LMU Science Essay

10/12/22 Peopling of the AmericasEarly Archaeology in the Americas
Background
-no evidence that any archaic hominin ever entered the Americas
-all the remains ever found are those of anatomically modern humans
-as early as the middle of the 19th century archaeologists suggested that native americans may
have entered the new world from asia
-dental evidence suggests a strong link between negative americans and asian populations
Northeast asia
-pre-modern hominins never occupied northeast asia either
-archaeological work carried out in Siberia suggests that modern humans entered northwest
asia possibly as early as 30ka (certainly before 18ka)
-the stone industries are Upper Paleolithic blade-based industries, but they also include
microblades struck from small cores
-they hunted animals such as mammoths and wild horses
Environmental background: Beringia
-during the late Pleistocene, Beringia was a large land mass that stretched from the Siberian
mountains to the Canadian Yukon
-the land bridge was open from agt least 25-14 Ka
Beringian environment
-two radically different views based on two lines of evidence-faunal and floral
-the faunal data include the remains of large Pleistocene mammals, such as mammoth and
musk ox – suggests that the environment was a “mammoth steppe”
-pollen data suggest that Beringia was a wind-swept, high latitude desert, the limited vegetation
was concentrated in the river valleys
-implications for human settlement
Early evidence for the settlement of Beringia
-archaeology in russia indicated that western Beringia was initially occupied by before 14ka
-Blue Fish Cave in the Canadian Yukon produced a butchered late Pleistocene fauna data to
about 19-20ka
-the Nenana Complex, dated about 14-12.8 ka appears to be the earliest archaeological
complex in Alaska
-calibrated radiocarbon dates
Early evidence for settlement- cont
-the Nenana Complex includes finely flaked points and scrapers – v. different from the
assemblages known from Siberia
The late glacial climate of North America
-during the later Plesitocene, northern N America is covered by two ice sheets- the larger
Laurentide sheet that covered most of canada and the NE US and the Cordilleran sheet that
covered the western mountains
-there was an ice-free corridor between the two sheets.
Models for the settlement of the AMericas
-Clovis first
-Pre-Clovis
-Early Arrival, as early as 30+ Ka
-(Solutrean hypothesis)
Clovis culture
-earliest well documented archaeological culture in North America south of Beringia
-generally dated to the late Pleistocene, ca. 13.5-12.5 calibrated Ka
Clovis sites
-best known sites are the mammoth-kill sites from Great Plains and American Southwest
-mammoths have been hunted using several techniques:
-using spear-throwers, thrusting spears, or spears with detachable foreshafts
-evidence for hunting mastodon comes from the Kimswick site near St. Louis, MO and from
Washington state
-example of mammoth hunting: the Murray Spring Site in SW Arizona
Clovis sites elsewhere
-widespread across us and northern mexico
-in the east, bone preservation is poor, don’t know what clovis-period hunters hunted in the
eastern woodlands
Pleistocene overkill
-model based on island biogeography
-notes that Plesitocene extinctions were most marked in the Americas and Australia– regions
that were settled by modern humans in the late Pleistocene
-suggests that modern humans were like a blitzkrieg (lightning war), moving through these
continents and extirpating the large mammal fauna
Problems with the model
-in N America, about 51 species became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene
-only two, mammoth and mastodon, were actually hunted by early Native Americans
-even at sites where these species were hunted, the evidence for humans as the agents of
extinction is unclear
-at Murray Springs, we see evidence for a significant drought (the Younger Dryas event) at
about 12,5000 BP
New evidence from S America
-for decades, archaeologists working in N America have argued about whether the Clovis
culture represents the earliest settlement in the New World
-Monte Verde in Chile provided some of the first clear, well-dated evidence for a pre-Clovis
settlement of the New World south of Beringia
Monte Verde
–excavated by Tom Dillehay since the 1970s
-site is radiocarbon dated to about 15,000 cal BP, at least a thousand years older than Clovis
-site produced organic remains, including wood, bone, and skin, and what appears to be the
remains of a large tent
-the lithic industry includes large stone
Additional evidence for early settlement of south america
