents and teachers for example, it
provides an inappropriate model for children and adolescents.
The current view on the origins of aggression is that it is a learned response;
learned through exposure to models of aggression. This is the social learning
theory perspective (Bandura, 1976). This perspective holds the view that children
learn aggression through modelling. The key models in the lives of children are
parents, siblings, peers, and admired persons in television, in videos, computer
games and in the movies. Young people who see that aggressive behaviour pays
off, whether for the hero or the villain, will be more inclined to exhibit the same type
of behaviour to experience similar rewards.
Aggressive children or teenagers often have one or both parents or caregivers who
are themselves aggressive. In the home they are exposed to physical aggression,
hostility and/or abuse. They view this behaviour as the only way to respond when
they get angry or upset. Conversely, we know that in home environments where
parents disapprove of aggression, this acts to inhibit it acquisition by children.
It is possible to describe two broad types of aggression, namely proactive and
reactive. In proactive aggression the individual deliberately sets out to hurt
someone or to act in an anti-social manner. Bullying is a form of proactive
aggression. We will look more closely at bullying later in this chapter. In reactive

aggression the individual responds aggressively to real or perceived negative or
hostile behaviour towards them. Of the two, proactive aggression is the most
difficult to manage.

Vignettes – Hostile Aggressive Behaviour

Simon
You are writing on the whiteboard when you hear a disturbance at the back of
the room. Simon has just grabbed Andrew and pushed him off his chair on to
the floor. You asked what happened. Andrew pleads that he did nothing.
Simon is surly and unresponsive. He often acts like this, starting arguments
and fights without provocation.

Chris
As the lesson begins you notice Ted is red-faced and crying. Privately, you
ask him what is the matter, but he claims there is nothing wrong. Later in the
lesson you ask other students in the class and they tell you that Ted was
punched and kicked by Chris on the way to school. Chris is also in your class.
He is known for his bullying, and right now Ted is his target. Almost every day
now Chris is at Ted during recess, pushing and punching him and making is
life a misery.

Social Cognition
Social cognition refers to an individual’s ability to ‘read’ or to interpret social
situations and social cues, and to be able to respond appropriately to these
(Donaghue, Walker, & Augoustinos, 2006). Given our focus here on problem
behaviour and events, it is the hostile aggressive student’s ability to read and
respond to interpersonal difficulties and conflicts, with peers and teachers that is
the issue. For example, when walking down the stairs at school, a student prone to
hostile aggressive behaviour is bumped from behind. He turns around and accuses
the student behind of trying to push him down the stairs. In this case, the push was
accidental. The other student pleads that he too was pushed and couldn’t help
being propelled forward. The hostile aggressive has already made up his mind
about want happened. He hurls abuse at the student (verbal aggression) and
threatens to ‘punch him out’ when they meet up on the playground (physical
aggression).
This example highlights the ‘knee-jerk’ reaction of hostile aggressive students to
perceived threats, their poor reading of the situation, and the limited options on the
part of the hostile aggressive student to dealing with the problem. It also should
alert teachers to how such students can be helped to respond more appropriately
to these events. More about this later in the chapter.

Managing Hostile Aggressive Behaviour
So, how can schools and teachers help hostile-aggressive students to behave in a
more socially acceptable manner? First, the recommendations made in ‘Guidelines
for the Management & Support of Students with Conduct Disorder’ are also
applicable to students who exhibit hostile aggressive behaviour but who do not
have a formal diagnosis of conduct disorder. In addition to these, the following
advice also drawn from the work of Brophy (2003) applies:
 Every effort should be made by the school to provide good role models
for students and to highlight and reinforce students who behave in a
socially acceptable manner – even in difficult interpersonal conflicts.
 Schools should be environments where aggression is not tolerated. It is
important to add that this does not mean that aggression is responded to
with punishment. Rather it is a case of everyone in the school community
providing students with clear guidelines about what is and is not
acceptable behaviour and providing timely and educative feedback on
behaviour – good and bad when it occurs.
 Encourage cooperative behaviour both within the classroom and in the
playground.
 Source and implement conflict and anger management programs or
strategies and make these available to hostile aggressive students.
 Teach social skills, both directly and informally where there is a need.
 Listen to hostile-aggressive students and reassure them that they won’t
be rejected, but rather that teachers and others in the school community,
are willing to work with them to help them improve their behaviour and
relations with children and adults.
 Finally, from another perspective, the victims of aggression, bullying and
harassment need to be taught how to respond to threats and
victimisation. In the main this involves teaching students to be assertive in
the face of aggression. Where this happens hostile-aggressive students
will not get the typical and for them rewarding response they most often
have had, and as such their hostility will be less and less productive for
them.

Bullying Behaviour
Bullying behaviour is a sub-set of hostile-aggressive behaviour, and because of its
prevalence in schools, is a major focus of school-wide behaviour management.
Here we will look at what bullying is, and how schools have organized to deal with
the problem. We will look at the role of the teacher in the prevention and correction
of bullying behaviour. And finally, we will look at how teachers can help the victims
of bullying and, more specifically, how schools can advise children to more
effectively respond to incidents of bullying.
The following statement effectively captures what most authorities define as
bullying. Bullying is intentional, repeated behaviour by an individual or group of
individuals that causes distress, hurt or undue pressure (Rigby, 2008). It needs to
be kept in mind, that bullying involves repeated (not one-off) episodes of hostility,

aggression, threatening behaviour, and/or harassment, directed at an individual,
and is a form of proactive or premeditated aggression.
It is important to be clear which behaviours are NOT bullying. The National Centre
Against Bullying acknowledges that while the following behaviours are often
upsetting to those involved, they do NOT constitute bullying:

 social bantering with minor insults and jokes
 mutual arguments and disagreements (where there is no power imbalance)
 not liking someone or a single act of social rejection
 one-off acts of meanness or spite
 isolated incidents of aggression, intimidation or violence.

While these behaviours would not be considered bullying because they do not
involve deliberate and repeated harm and a power imbalance, they need to be
addressed in the same way as other inappropriate student behaviours.

While everyone has a basic need for power and control in their lives, bullies
express their need for power in aggressive and anti-social ways, and, in so doing,
infringe the rights of others – in particular, the right to feel safe within the school
environment. Bullies target individuals who are in some way less powerful than
they are – because of their physical stature, age, ability or disability, or other real or
perceived difference. Bullying comes in many forms. It can be verbal as in name-
calling, put-downs, and threats. It can be physical, as in hitting, punching, kicking,
tripping and spitting etc. It can be social, and manifested as ignoring, excluding or
ostracising a person. It can be psychological, as in dirty looks, spreading
rumours, stalking, and hiding or damaging possessions. Bullying behaviour now,
more and more, is in the form of cyberbullying. This is a method of bullying using
technology, such as email, mobile phones, chat rooms and social networking sites
to bully verbally, socially or psychologically (Kids Helpline, 2012). Bullying can take
on the form of harassment, targeting: gender, racial background, religious or
cultural belief, sexual orientation, ability or disability, even socioeconomic status.
Harassment can also be specifically sexual in nature or intent.
Not everyone has a clear concept of what bullying can involve, and frequently
parents and, sadly, some teachers, do not take the subject seriously or respond
appropriately to the behaviour of children that are in fact bullying behaviours. Even
more sadly, there are some educators who still regard bullying and experiences of
being bullied as just a normal part of childhood and adolescent development. It is
imperative then that schools make very clear what constitutes bullying, and make
sure this is communicated to and understood by the broader school community.
Extensive research, both in Australia and overseas, tells us bullying happens in all
schools and that approximately half of all children report having been bullied at
some time. Research tells us that incidences of bullying decrease with age, and
that boys are more likely to be involved in physical bullying than girls. Research
has shown us that bullying takes many forms – as has been pointed out earlier –
and that it is not a trivial matter. Long term emotional and psychological scarring
can result from serious and unchecked forms of bullying.
Class teachers rely very heavily on direct observation and reports from children
and other teachers to alert them to both bullies and victims. Teachers are not often

aware of the signs or symptoms of bullying (or at least victimisation). Parents are in
a better position to pick up on these. Some of these signs are listed here:
 Unexplained bruises, scratches or cuts
 Damaged clothing or belongings
 Loss of belongings (because they have been taken from the child)
 Out of character anger or aggression
 More persistent periods of unhappiness
 Loss of interest on school
 Complaining of being sick and associated school refusal
 A diminishing circle of friends

At a whole-school level then, what can or should be done? Australian researcher
and authority on bullying – Ken Rigby, offers the following guidelines to schools
(Rigby, 2010, Rigby & Thomas, 2010):

 Bullying needs to be clearly defined and communicated to all members of
the school community.
 The school needs to make sure that everyone understands the various
forms that bullying can take – verbal, physical, emotional and
psychological.
 The extent and nature of the problem within individual schools needs to
be assessed by surveying students, teachers and parents. A clear and
accurate picture of the extent of bullying within a school needs to be built
up including the type or types of bullying that exist.
 School communities need to be brutally honest in their assessment and
reporting. Covering up or glossing over a problem is not helpful.
 Schools should then make a whole-school plan of action, including the
development of an anti-bullying policy to respond to bullying in order to
reduce it occurrence.
 Talk with students individually and in groups about what can be done,
and work with them.
 Identify and promote staff behaviours that can have positive effects on
interpersonal behaviour.
 Deal appropriately with bullying incidents.
 Provide help and support to victims.
 Work constructively with parents.

School behaviour policies and plans are the place where the school’s anti-bullying
policy and plan should, and most often is detailed. The schools that impress the
most are those that make their position on bullying clear and unequivocal – that is,
it will not be tolerated. Wellington Point State School’s policy statement is a good
example:
At Wellington Point State School every person has the right to
feel safe. Any person who bullies another is denying them that
right. The school will not tolerate any action that undermines a
person’s right to feel safe, and it will take whatever steps
necessary to stop such behaviour.

A number of school’s then in their plans and policies detail specific responsibilities
for both the school as a whole and teachers specifically in respect of bullying. This
is what one Queensland state school defines as the teacher’s responsibilities:
 Act as role models of caring and tolerant behaviour.
 Will listen to reports of bullying and take them seriously.
 Will protect the target of bullying from further incidents.
 Will refer reports of bullying to the appropriate school administrator.
 Will actively and vigorously support the school’s policy on bullying.

In the Toowoomba State High School’s (RBPS) the responsibilities of the school,
teachers, students and parents are laid out in great detail (see Table 5).

Table 5 Bullying Prevention & Management
School Community Responsibilities
(Toowoomba State High School)

School Responsibilities with regards to Bullying

 Promote a positive school culture where bullying is not tolerated and
cannot flourish
 Provide access to the Anti-Bullying Policy and School Responsible
Behaviour Plan to all members of the school community via student
planner, school intranet, website, hard copies (available on request) and
summary statement (via newsletter).
 Clarify roles of school staff including Form Teachers, Year Level
Coordinators, Subjects Teachers and Heads of Department, School
Support Staff including Guidance Officer, Chaplain, School Nurse, Youth
Support Coordinator, and Community Education Counsellors.
 Program specific activities in subject classes, across year levels and for the
whole school community which promote values associated with anti-
bullying.
 Provide support and guidance to targets of bullying.
 Provide intervention with individuals who bully others.

Teacher Responsibilities with regards to Bullying

 Model anti-bullying attitudes and behaviour.
 Encourage the teaching of tolerance, respect and valuing of difference and
diversity through Key Learning Areas and Human Relationship Education
program.
 Listen to and respond to reports of bullying.
 Provide support and refer as needed.
 Implement the school code of conduct and anti-bullying policy.

Student Responsibilities with regards to Bullying

 Show respect for all members of the school community.
 Become an active bystander and support targets of bullying by:

– speaking up and letting the person doing the bullying know that what
– they are doing is bullying,
– refusing to join in with the bullying and walking away,
– helping the student who is being bullied to ask for help, and
– encouraging appropriate and modified behaviour of the bully if they
are your friend.

 Attempt to resolve bullying by being direct and assertive.
 Understand the roles of people involved in bullying:

– Ring Leader: students who through their social power can direct
bullying activity.
– Associates: students who actively join in the bullying (sometimes
because they are afraid of the ring-leader).
– Reinforcers: students who give positive feedback to the student
doing the bullying, for example through comments, by smiling or
laughing.
– Outsiders/Bystanders: students remain silent or watch and therefore
appear to condone the
– bullying behaviour or who want to keep themselves safe by not
drawing attention to themselves out of fear of the bully.
– Defenders: students who try to intervene to stop the bullying or
comfort students who experience bullying.

 Record evidence and report bullying.

Parent Responsibilities with regards to Bullying

 Support the values of tolerance and respect in the home.
 Encourage children to exercise these values in all contexts including at
school.
 Monitor your child and note changes in:

– loss of confidence, fearfulness or anxiety
– changes in eating or sleeping habits
– health problems, vague headaches or stomach aches
– unhappiness, tearfulness or mood swings, sudden temper tantrums
– reluctance to go to school, changes in academic performance
– lack of friends
– missing belongings or torn clothing
– sudden changes in communication patterns

 Encourage their child to record evidence of bullying and report it.
 Provide support and encourage their child to seek help.
 Work with the school to resolve bullying issues.

Aldridge State High School provides very specific guidance to teachers in the
school’s (RBPS) about how to talk to students who have engaged in bullying. This
advice is summarised in Table 6.

At the school level, these are the kinds of things that should be happening –
records need to be kept (number of incidents, who was involved, where, etc.).
Without such records, how else can a school accurately determine whether it is
winning the struggle against bullying? Parents need to be involved in the whole
process. It needs to be acknowledged though, that many parents of bullies are in
fact a source of the problem in that they themselves provide models of aggressive
and bullying type behaviour. Many of these same parents will deny that there is a
problem and will attempt to transfer blame to the school. Where this type of school-
home relationship exists, the task of changing bully behaviour becomes very
difficult for the school. Regardless of the level of school-home cooperation, every
effort needs to be made to assist bullies to change their behaviour.

Table 6
Guidelines for Talking to Bully’s

Teachers will adopt a logical and sequential approach when responding to reports
of bullying. Use the “no blame approach” to initial reports of bullying. This uses
the following process:

 Take the incident seriously.
 Stop any ongoing bullying that may be occuring.
 Listen to all sides of the story (victim, bully and witnesses).
 Deal with the complaint in a manner to avoid making the bullie student feel
inadequate or foolish. Listen sympathetical. Offer support and
encouragement for reporting it. Maybe act confidentially.
 Act assertively towards bully, explaining that his/her actions consititute
bullying. Don’t act agressively, model approprite behaviour.
 Ask bully how he/she thinks victim must feel and how would they like to to in
that circumstance.
 Explain that actions must stop.
 Set up a time to check with victim and bully that bullying has stopped.
 Document the issue .
 Contact parents of both parties and advise them of the circumstances.
Explain the approach and have it designed to reduce the risk of retaliation.
Suggest methods for parents to teach their students to act assertively.

Some schools have found the use of Restorative Justice to be helpful in cases of
bullying (Morrison, 2002). The victim and bully are brought together along with the
parents of both parties, teachers, friends of the victim and any others who may
have been adversely affected in some way by the bullying e.g. the victim’s siblings,
key bystanders etc. The bully listens to the concerns and disappointment of all
those present, and gets a real feel for the extent of the harm that his or her
behaviour has resulted in. The bully is made to feel shame for his/her behaviour
and is encouraged to express remorse and to suggest ways that the damage done
might be repaired. Where the bully accepts responsibility for his/her behaviour and
offers a genuine apology and a commitment to restitution in some way, the
individual is then thanked and accepted back into the school community.
Considered by some to be a ‘soft option’ for serious forms of anti-social behaviour,
Restorative Justice has, in fact, been employed successfully in many schools
around Australia. What is holding back the more widespread use of Restorative
Justice in schools is that the strategy doesn’t involve traditional forms of
punishment, and this is very hard for many in the public and some teachers to
understand and accept.
What advice can teachers give to the victims of bullying? Once again, drawing on
school Responsible Behaviour Plans for Students, the following advice comes
through. Primary students are often taught the combined assertive and defensive
HIGH FIVE strategy (see Figure 2), where each digit of one hand prompts the
victim or potential victim of bullying to:

Talk friendly (“Please don’t do that”).

Talk firmly (“I said don’t do that”).

Ignore (The child keeps on with what he/she was doing).

Walk away (The child goes to a safe place)

Report (The child reports the incident to the principal).

Figure 2 High Five Strategy

In addition, the student could be advised to:

 Travel to school or social events in groups i.e. not to walk alone.
Teach the child safety in numbers. Teach the child the right times to stay
with or near others who might see what is going on.

 Avoid the bully. Try to stay away from children who bully others.

 Ignore them. That is, to pretend not to hear what is being said. This is
deceptively simple, but will require some practice by the child at school
under the guidance of a teacher and also at home,

 Your problem. Have the child say “That’s your problem, it’s not mine”.

 Seek support. Ask friends or those nearby for help. This works well if all
students in the school have been encouraged to provide this whenever
they are a witness to an incident of bullying.

 Saying the unexpected. Bullies are used to and enjoy responses that
involve pleading, fear or other indicators that intimidation is working.
Comments in response to a demeaning remark might be similar to “If you
say so” or “Is that what you think?”

 Leave valuable items at home so the bully doesn’t have an opportunity
to extort important possessions.

 Confront the bully. Practice with the student how to – look the bully in
the eye and say “I don’t like that and I want you to stop” and then walk
away. Sometime having the child explain how the bully is making him or
her feel can be helpful. If the bully says he or she doesn’t care and
continues to bully, the child should walk away and immediately report the
incident. Confronting should only be used in response to verbal – not
physical bullying.

 Walk away. This should be the child’s immediate response if he or she
feels the situation is dangerous.

We turn our attention now to another, but very different form of aggressive
behaviour – passive aggressive behaviour.
Passive Aggressive Behaviour
Passive-aggressive students can be just as difficult, uncooperative and non-
compliant as hostile-aggressive students. They express opposition and show
resistance to the teacher, but do so indirectly and they rarely use physically
threatening or openly hostile behaviours. Their inappropriate behaviour is more
subtle, some might say sneaky, and often, on the surface they appear to be
cooperative.
Frequently their inappropriate behaviour is surreptitious and difficult to pin down.
They may write an obscene word on the board when no one is in the room. They
are the students who deliberately misplace books or materials to create confusion
and disrupt the lesson. They will volunteer to set up equipment but then report that
it is broken – it was working fine just yesterday. They will deliberately not follow
directions but then offer an apology that they did not hear the instruction. They will
draw graffiti on school property.
Passive-aggressive students:

 Are subtly oppositional and stubborn.
 Try to control others (but usually the teacher).
 Show minimal (but rarely total) compliance to classroom rules and
teacher directions.
 They disable rather than totally damage or destroy property.
 They disrupt surreptitiously; and
 Are slow to do what has been asked of them.

Vignettes – Passive Aggressive Behaviour

Cliff
The lesson is coming to an end. You ask the students to put away their
books and to line up at the door. Cliff stays at his desk working on his
project. He looks at the students lining up but makes no effort to join them.
You remind him that he was asked to line up at the door. He says he didn’t
hear the instruction. Slowly, very slowly, he puts his books away and joins
the line – all the while with a cheeky look on his face.

Alice
You have spent some time explaining a maths concept and now you want
the students to work quietly and independently on a work sheet you have
prepared to reinforce what you have taught. Just as you set the class to
work, Alice calls out a question about a procedural matter related to the work
sheet. You go to her and give your answer, but she doesn’t seem interested
in what you tell her. As you turn to walk back to the front of the room, Alice
has somehow let her folder drop on to the floor, greatly disturbing other
students around her. She slowly begins to pick up the sheets of paper that
have spread all over the floor. She smiles as she does this and there is a
ripple of laughter around the room.

Managing Passive Aggressive Behaviour

The subject of passive-aggressive behaviour has received very little attention from
researchers (Brophy, 2003). What research that has been conducted points to the
following advice for managing passive-aggressive students:

 Within reason, allow passive-aggressive students as much autonomy and
choice in curriculum activities as possible to minimize the likelihood of
teacher-student conflict.
 Schedule the passive aggressive student as much independent work as
possible, i.e. tasks that require them to work alone.
 Emphasise indirect teaching methods and minimize confrontations cause
by excessive commands, directions and instructions.
 Monitor the student’s work, but do not stand too close to where they are
working.
 Provide material rewards where possible as opposed to teacher praise,
which can be interpreted as reinforcing the view that the student is
submissive to teacher authority (a view that the student will actively
reject).

 Where possible, ignore resistance, delays, and attempts to manipulate
you. If punishment is necessary, use a form of time-out or response cost
consequence i.e. loss of privileges.
 Do not convey exasperation with the student or act vindictively to their
behaviour.
 Quietly show the student that you are aware of their behaviour. Do this in
a matter-of-fact manner and do not give the impression that you have
achieved a ‘one-up’ on the student.
From these guidelines, it should be obvious to you that passive aggressive
students like hostile-aggressive students, are motivated by anger, and that their
anger is directed at the teacher in the main. It should also be obvious to you what
basic needs are, in the minds of these students, not being met. The basic needs
are power and control. Because passive-aggressive students believe their need for
power and control is being thwarted by the teacher, they seek to achieve their need
by manipulating and annoying the teacher. They achieve a great deal of
satisfaction from seeing teachers get angry and losing their control.

Oppositional Defiant Behaviour

Perhaps the most commonly occurring form of more serious misbehaviour in the
classroom is oppositional defiant behaviour. While oppositional-defiant disorder (or
ODD) is a conduct disorder associated with the broader conduct disorder of
aggression and hostility, it is distinguished by a resistance to control rather than
outright aggression and hostility.
At the heart of the problem associated with oppositional defiant behaviour is the
student’s blatant resistance to authority, and the power struggle he or she engages
in with the teacher. Such students will resist verbally by saying “You can’t make
me”, “You can’t tell me what to do”, and by using profanity and making derogatory
comments about the teacher and lesson tasks and activities. Other characteristics
associated with oppositional-defiant behaviour include: anger, spitefulness, loss of
temper, smart or cheeky behaviour, lying, deliberately annoying others, breaking
classroom rules, and defacing or destroying school property. Many oppositional
defiant students are easily annoyed by what other students say or do.
Oppositional defiant students easily upset teachers and make them feel
uncomfortable. Teachers do not like their authority to be challenged and are fearful
that if they do not act forcefully to exert their control, discipline in the classroom will
be undermined. As such the typical reaction of teachers when challenged is to take
the matter personally and to verbally counter attack with demands and threats. As
you will come to see as you move through this chapter, this response, while a
logical one, is counterproductive.

