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List the duties typically associated with the operations division. How is each division critical to police operations?
Chapter 3
Police Organization and
Administration
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
• Structure of police organization
– Determines productivity
– Determines achievement of goals
– Helps to carry out tasks effectively and
efficiently
– Must strike a balance between inclusiveness
and need for rapid response and efficiency
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.1: Explain the importance of organizational structures in police departments.
Organizational Structures
• Organizational structure influenced by
– Size of organization
– Tradition
– Function
– Degree of professionalism
– Receptiveness to change
– Style of leadership
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.1: Explain the importance of organizational structures in police departments.
Organizational Structures
• Police Hierarchy
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.1: Explain the importance of organizational structures in police departments.
Hierarchy: Organizational structure that takes the shape of a pyramid, with many employees at the bottom and a few management personnel at the top
Organizational Structures
• Police Hierarchy
– Characteristics
• Unity of command
• Rank structure or chain of command
• Span of control or ratio of supervisors to
subordinates
– Hierarchical structure of police resistant to
change
– Amount of work inversely related to a person’s
position in the hierarchy
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.1: Explain the importance of organizational structures in police departments.
Unity of command: Each member of the police organization reports to an immediate superior. Example: Patrol officers are typically responsible to a field supervisor (e.g., sergeant); the field supervisor is typically responsible to a shift administrator (e.g., lieutenant), who is responsible to a division commander; and so on.
Rank structure: Also called chain of command, identifies who communicates with whom and clearly and precisely identifies lines of authority. Often involves multiple hierarchies, such as authority hierarchy and status hierarchy. Example: A police commander with 15 years of experience holds a higher rank in the department than a shift sergeant with 25 years of experience. However, in the seniority hierarchy, the sergeant occupies a higher position than the police commander.
Span of control: Ratio of supervisors to subordinates. Differs from one rank layer in the hierarchy to the next, and the ratio of supervisors to police officers is usually smaller near the top of the departmental hierarchy compared to the bottom.
Amount of work inversely related to a person’s position in the hierarchy: Line personnel in the police have more responsibilities than administrators
Line personnel: Patrol officers and investigators, who perform actual police work
Organizational Structures
• Police Hierarchy
– Hierarchy and Communication
• Clear division of authority ensures responsibility
and accountability
• Clarifies supervisor’s span of control
• Only top-down one-way flow of information
• Few opportunities for lower ranks for feedback
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.1: Explain the importance of organizational structures in police departments.
Organizational Structures
• The Paramilitary Structure
– Rigid military-like organizational structure
with focus on accountability
– Formed to distance officers from public to
minimize corruption and maximize efficiency
– Emphasis on centralization and control
– Top-down management to improve efficiency
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.1: Explain the importance of organizational structures in police departments.
Top-down management: Top central managers make decisions on policies leaving police agencies to focus on law enforcement and fighting crime.
Organizational Structures
• The Paramilitary Structure
– Terminology similar to that of the military
– Frequent use of commands and orders
– Strong enforcement of rules, regulations, and
discipline
– Discouragement of individual creativity
– Resistance of system to change
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.1: Explain the importance of organizational structures in police departments.
Organizational Structures
• The Paramilitary Structure
– Limitations
• Authoritarian
• No horizontal and bottom-up communication
• Emphasis on strict obedience hinders discretion
and critical thinking
• Inflexibility of structure slows down changes
• Restrictions on personal freedoms
• Narrow job descriptions
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.1: Explain the importance of organizational structures in police departments.
Inflexibility of structure slows down changes: Example: A lieutenant interested in formally changing long-standing procedures is normally required to go to the patrol commander, who would then approach the assistant chief, who would finally seek the chief’s approval.
• Lines blurring between police and military
– Police became militarized during Prohibition
Era
– Advent of SWAT teams to fight drug war led to
modern police militarization
– Military operations carried out among civilians
in densely populated areas
– Reutilization of military equipment by police
departments
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.5: Evaluate the extent to which police departments have become “militarized” and the implications of this.
Lines blurring between police and military: Separation between police officers and military soldiers was a way of limiting federal government power in using military personnel for domestic law enforcement. Police are mandated to maintain peace inside the country, while military troops should protect U.S. interests outside the borders.