-the Quebrada sites are located along the south coast of Peru
-they have been radiocarbon dated to 12.7-12.5 cal Ka, contemporary with Clovis
-inhabitants of these sites made use of marine resources such as seabirds, shellfish, and small
schooling fish
-Possibility: earliest migration to the Americas followed a coastal route known as the “Kelp
Highway” that largely bypassed N America
Other possible pre-clovis sites
-Meadowcroft: deeply stratified rockshelter near Pittsburgh, PA
– stratum near the base of the cave produced dates between 23 and 15.5 Ka
-were older, conventional c-14 dates
-those layers have not produced any additional; datable material, so it cannot be re-dated using
more modern methods
New pre-clovis site: Cooper’s Ferry
-published in Science
-located in Idaho
-radiocarbon dated 15-16 ka
-includes ancient campfires and stone tools used to butcher animals and fragments of
butchered animal bone
-data support to kelp highway model; migrants came down the coast and moved up the
Columbia River
-increasing body of evidence against the Clovis First model
-recent discoveries support both the pre-clovis model and the “kelp highway” model
conclusions – early humans in americas
-Cooper’s Ferry in Idaho and Monte Verde in Chile provide some of the earliest known evidence
for the settlement of the Americas south of Alaska (there are other candidates)
-the Clovis culture represents the earliest widespread settlement of the US and northern Mexico
-the possibility of multiple migrations into the Americas exists, these may include both a coastal
route and the use of the Bering land bridge
10/17/22: The Initial Settlement of Greater Australia/Sahul
A Continent of Hunter-Gatherers
Background
-modern humans settled a number of areas that were never settled by pre-modern humans
including NE Siberia, the Americas and Greater Australia
-during the Pleistocene, when sea levels were lower, New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania were
combined into a continent kno9ws as Greater Australia
-there was never a land bridge between Greater Australia and mainland SE Asia
-implications: some form of watercraft MUST have been used to settle Greater Australia
Routes to Greater Australia
-the earliest settlers did not sail off into an unknown ocean
-there are at least 5 possible routes to Greater Australia
-one route provides complete intervisibility; two others are on the border of intervisibility
-the more northerly routes lead to New Guinea; the southern ones lead to modern Australia
History of Australian Archaeology
-at the beginning of the 20th century, most archaeologists thought that Australia had only been
populated for a few thousand years
-by the end of WW2, it was clear that Australia was people by the late Pleistocene
-the discovery of the Lake Mungo site in the 1960s showed that Australia was colonized much
earlier
Lake Mungo
-site was first discovered by a geologist, who was studying the late Pleistocene Willandra Lake
region in new south wales in 1968
-found burnt bones in a geological context that was more than 20k years old
-assumed they were animal bones
-subsequent excavation showed that it was a human cremation, dating to about 250Ka
-an additional adult male was discovered in 1974. That skeleton is dated to 40-43Ka
Lake Mungo – cont
-additional archaeological remains include 16 hearths
-a wide range of faunal remains were recovered, including mammals, birds, freshwater shellfish,
perch, and emu egg shells
-the stone tools were made of silcrete and included choppers for heavy woodworking and
scrapers
-known as the Australian Core Tool and Scraper Tradition
Lithics
-the Australian Core Tool and Scraper Tradition is a development from much earlier Mode 1
industries
-this simple tool tradition provided maximum flexibility for modern humans who were entering a
continent with diverse environments
-the west is arid; the north is very humid rainforest; and the rest of the continent includes both
coastal and diverse island environments
Archaeological date for the initial settlement of greater australia
-the lake mungo data suggest that Australia was settled by at least 40Ka
-The site of Kuk in the New Guinea highlands shows fire-cracked rocks dated to about 40 Ka
-Devil’s Lair, dated to about 33 Ka includes possible stone and bone artifacts and chips of
nonlocal stones
-Upper Swan, near Perth has produced stone tools dated to 38 Ka
Models if settlement
-3 models for settlement have been suggested
1. A rapid, traditional settlement from a point of entry in the north
2. 2. Initial settlement of the coastal regions, following by the use of Murray River system
to reach inland regions