Managing Oppositional Defiant Behaviour

Here are some useful guidelines from Brophy (2003) for working with oppositional
defiant students:

Vignettes – Oppositional Defiant Behaviour

Roddy
Roddy is difficult to manage. Of late his behaviour has deteriorated. He often
arrives late for class. He is slow to get started on his work, he make
impertinent comments during the lesson and often when you back is turned.
Today, you catch him throwing paper around the room. You ask him to pick
up the paper and to finish his work. He denies throwing the paper and
refuses to pick it up. As the lesson is almost finished, you ask him to stay
behind. The bell goes and he heads for the door. You repeat your directive
that he must stay behind. He replies loudly that he doesn’t have to and walks
out the door.

Lachlan
Your school has very strict rules about any kind of weapons or dangerous
objects being brought to school. Lachlan has brought a sling shot to school
and has been showing it to other students in the playground. You are on
playground duty and are responsible for confiscating the weapon. You ask
him for it but he refuses to give it to you saying you have no right to take it.

 Stay calm. You may feel angry and upset, but don’t show it.
 Pause before acting. Use this time (it can be as little as 3 – 5 seconds) to
collect your thoughts.
 Where possible, talk to the student privately. This also helps because it
eliminates the audience (other students) that oppositional defiant students
can feed off.
 Listen to the students concerns, no matter how distorted or irrational these
may be. This can help to defuse a tense situation.
 Focus on the appropriate behaviour you want to see, rather than on the
behaviour you want to stop.
 Oppositional-defiant behaviour is less likely to occur in well planned and
well managed classrooms.
 Work to gain and maintain a positive relationship with the student
regardless of your dislike for him or her.
 Programs of conflict management and anger management can be useful if
these are available within or through the school.
Understanding Anger
Anger, or more appropriately – uncontrolled anger is a major characteristic of
hostile aggressive behaviour. It also underlies much of the behaviour of
oppositional defiant students and students who display passive aggressive
behaviour.
Because anger is a naturally occurring emotion it is unrealistic to believe that it can
or even should be eliminated. Anger in itself is not the problem; in fact it could be
regarded as a ‘healthy’ emotion in response to certain provocative experiences.
Anger becomes a problem when our expression of it involves antisocial or
destructive behaviour. Therefore the goal of anger management is not to eliminate

anger, but to teach students the self-regulatory skills necessary to deal with anger
in an appropriate manner.
Anger management programs and strategies, whether for children or adults,
typically revolve around a five-step process (Faupel, Herrick, & Sharp, 2010). The
skills involved in implementing such a program are not unique and fall well within
the instructional repertoire of qualified teachers. What is often missing however is
the willingness of teachers to engage with teaching that falls within the social-
emotional domain as opposed to the cognitive domain within which they are more
comfortable.
Anger Management
The following is a five-step anger management process:
Step 1
Teach students about anger so that they have a better understanding of it. Teach
them that anger is a normal emotion that all people experience. Describe situations
where people have responded both appropriately and inappropriately to their
feelings of anger. Have the students describe situations that they have
experienced where they dealt both appropriately and inappropriately when they
were angry. Some prompting and guidance may be necessary to achieve this last
task.
Step 2
Make students aware of their personal signals that indicate increased anger
arousal e.g. situations that typically make them feel angry and physical and
physiological reactions associated with anger e.g. flushed face, tensed muscles,
change in breathing, increased heart rate etc.
Step 3
Teach students self-talk techniques i.e. things one should say to oneself when
working through a provocative situation or conflict where anger is aroused. This is
the same as ‘thinking aloud’ when we are trying to make sense of a difficult
problem or issue. As competent adults we often do this automatically and without
consciously knowing we are employing this problem solving strategy. Even very
young students can be taught this strategy. Initially the teacher may have to
suggest and/or model what to say. Later a simple prompt may be all that is
required for the student to use the strategy. Many aggressive and defiant students
haven’t acquired this skill so it may need to be modeled for them. The same
process of self-talk is applicable to working through challenging academic tasks,
and this too is an opportunity to practice and reinforce the strategy.
Step 4
Teach interpersonal problem solving skills. The typical strategy is to (1) define the
problem; (2) brainstorm solutions; (3) choose the best (most prosocial solution) i.e.
the one which is satisfying to both parties; (4) implement the solution; (5) evaluate
the effectiveness of the solution; and (6) choose a different solution if the first one
didn’t work (Dwairy, 2005). Ideally, teachers should model this process as a normal

and regular practice in their pedagogy and in response to both academic and
social problems.
Step 5
Teach techniques for relaxation. This is based on the view that you cannot be
angry and relaxed at the same time. The two most commonly employed and
successful relaxation techniques are slow, deep breathing and progressive muscle
relaxation.
When we experience anger our heart rate goes up and our breathing becomes
quicker. In order to get both down we can use the technique of deep breathing i.e.
where we consciously and deliberately try to take deep, slow breaths. This is called
diaphragmatic breathing and is the same procedure used in child birth classes for
relaxation and pain control. In early childhood and primary classes the simplest and
best procedure is to teach the whole class the techniques. All children can benefit
from these techniques. The teacher will need to personally demonstrate as well as
explain how the techniques work.
When we experience anger our muscles become tense and tight. In order to relax
our muscles we use what is called – progressive muscle relaxation. Best done lying
down, we begin with the toes and work our way up the body. With each muscle we
tense, then release the tension. This is done several times with each muscle until
the muscle becomes more relaxed. Where muscle tension is more localised such
as in clinched fists or in neck and shoulder tightness, the procedure can focus on
these areas and the whole body procedure does not need to be followed.
With secondary students relaxation techniques would most likely need to be taught
on an individual basis. Likewise, for younger students some one-on-one practice
and coaching with the teacher may also be necessary. When students become
angry they can be prompted to use their relaxation techniques. This needs to be
done in a subtle, private way so that only the teacher and the student are involved.
A private nonverbal signal worked out with the student previously, is a useful way
of prompting the student to relax. Verbal directions to “relax” are not normally
effective.
When incidents involving uncontrolled anger do occur, the teacher should sit down
with the student privately after the event and do a debrief of what happened and
what could be done better the next time. Finally, physical exercise or movement
can be used to facilitate relaxation. For particularly angry and aggressive students,
the teacher could have an arrangement whereby the student can leave the
classroom for a five minute walk, or to have a drink of water or to wash their face.
This arrangement would be built into the student’s individual behaviour plan. You
may be concerned that other students might feel aggrieved that some students get
to do this but other cannot. You will find that most students will understand what is
going on in relation to the particular student and will accept it.
The Acting Out Cycle
With frequently occurring and more serious forms of misbehaviour, greater
attention needs to be given to factors that precipitate such behaviour, as well as to
the type of responses that teachers and schools typically activate when faced with
such behaviour. The rationale here is that if teachers know what events tend to
precipitate misbehaviour, action can be taken in the future, to reduce the likelihood

of these events occurring again; or at least the teacher can plan to minimize their
negative impact. Similarly, if it is found that how a teacher responds to serious and
challenging forms of misbehaviour fails to correct the behaviour or even acts to
exacerbate the problem, different responses can be planned for and tried when the
behaviour occurs again.
One way of taking these antecedent and consequent events into account when
working with difficult and challenging students, is to look at these behaviours as
occurring in stages or phases. Here we will look at one such framework, called the
acting out cycle (Figure 3; Walker, Colvin & Ramsey, 1995). The cycle describes
the developmental process of a serious behaviour problem, from before it emerges
through to its most challenging stage and on to a reduction of the problem. We will
look at what happens in each phase and what a teacher needs to do at each point
to manage the behaviour.
Phase 1. Calm
Even the most chronically misbehaving students do not misbehave all the time.
That would be too physically and emotionally draining for them to do. For lengthy
periods of the day these students are generally calm and compliant. They will be
on task, they will follow directions, they will look relaxed and interested, they will
ignore distractions, accept corrective feedback and teacher praise.
When difficult and challenging children are in ‘calm’ teachers often make the
mistake of ignoring them i.e. leaving them alone in case something the teacher
says or does might ‘set them off’ on bad behaviour again. While the logic of this is
understandable, it also means that the teacher is foregoing an opportunity to
interact positively with the student. Remember the ‘Balanced Model’ discussed
earlier in the course. Teachers need to ensure a balance in interactions between
acknowledgement and correction. For most chronically misbehaving students
interactions with the teacher involve correction i.e. correction of misbehaviour, and
very little acknowledgement – praise and reward for good behaviour. So, when the
student is in ‘Calm’ the teacher needs to take the opportunity to restore some
balance. This doesn’t mean that the teacher should be running around lavishing
praise on the student. Rather, it means acknowledging the student’s work efforts,
task completion, direction following behaviour etc., without too much fuss. It is also
important at this time to keep the student calm and engaged through good
pedagogy and interesting lesson tasks and activities.
Phase 2. Triggers
A number of situations and incidents can act to bring on or provoke difficult and
challenging students into misbehaving. These can include conflicts they may have
with other students in the class, changes in routine, not being able to successfully
complete their lesson tasks, being corrected too frequently, time pressures i.e.
running out of time to get work completed and anxiety created by tests and other
forms of assessment. The student is not misbehaving at this point but the ‘triggers’
for misbehaviour exist.
To minimise the negative impact of ‘triggers’ the teacher needs to precorrect for
them i.e. to plan for their reduction and/or to ‘soften their impact. The teacher may
need to think very carefully about who targeted and intensive behaviour support
students sit with, sit near and/or work with – as in group work. Tasks need to be
explained and modeled for students beforehand to maximize their chances of

Figure 3
The Acting Out Cycle

success and to minimise frustration. Picking up early of a student struggling with
his or her work and then offering assistance with the task can be helpful. Because
correction of academic work is a necessary part of the teaching-learning process,
the teacher should make every effort to convey that correction means help and
support – not criticism and punishment. If time pressures are an issue with some
students’ additional time may be given, particularly where the student or students
involved are actively engaged in the task. Periodic indicators of how much time
remains to complete the task can also help students who may have difficulty in time
management.
Phase 3. Agitation
Students who do not deal appropriately with triggers soon begin to exhibit signs of
agitation. The telltale signs include: inconsistent or off-task behaviour, out of seat,
moving in and out of group activities, talking too or interrupting other students and
social withdrawal as evidenced by a reluctance to talk, brooding or sulking.
The earlier a teacher picks up on behaviour that shows signs of agitation the better.
The time between the emergence of such behaviour and its escalation to more
serious acting out forms of misbehaviour can be very brief. Depending on the
student and the student’s history of behaviour problems, the teacher can:
 Move in and acknowledge the students behaviour or signs of agitation and
offer assistance.
 Give the student some space, for example, to work on their own as
opposed to work in a group, maybe to run an errand for you.
 Give the student more time to finish the task.
 Allow the student to do another activity, preferably a preferred activity, and
possibly to complete the original task at another time.
 Move closer to the student. Keep in mind that this may be interpreted as
supportive by some students and provocative by others.
 Give the student a choice of activities or the choice of working with
someone he or she gets along with.
 Talk to the student privately offering advice or suggesting he or she go
through their relaxation procedure.

Some of these more extraordinary responses options would normally be built into
the student individual behaviour plan and would be previously known by the
student and discussed with the student. Don’t be concerned what the other
students may think of some of these strategies and options. They won’t feel that
they are missing out. They will just be grateful that the student involved doesn’t
‘explode’ and upset everyone in the class.
Phase 4. Acceleration
So, all your best efforts to reverse the situation have failed. Remember, there are
no guarantees of success in behaviour management, only the potential for
success. Now, in Phase 4, agitation turns to more direct and challenging forms of
anti-social and disruptive behaviour. These include questioning and arguing, partial
compliance, not following directions, defiance, limit testing, provoking other
students, whining and crying (most with young students), making personal remarks
about the teacher, threats and intimidation, verbal abuse and destruction of
property.
Now the teacher is faced with a real problem. The goal now is to defuse the
situation so that it does not escalate to the point where safety becomes an issue.
What is most important now is for the teacher not to do or say anything that would
make the situation worse. Escalating prompts to avoid include moving in on the
student, making demands and threats, shouting at the student and engaging the
student in a verbal battle of wills. Unfortunately, when faced particularly with
oppositional defiant behaviour and the threat to the teacher’s authority and control
it poses, many teachers do the exact opposite to what has been just said to avoid.
Other recommendations for managing behaviour in Phase 4 include:
 Maintaining calmness, respect for the student and detachment i.e. not to
take things personally.
 Moving slowly and deliberately towards the student if proximity is
necessary.
 Speak calmly.
 Speak privately to the student if possible.
 Do not move around unnecessarily.
 Do not point, stare at, crowd or stand over the student.
 Keep a reasonable distance from the student.
 Speak politely to the student and avoid harsh words and angry tones. If the
situation allows it, position yourself at eye-level with the student.
 Be brief in your statements, directions etc. Don’t try to use your verbal
capacity to get the better of the student.
 Remain focused on the specific behaviour problem, not related problems or
the student’s history of behaviour problems.
 Acknowledge any signs of cooperation.
 Avoid power struggles and win at all costs outcomes.
 If the behaviour escalates, withdraw and follow established emergency
procedures if necessary.
 Continue to monitor the student until help arrives.

Phase 5. Peak

This phase refers to serious disruptive behaviour; behaviour which is out of control
and which may affect the safety of teachers and students. Examples of peak
behaviour include:
 Physical aggression
 Destruction of property
 Self-Abuse, including hitting, hair-pulling, head banging, scratching etc.
 Severe tantrums
 Hyperventilation
 Running out of the room
The class teacher cannot, and should not be expected to deal with this behaviour
alone. School guidelines and emergency procedures need to be activated in such
crisis situations (see Crisis Management later in this chapter).
Phase 6. De-escalation
A crisis intervention often results in the student being re-located to the school
administration building and kept under surveillance until, in some situations, the
parents come to pick the child up. Away from the classroom or setting where the
behaviour occurred, the student will not normally stay in the Peak Phase for too
long. After a while, the child’s behaviour becomes less intense, either through
exhaustion or the effect of intervention strategies.
Normally, the student is kept in isolation and allowed time to ‘cool off’. During this
time the school administrator should acknowledge the student’s distress and not
engage in ‘dressing the student down’ or the application of punishment. A record of
the incident should be made. If the student is in isolation for some time, an
indication of their readiness to cooperate and to return to class can be gauged by
their willingness to talk about the incident in a calm manner, their willingness to
listen to advice and their willingness to engage in a assigned task while at the
office.
Phase 7. Recovery
The student ultimately returns to his or her class. The next period of time is referred
to as the Recovery Phase. The object of this phase is to (1) help the student re-
gain their focus on academic tasks, (2) to reactivate the acting out cycle i.e. to
begin again at Phase 1 Calm, and (3) for the teacher to work with the student to
develop a plan for behaving more appropriately in the future.

Making the Acting Out Cycle Work for You
In responding to low level disruptive behaviour, teachers will be looking to employ
strategies that can quickly redirect or correct the unacceptable behaviour so that
the business of teaching and learning can proceed with little or no interruption.
When the focus is on more serious forms of misbehaviour, the approach needed is
a little different. A lot more thinking and planning needs to go into the task of
managing this type of behaviour. In addition, other teachers and school personnel

will often need to be involved in the task. Interventions will have a greater chance
of success if the teacher:
1. Works to extend, as much as possible, the time serious problem behaviour
students are on task and/or not misbehaving (Phase 1 Calm). This is done by
good teaching and having interesting and engaging learning tasks and
activities. It is also done by having positive interactions with the student when
he or she is in calm.

2. Understands that serious problem behaviour is typically preceded by events
that occasion or lead to the problem behaviour. We refer to these events as
‘triggers’. The more teachers know about them the better they will be at acting
to minimise their negative impact.

3. Understands that many triggers are ‘teacher-related’ i.e. what the teacher says
to the student that might ‘set them off’. Also, how a teacher responds to
misbehaviour is critical in respect to whether the behaviour is effectively
managed or whether it gets worse.

4. Appreciate that in the first two phases of the Acting Out Cycle and to some
extent in Phase 3 the student is not misbehaving. It is here that behaviour
management can be most effective. The focus in phases one, two and three is
on prevention.

5. Understand that in Phase 4 Acceleration the student is now exhibiting
behaviours of concern. Here basic corrective manage strategies need to be
employed in an attempt to redirect the behaviour or, where necessary, to
minimise its impact. When the behaviour continues or escalates, the focus of
behaviour management is on de-escalation or defusing – certainly not doing
anything that might exacerbate the problem.

6. Understand that in Phase 5 Peak, the student’s behaviour is now out of control
and you need to get third party support. Your primary concern here is on the
safety of other students and your own safety.

7. Understand that there are no quick or easy solutions to the behaviour of
students in the top segment of the behaviour pyramid and also for some
students in the second to top segment. Once the student has calmed down and
has returned to your class, you need to go through the process again, beginning
with maximising time spent in calm. Also, continue to talk to the student (one-to-
one) about their behaviour and how it might be improved. If a student isn’t on a
formal behaviour plan, consider developing one with the student. Keep it simple.
Have specific behaviour goals and review them with the student regularly.
Celebrate success, however small. The focus here is on teacher support and
willingness to work with the student for a better outcome for all.

8. Understand that you will get frustrated and disillusioned because of repeated
misbehaviour despite your best efforts. You will be tempted to give up and write
the student off as a lost cause. These students are used to adults (parents and
teachers) offering support but them giving up on them and resorting to
punishment. Teachers need to hang in there.

Defusing

Reference was made in the Acting Out Cycle to the strategy of ‘defusing’. This is
an important strategy and one that you will need to employ in situations where
students get highly emotional, upset, angry and verbally aggressive. The aim of
defusing is to calm the situation so that it doesn’t get completely out of control.
Defusing is most applicable and effective when students are in Phase 4
Acceleration of the Acting Out Cycle. While defusing is aimed at students, the
strategy is really all about teacher behaviour – what teachers do and say. Widger
(2002) provides a useful reminder for teachers about what needs to happen when
employing the technique:
D Don’t lose your cool. De-personalise.
E Empathise. Allow the student to have his/her say.
F Find out the facts.
U Understand feelings.
S Suggest solutions. Suspend EGO (thinking about oneself and self-importance).
E End on a positive note.

Verbal De-escalation
Along similar lines to defusing is the process of verbal de-escalation. The process
is all about avoiding unnecessary and often counter-productive verbal
confrontation. Kerr and Nelson (2002) provide useful advice about how the strategy
can be employed:
1. Misbehaviour or Mother Nature. Understand that some behaviour that might
be considered inappropriate or unacceptable may be a factor of the student’s
stage of development. The classic example is of the young adolescent who is
seeking his or her own identity. In doing so they often come into conflict with
adults who are in a position of power or responsibility e.g. parents and
teachers.

2. Pick your battles. Teachers don’t have to search for ‘battles’ (conflicts with
students who are disruptive or uncooperative). There are typically plenty of
these. What teachers need to do is to be selective about the occasions they
decide to engage with students. Stick to the really important or serious ones.

3. Don’t sweat the small stuff. Don’t hassle with students over the smaller
albeit irritating and frustrating everyday issues. Remember your Planned or
Tactical) Ignoring strategy from Chapter 3. You have a limited amount of time
and energy. Use both wisely.

4. Later. Emotionally charged conflicts are often best left to be dealt with at a
later time, when both you and the student have calmed down and are in a
better position to think and act rationally. It won’t always be possible to delay
though.

5. The last word can be lethal. Some teachers can’t help themselves in this
regard; fighting stubbornly to have the last say. This only prolongs the verbal
exchange and further damages the teacher-student relationship. Disengage
from the verbal battle, terminate the discussion and get back to teaching. This
is what Linda Albert calls the ‘graceful exit’ (Albert, 2003).

6. Is anybody listening to me? If students sense that you are not hearing or
willing to hear their side of the story, they will feel aggrieved and will want,
regardless of what you do or say, to continue the battle with you.

7. Sarcasm isn’t funny. Teachers are most often verbally more capable and
experienced than the students they teach. Combine this with the frustration
they experience with repeated misbehaviour, the temptation to ‘cut the student
down’ with clever but nasty comments is too hard for some teachers to resist.
Teachers may derive some immediate satisfaction from these incidents, but
long-term and often irreparable damage to the teacher-student relationship will
occur. This is especially the case when the student who is the target of the
teacher’s sarcasm is humiliated in front of his or her peers.

8. Save face. It is good practice to limit the embarrassment students often
experience when, after initially being confrontational, they back off and comply
with the teacher’s directives. Keeping verbal exchanges ‘non-personal’ and
brief makes the task of helping the student save face a lot easier. Certainly,
teachers should not ‘gloat’ over their ‘victory’ or in any way express or convey
personal satisfaction at the outcome. Just get on with the job of teaching.

9. Set limits, avoid ultimatums. For some students, demand and threats only
challenge them to resist further. Many are happy to take up the challenge.

10. Take charge of yourself. You won’t think straight and act in a fair and
sensible manner if you are worked up and full of emotion. Take a deep breath
and count to ten – literally.
Defensive Management
Drawing on the approach taken in the Acting Out Cycle, Fields (2004) defined a
process for managing challenging behaviour which he described as ‘Defensive
Management’. The model is a direct response to the typical and unproductive
response of teachers to challenging behaviour – particularly oppositional defiant
behaviour. Disobedience and defiance Fields argues, is most often met with rapidly
escalating controlling behaviour, with demands for compliance, threats of
punishment and ultimatums. These episodes are emotionally charged
confrontations that can lead to hastily conceived, ill-conceived and irrational
teacher responses. Students may in turn feel that the teacher is being
unreasonable and even hostile in his or her actions. This may harden their resolve
to stand firm and to resist what is being asked of them. The teacher and student
become locked in a power struggle with neither party willing to give in. Inevitably
the conflict is ‘resolved’, albeit temporarily, with the removal of the student from the
classroom. Long-term damage to the relationship between the teacher and the
offending student may result. More importantly, there is little in this approach to
behaviour management that would suggest the situation would be any different if a

similar incident were encountered in the future. For an example of how these types
of events and verbal exchanges occur see Table 7.

Table 7

Counterproductive Behaviour Management Decision Making
& Verbal Exchanges

Sean is late for class, but the teacher chooses not to make an issue of it because she
has a difficult lesson task to get through and she wants to get the lesson underway
quickly. As the students get settled, the teacher goes around the room collecting
homework sheets as is her usual practice. Michael doesn’t have his sheet and says
he doesn’t know where it is. Several students nearby laugh and giggle at this
response. Michael rarely completes his homework. The teacher reminds him why she
sets homework and why it is important. She does this knowing there is little chance
Michael will see the wisdom of her explanation and will reform his approach to
homework.

