IT 405 Saudi Electronic University Java Programming Language Questions

You will write a short essay, 1-2 pages in length, detailing the parts of the scientific method discussed in your article and comparing that information to what was reported in the news story. Each entry will be written in a logical and professional manner using the APA template attached to the post.

The entire entry must be written IN YOUR OWN WORDS. Direct quotes of the articles are not allowed. However, when you summarize or paraphrase something from one of the articles you will need to provide an in-text APA reference.

The essay must be written entirely in third person. DO NOT USE FIRST OR SECOND PERSON. This means you cannot use the words “I”, “we”, or “you”.

ntroduction (1 paragraph)

This section identify which of the two articles was the scientific study and the subject of the scientific study. You will also identify the problem or observation that spurred the research. DO NOT LIST THE RESULTS OF THE STUDY ITSELF HERE. You will identify the hypothesis the scientists were testing. Remember that a hypothesis is a testable educated guess. Thus, it is not appropriate to pose a question here. However, while reading your articles, it can be helpful to ask yourself what explanation scientists tried to use to explain their initial observation. You will then transition into the body of the journal.

Body (~1 paragraph each)

Here, you will identify the test or experiment that was performed to address the hypothesis. You should be detailed here. It may be helpful to pull from other sources, if you do not fully understand how the experiment was conducted. After detailing how the experiment was done compared to how it reported in the media, you will transition into a discussion of the results.

In this section of your entry you will identify the experimental results that the scientists obtained. What did the scientists find after doing their experiment? Again, you can be detailed here. After detailing the results, you will transition into the conclusion sections.

The last paragraph of the body should explain the conclusion of the study. You should address whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected, and how the results led to that finding. Also provide a possible new avenue of research the scientists might pursue based on what was discovered in this study.

Evaluation (1 paragraph)

Here you will signal the end of your entry. In this section you will identify the new study about the scientific study and discuss whether or not the news story was a representative reporting of the scientific study. Did the news change anything or leave out something important from the scientific study? Summarize the important content from your entry, then you will end with a definitive final statement.

Constructing your journal entry

In addition to the criteria above, you will be graded on the quality of your writing; please write with proper grammar, punctuation, and style. The essay will be graded using the Dialogues of Learning Written Communication Rubric.

All sources (including the original 2 articles) should be properly documented. You must include an APA style reference page. Your TurnItIn score should be below 20 for this assignment.