3. -early settlement focused on slopes and plains of easters Australia
Holocene Prehistory of Australia
-rising sea levels separated Tasmania from Australia at the end of the Pleistocene
-the island of New Guinea also separated from Australia, and farming developed in New Guinea
by 6000 Ka
-while Australia remained a continent of hunter-gatherers, the archaeological record indicated
that substantial change took place in the middle Holocene
Middle Holocene changes
-4000 BP, we see the appearance of more permanent settlements that rely on drainage ditches
and fish traps to use smaller territories more intensively
-increasing diversity in art syles and growing number of cemeteries also point to increasing
territoriality
-the dingo, or Australian dog, was introduced from SE Asia some time around 3500 BP
Dingoes
-oldest known dingo bones dated 3348 and 3081 Ka
-based on the dates of the Dingo bones from Madura Cave in W Australia, the oldest ever found
-evidence fro contact with Australia prior to European colonization
-suggestion: introduced as domestic dogs who went feral and were the tamed by Australians
Lithic technology
-appearance of the Australian Core Tool and Scraper Tradition beginning about 5000 BP
-characterized by the appearance of microliths made from high quality raw materials. Traces of
resin suggest that they used as barbs for spear points
-appearance of small points that were made by pressure flaking
-appearance of the boomerang as a hunting weapon
Tasmania
-tragic modern history
-seperated from Greater Australia at the end of the Ice Age
-Archaeological evidence suggests that the Tasmanians gave up fishing around 3500 BP
-some archaeologists initially interpreted this as evidence for “devolution”
-Alternative explanation: cessation of fishing coincides with cooler, drier climatic conditions
Tasmania – cont
-cessation may have been associated with the shift to fattier foods such as sea mammals
-cooler, drier conditions may have opened up new opportunities for terrestrial hunting
-Alternative- inundation of the Bass Strait may have reduced the pool of social learners, and
more complex technology may have been replaced by simpler technologies that remained more
stable through time
Conclusions
-Archaeological data recovered since the late 1960s show that Greater Australia/Sahul must
have been colonized before 40,000 BP
Since a land bridge never existed, the colonization must have taken place using some form of
watercraft
-Although Australia remained a continent of hunter-gatherers, there is archaeological evidence
for significant technological change in the middle Holocene
10/19/22 origins of agriculture– theories and methods
Why the beginnings of farming is important to archaeologists
A crucial step
-over 3 million years, subsistence strategies of our ancestors consisted solely of hunting,
scavenging, fishing, and gathering
-hunter-gatherers successfully expanded out of Africa into Europe, Asia, Australia, and North
and South America
-as long as these practices met the needs of our ancestors, there was no need to seek another
form of subsistence
Changing relationships between humans and the environment: climatic change and population
growth
-humans have been forced to adapt to changing climates and environments in order to survive
for the entirety of human existence
-cultural changes, such as population growth beyond a region’s carrying capacity, can force
populations to limit their growth or to change their relationship with the environment
Advantages and disadvantages of farming in relation to Foraging
-farming may be more risky than foraging, as farmers often rely on a limited number of plant and
animal species
-farming can provide higher yields per hectare and more predictable access to resources than
foraging
Major theories for the origins of farming involve:
-climatic changes
-population growth
-social factors
-note that the first two factors directly affect the relationship between population and
environment (push models)
Nineteenth century ideas about agricultural origins
-the origins for farming was seen as a technological invention, similar to the invention of the light
bulb
-the beginnings of animal husbandry and agriculture were seen as part of a broader scheme of
unilinear cultural evolution that applied to all societies past and present
Theories of agricultural origins: the pioneering work of V. Gordon Childe
-Childe 1957 was interested in the beginning of farming bc it forced the economic basis for the
emergence of complex, urban societies. Surplus agricultural products could be used for
feasting, to support specialized crafts, to construct public architecture, etc.