Several terms are introduced during the maths lesson, including ‘coefficient’. One
student makes a play on the word emphasising the ‘fish’ sound. The whole class
breaks out in laughter. The teacher tries to see the humour in the situation, but is
visibly irritated. The teacher moves on in the lesson but Michael wants to carry on the
joke. He’s heard to mutter the word fish several times in an effort to amuse the
students around him. The teacher tells him to stop talking and to concentrate on the
lesson. About a minute later the teacher hears another eruption of laughter. She
turns around in time to catch Michael mimicking a fish by opening and closing his
mouth. This is all too much for the frustrated teacher. She loses her cool and shouts
at Michael “I told you to stop talking and to concentrate on your work”. Michael replies
that he wasn’t talking. The teacher snaps back that she doesn’t care for his
comments and threatens his with detention if she has to speak to him again. All is
quiet for a while and Michael seems to comply with the teacher’s direction.

With her back to the class and in the middle of an explanation of a maths problem,
there’s a loud crash. Michael has fallen off the back of his chair. The teacher is red-
faced and gives Michael a fifteen minute detention at lunch time. Michael demands to
know why and says he wasn’t doing anything. An argument ensures as the teacher
tries to exert her authority and control. The other students are watching these
proceedings with intense interest. Some are clearly amused by the exchange, others
are irritated by the disturbance; still others look intimidated and uncomfortable by
what is happening. As the argument continues, the fifteen minute detention becomes
a thirty minute detention, resulting in Michael saying he won’t go on detention. The
teacher terminates the exchange by going to the door, opening it and directing
Michael to go to the office. As he exits, the teacher punctuates Michael’s departure
with a summary statement of his rudeness and lack of consideration for others. She
directs him not to return until he is prepared to change his behaviour and attitude.
Michael may or may not have heard the teacher’s last remark that she was sending a
note home to his parents.

Underlying the ‘Defensive Model’ is the belief that teachers need to approach these
types of problems in a very different way to what is their usual practice. The ‘power
struggle’ scenario depicted above is riddled with self-defeating and unproductive
forms of communication and aggressive managerial responses. These include a
view of management that sees control and coercion as legitimate devices and
where confrontation is an inevitable part of the management process. It also
includes an assessment of the problem more from the heart than from the head,

where challenging student behaviour is seen as personally insulting and where
one’s emotions dictate how one responds.

Defensive management is about avoiding coercive, aggressive, emotional and
irrational responses to challenging behaviour. It is about avoiding situations where
teacher-student confrontation and power struggles occur as a result of
interpersonal conflict.

Analogy with Defensive Driving

In many ways Defensive Management is akin to the concept and skill of ‘defensive
driving’, hence the name. This analogy is used to help define, explain and situate
the strategy for teachers in much the same way as analogies are used in teaching
science concepts and developmental psychology (Hulshof & Verloop, 2002; Mayo,
2001). In defensive driving the object is to teach drivers how to avoid accidents and
consequences such as serious injury and death. To achieve this goal, defensive
driving classes emphasise (1) preplanning (e.g. taking an alternative route to avoid
hazardous road conditions), (2) observation techniques (e.g. becoming more alert
to potential problems), (3) driver attitudes (e.g. controlling anger when confronted
with discourteous and/or careless drivers; assessing risks and making appropriate
decisions), (4) driving skills (e.g. what to do in an emergency) and (5) avoiding
accidents (e.g. maintaining space between vehicles; negotiating hazards)
(Australian Academy of Science, 2002).

There are many parallels between defensive driving and behaviour management.
Teachers also have an important goal to achieve, the goal of avoiding potentially
unproductive and harmful clashes with students. Teachers too, must pre-plan by
assessing their teaching and managerial behaviour in order to identify and to avoid
conditions that may trigger student misbehaviour. Pre-planning is aided by careful
observation of classroom events and situations that have the potential to cause
disruption. Teachers too must take charge of their emotions when confronted with
the behaviour of students that might irritate them and cause them to act
aggressively and recklessly. As with driving, behaviour management is very much
a practical skill – responding quickly and automatically to a multitude of events both
ordinary and extraordinary. Finally, defensive behaviour management is all about
avoiding ‘collisions’ with students when such clashes can only result in damage
and harm.

It is important to point out that avoidance here is a carefully considered strategy
aimed at side-tracking interactions that can harm relations and undermine teaching
and learning in the classroom. The teacher is not abdicating his or her
responsibilities in the process and is not encouraged to be unassertive.
Challenging behaviour is dealt with, the goal of redirecting student behaviour to
more appropriate behaviour is still in place, but what is missing is coercion and
rejection, typical responses to problem behaviour that have little history of success.
Defensive drivers are confident in their skills and assertive in their approach to
achieving their objective – getting from A to B safely. Teachers too, need to acquire
a similar level of confidence and assertiveness in the classroom if they too are to
achieve their teaching and behaviour management objectives.

The Model

The Defensive Management approach is outlined below and also summarised in
Table 8. The approach consists of six overlapping sets of teacher behaviours
designed to detect, deflect and defuse non-compliance and defiance in its early
stages, with the ultimate objective of avoiding power struggles with students and,
where possible, referral to the office. The six stages are outlined below:

1. Preparation. The teacher observes and records when behavioural
‘incidents’ occur and their related instructional components e.g. group work,
movement, transitions. These are replaced or modified to minimise the likely
future occurrence of inappropriate behaviour.

2. Positive Contact. The teacher makes a planned pre-emptive positive
contact with the problem behaviour student early in the lesson. The teacher
seeks further opportunities for positive interactions during the course of the
lesson and at all times responds politely and respectfully to the student.

3. Warning Signs. The teacher is alert to signs of disengagement or agitation
that are known to be precursors to non-compliance or defiance e.g.
complaints about the work, out of seat, interrupting other students and
irritation at making errors or being corrected.

4. Emotional Control. The teacher becomes aware of and acts to control
muscular tension (e.g. tightness), negative emotions (e.g. anger) and
physiological symptoms (e.g. increase in heart rate) associated with
challenging student behaviour.

5. Defuse. The teacher responds in a way designed to de-escalate exchanges
involving disobedience, arguing, limit testing, the use of abusive language,
threats, etc. Here the teacher draws on a repertoire of strategies such as
hearing the student out, acknowledging feelings, partial agreement, keeping
his/her distance, speaking calmly and politely, and not giving ultimatums to
help defuse the situation and to avoid power struggles.

6. Re-connect. The teacher initiates a positive exchange with the student
shortly after a behavioural incident and when the student has calmed down.
The teacher encourages the student to engage in the formulation of a plan to
limit the occurrence of similar incidents in the future.

Origins of Defensive Management
The strategy owes its ‘defensive’ characteristic to earlier research on acting out
and antisocial student behaviour by Walker, et al. (1995). Walker and his
colleagues showed teachers how it was possible to recognise behaviours and
events that ‘triggered’ and sustained inappropriate behaviour and how it was
possible to prevent the problem from escalating into a crisis. Their emphasis was
on limiting provocative teacher prompts, using respectful language and remaining
calm and in control. Two key behaviour management concepts incorporated into
the Defensive Management strategy were derived from Levin & Nolan’s Hierarchy
of Basic Corrective Management (Levin & Nolan, 2010). These researchers
designed a sequence of strategies for dealing with mild to increasingly more severe

Table 8 Defensive Management Strategies & Procedures

Stage

Strategies & Procedures

Preparation

Systematic observation and recording
of behavioural incidents and their
associated lesson segments and/or
activities. Substitution or modification
of those lesson components, where
possible, to limit the chances of
problems occurring.

 Observation and recording of
behavioural incidents.
 Relationship of incidents to lesson
segments and events, tasks and
activities e.g. opening and closing
of lesson, group work, independent
seatwork, transitions, movement,
routines etc.
 Replacement of lesson
components, tasks and activities to
minimise the occurrence of future
problems.

Positive Contact

Pre-meditated positive
communication with the behaviour
problem student early in the lesson.
Follow-up positive contacts when the
student is behaving appropriately.

 Pre-emptive positive contact with
the student early in the lesson e.g.
on entry to the classroom, asking
the student to help distribute
materials, brief conversation
focusing on an interest of the
student.
 Follow-up work-related positive
contacts to counterbalance the
student’s history of difficult
interactions with the teacher.

Warning Signs

Behaviours indicating disengagement
or agitation that are known to be
precursors to non-compliance of
defiance.

 Alertness to warning signs e.g.
complaints about the work, slow to
start, stops work, talking to or
interrupting other students, out of
seat, disputes with other students,
provoked by others, irritated by
errors or corrections, pressured by
time constraints or criteria for
achievement.

Emotional Control

Awareness of muscular tension
(tightness), negative emotions and
feelings (irritation, frustration, anger,
hostility, vulnerability, fear) and
physiological symptoms (increase in
heart rate, red face, sweating,
tightness of voice).

 Progressively tighten and relax
different parts of the body e.g.
hands, shoulders, neck, mouth.
 Diaphragmatic breathing.
 Move around the room or walk
outside.
 Other physical activity, e.g. collect
or distribute papers or materials,
 position or set up equipment etc.

Defuse

Actions designed to de-escalate or
calm down situations where the
student is questioning or arguing,
limit-testing, refusing to comply with
teacher requests, using abusive
language, making threats, damaging
property etc.

 Hear the student out.
 Acknowledge feelings.
 Partial agreement, where
appropriate.
 Speak calmly, politely, respectfully.
 Keep your distance
 Talk privately if possible.
 Focus on the behaviour, not the
student.
 Reiterate your expectations.
 Offer choices
 Allow take-up (face-saving) time.
 Acknowledge cooperation.

Re-connect

Teacher initiated positive
communication with the student
following a behaviour incident.

 Acknowledge the behaviour incident
was difficult and unpleasant.
 Express a willingness to work with
the student to limit similar incidents
in the future.
 Ask the student to suggest ways of
avoiding similar occurrences in the
future.
 Where possible, get a commitment
from the student for an
improvement in behaviour.

forms of misbehaviour that ranged from the least intrusive to the most intrusive,
and from the least to the most confronting. Teachers were taught to use, where
appropriate, only those procedures that were minimally disruptive to the flow of the
lesson and which involved as little teacher-student confrontation as possible.
Teachers’ who adhered to these principles, it was argued, would be able to employ
more strategies that gave students the opportunity to exercise greater responsibility
for and control over their own behaviour, a fundamental goal of discipline in
schools and indeed education.

Missing from the ideas of Levin & Nolan and also Walker and his colleagues was a
focus on teacher-student relationships and their role in developing positive and
effective discipline in the classroom. Both school administrators and classroom
teachers are becoming more aware of and in tune with educators such as William
Glasser and Bill Rogers who see relations as central to teaching and behaviour
management (Glasser, 1998; Rogers, 2009). Glasser and other educators and
researchers have noted that students who report liking their teachers engage more
with the learning process and are more inclined to cooperate with their teachers.
The implication here is not that teachers should be striving to get students to like
them, although this would be the ideal, but to foster and to maintain relationships
that are generally positive and respectful. The challenge for teachers here is to
‘like’ students whom they find offensive. But this is exactly what is needed if

teachers want to create a classroom environment where respect and cooperation is
fostered.

To achieve the objective of establishing positive teacher-student interaction in the
classroom, the Defensive Management strategy asks teachers to do three things.
First, teachers must focus on the behaviour of concern, not the student, and not on
annoying secondary behaviours that the student may exhibit as a defensive or
face-saving device (Rogers, 2009). Second, teachers need to plan and
systematically initiate a positive interaction with problem students early in their
lessons in an effort to get their lessons started on a positive note. Subsequent
positive initiatives by the teacher are designed to counterbalance the effect of
negative exchanges that tend to characterise interactions with problem behaviour
students. Finally, teachers need to carefully monitor the language they use with
students and to choose words that convey politeness and respect for them.

Defensive Management is also about teachers taking charge of and controlling
their emotions. Students who are rude, disrespectful and insolent naturally evoke
strong emotions in their teachers. It is difficult for teachers not to take these affronts
personally. While they may be considered natural, even normal responses,
teachers need to be aware that their decision-making capacity and ability to
respond rationally and appropriately at these times is impaired when their
emotional reactions override or dominate rational thought and action (Richmond,
2002).

Wisniewski and Gargiulo (1997) found that teachers who were overly distressed by
their encounters with behaviour problem students were less task-oriented,
delivered less positive reinforcement and were erratic in their ability to focus on
instructional tasks. These teachers were viewed by students as being less
sensitive to the social, physical, and emotional needs of students. The findings of
Wisniewski and Gargiulo (1997) were supported by Blasé (1986) who reported that
when teachers experienced stress as a result of student misbehaviour, they react
in a highly defensive, confrontational and authoritarian manner. The teachers in
this study used strategies such as punishers, scolding, threats, active ignoring and,
when these fail – office referral. The Defensive Management approach to behaviour
problems takes the view that knowledge of the potential negative effects of
emotions on an individual’s capacity to respond rationally and appropriately is itself
a powerful motivator to get emotions under control. Emotional control is further
facilitated by collegial support and the knowledge that other teachers face similar
dilemmas. Collegial support is empowering when the focus is on ways of staying
calm and in control. It is less productive though when it fixates on the problem
student and the denigration of that student. Teachers can control their emotions
and maximise their chances of making sound decisions by controlled breathing and
muscle relaxation, by pausing before acting, by keeping verbal exchanges with
students brief, giving ‘cool off time’ and by postponing the exchange (“We’ll talk
about this after the lesson”).

Crisis Management
Students exhibiting Acting Out Cycle Phase 5 Peak behaviour can exhibit
behaviour of an intensity and seriousness that it becomes very difficult to control.
Schools and school systems define these events as crises requiring the full
resources of the school to be active in order to restore security and stability. In

some circumstances external supports e.g. police intervention, is needed to help
manage the situation.

The following information has been drawn from Education Queensland’s Better
Behaviour Better Learning behaviour management professional development
program. The professional development course offered through this program
identifies the following behaviours as examples of behaviour requiring crisis
management:

 Malicious of abusive outbursts.
 Persistent, uncontrolled swearing.
 Screaming.
 Throwing tantrums.
 Physical violence towards others.
 Throwing objects and furniture.
 Destruction of property.
 Running or walking away from the classroom or school.

The program provides a seven step crisis management plan for teachers and the
school to support efforts to manage serious behaviour problems. The plan draws
heavily on the work of Colvin and Sugai (1989) and the Acting Out Cycle
framework:

Step 1. Prevention
 Create a safe and supportive environment which does not trigger crises.
 Adopt a planned approach.

Step 2. Teacher self-control
 Avoid triggering or escalating crisis behaviour.
 Stay rational and calm to manage the student’s crisis behaviour.

Step 3. Early stage intervention (anxiety/agitation)
 Reads the signs of student agitation and anxiety and respond to defuse.

Step 4. Contain verbal aggression (defensiveness, acceleration)
 Answer any questions, repeat simple directions, offer choices.
 Allow the student to vent, but remove any audience (i.e. other students).
 Listen to the student, looking for real messages (i.e. relevant information)
to use to resolve issues later.

Step 5. Manage physical aggression
 Move away from the student to a safe distance.
 Notify the school administration to instigate crisis procedures.
 Direct other students to a safe location.
 As a last resort, if trained (training normally provided by the school
principal), you may physically restrain the student.

Step 6. Recover and debrief (tension reduction and de-escalation)
 Allow the student time and space to rest and reflect.
 Debrief any victims or witnesses and also self.

 Later, complete restitution (for any damages) and resolution with the
offending student.
Step 7. Review and plan
 The school examines details behind the incident.
 Review the effectiveness of the crisis plan and response.
 Make modifications to existing procedures, if necessary.
 Provide further staff professional development as needed.

To better illustrate how this crisis plan unfolds the Better Behaviour Better Learning
course provides a completed case study (Michael) with illustrative behaviours and
recommended responses (see Table 9).

Table 9 Case Study Crisis Plan – Michael

Stage

Intervention

1. Calm
Michael is cooperative.

 Accepts corrective feedback.
 On task.
 Follows instructions.
 Looks relaxed or interested.
 Ignores distractions.
 Accepts praise.

Intervention is focused on prevention.

 Assessment of problem behaviour
has been completed.
 Triggers and reasons for problem
behaviour identified.
 Arrangements have been made
for high rates of social and
academic engagement.
 High rates of positive feedback.
 Required social and behavioural
skills and competencies have
been taught and are regularly
practiced and monitored.

2. Trigger
Michael experiences a series of unresolved
conflicts.

 Repeated failure to get a correct
academic or social result.
 Being corrected too frequently.
 Criticism from peer.
 Runs out of time.
 Rate of positive feedback falls
below the planned minimum.

Intervention is focused on prevention and
redirection.

 Immediately consider reasons for
the problem behaviour when
planning and/or implementing
response.
 Remove from, or modify the
environment.
 Redirect to task or give task with
high probability of success.
 Provide feedback and positively
reinforce when Michael returns to
Calm.

3. Agitation
Michael exhibits an increase in unfocused
behaviour.

Intervention is focused on reducing
anxiety.

 Off-task.

 Frequent start/stop on tasks.
 Out of seat.
 Talking with others.
 Social withdrawal – ‘brooding’.

 Immediately consider reasons for
behaviour when planning and/or
implementing response.
 Make structural/environmental
changes.
 Provide reasonable options and
choices.
 Involve in successful academic
and/or social engagements and

 give feedback and positive
reinforcement.

4. Acceleration
Michael displays determined misbehaviour.
At this point escalation is likely to run its
course.

 Provocative.
 High intensity.
 Threatening others or self.
 Personal remarks.

Intervention is focused on safety.

 Remove all triggering and
demands.
 Follow crisis prevention
procedures (move others away,
do not block Michael’s exit route).
 Establish and follow through with
bottom line.
 Disengage from Michael and
monitor.

5. Peak
Michael is out of control and displays most
severe problem behaviour.

 Physical aggression.
 Property destruction.
 Self-injury.
 Escapes room.
 Hyperventilation.

Intervention is focused on safety.

 As for acceleration.
 Focus on crisis management.

6. De-escalation
Michael displays confusion but with
decreases in severe behaviour.

 Social withdrawal.
 Denial.
 Blaming others.
 Tries to minimise the problem.

Intervention is focused on removing
excess attention.

 Acknowledge distress (“I can see
that you are upset”).
 Don’t nag.
 Avoid blaming.
 Don’t force an apology.
 Consider reasons for the
behaviour.
 Emphasise starting anew.

7. Recovery

Michael displays eagerness to engage in

appropriate behaviour.

 Attempts to correct the problem
(e.g. offers to clean up or repair
damage).
 Unwillingness to participate in
group activities.
 Social withdrawal and sleep on
bean bag.
Intervention is based on re-establishing

routines and activities.

 Follow through with
consequences for problem
behaviour.
 Positively reinforce any displays
of appropriate behaviour.
 Debrief (see below).

Debrief – Important Points

 Purpose of debriefing is to
facilitate transition back to the
class program – not further
negative consequences.
 Debrief follows consequences for
the behaviour.
 Goal of debrief is to finds ways to
increase more appropriate
behaviour.

Additional Notes
1. Wherever practical, respond to the first indication that the problem behaviour has
been triggered. Repeated failure to do so will likely result in an increase in the speed
of escalation in successive episodes.
2. All staff members in the classroom (teacher and teacher aide) must be physically
and emotionally capable of carrying out crisis procedures.
3. Staff members should demonstrate competency in delivering the various
interventions through practice (in-service role plays and practice scenarios) and self-
evaluation.

Behaviour Management Plan (BMP)

Students’ who require intensive behaviour support i.e. the 1 – 5 % of students at
the top of the Behaviour Pyramid; will more than likely have a behaviour
management plan developed for them by their school. The plan is developed at the
school level and would involve the participation of relevant class teachers and
specialist support staff e.g. special education teacher, behaviour support teacher,
guidance officer or school counsellor etc. Ideally, parent input is sought and, for the
most effective plans, the behaviour problem student should also be involved.
BMP’s identify the problem behaviours of concern, planned interventions i.e.
strategies for reducing the occurrence of the behaviour and usually the
replacement behaviours (positive behaviours) that are to be taught. With the strong
emphasis on evidenced based practice in working with students with special
needs, including behaviour support needs, more and more, BMP’s include what is
called a Functional Behaviour Assessment (FBA), and the information derived from
the FBA informs what will be in the BMP.

Functional Behaviour Assessment
A functional behaviour assessment, or analysis, is an information gathering
process that seeks to identify (1) the problem behaviour(s) of a student within the
school setting; (2) the antecedent events (events preceding the occurrence of a
behaviour which might have an influence on that behaviour); (3) the consequent
events (what happens in response to the behaviour that might inhibit or exacerbate
the occurrence of the behaviour); and (4) the function or purpose of the behaviour.
This information guides the selection of interventions or strategies to reduce the
future occurrence of the behaviour as well as strategies for teaching alternative,
more prosocial behaviour. The FBA is finalised with the identification of procedures
for evaluating the effectiveness of the planned interventions.

In summary then, when the FBA has been completed, the FBA team will have
answers to the following questions (Jones, 2011):

1. What are the antecedents and consequences that cause the behaviour?
2. What function(s) does the behaviour serve for the student?
3. What environmental, curriculum and pedagogical changes can be made to
change the student’s behaviour?
4. What behaviours need to be taught to help the student act more
responsibly to meet his or her needs without using behaviours that violate
the rights of others
Understanding Behaviour
Most behaviours are related to their context. This means that behaviours often
result from what is happening in the child’s world or environment, including the
classroom. These are just a few of the factors that may lead to problem
behaviours:

 A disagreement between children.
 The number of children in a classroom.
 The quality of peer relationships.
 The teacher-student relationship.
 The size of the classroom.
 Changes in medication.
 Difficulty completing schoolwork.

Other things, such as who is present and what their expectations are, also affect
behaviour. Behaviours may also be a problem when a child is emotionally upset
and cannot handle the demands of the environment.

Problem behaviours usually serve a function, or purpose, for the child.
Sometimes we see problem behaviours when a substitute or relief teacher is in the
classroom. In this case, we must be careful not to assume that the child doesn’t
like the teacher or that the child wants to show off for friends. Perhaps the child
likes his or her regular teacher and is upset when she is not there. Or the child may
be anxious about what to expect with a new teacher. A child who is upset about
having a new teacher may use problem behaviours in order to be placed in a less

stressful setting. Some children would rather be in a time-out space than in their
classroom.