Downloaded from http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 19, 2018
Marine biology
rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org
Research
Cite this article: Fouda L, Wingfield JE,
Fandel AD, Garrod A, Hodge KB, Rice AN,
Bailey H. 2018 Dolphins simplify their vocal
calls in response to increased ambient noise.
Biol. Lett. 14: 20180484.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0484
Received: 5 July 2018
Accepted: 28 September 2018
Subject Areas:
behaviour
Keywords:
acoustic communication, anthropogenic noise,
bottlenose dolphin, vocal modification
Author for correspondence:
Helen Bailey
e-mail: hbailey@umces.edu
Electronic supplementary material is available
online at https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.
figshare.c.4259312.
Dolphins simplify their vocal calls in
response to increased ambient noise
Leila Fouda1, Jessica E. Wingfield1, Amber D. Fandel1, Aran Garrod1,
Kristin B. Hodge2, Aaron N. Rice2 and Helen Bailey1
1
2
Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Solomons, MD, USA
Bioacoustics Research Program, Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
LF, 0000-0002-0723-3697; ANR, 0000-0002-8598-9705; HB, 0000-0001-7445-4687
Ocean noise varies spatially and temporally and is driven by natural and
anthropogenic processes. Increased ambient noise levels can cause signal
masking and communication impairment, affecting fitness and recruitment
success. However, the effects of increasing ambient noise levels on marine
species, such as marine mammals that primarily rely on sound for communication, are not well understood. We investigated the effects of concurrent
ambient noise levels on social whistle calls produced by bottlenose dolphins
(Tursiops truncatus) in the western North Atlantic. Elevated ambient noise
levels were mainly caused by ship noise. Increases in ship noise, both
within and below the dolphins’ call bandwidth, resulted in higher dolphin
whistle frequencies and a reduction in whistle contour complexity, an acoustic
feature associated with individual identification. Consequently, the noiseinduced simplification of dolphin whistles may reduce the information
content in these acoustic signals and decrease effective communication,
parent – offspring proximity or group cohesion.
1. Introduction
Ambient noise levels vary spatially and temporally and are affected by numerous activities and processes, both natural and anthropogenic [1]. Increased
ambient noise levels can reduce the ability of animals to perceive acoustic
signals (masking) and have been associated with alterations in animal
vocalizations (e.g. [2]) as well as negative impacts on health and reproduction
[3,4]. Vocal communication plays a critical role in many species, such as in
parent –offspring interactions, warning calls, mating signals and territorial
defence. Vocal adjustments may compensate for increased ambient noise, but
there may be constraints that limit this ability [5] or ecological consequences
to modified signals. If communication is impaired, this may lead to behavioural
changes, which can affect fitness and recruitment [6].
Odontocetes have complex social structures that are probably maintained
through their diverse and individually specific vocalizations [7]. One of the
best-studied odontocete species, the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus),
produces whistles that serve a critical role in social communication, conveying
individual identity and other information through contour shape [8]. Vessel
traffic and noise have been found to affect marine mammal foraging behaviour
[9– 11] and the sound frequency of their calls [12,13]. However, little is known
about how the complexity of their calls changes in response to real-time ambient noise levels experienced by the animals. We addressed this by investigating
whether the acoustic characteristics of bottlenose dolphin whistles changed in
response to concurrent ambient noise levels (both from natural and anthropogenic sources). Our study area in the northwest Atlantic Ocean experiences
& 2018 The Authors. Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original
author and source are credited.
Downloaded from http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 19, 2018
(b)
2
23
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0
0
1.0
1.2
1.4
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s
1.6
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1.8
2.0
40
0
60
0.1
80
0.2
100
0.3
0.4
s
0.5
0.6
0.7
120
dB
Figure 1. Spectrograms of example whistle during (a) relatively low ambient noise (108.2 dB re 1 mPa) on 14 September 2016, and (b) relatively high ambient
noise (133.6 dB re 1 mPa) on 7 September 2016.
relatively high levels of vessel traffic that we hypothesized
would result in regularly elevated noise conditions and
could consequently impact dolphin call patterns.
variables. The encounter identification number (where an
encounter consisted of continuous detections) was treated as
the cluster grouping with an exchangeable working correlation
structure. A Holm – Bonferroni sequential correction for multiple
tests was applied [15].
2. Methods
(a) Data collection and analysis
3. Results
Acoustic recordings were collected using a bottom-mounted
SM3M recorder (Wildlife Acoustics) sampling at 48 kHz during
July– September 2016, located approximately 30 km offshore of
Maryland, USA, in the western North Atlantic Ocean (electronic
supplementary material, figure S1). Spectrograms were visually
inspected for bottlenose dolphin whistles with high signalto-noise ratios [12] in RAVEN PRO (v. 1.5). For each whistle