-termed the appearance of farming and stock raising the Neolithic Revolution on analogy with
the Industrial Revolution: a change in technology that led to changes in many other aspects of
culture
-Noted wild ancestors of wheat, barley, goats, and sheep were found in the Near East and
credited those societies with the beginnings of agriculture
Childe’s Oasis or Propinquity Theory
-following the work of Pumpelly, Childe believed climatic changes would have led to plant and
animal domestication
-in the early 20th century, archaeologists thought that the end of the Ice Age would have led to
widespread desiccation
-Childe believed that the few remaining water sources would have placed humans, animals, and
plants in close proximity where humans would have
A modern view of post-Pleistocene climatic changes in southwest asia
-data from pollen cores show the Near East to have been cold and dry at the end of the last
glaciation, about 18,000 years ago
-14k or 15k years ago, a warmer and wetter climate developed and allowed areas of
Mediterranean vegetation to expand into the region
Where did Near Eastern Agriculture originate? Robert Braidwood’s Hilly Flanks Hypothesis
-after ww2, Robert Braidwood assembled a multidisciplinary team to test Childe’s oasis model
-Braidwood’s team found no evidence for the widespread desiccation that Child’es theory
required
-Braidwood then attempted to determine where early plant and animal domestication might have
taken place
The Hilly Franks surrounding the fertile crescent
-Braidwood plotted the distribution of the wild ancestors of sheep, goats, wheat, and barley
-he found that the distributions centered on the “Hilly Flanks” or the foothills of the mountain
ranges that so=urround Mesopotaamia
-Braidwood suggested that plants and animals
Demographic changes and cultural origins
-Lewis Binford was one of the first archaeologists to suggest that population growth may have
played a critical role in agricultural origins
-he suggested that post-glacial rising sea levels may have put pressure on semi-sedentary
hunter-gatherer populations living in the optimal zones where wild cereals grew
-larger populations may have spread to the more marginal areas, where they may have needed
to begin farming to support the rising population
Kent Flannery and the “Broad Spectrum Revolution”
-Flannery elaborated on Binford’s demographic model
-suggested that growing populations during the late Pleistocene may have led hunter-gatherers
to make use of a wider range of
The food crisis prehistory: a global model for agricultural origins
-Mark Nathan Cohen (1977) suggested populated growth and decreases in seasonal mobility in
the late Pleistocene had exceeded the carrying capacity of the settled regions around the globe
-excess of population created a global food crisis and plant and animal domestication were
ways of providing food to support his growing population
-however, population growth has been found to be a consequence, not a cause of the
beginnings of agriculture
Flannery’s models for agricultural origins in the americas
-his early model postulated genetic changed in maize and bean that may have made them more
productive to humans
-more recent studies suggest that early Holocene hunter-gatherers many have experimented
with cultivation during the wet years as a way of reducing risk
-note that hose models do not require either population growth or climatic change
Barabara Bender and the Role of Social Factors
-Bender rejected both climatic change and population growth as primary causes for the
Agricultural Revolution
-suggested that increased food production may have been caused in social factors, such as the
need for feasting and alliance information
Current Approaches
-new data from recent excavations has led to the reevaluation of some basic assumptions
-climatic changes at the end of the Ice Age are well documented
-a cold, dry snap, corresponding with the Younger Dryas event may have caused a contradiction
in wild plant populations and encouraged experimentation with agricultures
-archaeological evidence suggests plant domestication preceded animal domestication in the
middle east, while in Africa animal domestication began several millennia before plant
domestication. Therefore, plant and animal domestication should be seen as two separate
processes
Methods: wild vs. domestic cereals
-Wild cereals have a brittle rachis, the axis of the pl;ant which the grains are attached. When the
plant ripens, the rachis shatters, and the seeds disperse, allowing the plant ot propagate itself
-morphologically domestic cereals have a non-brittle rachis. They are easier to harvest using
sickles, but they cannot reproduce themselves without human agency.
Methods used to study early farming
-need to recover and identify plant and animal remains and to determine whether they are from
wild or domestic species
-based on archaeobotany and zooarchaeology
-recovery of plant and animal materials is based on flotation (for plant remains) and fine
screening(to recover fragmentary animal bones)
Faunal analysis: methods
-the study of animal domestication is an important of faunal analysis
-competitive collections are used to identify animal specifies and body parts
-doemstication can lead to changes in animal morphology, age and sex ratios, and animal sizes
-age at death can be determined by epiphyseal fusion of the limb bones and by dental eruption
and wear
Conclusions
-theories to explain the origins of farming include climatic change and population growth as we
all social factors
-a range of archaeological methods have been developed in the past 40-50y years
10/24/22 The Natufians and the Origins of Agriculture in the Eastern Hemisphere
background to farming in the Near East
Hunter-Gatherer Background
-Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran cultures, dated ca. 25Ka-15Ka BP.