Unfortunately, consequences that improve the behaviours of most students do not
work with all. Sending a child to the principal’s office, for example, can be
ineffective if the consequence does not address the complex function of a child’s
behavior.

What a child does (the behavior) and why a child does it (the function) may be
unrelated. Skipping school and getting good grades are two very different
behaviours. Yet they may
serve the same function for different children—gaining adult attention. Two children
may both want to be noticed by their parents; one may study hard to have good
grades while the other skips class. They do very different things to get the attention
they want. While the function of both behaviours is positive (parent attention),
skipping class is not an acceptable way to be noticed.

Behaviours are influenced by events in the environment (antecedents). The
size of a classroom, the number of students, transitions, or early morning bus
incidents are all antecedents that might affect a child’s behavior. It is important to
know what leads to both positive and negative behaviours. If teachers and parents
understand the conditions that lead to problem behaviours, then changing the
conditions may reduce the need for the behaviours. Positive teaching strategies
such as providing structure, routine, and rewards for appropriate behaviours help to
increase positive behavior skills.

Components of a Functional Behaviour Assessment

The following components would normally be expected to be included in a
functional behaviour assessment:

 Definition/description of the behavior being targeted.
 Gather information about student and the student’s behaviour as a basis
for sound decision making.
 List of the student’s strengths and abilities and other important information
about the student that could impact the plan.
 Statement describing the function (purpose) of the targeted behavior (from
the functional assessment).
 Description of previously tried interventions and how well they did or didn’t
work in changing the behavior.
 Description of the interventions that will be used including who will be
involved.
 Specific procedures that will be followed and an explanation of how data
on the interventions will be gathered.
 Description of the behavior that will replace the inappropriate behavior (this
is called the replacement behavior).
 Description of how the student’s behavior will be handled should it reach
crisis proportions (This is called the crisis plan).
 Description of how the success of the interventions will be measured.
 Measurable description of the behavior changes you expect to see.

 Schedule for when/how often the plan will be reviewed to determine its
effectiveness.
 Description of when and how information will be shared between home and
school.

The following sections look in greater depth at some of the most critical of the
preceding components of Functional Behaviour Assessment.

Summary – What Teachers Need to Know About
Behaviour

Understanding behaviour is fundamental to FBA and the development of effective
behaviour management plans. Four assumptions about behaviour guide the
thinking which underlies FBA. These are:

1. Behaviour is learned. It is learned by exposure to how others behaviour
and seeing the consequences (pleasant or unpleasant) for that behaviour.
In a similar way our exposure to pleasant or unpleasant for how we behave
will determine in large measure whether we will continue to display that
behaviour or whether we will desist from using it. For example, a traffic fine
for speeding is regarded as an unpleasant consequence for speeding. It is
designed to be aversive and to stop speeding behaviour. Bullying
behaviour persists when it has a pleasant consequence for the bully e.g.
feelings of control and power.

2. Behaviour is contextual. Behaviour does not occur in a vacuum, it is
affected directly by the setting or environmental events. For example, a
hyperactive student might be inappropriately over active during group
work; but might remain seated and on task when working independently
and shielded from many of the classroom visual and auditory stimuli.

3. Putting together both (1) and (2) behaviour can be described in the
following way – A (the events that occur prior to the behaviour), B (the
behaviour itself) C (the response to or consequence for displaying that
behaviour.

Antecedent events (A) don’t necessarily cause the behaviour, but they
make its occurrence more likely (technically, we say they occasion the
behaviour). The likelihood that a behaviour will or will not occur is greater if
the individual is aware of the possible consequence (C) for the behaviour.
If the consequence is likely to be a pleasant one then there is a greater
chance of the person exhibiting that behaviour. Pleasant consequences
(termed rewards) then act to reinforce the behaviour i.e. increase the
occurrence of that behaviour on future occasions. When a student chooses
not to exhibit a certain behaviour because of the likelihood of experiencing
an unpleasant consequence (technically referred to as a punisher) that
behaviour (avoiding displaying the behaviour) is referred to as negative
reinforcement. The term ‘punisher’ here simply refers to any consequence
that is experienced as unpleasant.

A classroom example of the ABC view of behaviour follows:

Antecedent
The teacher reminds the students of expected behaviour when working in
their groups e.g. work related, partner talk only, stay in your seat, raise
your hand if you need assistance.

Behaviour
Students work well in their groups, adhering to the teacher’s expectations.

Consequence
The teacher praises the students for working well in their groups and
rewards the class with 10 minutes of extra free time for their preferred
activities in the afternoon.

4. Behaviour serves a function. This is a fundamental principal associated
with FBA. Broadly, behaviour serves one of two functions (1) to obtain
something, or (2) to avoid something or someone. Behaviour may be
driven by the desire of a student to gain teacher or peer attention, to gain
access to desired materials or activity, to gain a good mark on an
assignment. It can also be driven by the need for pleasurable outcomes i.e.
the good feeling, enhancement of self-esteem, fun and enjoyment from
certain experiences, activities, getting the right answer, cheers and
congratulations after scoring a goal, the good feeling from positive social
interactions. Keep in mind that pleasurable outcomes can just as equally
be derived from exhibiting inappropriate and unacceptable behaviour. So,
the bullying feels good when he steals from, verbally harasses or
physically abuses others.

Students can also exhibit avoidance behaviour – behaviour designed to
escape certain events that the student experiences as unpleasant. These
events might include demands placed on them by the teacher, certain
tasks or activities, certain people (students or teachers), and certain
settings (e.g. gym class). Examples of avoidance behaviour might include
(1) a student deliberately not bringing to school his or her PE clothing so
they would be able to sit out the gym class; and (2) the teacher is
systematically going around the room getting students to report on their
homework assignment. Jenny hasn’t done her homework. As the time for
her to report draws near she pushes all her materials on to the floor, utter
an audible profanity and looks defiantly at the teacher. The teacher sends
her from the room. Jenny has succeeded in experiencing the
embarrassment of being criticised in front of her peers for not having her
homework completed.

Teachers need to understand that if a student is repeatedly exhibiting an
unacceptable behaviour than it must be ‘working’ for the student i.e. its
function is being achieved. Teachers must find ways of helping students
get what they want by using more appropriate, prosocial behaviours.

5. Interventions aimed at improving student behaviour must involve changing
the environment in some way and also changes to pedagogy. FBA will
assist in identifying what changes need to be made. Knowing when

problem behaviours occur – mornings or afternoons, immediately after
recess, during changes in activities, during certain activities (e.g. group
work), is useful information; as is knowing who is present when the
behaviour is exhibited. Knowing what triggers unacceptable behaviour is
also vital information. All these events can be manipulated in some way to
minimise the occurrence of misbehaviour. Teachers are largely responsible
for the daily or lesson schedule, lesson tasks and activities, how tasks are
introduced, taught, practiced and assessed and most importantly how they
interact with students, including problem behaviour students. In other
words, teachers have considerable control over the classroom environment
in which teaching and behaviour occurs.

Defining & Describing Problem Behaviours

Serious problem behaviour students do not normally exhibit just one type of
behaviour problem. Many behaviours will be exhibited, and in developing a
behaviour plan teachers will need to do some prioritising to make the task of
responding to the misbehaviour a manageable one. Behaviours will need to be
reviewed in terms of their frequency, intensity and duration. The more frequently
occurring behaviours, the ones which are the most serious and most resistant to
the usual behaviour management strategies, are the ones that should be the focus
FBA and incorporation into a BMP. A simple way of classifying student behaviours
is to identify them as either distracting (least problematic), disruptive (of significant
concern) or destructive (requiring urgent response). A more specific review of
student behaviour for the purpose of inclusion in a BMP can be carried out by
using the following questions:

 Does it threaten the wellbeing of the student or others?
 Does it interfere with learning and or teaching?
 Does it become more serious if action is not taken to reduce the
occurrence of the behaviour?
 Does it interfere with peer acceptance?

The task of defining and describing problem behaviour is not a simple one. When
teachers bring to the attention of school administrators and support staff the
behaviour of a student, often the behaviour is described in broad terms, making it
difficult to communicate what exactly it is and how it should be responded to. Broad
or abstract descriptors such as ‘aggressive’ or ‘disruptive’ are not sufficient for the
conduct of a FBA or for the development of a BMP. For example, Jeff might initially
be described as ‘aggressive’, but a more detailed analysis might produce a more
concrete and specific description – “Tom hits (with open or closed fist with intent to
harm) other students when he does not get his way e.g. first in line, first to receive
teacher assistance”. Trish might initially be described as ‘disruptive’. A closer
review might reveal this more detailed description: “Trish gets out of her seat
during groupwork and talks to her friends in other groups, distracting them and
others from their work.”

Information Gathering & Assessment
Behaviour plans can be developed by bringing together and pooling the

experiences and ideas of key persons e.g. teachers, support personnel and
parents. More and more this informal process is giving way to or at least being
added to with more formal data collection and assessment processes. What follows
is a list of many of the typical types of information gathering and assessment
practices carried out as part of the Functional Behaviour Assessment process:

 Review of student records (including office referrals, disciplinary incidents
and suspensions).
 Interviews with the student, teachers and parents.
 Observation of behaviour patterns with particular reference to ABC data
(see following section).
 Information about medications, sleep cycles, diet, and moods.
 Assessment of communication and social skills.
 Administration and analysis of formal behaviour scales and checklists (e.g.
Problem Behavior Checklist, Connors Rating Scale, Achenbach Child
Behavior Checklist).

Intervention Options
The team conducting the FBA and charged with the responsibility of developing the
BMP will need to make a number of decisions about what interventions to employ
in order to improve a student’s behaviour. Many times what can be done is
restricted by available resources – personnel, number and expertise, materials,
programs and services, and the physical environment (e.g. available of a time out
or in-school suspension room). Schools can only do their best and when
cooperation and support from parents is not forthcoming or reliable, the task is
even more difficult.

The success or otherwise of a BMP will depend very much on what is happening at
a ‘universal’ level i.e. individual teacher level and across the whole school for all
students. Low level disruptive behaviour needs to be effectively managed by all
teachers, teacher-student relationships need to be positive, the school needs to
have a strong emphasis on good pedagogy and the ethos that all students can
learn. Teachers need to have access to sound and targeted professional
development in the area of behaviour support. Teachers need to the skilled,
confident and persistent in the manage of more challenging behaviours and need
to be able to work within a team at the school level to employ needed interventions,
services and supports for serious problem students. Everyone needs to assume
responsibility for the behaviour and behaviour support of the problem students in
the school.

BMP options generally boil down to five broad types of interventions. Most often
several of the options will need to be activated. The options are:

1. Modify the environment to prevent problem behaviour and to increase the
likelihood of appropriate behaviour. Attention needs to be given to what is
taught how it is taught, peer-peer interaction and teacher-student
interaction and relationships. Develop and apply a checklist of good
practices, e.g. the development and teaching of behaviour expectations,
the balance between acknowledgement and correction in teacher-student
interaction.

2. Modify setting events e.g. physical arrangements, classroom organisation
and management, routines and procedures, timetable or schedule of
lesson activities. Pay particular attention to transitions and movement
around the classroom. Consider a ‘cool off’ area for students prone to
uncontrolled anger.

3. Modify antecedents (e.g. teacher directions need to be clear and helpful)
and consequences (e.g. continually target for praise and other forms of
reinforcement displays of prosocial behaviour).

4. Change one or more aspects of the curriculum and/or pedagogy. Give
particular attention explaining and scaffolding learning tasks well, providing
individual assistance and all ways of maximising student success in
learning.

5. Teach appropriate behaviours that serves the same function as
inappropriate behaviour. For example, teaching sharing and praise sharing
behaviour as a replacement behaviour for students grabbing what they
want and holding on to it.

6. When students have inadequate social interaction skills, teach those skills
(model, prompt, practice and reward). When students have the skills but
choose not to use them, prompt their use and praise and reward students
when they do so.

For a detailed example of a BMP based on FBA refer to Table 10.

Concluding Comments

Working with students whose behaviour is confronting and difficult to manage is not
easy. It is inevitable that all teachers will have to, but this is no consolation to
individual teachers whose efforts to teach and the enjoyment derived from that
activity are continually impeded by the behaviour of a minority of students who
appear unmotivated and unreachable.

The knowledge and skills necessary to work productively with serious problem
behaviour students is available but there are no quick fixes and no guarantees of
success. The behavioural technology for successful interventions exists and is
available to teachers and schools. The undeniable ‘weak link’ in effective behaviour
management and support is the uniqueness of individual students, the complexity
of their behavioural history and repertoire and the variations that exist from class to
class and teacher to teacher. What works and what doesn’t work needs to be
discovered in each situation.

Teachers need to have patience when working with serious behaviour problem
students; they need to suspend ego, accept that there will be set backs and hang
in there. These students are used to adults giving up on them, who convey in one
way or another that they will not change. The outcome is that they are locked in a
cycle of behaviour encounters which always seem to take them to the recognition

that their behaviour is and will continue to be bad. Teachers are significant
individuals in the lives of students and have the capacity to assist students to break
out of this vicious cycle.

Table 10

Example Behaviour Plan Based on Functional
Behaviour Assessment

Name: Jimmy Smith. Date: 11/04/2013

Age: 10 yrs. 0 mo. Grade: 5 School: Portland State School.

Referred by: Jennifer Jones, Guidance Officer.

Staff Implementing Plan: Linda Brown (Class Teacher), Michael Green
(Physical Education Teacher), Elizabeth Long (Music Teacher), and Mark Pace
(Deputy Principal).

Likes/Dislikes:

Likes:
Teachers report that Jimmy seems to enjoy his art and physical education
lessons in the afternoon. Art seems to have a calming effect on him and he
works well on his own. The PE classes get him out of the classroom as after a
while he reacts negatively to the confinement of the classroom and the
academic demands placed on him. His favourite educational subjects appear to
change depending on the assigned activity and his mood.

Dislikes:
It has been observed that Jimmy’s educational dislikes also change,
depending on his mood and the assigned activity. Having to sit in his sat for
long periods is a particular problem for him.

Target Behavior(s):

Jimmy will decrease the use of aggressive behaviours such as kicking, hitting,
spitting, pulling hair, throwing objects (books, pencils, chair) biting and
scratching, threatening and/or aggressive comments to staff and peers, and
destruction of property. Jimmy will additionally decrease the use of profanity.

Definition of Behavior(s):

Property Destruction: When Jimmy destroys or physically damages school
property. Property destruction does not include materials such as Jimmy’s
personal property.

Threatening or aggressive comments to staff or peers: These include comments
which state Jimmy’s intent to inflict or cause bodily injury or death to a staff
member or peer.

Profanity: The use of language which is socially unacceptable for children to
use around adults. Examples which would not be considered as profanity would
include: Darn, Crap, Sucks, Stinks, Shut-up.

Aggressive Behaviours Include:

Kicking: When Jimmy’s foot or leg makes contact with another person, or an
inanimate object (excluding walking surfaces of objects involved in play
activities, such as a ball) with sufficient force to hear the contact at a distance
of 4 metres.

Hitting: When Jimmy’s hand or arm makes contact with another person, or an
inanimate object (excluding objects involved in play activities, such as a ball)
with sufficient force to be heard at a distance of 4 metres
.
Spitting: The act of expelling liquid (saliva, water, juice, etc.) from the mouth.

Pulling hair: When Jimmy grasps hair on the top of the head and pulls the hair
in a direction away from the head.

Throwing objects: The act of grasping or holding any object in the hand and
propelling the object one or metres from the hand (excluding objects involved in
play activities, such as a ball or Frisbee).

Rates of Behavior(s) & Description of Analysis:

Rates of problematic behaviours (including aggression, profanity and property
destruction) did not seem to be affected by time of day or by the individual
working with Jimmy.

Rates of problematic behaviours (including aggression, profanity and property
destruction) were affected by the setting.

Rates of problematic behavior were higher in time out and when Jimmy was
expected to reflect on his inappropriate behaviours following a behaviour
incident.

Rates of problematic behaviours were higher when it was unclear to Jimmy
what it was he was supposed to be working on, and when he was expected to
wait for assistance.

Intervention(s) Previously Attempted and Resulting Effectiveness:

Currently waiting for this information from his previous school.

Functional Analysis of Behavior:

Currently the team has been unable to ascertain the exact function(s) of
Jimmy’s behavior. At this time, the team speculates that the functions of
Jimmy’s behavior are three-fold, including: 1) control of the setting, 2) the
minimisation of fear, and 3) avoidance of unpleasant events. These functions
may not be inclusive of all functions of behavior.

Description of Intervention(s):

Academic Restructuring – The data indicates that Jimmy requires
modification in the presentation style of his academic work. Frequent breaks
coupled with frequent reinforcement (via staff praise and appropriate attention
and/or bonus tickets) will assist Jimmy in maintaining a lower frustration level.
The goal of academic restructuring is to avoid the use of more intrusive
interventions. Allowing Jimmy to make choices as appropriate and incorporate
his interests and preferences is an essential component of the behavior plan.
When appropriate, Jimmy will be provided with choices in his academic work
such as mode of output, choice of assignment, independent projects, etc.
Jimmy will be provided with a daily schedule. If Jimmy chooses not to work, the
staff will provide him the opportunity to go to the safe space area. When
Jimmy’s behavior is appropriate and he indicates that he is ready to work the
staff will assist Jimmy as necessary in completing the assignment.

Classroom Management System:

Behavioral Expectations:
1. Raise hand to ask for assistance or to visit the toilet.
2. Ignore the inappropriate behavior of others.

3. Stay on task.
4. Make positive comments (about self and others).
5. Participate appropriately in lesson activities.
6. Remains in own personal area.
7. Works without distracting others.
8. Follow directions
9. Complete lesson tasks.

Jimmy will earn tickets for exhibiting behavioural expectations numbers 1-4 and
will earn points on his point sheet for exhibiting behavioural expectations
numbers 5-9. Jimmy will be given the opportunity to exchange his tickets for
snacks or breaks at 3 pre-determined times throughout the day. Additionally,
Jimmy will be given the opportunity to exchange his points at the “class store” at
the end of the day on Wednesday and Friday, contingent on him not having
been sent to timeout since the last time the “class store” was open. If Jimmy is
sent to time out on Monday, Tuesday, or Wednesday, he will not be eligible to
cash in his points at the store on Wednesday. Likewise, if he is sent to time out
on Thursday or Friday, he will not be eligible to cash in his points at the store on
Friday. Any earned points will not be lost as a function of being sent to time-out.

Earning Points
Jimmy will start out with four points in each of the five behavioural expectations
categories (participating appropriately in present activity, remain in own
personal area, work without distracting others, follow directions, and complete
assignments) at the beginning of each class period. If he has to be reminded to
exhibit appropriate behaviours in one of these areas, he will lose one point in
that area and a timer will be set for two (2) minutes. Jimmy has until the timer
rings to begin doing what was originally requested of him. During this two
minutes, staff will not prompt or remind Jimmy. If the timer rings and Jimmy has
not already begun doing what was requested of him, he will receive a second
reminder, lose another two points (total of three), and the timer will be reset
for another two (2) minutes. If the timer rings and Jimmy has not begun the
requested activity/behavior, he will lose the remaining point (total of four) and
will need to go to the safe space area. At the end of each class period, any
remaining points will be recorded on his point sheet.

The Safe Space:

The purpose of the safe space period is to provide Jimmy with a chance to
refocus and regroup. The location of the safe space is behind the pink dividers,
in front of Mr Pace’s office window. During this time, Jimmy is expected to
be quiet and keep all parts of his body or any materials in the safe space area,
not going outside of the pink divider. Likewise, the staff are not to engage
Jimmy in conversation, as long as he is following the safe space rules.

A timer will be set by a staff at the beginning of the safe space period to 10
minutes. At the end of the 10 minutes, Jimmy will have the option to request a
second 10-minute safe space period. If a second safe space period is desired
by Jimmy, he will need to hang up the red card on the outside of the pink divider
within the first 10 minute period. If he does so, the staff will reset the timer to
another 10 minutes, once it has rung at the end of the first 10 minute period.

Staff will not engage Jimmy in conversation during his safe space periods.
At the end of the second safe space period (or the first period, if he does not
choose to have a second safe space period), Jimmy will come out and resume

working in what he was supposed to be doing before he went into the safe
space area. Jimmy can, if he wants to, end his safe space period before the 10
minutes is up by placing the green card outside of the pink divider. If this
happens, he will be expected to begin working on what he was supposed to be
doing before he went into the safe space area. If Jimmy refuses to begin
working in what he was supposed to be doing, or does not follow the rules while
in the safe space area, the Time-Out door will be opened as a visual prompt.

Jimmy may request to go to the safe space area, with the same conditions as
stated above, if he begins to become frustrated. Jimmy can also be sent
automatically to the safe space area if he uses profanity.

Time Out:

The use of time out will be avoided if possible and will be reserved for
destruction of property, aggressive behaviours, or threatening or aggressive
comments to staff and/or peers. Additionally, it will be reserved for times when
Jimmy is refusing to follow directions after he has been in the safe space area.
The window on the Time-Out door will be covered with a 1-way mirror contact-
paper, to be supplied by the office staff. This paper will serve to minimize stimuli
presented to Jimmy while he is in Time-Out, while allowing the staff to monitor
Jimmy’s safety.

Time-Out with the Door Closed:
Once in Time-Out, Jimmy needs to complete the following steps to come out of
the Time-Out room and return to his work/assigned activity:

Step 1.
Knock on the door using a neutral knock. Loud, aggressive, or repetitive knocks
or kicks on the door will be ignored. Go to the back of the Time-Out room. A
staff member will look in the window to acknowledge to Jimmy that the knock
was appropriate and, to verify he is in the back of the Time-Out room.

Step 2.
Once this is done, the staff member will set a timer for 8 minutes.
Verbal instructions will be made, if necessary, to prompt him on what he needs
to do (be fully dressed, in appropriate place). Jimmy will be notified once the
timer is set.

Step 3.
During these 8 minutes, Jimmy needs to remain calm, not talking or making
noises, and remain fully dressed.

Step 4.
At the end of the 8 minutes, the staff member will look in the window to verify
that Jimmy is calm, fully dressed, and in the back of the Time-Out room. If he is
ready, proceed to step 5. If he is not calm, he will be told what it is he needs to
do, and will proceed back to step 1.

Step 5.
The staff member goes to the closed Time-Out door and tells Jimmy what it
is he needs to do. Jimmy must be able to repeat those steps back to the
staff member.

