LAW 402 SEU Defamation for Judiciary Concerns Discussion

LAW402 – Assignment• Case Study
Q1.
At present, there is there is no universal definition of defamation and
there is not a set of elements that define defamation for judiciary concerns.
How would a universal definition of defamation be beneficial? ((Provide
Examples))
(700 Words Minimum) (3 References at least)
• Discussion
Q2.
Some important aspects to remember when composing an email are,
language, disclaimers, confidentiality, defamation, negligent misstatements,
and accidental contract formation. Why are these aspects important to
consider?
(200-300 Words Minimum) (2 References at least)
Requirements
I have this assignment in LAW of E-commerce with only 2 questions to answer.
As for the requirements, there are some things that i need you to take into consideration when
doing this assignment:
1- The work should be original, so No match please.
2- The work should be in your own words. (( I Need your own opinion when you write some
parts of the answers )).
3- The answer should be under every question.
4- The answer for each question will vary from 200 – 700 Words.
5- Use Times New Roman (Size 12, Double-spaced) Font.
6- Use APA style when you put some references.
Thank you so much for your help. I really appreciate it.
7KH/DZRI
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