– Most sites are small sites occupied by small groups of mobile hunter-gatherers, e.g., Ein Gev I
– More detailed information provided by the Waterlogged site of Ohalo II on the shores of the
Sea of Galilee
Ohalo II
-Located at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee
– Dated to around 21k cal BP
– Evidence for a more permanent settlement based on hunting and gathering
– Note that this would have been a particularly favored location (refugium) during the height of
the last Ice Age
The discovery of the Natufian Culture
-The first Natufian site discovered was the site of Shukbah in the Southern Levant
– The site was located in the Wadi Natuf, which gave its name to the Natufian Culture
– In the early 1950’s, the Natufian Culture was described as a “Mesolithic with agriculture”
– Mesolithic because of the presence of small lunate microliths
– Agricultural because of the presence of sickles and mortars and pestles
– Recent research has shown that this description is incorrect
Late Pleistocene Climatic Changes in Southwest Asia
-Climatic amelioration that began ~15,000 years ago led to changes in settlement and
subsistence practices of the region’s inhabitants
– This warmer, wetter period is known as the Windermere interstadial
– Pollen diagrams indicate that there was an expansion of Mediterranean vegetation in the
Southern Levant
-Mediterranean vegetation includes an oak pistachio parkland, as well as wild cereals
Natufian Geography and Chronology
-Natufian sites are located in the Southern Levant
– Similar sites, such as Abu Hureyra, are known from northern Syria
– Uncorrected radiocarbon dates for Natufian sites range from 12,800 to 10,500 B.P.
– Corrected radiocarbon dates range from ~14,500 to 12,000 cal B.P. (12,300 to 10,000 cal
BCE)
– Note that these dates are Late Pleistocene. The Natufians are called Epipaleolithic, rather than
“Mesolithic” because they are not Holocene
Climate and Chronology
– The Early Natufian corresponds to the warmer, wetter Windermere Interstadial
– The Late Natufian coincides with the colder, drier Younger Dryas event
Natufian material culture
– Small lunate microliths
– Sickle blades showing gloss and bone sickle hafts
– Pecked stone mortars and pestles made of basalt
– Note that much of this material may be associated with plant processing activities
– However, mortars and pestles can be used to process nuts, and sickles can be used cut reeds
for basketry
Bone Tools
– Natufian assemblages include large numbers of bone tools
– Many appear to have been used for crafts such as basketry and leather-working
Natufian Hunting Practices
– A wide variety of animal species have been recovered from Natufian sites (ranging from
leopard to fox to mallard duck and wild pig), but the majority of animal bones from most Natufian
sites are mountain gazelles
– Age profiles for gazelles are catastrophic suggesting that Natufian hunters may have hunted
whole herds using communal techniques such as net-hunting
Dog Domestication
– Natufian burials and habitation sites have provided evidence for early domesticated dogs
– Possible dogs are known from Eurasia (Belgium and Russia) as early as about 30Ka
– One Natufian burial includes an individual buried with a puppy
Plant Collection
– Few Natufian sites have produced evidence for plant remains
– Plant remains from Wadi Hammeh 27 in northern Jordan reveal a diverse range of fruits, nuts,
cereals, and other plants
– No clear evidence that the Natufians cultivated or domesticated cereals in the Southern Levant
– Natufians were hunter-gatherers, not farmers
Natufian Settlement Patterns
-Some larger Natufian sites have produced evidence for small, circular dwellings with stone
foundations
Settlement Permanence
– Several lines of evidence indicate that the larger Natufian sites may have been occupied on a
year round basis
– They include evidence from cementum annuli and the presence of commensal species such
as house mice
– The Natufians should be seen as collectors, while many of the earlier Near Eastern
hunter-gatherers were clearly seasonally mobile foragers
Natufian Sites
– Unlike the Kebaran and the Early UP, burials are known from many Natufian sites
Dentalium Shell Beads
– Many Natufian burials are decorated with Dentalium shells recovered from the Mediterranean
and the Red Sea
Are the Natufians Complex Hunter Gatherers?
– Evidence for sedentism
– Shell beads and pendants provide evidence for long-distance trade in luxury items
– Should the decorated burials be interpreted as some form of ranking?
– How were these complex hunter-gatherers affected by the onset of the Younger Dryas?
The Northern Levant: Evidence from Abu Hureyra 1
– Contemporary with the Natufian sites in the Southern Levant, but some differences in material
culture (lithics and house foundations)
– Zooarchaeological evidence indicates that the inhabitants of Abu Hureyra used communal
methods (drives) to hunt goitered gazelles
– Archaeobotanical data indicate that Hureyrans may have begun to cultivate rye about 13,000
B.P. (during the Younger Dryas)
Conclusions: the Epi-Paleolithic in the Near East.