Step 6.
Jimmy then has 2 minutes to come out of the Time-Out room and go to his
seat. If Jimmy does not comply within 2 minutes, the Time-Out door is shut
and the Time-Out procedures start again.

Time-Out with the Door Open:
The Time-Out door will remain open if Jimmy goes into the Time-Out room on
his own and sits/stands at the back wall and does not talk or make noise. The
timer starts when Jimmy is quietly sitting or standing at the back of the Time-
Out room. The same procedures (as for Time-Out with the door closed) are
followed at this point.

The Time-Out door will be closed if his behavior escalates (raising voice at staff,
removing articles of clothing, etc.) or if he does not follow the above stated
procedures. With either situation (Time-Out door open or closed), the staff will
monitor Jimmy by looking in the Time-Out window as needed to monitor safety
concerns.

Staff will document the use of Time-Out by documenting the number of times

the Time-Out procedure is used, the length of time Jimmy was in Time-Out, the
day and time of day each Time-Out episode occurs, and specifying Jimmy’s
antecedent behaviours which led to the Time-Out.

If Jimmy is in Time-Out repeatedly during a school day, in cases where he will
not cool down but he is safe, he will remain in the Time-Out room until he does
cool down. If he is in Time-Out during the lunch period, he will not be able to eat
lunch if he ends his session in Time-Out after lunch is over. During the lunch
period, staff should keep their verbal exchanges with him limited to “Feel free to
join us if you can follow the rules. Lunch is served from X time to X time. After
that, lunch is over.”
If, while Jimmy is in the Time-Out room and he requests to go to the toilet, he
will need to be fully and appropriately dressed before he will be allowed out of
the Time-Out room to go to the toilet. If he is not fully and appropriately dressed
and/or is refusing to become fully and appropriately dressed, staff should limit
their verbal exchanges with him to “I don’t trust you yet. Your mom has told us
you can wait long enough to get fully dressed and calmed down before going to
the toilet.”

While in Time-Out, Jimmy’s inappropriate behavior will be ignored.

A debriefing will NOT follow a time out session.

Coordination with the Home:
Mrs. Smith will be called to be informed of any serious behavior, although
Jimmy will stay in school.

Physical Restraint
Restraint will be only be used in those situations where time out is not available
or until Jimmy can be escorted to the time out room. All efforts will be
implemented to avoid the use of restraint; however, if Jimmy becomes out of
control or violent and is a threat to the safety of himself or others, physical
restraint may be used by trained staff.

Crisis Plan
The crisis plan is currently being redeveloped in the light of school system
policy and guideline changes.

Monitoring of Behavior Plan
The behavior plan will be monitored by the school’s Special Needs Committee
and will be evaluated every 6 weeks for effectiveness. The team will reconvene
prior to the 6-week meeting in the event that Jimmy is sent to time out three
times in a given three-week period.

Behaviour Management Reference Chapter 6

Chapter 6
State, National &
International Exemplars
of Contemporary
Practice

Given the close links between pupil learning and
behaviour, promoting positive behaviour in schools must be a
key element in ensuring the best possible outcomes for our
children … For pupils, acquiring the ability to manage their
behaviour and relationships appropriately is a key part of
preparing them for life in an adult society, including the
workplace.

(Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Education, 2005)

Best practice related to addressing student behaviour
issues is, in the first instance, likely to be based on a clearly
articulated and comprehensive behaviour management policy
at a system, district/community, school and classroom level.

(De Jong, 2005)

Ongoing professional development in classroom
management is essential for all teachers but especially
important for new teachers.

(Oliver & Reschly, 2007)

Overview

Where schools are seeking the strongest and most effective response to the
management of student behaviour, it makes no sense for teachers to be working in
isolation from one another. Logically, if teachers are employing their own individual
models or approaches to behaviour management the likelihood of there being
inconsistencies in response to behaviour is quite high. Furthermore, not all models
are compatible in how they view behaviour and in the strategies they employ. This
will present a confusing picture to students about behaviour expectations and
about how different teachers will view and respond to behaviour, both good and
bad.
Increasingly, schools are moving towards a whole of school approach to behaviour
and the management of behaviour within the school and, where possible, within
the broader school community. Everyone „on the same page‟ and everyone „pulling
in the same direction‟ is the down to earth message of the whole school approach.
Perhaps the best and most recent example of this initiative is the development and
implementation of anti-bullying policies in schools and the creation of guidelines for
how parents, teachers and students view the problem and their respective
responsibilities in seeing that schools become no bullying environments.
Most whole school behaviour management models or approaches have sufficient
flexibility to allow for individuality in teacher approach, just so long as those
approaches are not in opposition to the goals and procedures of the identified
school approach. The big advantage for teachers is that they will, within a whole
school approach, feel far less isolated and unsupported in the difficult task of
managing student behaviour.
It also makes sense that school systems too should have a clear vision and set of
goals around behaviour in schools. School systems across Australia and in other
countries have moved strongly in this direction. In this chapter we will review
Education Queensland‟s response to behaviour and behaviour management at the
system and school level. It represents a standout exemplar of good practice in
comparison to other states and the approach of many international school systems.
We will also look at one model of whole school behaviour management and
support. The model is called Positive Behaviour Support (PBS), known in
Queensland as Schoolwide Positive Behaviour Support (SWPBS). Developed in
the United States it has been implemented with success elsewhere around the
world including Australia. It is Education Queensland‟s preferred model for whole
school behaviour management.
Whether or not you ultimately will be employed in a Queensland state school, the
principles and practices of whole school behaviour management and support
discussed in the chapter, will give you a sound knowledge of what is best practice
and how teachers need to operate within any school system or school level
behaviour management policy or plan.

Introduction
Our focus to this point has been on class specific behaviour management. We now
turn our attention to school and system level approaches to behaviour
management. We do this, in part, by studying the Queensland state school
system‟s recent developments and initiatives in behaviour management and
support.
Education Queensland‟s response to issues of student behaviour needs to be
viewed within the broader context of how Australia, as a whole, has viewed the
problem and responded to it. So, we will briefly look at what has happened at the
national level before focusing on developments in Queensland.

Behaviour in Schools – A National Concern
Behaviour management continues to dominate as a professional concern for
politicians, school administrators and classroom teachers. It is also recognized by
the public as a matter of considerable concern. For decades there have been calls
for action to be taken to address the problem. After years of inaction, the Australian
government took a lead role in responding to the issue of bullying, harassment and
violence in Australian schools through the development and dissemination of the
National Safe Schools Framework. The Framework is an agreed national approach
to prevention of bullying, violence, child abuse and neglect. Virtually all school
systems within Australia have adopted the framework with individual schools
incorporating its principles and guidelines into school policy.
In 2004, the Australian government taskforce set up by the Ministerial Council on
Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) delivered its
report on student behaviour management De Jong (2004). The taskforce was
charged with the responsibility of identifying principles and practices that could be
used to support the development of successful student behaviour management
programs on a systemic, district, school, classroom and individual level in
Australian schools and education systems. These principles and practices
represent what can be described as „best practice‟ in behaviour management.
The principles developed by the Taskforce encouraged schools to take a holistic
and whole school approach to understanding and responding to student behaviour;
to see that student behaviour was directly linked to the quality of the teaching-
learning experience, and to give priority to practices and strategies which created
safe environments for students. Additional principles included the development of
an education experience that was fundamentally student-centred and responsive;
recognizing and embracing student diversity and inclusive practices as key driving
forces in school education; and giving priority to the development of good teacher-
student relations. To these one can add further principles and practices drawn from
several decades of school effectiveness research (see Table 11; Reynolds,
Creemer, Stringfield, Teddlie, & Schaffer, 2002; Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000), all of
which are relevant to the specific goal of encouraging positive behaviour and
effectively managing behaviour that interferes with teaching and learning.

Table 11
Effective Schools, Effective Behaviour Management & Support
Guidelines for Best Practice

1. Learning and instruction should be the school‟s primary focus. Discipline
(behaviour management) exists to support this process.

2. Discipline should be proactive. Proactive approaches emphasise
preventative procedures and constructive problem solving approaches to
minimise problems and to support students to learn prosocial behaviour.
Methods that emphasise control and supervision (only) of student behaviour
are generally unproductive.

3. School principal leadership is essential. The school‟s behaviour
management plan must be initiated and led by the school principal. The
principal needs to be highly visible and supportive in the implementation of
the plan.

4. All school staff need to be actively involved. Teaching and non-teaching staff
as well as support staff and community volunteers need to be familiar with
the school‟s behaviour management plan and need to be committed to it.
This understanding and commitment ensures that the plan will be
implemented consistently and systematically at all times.

5. Effective school-wide behaviour management is facilitated by specific
teacher training and regular staff development activities.

6. Expectations for student behaviour should be high. While there are many
contributing factors to student misbehaviour, many of which are beyond the
control of the school; teachers and school authorities should not lower their
standards and expectations for student behaviour.

7. Class teachers and office staff need to have a clear understanding of what
behaviours should and should not warrant referral to the office.
Misunderstandings over office referrals can frustrate school administrators
(too many referrals for minor problems) and demoralize class teachers (who
perceive that senior staff are not backing them up).

8. A strong, positive school climate should be developed. Schools that exhibit a
strong school climate are well-managed institutions that are generally warm
and supportive for both students and staff. These schools have a strong
focus on academic achievement, with policies and procedures for promoting
social behaviour.

9. The school needs to operate from a strong community basis with an
emphasis on collaboration and cooperation. Parents, teachers, students;
indeed all stakeholders in the school need to be actively involved in all
aspects of the school program. The school needs to welcome and
encourage linkages with a wide range of community social service agencies.

10. Effective schools have clear, functional rules and expectations. These rules
and expectations are often collaboratively determined and are clearly
communicated to all relevant parties.

11. Effective schools collect data and keep records on all facets of discipline in
the school. This information is regularly reviewed and used as a basis for
evaluating the effectiveness of the school‟s discipline program.

The Queensland Response
Queensland was one of the first states to respond to the MCEETYA Taskforce
report. In 2004 the Queensland government established the Ministerial Advisory
Committee for Educational Renewal (MACER) and identified student behaviour as
one of its priority topics for advice to the Minister for Education, Training & the Arts.
The Behaviour Management Sub-Committee of MACER delivered its report entitled
„Smart Schools, Smart Behaviour‟ in November 2005 (MACER, 2005). Of the
sixteen recommendations made in the report, eleven were accepted for immediate
action by the state department of education – more commonly known as Education
Queensland. A further four recommendations were accepted in principle.
A feature of the „Smart Schools, Smart Behaviour‟ report was its recognition of the
reciprocal relationship between pedagogy, student behaviour and student learning.
The report added a fourth factor – school leadership as one which is absolutely
critical in the creation of conditions within the school that maximized good teaching,
student achievement and positive student behaviour.

The Code of School Behaviour
Within a year of the release of the „Smart Schools, Smart Behaviour‟ report,
Education Queensland had developed the „Code of School Behaviour‟ for
implementation in all 1,300 plus Queensland state schools (Department of
Education & Training, 2006a). In doing so they honoured one of the specific
recommendations of the „Smart Schools, Smart Behaviour‟ report that quote “a
Code of Expected Behaviour be established by school systems and adopted by
schools”.
The purpose of the „Code‟ is to provide a basis of certainty and consistency in
standards of behaviour for all state school communities. As well as articulating
standards of behaviour, the „Code‟ clearly defines the rights and responsibilities of
students, teachers, school administrators, parents/carers. The „Code‟ also contains
a detailed statement about the consequences for students who engage in
unacceptable behaviour as well as a statement of the values and principles that
underpin the Department‟s view of behaviour in the school context. What followings
is a summary of some of the key points made in the „Code‟.
The „Code‟ makes it clear that having a safe, supportive and disciplined school
environment where rights are respected is essential to effective learning (and for
that matter, teaching as well). Three rights are identified:
 The rights of all students to learn
 The rights of teachers to teach
 The rights of all to be safe

School communities (including students, teachers and parents/carers) are
expected to enact the code by (1) providing positive support to promote high
standards of achievement and behaviour and by (2) clearly articulating responses
and consequences for inappropriate behaviour.
It was originally intended the „Code‟ be used as a form of enrolment agreement to
be signed by students (where appropriate), parents/carers and principals. This
agreement requires all parties to abide by the „Code‟ and “other endorsed
conditions stipulated by the school”. As enacted today, parents are alerted to the

existence of the code (available through school web sites) but are not required to
sign it. All members of the school community however, are expected to conduct
themselves in a lawful, ethical, safe and responsible manner that recognizes and
respects the rights of others.
Students are expected to:
 participate actively in the school‟s education program
 take responsibility for their own behaviour and learning
 demonstrate respect for themselves, other members of the school
community and the school environment
 behave in a manner that respects the rights of others, including the right to
learn
 cooperate with staff and others in the school community.

Parents/carers are expected to:
 show an active interest in their child‟s schooling and progress
 cooperate with the school to achieve the best outcomes for their child
 support school staff in maintaining a safe and respectful learning
environment for all students
 initiate and maintain constructive communication and relationships with
school staff regarding their child‟s learning, wellbeing and behaviour
 contribute positively to behaviour support plans that concern their child.

Schools are expected to:
 provide safe and supportive learning environments
 provide inclusive and engaging curriculum and teaching
 initiate and maintain constructive communication and relationships with
students and parents/carers
 promote the skills of responsible self-management.

The „Code‟ provides some specific advice regarding unacceptable student
behaviour and the consequences for it. Schools are expected to provide a range of
responses and consequences for inappropriate student behaviour. The „Code‟s
guidelines for consequences are that they should:
 provide an opportunity for all students to learn (appropriate behaviour)
 assist students, who exhibit challenging behaviours, to accept
responsibility for themselves and their actions
 ensure the safety of staff and students.

In applying consequences, the needs and rights of students, individual
circumstances and the needs and rights of the school community are to be
considered. Suspension, exclusion and cancellation of enrolment are to be used
only after serious consideration is given to other responses.
The „Code‟ concludes with a statement of the values which underpin the
Department‟s Strategic plan (see following section) and the principles which are to
be applied in developing school behaviour management plans. These principles
include the understanding that the foundation of positive classroom behaviour is

effective teaching, inclusive and engaging curriculum and respectful relationships
between staff and students. A further principle is that effective behaviour
management is achieved by adopting a whole school approach to the task.

The Responsible Behaviour Plan for Students
Schools enact the „Code‟ by developing and communicating a school behaviour
plan. Education Queensland schools are required under the Education (General
Provisions) Act 2006 to develop such a plan. Guidelines for the development of the
plan have been developed by Education Queensland and the plan is called the
Responsible Behaviour Plan for Students (RBPS). While school principals are
responsible for ensuring that such a plan is developed, its formulation is to be a
collaborative effort involving all key school community members. The plan is
expected to clearly reflect the „standards‟ i.e. behavioural expectations identified
above and to be in accord with the values and principles defined in the „Code‟. The
actual processes and strategies for facilitating expected behaviour and responding
to unacceptable behaviour are to be work out at the school level and would involve
the input of school administrators, teachers, support staff, parents, guardians,
students and other agencies where appropriate.

The RBPS is made up of nine major sections. These are, (1) a rationale for the
schools behaviour plan including a statement of the school‟s values, (2) the
schools beliefs about behaviour and learning, (3) processes for facilitating positive
behaviour and responding to unacceptable behaviour, (4) consequences for
unacceptable behaviour, (5) the network of student support available within and to
the school to help students with serious behaviour problems, (6) consideration of
individual circumstances, such as where a student has a disability, (7) legislation
related to behaviour management and behaviour support in schools, (8) related
school system policies, and finally, (9) a summary of references and resources that
are or can be drawn on by the school. We will now take a closer look at these
major sections of the RBPS.

1. RBPS Rationale
All schools are required to include this statement form the Code of School
Behaviour: “Education Queensland is committed to provisions that ensure all young
Queenslanders have the right to and receive a quality education”. Schools can add
additional statements to reflect their particular emphasis and context. It is in this
introductory section of the plan that schools frequently make a statement about the
school‟s values. These are often the values included in the Code of School
behaviour:
 Professionalism: committing to the highest standards of accountability
and performance.

 Respect: treating all people with respect and dignity.

 Innovation and Creativity: fostering safe environments that support
innovation and creative practice.

 Diversity and Inclusiveness: encouraging all Queenslanders to
participate in education and cultural activities.

 Excellence: supporting the pursuit of excellence.

In addition to the values specified in the „Code‟ many schools have chosen to
feature values identified in the „National Framework for Values Education in
Australian Schools‟. Nine values are identified in that document:
 Care and Compassion: care for yourself and others.

 Integrity: ensure consistency between words and deeds.

 Doing our Best: seek to accomplish worthy and admirable, try hard,
pursue excellence.

 Fair Go: pursue and protect the common good where all people are
treated fairly.

 Understanding, Tolerance & Inclusion: being included and including
others, understanding that diversity is normal, individuals are linked by
similarities and differences.

 Respect: treat others with consideration and regard.

 Freedom: freedom carries responsibilities.

 Honesty and Trustworthiness: be honest and sincere.

 Responsibility: be accountability for your own actions, resolve differences
in constructive, non-violent and peaceful ways, take care of the
environment.

The number of values chosen by schools varies from about five to a high of twenty.
Cooroy State School is at the upper end identifying the following values:
consideration, cooperation, commonsense, courtesy, care, respect,
communication, trust, choice, initiative, success, effort, responsibility, individuality,
tolerance, honesty, support, risk taking, opportunity and humour. The values that
appear most often in school behaviour plans are: respect, responsibility and
honesty.
Some schools prefer to focus on virtues rather than values, drawing, in particular,
on Linda Kavelin-Povov‟s approach to values education (Kavelin-Povov, 2012).
The preference for values is based on the argument that values are culture-specific
and religion specific. Virtues on the other hand are viewed as common elements of
character and spirituality universally recognised and valued by all cultures,
religions, beliefs and faiths. While Kavelin-Povov identifies a large number of
virtues, ten are most often selected for use in school settings. These are:
 Integrity: being true to your best self and living by your highest values.

 Courage: strength of heart – doing the right thing even when it is difficult.

 Honesty: being truthful and sincere.

 Responsibility: having a sense of duty to perform tasks with reliability,
dependability and commitment.

 Empathy: understanding what another person is feeling.

 Respect: treating an individual or thing as a person or object of value.

 Fairness: treating everyone alike – without fear or favouritism.

 Citizenship: having respect for and being involved in the school and
broader community.

 Diligence: working hard and doing your absolute best.

 Conservation: deliberately preserving or saving things of importance –
environment, history or resources.

The use of values or virtues in school behaviour management plans is laudable,
but also problematic. In a pluralist society where diverse viewpoints and lifestyles
exist, achieving a consensus on what values should guide the behaviour of its
citizens can be difficult. In addition, achieving a shared understanding of what
particular values actually mean can also be challenging. Perhaps, more
importantly, is the challenge posed in having children as young as six years of age
coming to a genuine understanding and appreciation of what are, even to adults,
abstract and complex concepts. One way of doing this is for schools to list their
values and then to illustrate these with concrete and practical examples of
behaviour that is a manifestation of those values. As with any learning task, true
understanding is achieved only after prolonged exposure to and experience with
numerous examples and non-examples of behaviours indicative of the values
being taught.

2. Beliefs About Behaviour & Learning
In developing their „Responsible Behaviour Plan for Students‟ schools are required
to formulate and state their beliefs about behaviour and learning. Schools are
guided in this activity by the values and principles set out in „The Code of School
Behaviour‟. However, these alone are not sufficient to provide a comprehensive
statement of beliefs. What we find in school behaviour plans, is evidence of school
communities drawing on a wide range of research, theories and perspectives about
behaviour, learning and pedagogy; to respond to this requirement and in the
process making very public, not only their beliefs, but their familiarity with and
critical understanding of educational research and findings on what constitutes
„best practice‟ in teaching and behaviour management. A summary of the typical
kind of statements made by school communities in respect of beliefs about
behaviour and learning is provided below:

Learning
 Learning is facilitated when the educational experience recognises and
accepts diversity and difference and when the curriculum is inclusive and
engaging.
 Essential to effective learning is the establishment of a safe, supportive
and disciplined environment where individual rights are respected.
 Learning is best when children‟s needs (belonging, power, fun and
freedom) are being met.
 Every child is unique and every child can learn.

 Children learn at different rates.
 Active student participation in the learning experience is essential.
 Classroom environments need to be attractive, stimulating and enriching.
 Teachers need to set high standards and to strive for excellence in all
areas of the curriculum.
 Learning is a life-long process.

Behaviour
 The foundation of positive classroom behaviour is good teaching,
respectful relationships and the creation of a safe and supportive school
environment.
 Good student behaviour is more likely when the school community has a
shared understanding of the values which underpin schooling and socially
acceptable behaviour.
 A proactive approach to learning and behaviour minimises the need for
reactive strategies.
 Standards for behaviour are established when clear and consistent
boundaries for acceptable and unacceptable behaviour are defined.
 Children behave better when expectations are clear and when they have
had an opportunity to participate in discussion about rules and appropriate
behaviour.
 The school adopts a whole school and whole school community approach
to behaviour. Responsibility for student behaviour is seen as shared
between students, teachers, school administrators and parents/carers.
 Respectful, on-going and positive school-parent communication exists
 Rights and responsibilities are defined.
 Introducing, modeling and reinforcing positive social behaviour is an
important element of a student‟s educational experience.
 Good behaviour is modeled and taught.
 Behaviour management should involve a continuum or graded hierarchy of
behaviour management procedures ranging from proactive to reactive,
least intrusive to most intrusive and least to most confrontational.
 Non-violent, non-punitive, non-coercive, non-discriminatory language and
disciplinary practices are employed.
 Appropriate behaviour is recognized, celebrated and rewarded.
 Student behaviour is better when school routines and procedures are
established, taught and reinforced.
 A goal of behaviour management and schooling is to help students
become self-disciplined, self-controlling and self-directed. Strategies that
encourage students to take responsibility for their behaviour are adopted
as a key component of school and classroom behaviour management.
 Both pedagogy and behaviour management should adopt strategies and
processes that engender in children a sense of worth, belonging and
contribution.
 Discipline is achieved when the school community has a genuine caring for
property and the environment.
 All behaviour is purposeful and children choose to behave as they do.
 Children choose their behaviour and therefore must accept responsibility
for it.
 Behaviour is a symptom of feelings.

 Teacher effectiveness in managing student behavior is enhanced through
opportunities for continuous professional development.