SWAT: Originally stood for Special Weapons Attack Team, but was later changed to Special Weapons and Tactics removing the word attack. The original intent of the SWAT team was to handle extraordinary and dangerous situations with a specially trained force.
Reutilization of military equipment by police departments: Example: Approximately 500 police departments have Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles built to “withstand armor piercing roadside bombs.” Many departments have used federal grants to purchase these and other military weapons include assault rifles, grenade launchers, and even aircraft. Small towns with lower-than-average crime rates have received tanks and M16s.
Police Militarization
• Decentralized and Proactive Organizations
– Experiments to adapt to changing
environment
• Modifying traditional paramilitary style of policing
• Sharing decision-making with patrol officers
• Creating flatter organizations with fewer ranks
• Developing police officers as generalists
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.5: Evaluate the extent to which police departments have become “militarized” and the implications of this.
Developing police officers as generalists: to serve diverse problems and needs of a community instead of only focusing on crime control
Police Militarization
• Decentralized and Proactive Organizations
– Support matrix structure to reduce reliance on
single unit of power
– Formation of task forces
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.5: Evaluate the extent to which police departments have become “militarized” and the implications of this.
Matrix structure: Based on multiple support systems and authority relationships, whereby some employees report to two superiors rather than one–a clear departure from the typical chain of command. Example: A drug task force is an example of a matrix structure.
Task force: Team of personnel usually brought together for temporary assignments based on their expertise and their ability to contribute to a specific goal. Personnel return to regular duties and supervisors after the task or a specific period of time.
Police Militarization
• Police Organizations in Context
– Operate in a political arena
– Draw resources from and provide services to
communities
– Level of service controlled by external factors
– Hiring, disciplining, termination, award of
benefits governed by commissioners or civil
service merit boards
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.5: Evaluate the extent to which police departments have become “militarized” and the implications of this.
Police agencies operate in a political arena: Municipal police chief heads the police department but is also responsible to the city manager, mayor, police commissioner, and city council.
External factors: Politics, budget, personnel allotment, courts
• Largest in terms of personnel and
resources
– Two main subdivisions
• Patrol: Backbone of police organization providing
continuous police service
• Investigations: Responsible making arrests based
on evidence
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.2: List the duties typically associated with the operations division.
Operations Division
• Patrol
– Respond to calls for service
– Make initial contact with crime victims and make
arrests
– Secure crime scenes and conduct preliminary
investigations as first responders
– Traffic control and investigating traffic accidents
– Use watercraft, aircraft, bicycle and canine-
assisted patrols, and civilian volunteers
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.2: List the duties typically associated with the operations division.
Operations Division
• Investigations
– Obtain and process all evidence and set up chain of
custody
– Make arrests based on evidence
– Document crime scenes
– Analyze records and reports
– Author search warrants
– Prepare cases for testifying in court
– Conduct undercover operations and developing
informants
– Juvenile unit
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.2: List the duties typically associated with the operations division.
Obtaining and processing all evidence:
Tangible evidence: Physical evidence collected at a crime scene or at the residence of a suspect (photographing, collecting and analyzing DNA, fingerprints)
Intangible evidence: Accounts from witnesses, informants or suspects (Processing relevant leads to crimes)
Chain of custody: The chronological documentation that shows the seizure, custody, control, transfer, analysis, and disposition of physical or electronic evidence
Juvenile unit responsible for crime prevention among youth, investigating physical and sexual abuse of children, and counselling and facilitating youth by specially trained or certified youth officers.
Operations Division
• Administrative or Staff Services Division
– Functions include record keeping,
communication, research and planning,
training and education, and logistics
– Employs civilian personnel to perform tasks
– Work outside the normal law enforcement
chain of command
– Process massive amounts of information
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.2: List the duties typically associated with the operations division.
Counselling and facilitating youth: Usually done by specially trained or certified youth officers because they deal with laws relating to juvenile or family court acts, which are considerably different from criminal statutes in terms of their procedural requirements.