– The Natufians were sedentary hunter-gatherers who hunted gazelles and made use of a range
of wild plant materials
– While the Hureyrans may have cultivated rye, this appears to be unrelated to the subsequent
domestication of barley and wheat in the Southern Levant
-Why then did people begin to cultivate wheat and barley during the Early Neolithic?
Chronology of the Near Eastern Early Neolithic
-Traditionally the early Neolithic in the Southern Levant has been subdivided into the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) and a Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
– The PPNA is conventionally dated to 8000-7200 b.c.e. (modern dates are 9750-8550 cal
B.C.E.)
– The PPNB is conventionally dated to 7200-6000 b.c.e. (modern dates are 8550-6300 cal
B.C.E.)
– Plant cultivation begins during the PPNA, while animal domestication begins during the PPNB
Beginnings of Plant Domestication
– Wheat and barley first appear to be cultivated during the PPNA at sites such as Gilgal, Jericho
and Netiv Hagdud
– At Netiv Hagdud, the barley is morphologically wild, but the presence of crop weeds and the
quantities of barley indicate that it was probably cultivated
– The inhabitants of Netiv Hagdud and other early Neolithic sites were farmers and hunters
– Morphologically domesticated cereals appear at the end of the PPNA, about 10, 500 BP
(8500 BCE). The transition took place slowly
Early Animal Domestication
– Our earliest evidence for domesticated goats comes from the site of Ganj Dareh in Iran
– These goats are morphologically similar to wild goats, BUT the males were killed at young
ages while the females (the productive members of the herd) lived to adulthood.
– The early domestic goats date to about 7900 BCE
– Domestic sheep appear in the Near East around the same time in the northern Hilly Flanks
region
– Cattle and pigs were domesticated by 7000 BCE
Social Changes in the Early Neolithic
– Possible increasing territoriality and changing notions of land ownership
– Communal architecture may point to increasing community integration
– Burials with heads removed may point to the beginnings of an ancestor cult
– The labor of children may have become increasingly valuable, leading to population growth
Early farming communities in Turkey
– In SE Anatolia, early farming communities such as Gritille (8th millennium BCE) show strong
similarities to the PPNB of the southern Levant
– However, Turkey was also the site of the independent domestication of einkorn wheat, based
on DNA evidence
– Sites such as Çatal Höyük (beginning ca. 7400 cal BCE) provide evidence for early Neolithic
settlement in Anatolia
– Note the agglutinated architecture made of mud brick
Settlement Patterns at Çatal Höyük
– The site was made up of small, square dwellings made of sun dried mud brick
– The houses were entered through the roof
Conclusions
– Plant and animal domestication have been most extensively studied in the Near East. The
data indicate that plant domestication preceded animal domestication in that region.
– While the transition to agriculture was gradual, but the Neolithic Revolution was revolutionary
in that it led to changes in many aspects of life
11/2/22 Plant Domestication in China and New Guinea
Archaeological evidence for the domestication of rice, millets, and taro
Archaeological Background
-rice is an agricultural staple for many peoples of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia
-however, the domestication of rice has been less well studies by archaeologists than the
domestication of wheat and barley in the Hilly Flanks or of maize in the Americas
-for example, Chile had almost nothing to say about rice domestication, bc his primary concern
is the economic background to complex societies in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley
-bc of its historical and economic importance, however, botanists are currently studying the
genetics of rice domestication
Archaeology in China
-in early part of 20th century, a lot of archaeology in China were carried out in a colonial context
-example: the excavations of Homo erectus at Zhoukoudian
-some of the most important excavations carried out by the Chinese scholars in the 1930s
centered on the emergence of complex urban societies during the Bronze Age
-example: the royal tombs at Anyang
Most recent archaeology in china
-archaeology in China effectively ceased during WW2
-little research was carried out during the Cultural Revolution in the 1950s and 1960s
-as a result, much of what we know about the origins of farming in China has been recovered
since the early 1970s
– Much of the new literature is published in Chinese and not widely read in the West
General Characteristics of the Chinese Neolithic
– Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene huntergatherer communities are poorly known in many
regions
– China was the home to two major centers of plant domestication—millets and rice
– Millets appear to have been domesticated further north in the Yellow River (Huanghe) Valley – Rice was initially domesticated in the Yangzi Valley
Late glacial climatic changes
-at 18kya, sea levels were 120 m lower than they are today
-late glacial warming led to a temperature rise 7 degrees C and a rising sea level
-the Younger Dryas led to sea level decreases, loess deposition, and glacial activity
-the beginning of the Holocene led to rising lake level, temp increasing, and rising sea levels
Domestication of Millet
– The Huanghe Valley contains rich loess soils that would have been attractive to early
cultivators
-By 6500-6000 B.C.E., early farming villages were established in the Yellow River Valley
-These farming sites are associated with the Peiligang and related cultures
– Broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) is more common in western sites, while foxtail millet
(Setaria italica) is more common on the eastern sites
– Note that harvesting with knives would have selected for the domestic form (non-shattering
head)
New Data on the domestication of Broomcorn Millets
-evidence for increases in grain size and non-shattering rachis between 6000 and 3000 BCE
-data suggest that broomcorn millet was domesticated in CHina between 7000 and 3000 BCE
-lengthy period of harvesting and small-scale management probably preceded domestication
Earliest Farming Villages Along the Huanghe
– Earliest farming sites date between 6500 and 5000 B.C.E.