3. Processes for Facilitating Standards of Positive Behaviour
and Responding to Unacceptable Behaviour

Rights and Responsibilities
The Queensland Department of Education, Training and the Arts through its „Code
of School Behaviour‟ recognises that all key members of the school community
(students, teachers and parents/carers) have rights and that these need to be
respected and protected. It is also understood that within the school community all
members have responsibilities as well. Many schools detail rights and
responsibilities in their „Responsible Behaviour Plan for Students‟. While these vary
somewhat from school to school, the following tables provide a summary of the
most commonly cited rights and responsibilities:

Table 12
School Community Rights

Student Rights

Teacher Rights

Parent/Carer Rights

 To be safe.
 To learn in a pleasant,
healthy and clean
environment.
 To learn without
interruption.
 To be treated with
courtesy/respect.
 To be treated as an
individual.
 To be treated honestly
and fairly.
 To freely express
thoughts and feelings.
 To choose with whom
they will be friends.
 To be listened to.
 To participate in
forming rules and
consequences.
 To have a say in the
education program.

 To be safe.
 To teach without
hindrance.
 To have their property
respected.
 To be treated with
courtesy/respect.
 To have a say in the
education program.
 To teach in a pleasant,
healthy and clean
environment.
 To be supported by the
school administration
and parents.
 To contribute to decision
making in the school.
 To participate fully in the
broad school
program/curriculum.
 To professional
development.

 To have concerns
listened to.
 To have their child
treated with due care
and attention.
 To have their child
receive a quality
education.
 To be treated with
courtesy/respect.
 To be treated
honestly and fairly.
 To have information
about the school
program.
 To have a say in
education programs.

Table 13
School Community Responsibilities

Student
Responsibilities

Teacher
Responsibilities
Parent/Carer
Responsibilities

 To act in a safe
manner.
 To respect the rights of
others, including the
right to learn.
 To treat others with
respect.
 To listen to and respect
the contributions and
opinions of others.
 To take responsibility
for their behaviour.
 To respect school
property and the
property of others.
 To actively participate
in the school program.
 To do their best.
 To cooperate with staff
and others in authority.
 To follow school rules.
 To attend school and
to be punctual.
 To be prepared for
school.

 To promote a safe and
supportive school
environment.
 To treat all in the school
community with courtesy
and respect.
 To provide quality
education programs.
 To provide teaching and
learning experiences that
are inclusive, stimulating
and engaging.
 To support other school
staff.
 To support school
policies and procedures.
 To develop positive and
constructive
relationships with all
members of the school
community, including
parents/carers.
 To be an
appropriate/positive
model.
 To maintain high
standards of ethical,
responsible and lawful
behaviour.
 To review and critically
reflect on their practice.
 To participate in regular
professional
development.

 To support school
staff.
 To treat others in the
school community
with courtesy and
respect.
 To get involved in
and to show an
active interest in the
school and its
curriculum.
 To work
cooperatively and
collaboratively to
solve problems and
to resolve conflicts
and differences.
 To be a positive role
model.

School Rules
School rules have featured in school behaviour management plans and policies for
many years. Rules are considered to establish expectations and boundaries for
student behaviour – to make clear what is acceptable behaviour in the classroom
and playground and to define unequivocally what is inappropriate behaviour.
Recently, with the emphasis on values and virtues and rights and responsibilities,
some schools have placed less emphasis on rules. The name itself is seen as
problematic in the eyes of some educators, who see it as too closely associated
with more punitive approaches to discipline.

Table 14
School Rule Statements

Safety
 I will behave in a safe manner at all times.
 Always consider the safety of yourself and others.
 Show respect for the safety and well-being of all members of the school
community.
 Be safe and do not endanger others.

Learning
 Respect the right of all children to learn and to reach their potential.
 Always be prepared for the day‟s work and strive to improve.
 Be responsible and prepared for learning.
 Participate in class without inhibiting the learning of others.
 Produce your best efforts in learning.

Respect
 Treat others with courtesy and respect.
 Be courteous and respect other people‟s property, beliefs, ideas and efforts.
 I will show respect for myself, others and property.
 Have pride in yourself, your work and your school.
 Respect the right of teachers to teach.
 Show responsible and peaceful behaviour.

Property
 We respect the property of others.
 Look after the property of the school, yourself and others.
 We use all school resources appropriately and in a safe manner.
 I will care about my property and that of others.
 We ask before we touch other people‟s belongings.

Others
 Follow instructions the first time they are given.
 Be responsible for my work and actions.
 We keep our hands and feet to ourselves.

 We listen when others are talking.
 Work and play cooperatively.
 Care for the environment and one another.
 We use talking to solve our problems.
 We don‟t hurt people physically or with words.

As schools typically define a small number of rules (normally five or six) they are
intriguing in that they represent a highly focused view of what the school expects
from students in respect of behaviour. Looking at a large number of school rule
statements from „Responsible Behaviour Plans for Students‟ the following areas

are most often covered: safety, learning, respect and property. Examples of the
rule statements from schools in these four areas are provided in Table 14. This
table is an extension of the information about rules provided in Chapter 2, Table 1.
The Behaviour Pyramid
The Behaviour Pyramid introduced in Chapter 1 (see Figure 1) has been adopted
by Education Queensland and features in many school RBPS. Underlying the
pyramid is the view that the great majority of students are generally well behaved.
When these students misbehave the infringements are minor in nature and can
easily be managed in a non-coercive manner with very little teacher-student
confrontation and interruption to the lesson. For these students, the focus of
management is on maintaining appropriate behaviour through good pedagogy,
through a balanced, relevant and engaging curriculum and through active
participation of students in the nature of and choice of learning tasks and activities
and through the promotion of a whole school culture that values good behaviour
and recognises and rewards it when it occurs.

The pyramid also depicts that not all students are well-behaved. It is believed that
between 10 – 15% of students will exhibit more frequent and sometimes more
serious forms of misbehaviour, that will require more individualised management
strategies on the part of the teacher, as well as additional school level supports.
These students require what is described as „targeted‟ behaviour support such as
social skills or anger management programs, school-home coordinated
interventions, counseling etc.
A further 1 – 5% of the school population will require „intensive‟ behaviour support
because of the seriousness of their behaviour. Behaviours typical of students
requiring intensive behaviour support include repeated defiance, verbal and/or
physical aggression, and illegal behaviour such as vandalism, theft, drug
possession and/or use, or being in possession of a weapon. Here teachers need to
continue to do their best when these students are in class, but the support of these
students is seen as a whole school responsibility, involving all teachers, support
staff, special programs and alternative timetables and/or special education
programs.
The percentages give for targeted and intensive behaviour support are estimates
of what one could expect in a „typical‟ school. As you would imagine, some schools
and classrooms will have a greater percentage of normally well behaved students,
whereas other schools will have a larger proportion of students whose behaviour is
often unacceptable and significantly challenging to school staff.
This three-tiered view of behaviour and behaviour support is used by schools to
gather and describe a range of behaviour supports for students. In Figure 4 the
behaviour support infrastructure of a typical primary school is depicted. You will
notice that the Behaviour Pyramid is reversed, but the three categories of
behaviour are retained. A further, more detailed plan is provided in Appendix 1.
Types and Prevalence of Unacceptable Behaviour
Schools invariably adopt the three tiered Behaviour Pyramid depiction of levels of
inappropriate behaviour. You are referred to Chapters 3 and 5 for a list of the types
of behaviour for each of the three pyramid levels.

Many schools find it useful to distinguish between major and minor misbehaviour.
Minor behaviour incidents are generally handled by staff members at the time they
occur. Minor problem behaviours are those that:
 Are minor breaches of the school or class rules.
 Do not seriously harm others or cause one to suspect that the student may
be harmed.
 Do not violate the rights of others in any serious way.
 Are not part of a continuing pattern of misbehaviour.
 Do not require involvement of specialist support staff or school
administrators.

Figure 4
School Depictions of Behaviour Supports

Major problem behaviours are those that:
 Significantly violate the rights of others.
 Put others/self at risk of harm.
 Require intervention and support that an individual teacher alone cannot
reasonably provide.
Recognition and Reinforcement of Appropriate Behaviour
A review of school behaviour management plans reveals the considerable effort
made by schools to recognise and reward positive student behaviour. Rewards
are given at the class level and at the school level. Some typical examples of
recognition and rewards used by schools are summarised in Table 15.

Table 15
Class & School Level Strategies for Recognising & Rewarding Appropriate
Student Behaviour

Class Level

School Level

 Praise and encouragement (verbal
and non-verbal).
 Teacher evaluations (marks and/or
comments on student work).
 Positive phone call to parents/carers.
 Celebrations (birthdays, out of school
achievements).
 Student selection of activities.
 Time spent on favourite activities
(Preferred Activity Time – PAT).
 Free time.
 Class „money‟ (children have a bank
account from which they can
purchase one-off rewards).
 Individual, group or class certificates
e.g. „Most Improved Student‟.
 Behaviour Chart, Reward Chart, Star
Chart.
 Class leadership responsibilities e.g.
messenger, Teacher‟s Helper, Class
Library Monitor.
 Public display of student work
(classroom, administration foyer).
 Stickers.
 Class „Good Ones‟ – for doing good
deeds.
 „Gotcha Cards‟ – for good behaviour.
 Class rewards e.g. party, fun day,
game time, sport, video, BBQ.

 Individual or class certificate on
assembly.
 Cleaner‟s Award – for the cleanest
classroom.
 Criteria based awards for good
behaviour – gold, silver, bronze.
 „Student of the Week‟ recognition on
assembly and/or in school newsletter.
 Principal‟s/Deputy Principal‟s award.
 Access to school clubs/activities e.g.
Lego Club, Computer Club.

Corrective Strategies
School „Responsible Behaviour Plans for Students‟ give considerable attention to
acknowledging and rewarding appropriate behaviour and other forms of proactive,
preventative and supportive procedures and strategies to encourage good
behaviour. Attention is also given to remedial or corrective responses to
inappropriate student behaviour in the classroom and playground. The level of
detail varies considerably from school to school. Some schools provide no
information about classroom level behaviour management, the assumption being
that teachers have acquired knowledge and skills in this area and that their
promulgation in a school behaviour plan is not necessary. Those that do detail
corrective strategies and procedures do so to demonstrate how these are
consistent with the „Code‟, the school‟s values and the school‟s beliefs about
learning and behaviour.

As with school level responses to inappropriate behaviour, classroom corrective
procedures typically, involve a series of graduated responses ranging from the
least to the most intrusive and, while not specifically stated, from the least to the
most confrontational. Intrusion here refers to the extent to which teaching and the
flow of the lesson is interrupted to deal with a behaviour management issue. Least
intrusive/least confrontational strategies include non-verbal signals e.g. shake of
the head, stop hand signal, etc., and proximity i.e. moving close to where the
misbehaving student is seated. Examples of strategies that involve a high level of
intrusion and confrontation include an explicit redirection e.g. “Sit down in your seat
now!” and strategies such as relocating a student to another part of the classroom
or from the classroom to a „Buddy Class‟. This approach to behaviour management
for minor but frequently occurring classroom misbehaviour appears to be widely
used by teachers and advocated by school administrators. Variation occurs in the
extent of the repertoire of the strategies used. You are referred to the hierarchy of
basic corrective management strategies discussed in Chapter 3 for examples of
the types of corrective strategies available to and to varying degrees used by
Queensland teachers.
Aspley State High School and Aldridge State High School provide very specific
advice and guidelines to teachers about establishing and responding to student
behaviour (see Tables 16 – 18). The guidelines focus on Behaviour Pyramid Tier 1
Universal Behavioural Support. Universal Support is highly relevant for students in
the 80 – 90% behaviour group. However, as the name implies (universal), the
strategies are also suitable and should be applied to students in the top two tiers of
the behaviour pyramid.
An integral part of developing and maintaining a co-operative and caring
atmosphere in the school is creating a positive classroom environment. The
following is a guide to assist teachers and students with the effective
implementation of this behaviour strategy:

TABLE 16
UNIVERSAL BEHAVIOUR SUPPORT
(CREATING A POSITIVE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT)

CLASSROOM RULES

 Ensure that everyone knows the classroom rules.
 Encourage student identification with the rules by
explaining student involvement in the rule creation
process and the rationale behind each rule.
 Periodically revisit classroom rules in an informal
way.

ADEQUATE PREPARATION

 Be prepared. Make a prompt start to a lesson.
 Consider variety, interests and motivation.
 Provide lessons suited to student‟s needs and
abilities.
 Avail yourself of opportunities around you to enhance
your own development and that of others.

BUILD POSITIVE
RELATIONSHIPS

 Give each other “the time of day” (smile, say hello)
both inside and outside the classroom.
 Always be courteous and expect courtesy in return.
 Be genuine and caring.
 Reinforce and demonstrate positive/acceptable
behaviour.
 Be firm, but fair.
 Be consistent.

KNOWING STUDENTS

 Learn the names of your class as soon as possible.
 Develop a rapport outside as well as inside the
classroom (school socials, playground duty, athletic
carnivals, etc).
 Be aware of individual needs.

CREATE A COHESIVE
CLASSROOM GROUP

 Encourage a co-operative “team effort”.
 Endeavour to keep the environment “warm”;
everyone requires a sense of belonging to the group
as a whole.
 Be active in class activities.

COMMUNICATION/ EFFECTIVE
LISTENING

 Be a good listener.
 Be friendly and consistent.
 Listen carefully-as much as you talk.
 Show interest in one another.
 Be aware of specific skills and experiences of others.
 Be empathetic.

PRAISE AND
ENCOURAGEMENT

 Praise and encourage each other.
 Learn from your errors.
 Praise all efforts.

MUTUAL RESPECT

 Show respect and expect respect in return.

Table 17
Universal Behaviour Support
(Classroom Management Plan)

Teachers at Aspley State High School are expected to:

Devise a plan with their classes that supports the development and promotion of
the school’s values. Teachers should be aware that:

 It is important for students to be familiar with the classroom expectations and
consequences that link these to whole-school strategies and values.
 Students are more likely to respect a classroom plan if they have been

 involved in its creation.
 It is important to revisit the plan on a regular basis.

Engage students in quality teaching and learning and to:

 Ensure learning experiences are relevant and meaningful.
 Ensure that there is an appropriate level of challenge for each student.
 Match learning experiences and assessment techniques with student interests
and learning styles.
 Encourage co-operative learning.
 Provide opportunities for students to make decisions about their own learning.
 Clearly communicate fair and reasonable expectations.
 Encourage students to set goals and persist in problem solving situations.
 Assist students to develop time management and study skills.

Develop supportive interpersonal relationships by:

 Communicating a genuine interest in and care for students.
 Catching students being good.
 Establishing rapport with and welcome the involvement of parents.
 Developing a sense of responsibility for students‟ own progress and personal
behaviour goals.
 Communicating openly and honestly with students and parents.
 Ensuring effective communication using verbal and non-verbal cues at all
stages including prevention, intervention and follow-up.
 Remaining respectful.

 Knowing students, their patterns of behaviour, needs and triggers for
misbehaviour.
 Reinforcing, rewarding and praising appropriate behaviours.
 Addressing students‟ concerns immediately, or at an appropriate time and
place.
 Dealing professionally with confrontation.

Establish ways to develop self-esteem through:

 Planning for success by breaking tasks into manageable steps which
ensure individual success.
 Acknowledging success – use praise, notes, awards and certificates to
commend student efforts and communicate success to parents.
 Minimising criticism and accept mistakes as part of the learning process
 Communicating in a positive manner regularly with all students.
 Creating a sense of belonging to the classroom group.

TABLE 18
UNIVERSAL BEHAVIOUR SUPPORT
(RE-DIRECTING & CORRECTING BEHAVIOUR)

The following strategies are to be employed for all students exhibiting low
level or minor misbehaviour Teachers are advised to avoid „jumping in‟ too
heavily for minor offences – go from the least intrusive to the most intrusive.

Tactical Ignoring of Behaviour
 Decide how long to ignore and what you will do next if it does not work.
 Never ignore rude or arrogant calling out, swearing, defiance or aggression.

Non-Verbal Messages
 Eye contact for off task students.
 Facial messages – smile, wink (OK messages).
 Confident posture.

Casual Statement or Question
e.g.
 “How’s it going?”
 “Where are you up to now?”

Simple Directions (repeat if necessary)
e.g.
 Use of the person’s name may be enough.
 Put the pen down thanks; keep the noise down please, etc.

Rule Restatement/Rule Reminders
e.g.
 “You know our rule. If you want to ask questions it’s hands up”.
 Don’t get caught in futile discussions

Question and Feedback
e.g.
 “What are you doing?”

 “What should you be doing?” (if necessary)
 “You should be doing ……….” (if necessary)

Distractions and Diversions
Teachers can often anticipate a disruption or problem and distract or direct the student.
We can do this by:
 inviting some assistance
 asking a question
 moving close while working with another student
 giving students a task
 inviting another student to work with him/her
 asking the student to move

Diffusion
Appropriate, judicious humour can sometimes take the heat out of a problem.

Deflection
Acknowledge the student’s frustration or anxiety, but refer the student to appropriate
behaviour e.g. “I can see you’re frustrated but that’s the work I have to teach. Not all
our work is boring. Can I give you a hand?”

Taking the student aside
Be sure the student knows what he/she should be doing before you ask him/her to go
back to his/her seat. It may be necessary, if the student is upset, to have a cooling off
period before resuming work.

Clear Command
e.g. for dangerous situations:
 “Put that acid bottle down now. Move over there and wait. The rest of you back to
work.”
OR
 “You two Mike and Paul (fighting in class) move. Paul over there, Mike over there.
Settle down.”

Then further talk and follow up action

Assertive Message/Statement
e.g.
 “I’m not very happy with the amount of work being done.”

Isolation within the Room
If student won’t settle down he/she is given a choice to work quietly or move. This is a
form of logical consequence.

Blocking Statements
A verbal strategy that reasserts a teacher’s fair direction using the same form of
words – repetitively. Three (3) blocks are enough. If a student continues to
procrastinate the teacher ought to give a simple choice.

Simple Choice
Empty threats are pointless. Give clear choice.
e.g.
 “Michelle, Denise, if you keep talking loudly I will have to move you.”

Should be preceded by other approaches.

Time Out (exit the student from the classroom)
Reasons may include:
 aggressive behaviour that won’t settle down
 fighting
 continual disruptive noise

 dangerous behaviour
 tantrum behaviour
 any other behaviour that continues to disrupt the learning/behaviour rights
within the group

Cannot return to the classroom until the student “has worked it out”. A verbal
agreement or assurance is required.

Emergency or Critical Incident Responses
Increasingly schools are conscious about safety and having procedures for
responding to incidents involving severe problem behaviour. RBPS now include
standard advice (see Appendix 2) about what constitutes an emergency/critical
incident, information about how to „defuse‟ the situation, and advice about the use
of physical intervention. This information should be seen as an extension of the
strategies covered in the Acting Out Cycle (Chapter 4).

Bullying Policy & Prevention
RBPS now include detailed information on the school‟s stance on bullying
(including Cyberbullying) and its strategies for the prevention of bullying. Once
again, there is an increasingly level of consistency in what schools say in relation to
bullying in RBPS. Appendix 3 provides a summary of the standard information
provided on this important topic.

Levels Systems
To facilitate a whole school community understanding of what is and what is not
acceptable behaviour, many schools use what is commonly known as a „levels
system‟. In a levels system student behaviour is clearly defined along with
consequences which are associated with it. All students are placed at a level
corresponding to their behaviour. Typically, five or six levels are identified, ranging
from exemplary or acceptable behaviour which is associated with positive
consequences, through to serious misbehaviour e.g. violence, possession of drugs,
use of a weapon, etc., behaviours that can lead to suspension or expulsion from
school. Levels are typically identified using a numbering system e.g. 1 to 5, or a
colour system e.g. Green, Yellow or Red. An example of a school levels system
can be found in Appendix 4.

As with any system that might involve a significant number of participants,
regulation, record keeping and monitoring, levels systems require well thought out
and communicated procedures. An example of the detail required in running such
a system is provided by Virginia State School (see Table 19).
4. Consequences for Unacceptable Behaviour
School RPBS often provide detailed information about the consequences for rule
breaking and other forms of unacceptable behaviour. State schools are expected
to provide consequences that are consistent, that provide the opportunity for the
student to learn about what is and is not acceptable behaviour, that ensure the
safety of others and which lead to the notion of accepting responsibility for one‟s
actions. Criteria for appropriate consequences include

Table 19
Guidelines for Behaviour Levels

1. Students with acceptable behaviour are not assigned a level.

2. Where behaviour needs to be managed, student normally begins on level 1.

3. Students may be placed on any level depending on the circumstances of the
behaviour.

4. Once assigned a level, the student remains on that level for a period of two
(2) weeks fulfilling the consequences of that level.

5. If there is no further misbehaviour for levels 1 & 2, the student will leave the
levels system.

6. If there is no further misbehaviour at levels 3 & 4, the student will remain on
level 2 for a probationary period of a further two (2) weeks without incurring
any consequences.

7. For level 5, students will return to school (from suspension) on a contract of
Re-Entry and will be placed at level 4 for a probationary period of two (2)
weeks.

8. If there is further misbehaviour while on a level, the student may (1) need to
fulfill further consequences, or (2) be placed on a higher level.

9. Parents will be notified by official means when a student is placed on levels 4
& 5.

10. Students will be informed of the level they are on, the consequences of that
level and the consequences of the next level should unacceptable behaviour
persist.

11. The school community is made aware of the levels system and adopts this
system as an appropriate and acceptable Behaviour Management System.

12. A register will be kept by Administration of students placed on a level.
Teachers will keep anecdotal records of a student‟s specific behaviour and
subsequent school action.

 Is the consequence consistent with Education Queensland‟s Code of
School Behaviour?
 Does the consequence focus on education and learning i.e. will the
consequence provide the student with the opportunity to reflect on their
behaviour and to make plans for more responsible choices in the future?
 Is the consequence consistent with the school‟s philosophy and values?
 Will the consequence contribute to productive relationship and partnership
construction?
 Is the consequence appropriate to the incident?
 Is the consequence defendable i.e. are those responsible for enforcing the
consequence prepared to accept accountability?
 Is the consequence constructive, protecting of rights – rights of the
individual in balance with the rights of others – and consistent with a safe,
supportive learning environment?

 Will the consequence deliver an unambiguous message about standards
for acceptable behaviour?
 Is the consequence non-violent, non-coercive and non-discriminatory?