• Function, geography, and scheduling used to
design police organizations
• Functional Design
– Most widely used structuring method in police
agencies
– Creation of positions and departments on the
basis of specialized activities or functions
– Involves identifying and consolidating common
tasks and areas of work
– Varies according to size of department
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.3: Describe the influence of organizational substructures, such as geography and scheduling, on the operations of police departments.
Organizational Substructures
• Functional Design
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.3: Describe the influence of organizational substructures, such as geography and scheduling, on the operations of police departments.
Organizational Substructures
• Functional Design
– Responsibility and accountability clearly
understood by employees of each unit
– Fosters a limited point of view
– Minimal application to small police
departments
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.3: Describe the influence of organizational substructures, such as geography and scheduling, on the operations of police departments.
Minimal application to small police departments: Small police departments lack the staffing and funding to establish specialized units and usually expect officers to possess multiple skills and broad knowledge concerning the police role. For example, in one day, a single officer may handle a traffic problem, then a juvenile issue, and then a major burglary, which requires crime scene search skills.
Organizational Substructures
• Geography
– Organizational structure based on geography
– Establishes organization’s primary units
geographically while retaining significant
aspects of functional design
– Can increase coordination problems
depending on the number and location of
beats, zones, districts, areas, sectors, or
precincts
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.3: Describe the influence of organizational substructures, such as geography and scheduling, on the operations of police departments.
Place Design: Geographical establishment of primary units in an organization, including assignment of personnel to beats, zones, districts, and areas
Retains significant aspects of functional design:
For example, patrol officers perform their basic functions mostly within the assigned geographic areas within city limits, where a city is divided into beats, zones, districts, or areas.
Organizational Substructures
• Place Design
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.3: Describe the influence of organizational substructures, such as geography and scheduling, on the operations of police departments.
Organizational Substructures
• Scheduling
– Organization structure based on time design
– Patrol divisions divided into three
watches/tours /shifts for 24-hr coverage
– Shift coverage balanced by hiring new staff
and use of overtime
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.3: Describe the influence of organizational substructures, such as geography and scheduling, on the operations of police departments.
Time Design: An organizational design that involves assignment of personnel based on watches, tours, or shifts
Shifts: Typically, day shifts often operate from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m., afternoon or evening shifts from 4 p.m. to midnight, and night shifts from midnight until 8 a.m. Some departments employ power or overlap shifts, which involve assigning additional personnel to work from 8 p.m. until 4 a.m.
Handling Change in Police
Organizations
• Tendency of personnel to resist change
due to reactive, paramilitary structure of
many departments
• Change can be smooth when
– Police administrators adopt less rigid, less
hierarchical structures
– Personnel participation at all levels is
encouraged
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.4: Explain a few strategies police organizations can use to handle change favorably.
Police Unions and
Collective Bargaining
• Unionization of police gained importance
in the 1960s and 1970s
– Dissatisfaction with wages, working
conditions, and level of public support
resulted in wave of union activities
• No national police officers’ union
• Police strikes prohibited by law but officers
use “job actions”
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.6: Identify the pros and cons of collective bargaining in police organizations.
No national police officers’ union: However, there is national recognition of the Fraternal Order of Police, police benevolent associations, and police officers’ associations
Job Action: Occurs when negotiations fail to lead to an agreement and can include “blue flu,” work slowdowns, and work speedups
Police Unions and
Collective Bargaining
• Collective bargaining between states and
local governments, and police officers
• Covers specific areas of employer–
employee relations
– Binds both parties legally and morally to abide
by its provisions during a specified time period
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.6: Identify the pros and cons of collective bargaining in police organizations.
Collective Bargaining: Negotiations between an employer and groups of employees to determine conditions of employment.
Often involves an adversarial relationship between the union and management, and negotiations are required to bridge the gap between the interests of the union and those of management
Examples: Police unions negotiate with management for salary, insurance, vacation and sick days, pensions, longevity pay, compensatory time or pay, hiring standards, assignment policies, discipline and grievance procedures, promotions, layoffs, productivity, and the procedural rights of officers; negotiations cover the entire range of working conditions of officers and management rights to determine the level of and the manner in which activities are conducted, managed, and administered.
Police Unions and
Collective Bargaining
• Police Unions and Professionalism
– Union contracts limit discretion on both sides
– Principle of rewards based on merit is
compromised
– Argument that unions promote mediocrity
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.6: Identify the pros and cons of collective bargaining in police organizations.