– The villages usually 1-2 ha in extent
-The houses are round or square with sunken floors
– Millet farming was combined with animal husbandry (pigs, dogs, and chickens) and nut
collection
– These sites also include pits, kilns, and burials
Animal Domestication in China
-Early DNA studies published in the 2000s suggested that dogs were initially domesticated in
China about 15,000 years ago (but see recent Science piece)
-Recent mtDNA studies show that pigs were independently domesticated in about 9 different
locations from East Asia through Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East and Europe
– In historic periods in China, pigs were valued for their manure as well as for their meat
Later Neolithic in the Central Yellow River Valley
-About 5100 B.C.E., we see the appearance of the Yangshao culture (5100-2800 B.C.E.),
characterized by red pottery painted with black designs
-These sites are descendants of the Peiligang culture sites
-The economy is based on the cultivation of millets, along with the raising of pigs, dogs,
chickens, and possibly silk worms
Domestication of Chickens
-In 2014 Chinese scholars used data from mtDNA to suggest that the North China plain was a
primary center for the domestication of chickens around 10,000 BP (PNAS publication)
-Problems with this interpretation
– Environmental data indicate that the North China plain is outside the range of the wild jungle
fowl (the wild ancestor of domestic chickens before the Middle Holocene
-possible misidentification of chicken bones. The closely related pheasants are present in CHina
during the early and middle Holocene
-archaeologically, some of the chicken bones may be intrusive from later deposits
Banpo, Xian (formerly Pan P’o)
-One of the best known of the Yangshao Neolithic sites
-Site covers about 5 ha and overlooks a tributary of the Wei River
-The houses range from round to square in shape and are generally 4-5 m in diameter. Some
had semi-subterranean foundations
-The site’s cemetery included 130 adults. Children were buried in pottery vessels between the
houses
The Beginnings of Rice Cultivation
-While some earlier scholars suggested that rice may have been domesticated in SE Asia,
recent archaeological research in China indicates that rice was first domesticated in the Yangzi
River
-The site of Pengtoushan is located in the lakelands south of the Yangzi Valley
-The site covers about 1 ha. and was initially inhabited around 7000 B.C.E.
-The site yielded sand-floored houses and pottery that was tempered with rice-husks
– Note that Pengtoushan produced substantial quantities of rice, although it is not clear whether
the rice is morphologically domesticated
-Evidence for cultivation is based on the quantities of rice that were found, cf. sites like Netiv
Hagdud in the Southern Levant
-Note that sedentary hunter-gatherers may have preceded these early Neolithic sites in
southern China
Process of rice domestication
-Focus on middle and lower Yangtze
-Gradual transition from wild to domestic rice took about 3000 years
– Initially rice was a co-staple with other wild food like acorns and water chestnuts
– Later sites are dominated by rice; other crops gradually drop out
Pre-Neolithic Foragers in the Yangzi Valley and Southern China
-Early Holocene sites in South China have yielded evidence for the exploitation of deer, pigs,
and a wide range of aquatic resources including fish, shellfish, turtles, and crabs.