As we have seen it is not uncommon for schools to provide specific information
about consequences for unacceptable behaviour in relation to the school‟s
behaviour levels (refer to Table 20). Five behaviour levels are identified. Level 1
refers to students who exhibit appropriate behaviour. Level 2 behaviours are those
that are expected to be managed by individual teachers. Levels 3 and 4 are
behaviours that require support from school administrators, support staff and other
agencies and services. Students may also be placed on one to five day suspension
at Level 4. Level 5 is for serious behaviour requiring significant school
interventions, external supports, services or programs, long suspension and in
some cases recommendation for expulsion or cancellation of enrolment. A further
example of consequences linked to student behaviour is provided in Appendix 3.

Table 20
Consequences for Student Behaviour
(Aspley State High School)

Level

Behaviour

Possible Consequence

Level 1
Students exhibit the
skills to manage their
own behaviours.

At this level, a student is on task
and little or no disciplinary action is
required. Students adhere
consistently to the following rules:

 Be punctual to class.
 Be fully equipped for
class.
 Be prepared to work.
 Be courteous and
respectful to others and
their property at all times.
 Be co-operative with all of our
school rules.
 Submit assessment on time
every time.
 Volunteer, Community
Service and/or good
Citizenship.

Positive reinforcement of these
behaviours from staff could include:

 Verbal acknowledgement.

 Record of achievements
for formal acknowledgement.
 Nomination for student of
the term awards.
 Contact to Year Level
Coordinator for points to be
awarded towards end of
year activities.
 Emails, phone calls, notes
in student planner for
parents to be alerted.

Level 2
A classroom teacher‟s
involvement is
necessary to address
inappropriate
behaviours that effects
the rights of others to
learn and be safe.

At this level another person is
required to address
inappropriate behaviours.
Typical student behaviours to be
dealt with at this level include:

 Minor incidents.
 Ignoring instructions
 Refusal to complete
classroom activities.

Teacher initiated actions could
include:

 Verbal negotiation.
 Monitoring Program.
 Reminder of classroom
expectations.
 In-class separation or isolation.
 Referral to our Time-out room
and follow-up with that student

 Refusal to submit assessment
on time.
 Lateness to class.
 Littering.
 Running on concrete
 paths.
 Kicking or throwing of objects
near buildings.
 Inappropriate use of mobile
phones and IPODS, uniform,
hat, hair, makeup, jewellery
infringements.
 Eating in classrooms.
 No student planner.
 Refusal to attend lunchtime
detentions.

to address unacceptable
behaviours.
 Send student to a Buddy Class.
 Assign a student to accompany
you on playground duty.
 Assign a student a lunchtime
detention.
 Confiscate offending equipment
(mobile phones, IPOD,
jewellery, banned items) and
give to Deputy Principal‟s (DP)
for follow-up.
 Emails, phone calls, notes in
student planner for parents to
be alerted.
 Uniform, hair, make-up,
jewellery infringements directly
to the DP.
 If repeated applications of the
above actions produce no
improvement in the student‟s
behaviour, then the student
should be referred to the Head
of Department or Subject
Coordinator for action at level 3.

Level 3
A Head of
Department, or
Subject Area
Coordinator (SAC) is
necessary to address
inappropriate
behaviours that affect
the rights of others to
learn and be safe.

At this level a person from
outside the classroom is required
to address inappropriate
behaviours. Typical student
behaviours to be dealt with at
this level include:

 Continued and repeated
 level 2 behaviours.
 Referrals from faculty
 teachers.
 Refusal to submit assessment
items.
 Refusal to attend class.
 Refusal to complete
detention.

The Head of Department or SAC
will initiate actions which could
include:

 Incident recorded on “One
 School”.
 Liaise with the Teaching
and Learning Coordinator
and/or the HOSE to ensure
inappropriate levels of
subject matter are not the
cause of repeated
infringements.
 Monitoring Program.
 Resolution meeting with
teacher and students (and

parents if appropriate).
 Refer student to the
Principal by 11.30am on
Friday for “Work Ethic
Policy” follow-up.
 Afternoon detention with
follow-up resolution
meeting.
 Parent contact.

If repeated applications of the
above actions produce no
improvement in the student‟s
behaviour, then the student
should be referred to the
Administrator for action at Level 4.

Level 4
Deputy Principal and
associated support
staff e.g. Guidance,
YLC, Chaplain, Nurse,
Behaviour Specialists,

At this level a person from the
Administration is required to
address inappropriate
behaviours. Typical student
behaviours to be dealt with at

The Administrator will initiate
actions which could include:

 Incident recorded on “One
School”.

Community
Counsellor, Youth
worker, are involved in
addressing these
behaviours.

this level include:

 Continued Level 3
behaviours.
 All forms of bullying.
 Stealing.
 Gang Behaviour.
 Vandalism.
 Verbal Abuse of teachers.
 Truancy.
 Unexplained/unauthorised
whole or partial school
absences.

 Parent/Carer interview.
 Curriculum changes.
 Lunch or afternoon detention.
 Referral to in-school support
personnel.
 Referral to outside agency.
 Referral to/consultation with the
Principal.
 Behaviour Improvement
Condition,
 Physical assault.
 Smoking.
 Pornography.
 Network infringements.
 Intimidation of staff.
 Sexual harassment or
misconduct.

 Unauthorised filming of
students using mobiles.
 Stage 1 and 2 cancellation
warning, letters as per the Work
Ethic Policy.
 Police Notification where
necessary.
 Mandatory Notification where
necessary.
 A,1 to 5 day, suspension.

Level 5
At this level the
school has applied
an exhaustive array
of strategies to
support this student
in making behaviour
choices that protects
the rights of others to
learn and be safe,
(including their
belongings). This
includes multiple
suspensions from
school.

Student at level 5 support are
now at extreme risk of having
their enrolment terminated in line
with Education Queensland
Policy SMS-PR-021. Typical
inappropriate student behaviours
to be dealt with at this level
include:

 Extreme or repeated
incidences of level 4
behaviour.
 Use, possession, dealing or
supplying of illegal drugs.
 Possession or use of an
object/weapon for the assault
or intimidation of others.
 Violent assault.

 Physical threats or
actions, through any
 medium against staff,
their families or property.

The Principal in consultation with
the Deputy Principals determines
the most appropriate course of
action which may include any of
the following:

 Incident recorded on “One
School”.
 Individual enrolment contract.
 Parent/ carer interview.
 Referral to outside alternative
programs (STIP, GGG, Laser).
 Police Notification (if illegal).
 Stage 3 or “Show Cause”
Cancellation Letter.
 Behaviour Improvement
Condition.

 Re-entry interview with Principal
after 20 day suspension,
 6 to 20 suspension in line with
Education Queensland Policy
SMSPR 021,
 Recommended for Exclusion or
Cancellation in line with
education Queensland SMS-
PR-021.

5. Network of Student Support
In order for schools to be inclusive and supportive of all students, including problem
behaviour students, they have needed to draw on a wide variety of support
personnel, services and agencies as well as specific programs to effectively
respond to student developmental and skill deficits and behavioural and emotional

difficulties. While many of these support provisions are available to all children,
most schools tag particular types of support to the level of need. In the main, the
most „expensive‟ and „intensive‟ support is provided to the 1 – 5 percent of students
who, because of their behaviour, require what Education Queensland refers to as
„intensive‟ behaviour support‟.

A standard feature of levels systems and a requirement for all RBPS is the
identification of those within the school community who are directly responsible for
working with and providing positive support to students who are having difficulty
meeting the school‟s behavioural expectations. For the first one or two levels this is
the class teacher. Later levels involving chronic and/or more serious misbehaviour
can require the input of a behaviour support teacher, guidance officer, school
administrator, parent/carer and even agencies external to the school. Avoca State
School depicts this increasing level of support in the diagram shown in Figure 5.
Five levels of support are identified. Levels 1 and 2 would correspond to Tier 1 of
the Behaviour Pyramid. About 80 – 90 percent of students in the school are
expected to be at these levels. Levels 3 and 4 would correspond to students
requiring targeted behaviour support. Level 5 depicts students requiring intensive
behaviour support.
The availability and frequency of support staff, programs and services depends
very much on the size of the school (student enrolment) and the location of the
school. Resources are more readily available in city and suburban areas as
opposed to smaller population and remote communities. Typical school-based
supports include:

 Parents
 Class Teachers
 Specialist Teachers
 Heads of Department
 Subject Area Coordinators
 Year Level Coordinators
 Pastoral Care Teachers
 Advisory Visiting Teachers
 Special Education Teachers
 Behaviour Support Teachers
 School Administration Staff
 Volunteer Adult Mentors
 Office Staff
 Guidance Officer
 Senior Guidance Officer
 Teacher Aides
 School Based Youth Health
 Youth Support Coordinator
 School Chaplain
 School Based Police Officer
 Positive Learning Centre

Figure 5
Levels of Student Behaviour Support

Support is also available through the following government and community
agencies:
 Disability Services Queensland
 Child & Mental Health Services
 Queensland Department of Health
 Department of Communities (Child Safety Services)
 Queensland Police Service
 Local Council
 Neighbourhood Centre

As school personnel grapple with the challenges posed by chronically misbehaving
and anti-social students and the expectation that support services and programs
will be available to assist these students, more and more schools are turning to
prepackaged and/or commercial support programs. A wide variety of programs are

now in use in schools. These programs focus on teaching social skills, conflict
management, anger management and resiliency. An increasing number of these
programs are concerned with child mental health problems, including depression,
grief and suicide. Decisions about what program(s) to adopt appear to be made
entirely at the local school level and often reflect the particular interests and
preferences of school administrators. Some of the more widely used programs are
listed below:

 You Can Do It!
http://www.youcandoit.com.au/
 Rock & Water
http://www.rockandwaterprogram.com/
 Bounce Back (Classroom Resiliency Program)
http://www.bounceback.com.au/
 Peace Builders
http://www.peacebuilders.com/
 Mind Matters
http://www.mindmatters.edu.au/default.asp
 Kids Matter
http://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/
 Stop Think Do Social Skills Training
http://www.stopthinkdo.com/
 Positive Behaviour Support (PBS)
http://www.pbis.org/
 Cool Kids
http://centreforemotionalhealth.com.au/pages/cool-kids-program.aspx
 Aussie Optimism Program
http://healthsciences.curtin.edu.au/teaching/psych_aussie_optimism.cfm
 The Second Step Program
http://www.cfchildren.org/second-step.aspx
 Resourceful Adolescent Program (RAP)
http://www.rap.qut.edu.au/
 I Can Problem Solve (ICPS)
http://www.thinkingpreteen.com/icps.htm
 Parents & Adolescents Communicating Together (PACT)
http://exploringtogether.com.au/html/pact.html
 Aggression Replacement Training (ART)
http://www.promoteprevent.org/publications/ebi-factsheets/aggression-
replacement-training%C2%AE-art%C2%AE
 The EQUIP Program
https://www.researchpress.com/books/528/equip-program
 The P.E.A.C.E Pack
http://www.perth.wa.bahai.org.au/peacepack/
 The PASSPORT Program
https://www.researchpress.com/books/815/passport-program
 Responding in Peaceful & Positive Ways (RIPP)
http://www.childtrends.org/Lifecourse/programs/RespondingInPeacefulAnd
PositiveWays.htm
 The Peer Support Program
http://peersupport.edu.au/index.html

http://www.youcandoit.com.au/

http://www.rockandwaterprogram.com/

http://www.bounceback.com.au/

http://www.peacebuilders.com/

http://www.mindmatters.edu.au/default.asp

http://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/

http://www.stopthinkdo.com/

http://www.pbis.org/

http://centreforemotionalhealth.com.au/pages/cool-kids-program.aspx

http://healthsciences.curtin.edu.au/teaching/psych_aussie_optimism.cfm

http://www.cfchildren.org/second-step.aspx

http://www.rap.qut.edu.au/

http://www.thinkingpreteen.com/icps.htm

http://exploringtogether.com.au/html/pact.html

http://www.promoteprevent.org/publications/ebi-factsheets/aggression-replacement-training%C2%AE-art%C2%AE

https://www.researchpress.com/books/528/equip-program

http://www.perth.wa.bahai.org.au/peacepack/

https://www.researchpress.com/books/815/passport-program

http://www.childtrends.org/Lifecourse/programs/RespondingInPeacefulAndPositiveWays.htm

http://peersupport.edu.au/index.html

 PATHS (Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies) Program
http://www.channing-bete.com/prevention-programs/paths/paths.html
 Friends for Life – Friends for Youth
http://www.friendsinfo.net/index.html

6. Consideration of Individual Circumstances
To ensure alignment with the Code of School Behaviour when applying
consequences, the individual circumstances and actions of the student and the
rights of school community members are expected to be considered. Within the
framework of this policy, the school Principal can make determinations relating to
student consequences based on the following. These responses will consider the
context, circumstances and actions of the student against the needs and rights of
the overall school community. Some of the indicators considered by schools in
these deliberations include:

 Age of student.
 Level of disruption to class and/or school.
 Legality of the incident.
 Frequency of student breaches and prior history as a member of the
school community.
 Recognition of diagnosed or identified conditions that may affect
behaviours.
 Consultation between parents and/or teacher and/or administration,
regarding students and circumstances that may influence consequences
received by an individual.
 Access to reports/information collected by GO, Learning Support, Agency
Groups, Therapy Groups or the Medical Profession may influence
consequences received by an individual.
 Witness statements regarding a specific event and/or events preceding a
specific event.
 Principal and Deputy Principal discretion.
 Consideration of incident-specific events that may factor into a student‟s
behaviour.
 Changes, disruptions or factors from a student‟s personal situation that
may influence behavioural choices.

7. Related Legislation
The key State and Commonwealth legislation related to behaviour management in
Queensland state schools is identified in RBPS. These are listed below:

 Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act 1992
 Commonwealth Disability Standards for Education 2005
 Education (General Provisions) Act 2006
 Education (General Provisions) Regulation 2006
 Criminal Code Act 1899
 Anti-Discrimination Act 1991
 Commission for Children and Young People and Child Guardian Act 2000
 Judicial Review Act 1991
 Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995

http://www.channing-bete.com/prevention-programs/paths/paths.html

http://www.friendsinfo.net/index.html

 Workplace Health and Safety Regulation 1997
 Right to Information Act 2009
 Information Privacy (IP) Act 2009

The school principal would need to be familiar with the above legislation and can
advise teachers about their implications at the school level. Class teachers need to
be aware of how to access the documents where there is a need for them to do so.

8. Related Policies
The following Education Queensland policies relevant to behaviour management
have been identified and are listed in all school RBPS. There is an expectation that
teachers working in Queensland state schools have read and understood the
various policies.
 SMS-PR-021: Safe, Supportive and Disciplined School Environment
 CRP-PR-009: Inclusive Education
 SMS-PR-027: Enrolment in State Primary, Secondary and Special
Schools
 SMS-PR-022: Student Dress Code
 SMS-PR-012: Student Protection
 SCM-PR-006: Hostile People on School Premises, Wilful Disturbance
and Trespass
 GVR-PR-001: Police Interviews and Police or Staff Searches at
State Educational Institutions
 ICT-PR-004: Using the Department’s Corporate ICT Network
 IFM-PR-010: Managing Electronic Identities and Identity Management
 SCM-PR-003: Appropriate Use of Mobile Telephones and other Electronic
Equipment by Students.

9. Related Resources
The final section of Responsible Behaviour Plan for Students is a list of references
and resources related to various aspects of the RBPS. These will vary somewhat
from school to school but the following are typical of the items schools include:
National Safe Schools Framework
http://www.mceecdya.edu.au/verve/_resources/NSSFramework

National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools
http://valueseducation.edu.au/verve/_resources/Framework_PDF_version_for_the_
web

Bullying No Way!
http://www.bullyingnoway.gov.au/

MindMatters
http://www.mindmatters.edu.au/default.asp

School Wide Positive Behaviour Support
http://www.learningplace.com.au/default_community.asp?orgid=126&suborgid=228

Most state school RBPS can be accessed via the school website. Links to two
excellent examples of RBPS are provided here for you to peruse and to get a more

http://www.mceecdya.edu.au/verve/_resources/NSSFramework

http://valueseducation.edu.au/verve/_resources/Framework_PDF_version_for_the_web

http://www.bullyingnoway.gov.au/

http://www.mindmatters.edu.au/default.asp

http://www.learningplace.com.au/default_community.asp?orgid=126&suborgid=228

complete picture of how schools go about the business of behaviour management
and support.

Glenvale State School
https://glenvaless.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Document
s/responsible-behaviour-plan

Toowoomba State High School
http://toowoombshs.eq.edu.au/wcms/index.php/our-school/policies-and-
procedures/behaviour

Schoolwide Positive Behaviour Support (SWPBS)
We look now at a behaviour management system that is increasingly being
employed worldwide to promote positive behaviour in schools. Research on its
success has, for over a decade, has demonstrated its effectiveness. Called
Positive Behaviour Support, PBS for short, but also known in Queensland as
School Wide Positive Behaviour Support (SWPBS), the system is a whole school
approach to the management of student behaviour.
With is origins in Special Education and the search for a more person-centred,
respectful and positive way of helping students who have school adjustment and
behaviour problems, the approach in now used widely in regular schools to
encourage prosocial behaviour and to minimize misbehaviour.
As it has developed over the past decade and a half, SWPBS has drawn on a
number of separate developments, including applied behaviour analysis, functional
behaviour assessment, preventative behaviour management, continuous
evaluation, and the view that behaviour is purposeful i.e. motivated to achieve
specific goals. With its foundations in Special Education, SWPBS also sought to
improve social relationships and to maximize lifestyle opportunities for students
with major developmental disabilities. These same lifestyle enhancements are now
seen as equally important for all students.

SWPBS is best understood by looking at its key components. Nine are identified
and outlined here.

1. Whole School Approach
As mentioned earlier, SWPBS is a whole school approach to behaviour
management, i.e. the whole school community is involved and must
commit to it. For this to happen, the process of implementing SWPBS must
be a coordinated one, with strong leadership from school administrators.
The starting point for the implementation process is the establishment of a
team to guide the implementation. The team should be representative of
school staff, administrators, parents and other important stakeholders.

2. School Wide Expectations for Behaviour
One of the first tasks in implementing PBS in a school is the formulation of
a set of expectations for behaviour – school rules, if you like, although the
term expectations is preferred to rules. The expectations for behaviour are
stated in positive language i.e. do‟s, rather than don‟ts, and should number
no more than 3 – 5. Typical of these expectations are: “Respect Yourself,

https://glenvaless.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Documents/responsible-behaviour-plan

http://toowoombshs.eq.edu.au/wcms/index.php/our-school/policies-and-procedures/behaviour

Respect Others and Respect Property. Another common version is “Be
Respectful, Be Cooperative, Be Safe, Be Kind and Be Peaceful”.
SWPBS schools make a „big thing‟ about behaviour expectations, and if
you get to see a video depiction of the process in action you will see just
how much attention is given to them. They are a feature at school
assemblies and at the start of the day in classrooms. They are displayed in
posters around the school. Students can recite them when asked and
parents are made aware of them and encouraged to apply them in and
around the home.
3. Expected Behaviour is Taught
Critical to SWPBS is the teaching of behaviour expectations. At a minimum
this involves their definition and explanation by teachers and school
administrators, but, for most children, particularly young children, this is not
sufficient. Children will need examples of how the expectations apply in a
number of different contexts and situations, both in the classroom and
around the school. Further, examples need to include both positive and
negative instances to give children the complete picture of what is
expected of them. Young children can also benefit from role plays and
rehearsals in various situations to practice the behaviour the school
expects of them.

SWPBS schools often develop a behaviour matrix as a ways of depicting
and communicating behaviour expectations as they apply in different
settings across the school campus. One such example is provided in Table
__ . The school has four behaviour expectations – Be Respectful, Be
Responsible, Be Safe, and Be a Learner. Expectations are detailed with
specific examples across six contexts – Classrooms, Playground, Stairwell,
Toilets, Before and After School Arrangements, and All Areas.

4. Acknowledge & Reward Positive Behaviour

Related to the teaching of appropriate behaviour is the emphasis SWPBS
gives to acknowledging and rewarding positive behaviour. The most
frequently used and easiest way to reward positive behaviour is to praise it.
For praise to be really effective though, it must not only be genuine, but it
must also be specific i.e. it must specify the behaviour that is being
rewarded e.g. “Well done Nina, you‟re showing great cooperation by
allowing others to have a turn”.
Again, if you get to see SWPBS in action or through a video documentary
of it, you will notice teachers in class and around the school handing out
tokens or tickets for good behaviour. These can be later „cashed in‟ for
prizes or special privileges. In Australian schools, you might see these in
the form of „Gotcha‟ coupons or tickets i.e. the student has been „caught
out‟ displaying good behaviour. The whole purpose here is to be constantly
focusing on good behaviour and to have teachers pointing out this type of
behaviour rather than the traditional practice of catching students who
misbehave.
An example of the emphasis given to teaching positive behaviours is
provided in the Ipswich West State School RBPS (see Table 21).

Table 21
Process for Teaching Expected Behaviours

Ipswich West State School has developed lesson plans for the
individual behaviours that are to be taught to all students. These
lessons were developed collaboratively by the staff and include many
teaching ideas and strategies to assist teachers.

1. At the beginning of each term, it is decided which behaviours will
be the focus for the term,

2. Each behaviour is taught separately,

3. A new behaviour is taught every 2/3 weeks, depending on the
complexity of the behaviour,

4. Every teacher teaches and positively reinforces the same
behaviour during the 2/3 week period,

5. Teachers use a variety of strategies and lessons to teach and
positively reinforce the behaviours,

 Discussion about the behaviour – What does it mean?
What does it look like?
 Role plays,
 Design charts/posters etc.,
 Display the expected behaviour in the classroom,
 Review the behaviour on a daily basis,
 Reinforce and reward students who exhibit the positive
behaviour.

6. All staff will use common language when talking about
behaviour,

7. The behaviour for the fortnight will be reinforced on the school
bulletin board, newsletters and on parades,

8. Reinforcers such as ‘Gotcha’ awards and BEE Awards will be
given to those students who are observed following the expected
behaviour.

5. Focus on Positive Behaviour

Probably the most fundamental feature of SWPBS, the one that sets it
apart from other approaches, is its focus on acknowledging positive
behaviour. Traditional approaches to behaviour management focus on
misbehaviour and how to correct it. SWPBS focuses on appropriate
behaviour and how to teach and encourage it. When you understand that
about 80% of all students are generally well behaved, it makes sense that
their behaviour should get the most attention from teachers. Too often
though, it is the behaviour of the minority of students, those who
misbehave, that attract the most attention.