Union contracts limit discretion on both sides:
Example: A contract that limits the amount of overtime an officer is allowed to work may be an obstacle to an officer who is willing to work and is needed on a particular shift.
Principle of rewards based on merit is compromised:
Example: Those who perform better can be rewarded no more than those who perform at minimum levels. by failing to allow rewards for those who exceed these levels.
Argument that unions promote mediocrity: Those who are self-motivated, dedicated, and interested in advancing their careers and aiding the organization are not encouraged to do so, and those who contribute little to the organization are protected.
Police Unions and
Collective Bargaining
• Police Unions and Professionalism
– Representation of union leaders’ own
interests
– Union positions given more importance than
positions of police officers
– Union representatives viewed as adversaries
rather than employees
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.6: Identify the pros and cons of collective bargaining in police organizations.
• Professionalism and professional
standards for the police enhanced through
code of ethics, higher education, and
agency accreditations
• Ambiguity of role hampers efforts to
increase professionalism
• Tangible improvements seen as signs of
professionalism
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.7: Describe the purported advantages of accreditation in the field of policing.
Tangible improvements: Things that can be seen and accounted for, such as computers, latest weaponry and communications, or advances in crime lab equipment.
Police Professionalism
• Professional Literature and Research
– Large body of professional literature based on
legitimate research techniques
• Code of Ethics
– Developed by International Association of
Chiefs of Police (IACP)
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Large body of professional literature: Include the following:
Journals – Police Quarterly and Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management contain reports of police research (the second criterion). Periodicals–Police Chief, the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin contribute additional information on police operations, organizations, and programs.
Master’s theses and doctoral dissertations
Code of Ethics: A set of principles that guides decision making and behavior for police officers, both on and off duty; the code defines the standards for professionalism, which is key to the integrity of police officers and their credibility with the public
Police Professionalism
• Professional Associations
– Fraternal Order of Police
– International Association of Chiefs of Police
(IACP)
• Self-Improvement
– No national minimum standards for departments
or personnel
– No mandatory ongoing training programs
– Work viewed as blue-collar shift work not needing
advanced education
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Police Professionalism
• Academic Field
– Graduate studies in policing and criminal
justice no guarantee for professionalism
– Failure to keep pace with other service
professions
– Acceptance of applicants with lower
educational qualifications
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Police Professionalism
• Accreditation
– CALEA established in 1979
• Standards articulate a clear statement of
professional objectives
• Law enforcement agencies undertake voluntary
accreditation process which trained assessors
verify to grant accreditation
– To remain accredited, agencies must maintain
compliance with CALEA standards
Cox, Introduction to Policing, 4e. © SAGE Publications, 2020.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Satisfies Learning Objective 3.7: Describe the purported advantages of accreditation in the field of policing.
Accreditation: Development of standards containing a clear statement of professional objectives
CALEA: Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies was formed though the combined efforts of the IACP, the National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives, the National Sheriffs’ Association, and the Police Executive Research Forum.
Covers Learning Objective 3.7: Describe the purported advantages of accreditation in the field of policing
CALEA standards to meet six goals:
Strengthen crime prevention and control capabilities
Formalize essential management procedures
Establish fair and nondiscriminatory personnel practices
Improve service delivery
Solidify interagency cooperation and coordination
Increase community and staff confidence in the agency
- Slide Number 1
- Slide Number 2
- Handling Change in Police Organizations
- Police Unions and Collective Bargaining
Organizational Structures
Organizational Structures
Organizational Structures
Organizational Structures
Organizational Structures
Organizational Structures
Organizational Structures
Organizational Structures
Police Militarization
Police Militarization
Police Militarization
Police Militarization
Operations Division
Operations Division
Operations Division
Operations Division
Organizational Substructures
Organizational Substructures
Organizational Substructures
Organizational Substructures
Organizational Substructures
Organizational Substructures
Police Unions and Collective Bargaining
Police Unions and Collective Bargaining
Police Unions and Collective Bargaining
Police Professionalism
Police Professionalism
Police Professionalism
Police Professionalism
Police Professionalism