-These sites have also yielded pottery, burials, and polished stone artifacts
-Some of these sites appear to have been occupied by sedentary hunter-gatherers
-Domestication may have been a response to deteriorating climatic conditions and/or a way to
reduce risk
Rice Cultivation
-rice can be cultivated with simple tools such as a digging stick
-rice cultivation required sedentism during the growing season, since the crops must be
protected from predator like deer and pigs
-competing plants must also be controlled through burning or weeding, but limited labor is
needed for field preparation
-soils can be used for extended periods without fallowing
The Spread of Rice Cultivation
-While rice cultivation had spread to many parts of East and South East Asia by about 3000
B.C.E., rice cultivation did not spread to Japan until just before 1000 B.C.E.
-From the late Pleistocene onward, Japan was occupied by the Jomon culture
-The Jomon people were sedentary hunters and gatherers who relied on hunting, plant and nut
collecting, and fishing
-The Jomon people also made some of the world’s earliest pottery
Conclusions: Plant Domestication in East Asia
-Rice appears to have been initially domesticated in the wetlands near the Yanzi Valley
beginning about 7000 B.C.E.
– Millets were domesticated beginning around 6500-6000 B.C.E. in the Yellow River (Huanghe)
Valley.
-Early Neolithic sites in China include both plant domesticates and domesticated animals
including dogs, pigs, and chickens
Theoretical issues
– What led to the domestication of rice and millets in China?
-The timing of early domestication suggests that it may be related to climatic changes that took
place in the late Pleistocene/early Holocene
-The evidence suggests that rice was initially cultivated by semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers, but
is there evidence for resource stress?
– Is this a form of risk reduction, or could social factors have played a role? Note the importance
of feasting and funerary rituals in later Neolithic China.
Spread of Farming to the Taiwan
-Farming communities were established in Taiwan by ca. 3500-3000 B.C.E., associated with the
Dapenkeng culture
– This culture is associated with the cultivation of rice and foxtail millet, as well as pearl shell
reaping knives, spindle whorls, and barkcloth beaters
-The cord-marked and incised pottery shows close parallels with slightly earlier materials on the
Chinese mainland in Fujian
New Guinea in the Holocene
-The Holocene prehistory of New Guinea is markedly different from that of Australia
-The highlands of New Guinea form a large swath of temperate environments in an otherwise
tropical region
– Recent excavations at the site of Kuk in the New Guinea highlands have shown that by 4500
B.C.E. bananas were being grown in mounds close to the edge of the swamp
Kuk
-The evidence for early plant domestication is based on pollen, phytoliths, and starch grains
-Starch grains indicate the cultivation of taro
-Phytoliths show that bananas were cultivated
-There is more limited evidence for some incipient cultivation dating back to about 8000 B.C.E.
-These data clearly show that New Guinea was an independent center for early plant
domestication in Melanesia
Unique Features of Early Agriculture in New Guinea
-There is no evidence for substantial population movement into or out of highland New Guinea
either before or after the beginnings of plant cultivation. Migration played no role here.
-New Guinea is the most linguistically diverse region of the world. About one-sixth of the world’s
known languages are spoken in New Guinea
– Farming in New Guinea did not lead to the development of complex, urban societies
Island Southeast Asia
-From Taiwan, farming spread to the Philippines, northern Borneo, and eastern Indonesia
-The expansion can be seen in the spread of plain and red-slipped pottery and dates to between
2000 and 500 B.C.E.
-This pottery is associated with stone adzes, shell beads and bracelets, domestic pigs and
dogs, and rice in the northern Philippines
-These industries represent a cultural break with the pre-Neolithic stone tool industries
There are two questions in the final. Answer both questions. Each answer should be about 3 pp, double-
spaced, with a one-inch margin all around. Use a standard 12-point font (e.g., Times Roman). Be sure to
put your name on the paper, and NUMBER YOUR PAGES. Please do not submit a hand-written paper.
QUESTIONS:
1. Compare and contrast the initial human settlement of Greater Australia with the initial
settlement of the Americas. How did human enter these continents? What were the possible
routes? What do we know about the earliest sites in each region? What do we know about the
nature of these early sites, such as their lithic technologies, hunting and gathering practices, and
settlement patterns? Please note that this essay requires specific comparisons. Do not write a
page and a half on Australia followed by a page and a half on the Americas.
2. Compare the origins of farming (plant and animal domestication) in the ancient Near East with
the beginnings of farming in either Mexico or China and New Guinea. What plants and animals
were involved? How has domestication been identified in the archaeological record? How have
our ideas about domestication in these areas changed through time? How did the beginnings of
farming lead to changes in settlement patterns and other technologies?