6. Strategies for Correcting and Redirecting Unacceptable Behaviour
While the major focus of SWPBS is on positive behaviour, the approach
also emphasizes corrective management i.e. the use of strategies to
reduce misbehaviour when it occurs and/or to redirect inappropriate
behaviour to more acceptable behaviour. The corrective strategies and
guidelines for correction we have covered in this course are the same
strategies and guidelines recommended for use in SWPBS. This also
applies to the application of consequences.
7. Functional Behaviour Assessment
SWPBS employs Functional Behaviour Assessment (FBA) to better
understand misbehaviour (refer to Chapter 5). FBA is an observational and
data collection and recording process that looks at events that preceded
and or surrounded the occurrence of a problem behaviour. It operates on
the principles that all behaviour has a function, that certain situational
events act to trigger misbehaviour and that subsequent responses by the
teacher to the student‟s behaviour can either eliminate, reduce or limit the
negative impact of that behaviour, or exacerbate it i.e. make the situation
worse. When these antecedent events and consequences are better
understood, they can be managed or controlled so that incidents of
misbehaviour are less likely to occur again.
8. The Behaviour Pyramid

The „Behaviour Pyramid‟ that we have referred to throughout this book
originated with SWPBS. The three tiered Behaviour Pyramid reminds
teachers that the great majority of students are normally well behaved and
need to be acknowledged for this. It also reminds teachers, and other
school personnel, that there are other students who have great difficulty
meeting school expectations for behaviour and need support and guidance
in order for them to do this.

9. Data Collection
The final key feature of SWPBS to be discussed here is its emphasis on
record keeping and gathering data about behaviour in the school; and
using this information to inform and guide behaviour management
practices and supports. The data is also used to evaluate how effective
these practices and supports are.

A major indicator used to evaluate the success of SWPBS is office
disciplinary referrals i.e. the occasions when students are sent from the
class for serious or repeated misbehaviour. Office referral records will
typically show which students are involved, the frequency of referrals, the
reasons for referral, when and where the behaviour occurred and who the
referring teacher is. All of this information can then be used to identify
students that need a higher level of behaviour support and what
behaviours need greater attention and priority in terms of whole school
management.

Here, in summary, are the key components of SWPBS. The approach is
characterized by having a whole school focus, school wide expectations for

behaviour are established, expected behaviour is taught, good behaviour is
recognized and rewarded, the emphasis is on positive behaviour,
strategies for correcting and redirecting inappropriate behaviour are
employed, Functional Behaviour Analysis is used to better understand
behaviour and to allow for more relevant and appropriate responses, there
is a recognition of the three-tiered view of behaviour in school using the
Behaviour Pyramid, and, finally, the use data to evaluate the success of
PBS and to refine and prioritise interventions and support.

Conclusion
Throughout their pre-service teacher education program, students are mostly
concerned about their own classroom related teaching and behaviour management
challenges. Seeing themselves as one member of a team within a whole school
approach to pedagogy and behaviour management is not upper most in their
minds or of immediate concern. From a developmental perspective this is fine, but
sooner rather than later the transition from „self‟ to that of „team member‟ will need
to be made. It is a professional requirement and will be viewed as a measure of
true professionalism, commitment and competence.

Appendix 2
RBPS Emergency or Critical Incident Responses

It is important that all staff have a consistent understanding of how to respond to
emergency situations or critical incidents involving severe problem behaviour. This
consistency ensures that appropriate actions are taken to ensure that both
students and staff are kept safe.

An emergency situation or critical incident is defined as an occurrence that is
sudden, urgent, and usually unexpected, or an occasion requiring immediate
action.

Severe problem behaviour is defined as behaviour of such intensity, frequency,
or duration that the physical safety of the student or others is likely to be placed in
serious jeopardy.

Basic defusing strategies:

Avoid escalating the problem behaviour
(Avoid shouting, cornering the student, moving into the student‟s space,
touching or grabbing the student, sudden responses, sarcasm, becoming
defensive, communicating anger and frustration through body language).

Maintain calmness, respect and detachment
(Model the behaviour you want students to adopt, stay calm and controlled, use a
serious measured tone, choose your language carefully, avoid humiliating the
student, be matter of fact and avoid responding emotionally).

Approach the student in a non-threatening manner
(Move slowly and deliberately toward the problem situation, speak privately to the
student/s where possible, speak calmly and respectfully, minimise body language,
keep a reasonable distance, establish eye level position, be brief, stay with the
agenda, acknowledge cooperation, withdraw if the situation escalates).

Follow through
(If the student starts displaying the appropriate behaviour briefly acknowledge
their choice and re-direct other students‟ attention towards their usual work/
activity. If the student continues with the problem behaviour then remind them
of the expected school behaviour and identify consequences of continued
unacceptable behaviour).

Physical Intervention

Staff may make legitimate use of physical intervention if all non-physical
interventions have been exhausted and a student is (1) physically assaulting
another student or staff member or (2) posing an immediate danger to him/herself
or to others.
The use of physical intervention is only considered appropriate where the
immediate safety of others is threatened and the strategy is used to prevent injury.
It is important that all staff understand:

 Physical intervention cannot be used as a form of punishment.
 Physical intervention must not be used when a less severe response can
effectively resolve the situation.
 The principles of safe restraint (supported by staff training).

Physical intervention is not to be used as a response to:

 Property destruction.
 School disruption.
 General non-compliant behaviour.
 Verbal threats.
 Leaving the classroom or the school, unless student safety is clearly
threatened.

Any physical intervention made must:

 Be reasonable in the particular circumstances.
 Be in proportion to the circumstances of the incident.
 Always be the minimum force needed to achieve the desired result, and
 Take into account the age, stature, disability, understanding and gender of
the student.

Record keeping:

 Each critical incident is reported using Oneschool.
 Incidences of physical restraint are to be communicated directly with a
parent or carer.
 Workplace, health and safety reports are to be made when required to look
after staff and student well-being.
 Incident reports are completed on Oneschool when injury has occurred to
staff or student.

Debriefing

The debriefing that follows a critical incident is designed to help the student to
identify the sequence of events that led to the unacceptable behaviour, pinpoint
decision moments during the sequence of events, evaluate decisions made, and
identify acceptable decision options for future situations.

Debriefing should be conducted or guided staff member trained in the process. It
should focus on (1) Who was involved? (2) What happened? (3) Where did it
happen? (4) Why did it happen? and (5) What did we learn from the experience?
The specific questions asked during the debriefing should relate to FACTS (What
do we know happened?) FEELINGS (How do we feel about the event that
happened?) PLANNING (What can/should we do next?).

The following are examples of the questions that can be asked of the staff and
student(s) involved:

Staff

 What were the first signs?
 What de-escalation techniques were used?
 What worked and what did not?
 What would you do differently next time?
 How can physical intervention be avoided in this situation in the future?
 What emotional impact does using physical intervention have on you?
 What was you emotional state at the time of the escalation?

Student

 What was it that you needed?
 What upset you most?
 What did we do that was helpful?
 What did we do that got it that way?
 What can we do better next time?
 Is there anything that you would do differently?
 Would you do something differently next time?
 What could we have done to make the physical intervention less
invasive?

Appendix 3
RBPS Bullying Policy & Prevention

Purpose

_____ State School strives to create positive, predictable environments for all
students at all times of the day. The disciplined and teaching environment that we
are creating is essential to:

 achieving overall school improvement, including the effectiveness
and efficiency of our student support procedures,
 raising achievement and attendance,
 promoting equality and diversity and
 ensuring the safety and well-being of all members of the school
community.

There is no place for bullying at ____ State School. Research indicates that both
those being bullied and those who bully are at risk for behavioural emotional and
academic problems. These outcomes are in direct contradiction to our school
community‟s goals and efforts for supporting all students.

Bullying behaviours that will not be tolerated at Ipswich Central include name-
calling, taunting, mocking, making offensive comments, kicking, hitting, pushing,
taking belongings, inappropriate text messaging, sending offensive or degrading
images by phone or internet, producing offensive graffiti, gossiping, excluding
people from groups, and spreading hurtful and untruthful rumours.

Bullying may be related to:

 race, religion or culture.
 disability.
 appearance or health conditions.
 sexual orientation.
 sexist or sexual language.
 young carers or children in care.

At ____ State School there is broad agreement among students, staff and parents
that bullying is observable and measurable behaviour. When considering whether
or not bullying has occurred, we will therefore avoid speculation on the intent of the
behaviour, the power of individuals involved, or the frequency of its occurrence.
Whether bullying behaviour is observed between students of equal or unequal
power, whether it occurs once or several times, and whether or not the persons
involved cite intimidation, revenge, or self-defence as a motive, the behaviour will
be responded to in similar fashion, that is, as categorically unacceptable in the
school community.

Rationale

Research indicates that many problem behaviours are peer-maintained. That is,
peers react to bullying in ways that may increase the likelihood of it occurring again
in the future. Reactions include joining in, laughing, or simply standing and
watching, rather than intervening to help the person being bullied. Whilst our
school would never encourage students to place themselves at risk, our anti
bullying procedures involve teaching the entire school a set of safe and effective
response to all problem behaviour, including bullying, in such a way that those who
bully are not socially reinforced for demonstrating it.

The anti-bullying procedures at ____ State School are an addition to our already
research-validated schoolwide positive behaviour support processes. This means
that all students are being explicitly taught the expected school behaviours and
receiving high levels of social acknowledgement for doing so. Adding lessons on
bullying and how to prevent and respond to it is a subset of procedures that our
students are already accustomed to.

Prevention

 Attempting to address specific problem behaviours will not be successful if
the general level of disruptive behaviour in all areas of our school is not
kept to a low level. Therefore, our schoolwide universal behaviour support
practices will be maintained at all times. This will ensure that:

 Our universal behaviour support processes will always remain the primary
strategy for preventing problem behaviour, including preventing the subset
of bullying behaviour.

 All students know the school rules and have been taught the expected
behaviours attached to each rule in all areas of the school.

 All students have been or are being taught the specific routines in the non-
classroom areas, from exiting the classroom, conducting themselves in
accordance with the school expectations in the playground and other
areas, to re-entering their classrooms.

 All students are receiving high levels of positive reinforcement for
demonstrating expected behaviours, including those associated with
following our routines, from all staff in the non-classroom areas of the
school.

 A high level of quality active supervision is a permanent staff routine in the
non- classroom areas. This means that duty staff members are easily
identifiable and are constantly moving, scanning and positively interacting
as they move through the designated supervision sectors of the non-
classroom areas.

 The student curriculum modules of the anti-bullying process consist of
lessons taught by all teachers in all classrooms to a schoolwide schedule
of instruction. At all times simultaneous instruction is our goal, in order to
maintain consistency of skill acquisition across the school.

 An initial introductory lesson is delivered, which teaches the 3-step process
to be used by all students when experiencing bullying behaviour either as a
person being bullied, the person bullying or bystander.

 The introductory lesson is followed by several shorter lessons, each of
which focuses on one of the bullying behaviours that the school has
identified and defined. These lessons include instruction on how to
approach adults and also on what reactions and systemic responses they
should expect from adults.

 Research indicates that a common outcome of anti-bullying programming
is an improvement in understanding of bullying but little change in the
frequency or nature of actual bullying behaviour. One of the reasons cited
for this outcome is the lack of behavioural rehearsal in the programing. The
anti-bullying process at ____ State School takes care to combine

knowledge with practice in a process of active learning, so that students
understand by „doing‟ as much as by „knowing‟.

 ____ State School uses behavioural data for decision-making. This data is
entered into our database on a daily basis and can be recalled as
summary reports at any time. This facility allows the school to track the
effectiveness of its anti-bullying process, to make any necessary
adjustments, and to identify specific bullying behaviours that may need to
be revisited or revised in the instructional process.

Appendix 4
Example School Based Behaviour Levels
(Port Douglas State School)

Level 1 (Expected Behaviour)

Why am I on a Level 1?
 I take responsibility for my learning,
attitude and behaviour.
 I cooperate and share with
classmates, follow instructions, work
quietly and complete set tasks.
 Care for others, am considerate,
thoughtful and tolerant.
 Show initiative, responsible
citizenship, am honest and reliable.
 Have good manners and am polite to
others.
 Am prepared to do my work and try
new things.
 Care for the environment, put rubbish
in the bin.
 Use equipment and school property
appropriately, return library books
and sports equipment.
 Wear a hat in the yard.
 Have pride in the school.
 Play cooperatively.
 Use the toilets appropriately.

When on Level 1:
 Appropriate individual behaviour will
result in a positive school
environment, high teacher and
student moral and an atmosphere
conducive to learning.

Level 2 (Parents not informed)

Why am I on a Level 2?
I will be placed on this level for minor
incidents that occur on an infrequent basis
following normal class behaviour
management strategies.

 Removed from class/itinerant lesson
for disruption.
 Using inappropriate language.
 Minor misbehaviour in the
playground, classroom, bus, sport,
school function
 Internal out of bounds.
 Overly rough play.
 Unsuitable clothing worn to school.
 Not completing homework and/or
assignments.
 Late for class.

What happens if I am put on a Level 2?

 Community Service 1 – 5 days.
 Detention 1 – 3 days.

Level 3 (Parents informed)
Why am I on a Level 3?
I will be placed on this level for behaviour of
the following type:
 Repeat Level 2 behaviours and/or
failing to comply with conditions set out
when placed on Level 2.
 Displaying
rude/uncooperative/dangerous
behaviours in the playground (rock
throwing, misuse of sporting
equipment).
 Lower levels of
harassment/intimidation/bullying –
physical or verbal (minor fight, constant
teasing, threatening behaviour).
 Removed from class and sent to the
principal.
 Low level vandalism to school or peer‟s
property.
 Truancy from school.
 Theft including school assets and
peer‟s property.
 Insolence displayed towards staff or
parent volunteers.
 Using offensive language.
 Leaving class without permission.
 Persistent refusal to comply with staff
directions including non-completion of
set tasks.
 Displaying an attitude and/or behaviour
which is inhibiting the education and/or
welfare of other students.

What happens if I am put on a Level 3?
In addition to the Level 2 consequences
the most appropriate (school determined)
additional consequences may be
implemented:
 Parents contacted.
 Interview with parent/s.
 Referral to the principal.
 Referral to the Social Worker or
Guidance Officer.
 Automatic withdrawal of privileges
including, school discos,
excursions, sports, camps and
other such events that occur in the
school‟s calendar.
 Restitution of school property.
 Withdrawal from contact with
peers (internal suspension).
 Sign a behaviour contract.

Behaviour Levels – Reportable to
Education Queensland
Level 4 (Parents present)
Why am I on a Level 4?
I will be placed on this level for behaviour of
the following type:
 Repeat Level 3 behaviours and/or failing
to comply with conditions set out when
placed on Level 3.
 Serious harassment, intimidation,
bullying – physical or verbal.
 Leaving school grounds without
permission during school hours.
 Smoking or possession of
cigarettes/lighter/matches.

What happens if I am put on a Level 4?
In addition to the Level 3 consequences:
 I may be officially suspended from
the school subject only to Education
Queensland‟s guidelines for a period
of 1 to 20 days and/or required to
take part in a program negotiated
with parents as an alternative to
suspension.

 Gross insolence or use of offensive/bad
language towards a staff member.
 Possession and/or use of drugs or other
dangerous substances including alcohol.
 Offensive/indecent acts.
 Possession and/or use of dangerous
weapons/materials.
 Major act of aggression causing harm.

Level 5 (Behaviour serious and
excessive involving agencies outside
the school)

Because of the very serious consequences of
my behaviour, I have decided that no one can
help me to:
 Behave in a responsible manner.
 Work to the best of my ability.
 Behave in a manner that ensures others
can work and play in a safe and
supportive environment.
 My unacceptable behaviour is interfering
with the rights of my fellow students and
teachers at this school.

Because of the serious nature of my
behaviour, I may be:
 Recommended for exclusion from
the school in accordance with
Education Queensland
guidelines.
 Recommended for exclusion from
all state schools in accordance
with Education Queensland
guidelines.

Notes
1. Students are moved to a higher level when they display persistent breaches of
behaviour from their current level. A panel comprising the Principal (or nominee),
the class teacher and one other staff member make the decision. Parents are
informed in writing.
2. The presumption is that all students are on Level 1 unless they are recorded in the
Student Level Behaviour Register at a higher level.
3. At the end of each Term there is a complete rollover and all students return to
Level 1.

instructionss x
You have to read some papers and show your understanding. The assignment has two parts:
The part-1 needs no references but the part-2 require references

This is the link for the video for question 1- part II
you need to watch it and answer the question

http://link.brightcove.com/services/player/bcpid940636289001?bckey=AQ~~,AAAA2uzqQrE~,6OG0BmXJ4lLjPBIrsIprnJtmkHdesQfW&bclid=0&bctid=947669608001
IMP:
All questions must be answered in assignment template only.

Lastly there is a zip file attached which covers all lectures and notes.

EDC2100

EDC2100 Managing Supportive Learning Environments
Assignment Template Semester 2, 2013
Name:
Student No:
Mode of Study: On Campus Toowoomba /WEB (highlight)
Weighting: This assignment contributes 60% of the marks for the course.
Due Date: Monday October 21, 2013
Instructions
1. Use 1.5 line spacing and 12 point font (Times New Roman).
2. Use APA referencing style.
3. Cited references are not included in the word count.
4. Completed assignments should be submitted via the EASE system.
(An assignment cover sheet is not required)
5. Submit only the completed Assignment Template.
(Do not modify the assignment template)
6. Only a Marking Sheet, which includes marks and comments, will be returned to
you. Comments will not be made on the actual assignment. Retain a copy of your
assignment for possible future reference.

number of highly pertinent references are much better than half a dozen or
more, many of which have a dubious link to the topic.
3. Carefully planned and concise responses that focus immediately and directly on
the specific question or task and which remain within the word limit are
essential.
4. How you express your responses are important. You may have the basis of a
correct response, but if it is poorly communicated, marks will be deducted.
5. Markers will be looking for and will expect correct use of APA referencing.
6. Up to five marks may be deducted for incorrect referencing. In addition, up to
five marks may be deducted for modifying or not adhering to the assignment
template format.
7. Word length guidelines are provided throughout the assignment. In line with the
university’s policy on assessment word length, students may exceed the total
assignment word length by up to 10%. Marks may be deducted for assignments
that go over the plus 10% guideline.

Complete and submit your assignment using the Assignment Template.
Complete all questions in both Part 1 and Part 2.

PART 1 (No referencing required)
Answer the questions in this part one of the assignment taking into account your
specific sectors (Early Childhood, Primary, Secondary, and Vocational Education &
Training). Support your answers utilising practical examples that are relevant to your
sector.

Question 1
(5 marks)

Over the past two decades we have seen a gradual shift from ‘control’ to ‘management’
to ‘support’ in how behaviour management is viewed. Provide a concise explanation of
what is meant by these three terms as they relate to the education context. Keep in mind
that ‘control’ does not necessarily mean autocratic and punitive behaviour and that all
three approaches to behaviour management still have a place in education. To
supplement your concise explanations, provide a practical example for each, relevant to
your sector.
(Word length: 300 words)
Provide your answer here
Control –

Management –

Support –

Question 2
(5 marks)

The ‘establishment phase’ of the school year is critical in organising and managing a
supportive learning environment. Identify and explain three of the important
considerations and include practical examples of how each is achieved in your sector.
(Word length: 300 words)
Provide your answer here

Question 3
(5 marks)

When developing proficiency in supporting behaviour, teachers can lose sight of the
importance of balancing acknowledgement and correction of behaviour. Why is it
necessary to achieve a balance between the two? Provide two situations of effective
acknowledgement and two situations for appropriate correction that are specific to your
sector.
(Word length: 250 words)
Provide your answer here
Why is it necessary to achieve a balance between the two?


Acknowledgement
1.

Correction
1.

Question 4
(5 marks)

It is accepted that building positive relationships with students enhances the ability of
the teacher to manage supportive learning environments. While it is also acknowledged
that students bring many variables to the context that are outside the domain of the
classroom, identify and explain two distinctive strategies that can be enacted effectively
within the classroom in your sector to foster this positive teacher student relationship.
(Word length: 200 words)
Provide your answer here
1.

Question 5
(5 marks)

Classroom Scenario:
You have spent some time explaining a maths concept and now you want the students to work
quietly and independently on a work sheet you have prepared to reinforce what you have
taught. Just as you set the class to work, Sarah calls out a question about a procedural matter
related to the work sheet. You go to her and give your answer, but she doesn’t seem that
interested in what you tell her. As you turn to walk back to the front of the room, Sarah has
somehow managed to let her folder drop on to the floor. Sheets of paper are everywhere. She
slowly begins to pick them up, grinning to other students as she does. There’s a ripple of
laughter around the room.

When responding to the various behaviours in the above classroom scenario, what is
essential for the teacher to consider when selecting appropriately from the Hierarchy of
Basic Corrective Management Strategies?
Identify 4 effective responses to the chosen behaviours and justify your selection with a
rationale for each.

(Word length: 250 words)
Provide your answer here.

Question 6
(5 marks)

Teachers’ body language provides opportunities for engaging, motivating and
managing students’ behaviours through the utilisation of space, gaze and gesture. The
video ‘Body Language Techniques’ (Alexander St- Education in Video)
http://ediv.alexanderstreet.com/view/1737655/play/true/
provides an insight into the usage of non-verbal strategies to –
1. Start a Lesson
2. Establish Relationships
3. Engage and Motivate
4. Reinforce Learning
5. End the Lesson
From your sector, identify an appropriate body language technique for each of the five
components above and describe how and why they would be used.
(Word length: 250 words)
Provide your answer here
1.

http://ediv.alexanderstreet.com/view/1737655/play/true/

PART 2 (References are required for responses to this question.)

Question 1
(15 marks)

School Wide Positive Behaviour Support (SWPBS) is a common approach to behaviour
support within school contexts. Research SWPBS and identify through five points the
distinguishable core components that are foundational to this approach.
In alignment to these core components how can teachers construct a personal approach
to meet their contextual classroom needs whilst remaining consistent to SWPBS?
Support and justify your response utilising suitable references?

(Word length: 500 words)
Provide your answer here

Question 2
(15 marks)

Select, describe and reflect upon the behavioural attributes of one of the three conduct
disorders contained within the course.
Outline an example student profile examining these attributes within your sector and
the management and pedagogical strategies required within a supportive learning
environment. Justify your response with appropriate references.
(Word length: 500 words)
Provide your answer here

References

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