selected, 11 characteristics were measured: duration; start and
end frequencies; minimum, maximum and delta frequency
(maximum– minimum frequency); the presence of harmonics,
and number of extrema, inflection points, saddles and steps
(electronic supplementary material, figures S2 and S3).
Ambient noise levels were calculated for the 2 s period prior
to selected whistles [14]. PAMGUARD‘s Noise Monitor Module
was used to measure root-mean-square (RMS) sound pressure
levels in both the broadband signal (2 Hz – 24 kHz) and onethird octave band levels (TOLs) centred on frequencies from
12.5 Hz to 20 kHz. Ambient noise levels for each 2 min recording across the entire deployment period were also calculated to
determine how frequently relatively high noise levels (greater
than 120 dB re 1 mPa RMS, the USA marine mammal regulatory
threshold for behavioural disruption from continuous noise)
occurred.
In total, 200 high-quality whistles from 16 encounters were
used in the analysis (figure 1, [16]). Whistles occurred in the
frequency range 2.93–23.83 kHz (mean 6.79–10.08 kHz) with
durations of 0.07–1.17 s (electronic supplementary material,
table S1). Ambient broadband noise associated with these
whistles was 108.1 – 134.2 dB re 1 mPa (64.4 – 90.3 dB re
1 mPa2 Hz21) and had a significant effect on whistle characteristics (MANOVA: F12 ¼ 2.7, p , 0.01). Increased noise in
the 2.5 kHz TOL significantly affected the greatest number
of characteristics, including reducing whistle length, delta frequency and the number of steps while increasing the start and
minimum frequency (table 1 and figure 2). A significant
reduction in the number of inflections and saddles occurred
during increased ambient noise in the 20 kHz TOL. Increased
noise in the 40 Hz, 400 Hz and 10 kHz TOLs also had significant effects on dolphin whistle characteristics (table 1).
Over the entire deployment period, relatively high ambient
noise levels were mainly caused by vessel noise and were
above 120 dB re 1 mPa 11% of the time (electronic
supplementary material, figures S4 and S5).
(b) Statistics
4. Discussion
The effect of ambient noise levels at each frequency band was
tested on the suite of whistle characteristics using a multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA). Generalized estimating
equations (GEEs) were then fitted with each whistle characteristic
as the response variable and the suite of ambient noise levels that
were statistically significant in the MANOVAs as the explanatory
Bottlenose dolphins change their vocalization characteristics
during increased ambient noise. Such changes have also
been observed in primates, birds, bats and other species to
counteract masking effects [3] and this is emerging as a widespread response to elevated ambient noise. In our study, we
Biol. Lett. 14: 20180484
23
22
21
20
19
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rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org
kHz
(a)
Downloaded from http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 19, 2018
(a)
(b)
3
minimum frequency (KHz)
5
15
10
5
0
60
70
80
2.5 kHz sound level (dB re 1 mPa2/Hz)
90
60
70
80
2.5 kHz sound level (dB re 1 mPa2/Hz)
90
Figure 2. Effect of 2.5 kHz TOL on (a) delta frequency and (b) minimum frequency of dolphin whistles with linear regression lines. (Online version in colour.)
Table 1. Statistically significant results from the GEE models. (TOL refers to third octave band levels.)
frequency band
response variable
estimate
s.e.
Wald
Pr(>jWj)
broadband
minimum frequency
94.80
20.10
22.30
,0.01
maximum frequency
56.40
24.50
5.28
0.02
start frequency
extrema
91.50
20.08
24.00
0.020
14.54
15.20
,0.01
,0.01
delta frequency
steps
43.00
0.07
14.10
0.02
9.37
8.14
,0.01
,0.01
saddles
20.02
0.01
12.11
,0.01
length
minimum frequency
20.005
86.52
0.001
22.16
14.14
15.25
,0.01
,0.01
24.10
22.80
7.75
7.31
,0.01
,0.01
40 Hz TOL
400 Hz TOL
2.5 kHz TOL
delta frequency
start frequency
10 kHz TOL
20 kHz TOL
267.20
61.60
harmonics
20.007
0.003
5.35
0.02
steps
saddles
20.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
6.69
9.29
0.01
,0.01
saddles
inflections
0.09
20.10
0.02
0.05
20.97
4.32
,0.01
0.04
saddles
20.05
0.02
8.27
,0.01
specifically examined the ambient noise level immediately
prior to the call and examined contour shape characteristics
as well as frequency parameters of the dolphin whistles.
The dolphin whistles had a less complex contour shape
during increased ambient noise in the 2.5 and 20 kHz
TOLs. Since these frequencies are outside the mean range of
the whistles, this suggests that the signaller responded by
modifying the call as opposed to the received call losing components through masking. These modifications may serve to
simplify the call, thereby reducing the potential loss of information owing to masking by ambient noise. Beluga whales
(Delphinapterus leucas) in the St Lawrence River similarly produced less frequency modulated calls when background
noise became louder owing to vessel noise [17]. Call duration
compression may serve to fit calls into quieter intervals [18]. It
is unknown what impact this shortening and simplification of
calls may have on the information communicated. There are,
to our knowledge, currently no studies that have addressed
the call receivers to determine if and how call simplification
may affect dolphin fitness. Vocal communication is important
in dolphin mother–offspring interactions and social bonding
[7]. The frequency modulation pattern of calls carries identity
[8] and other information, and consequently there could be
changes to the level of information communicated if individuals respond to increased ambient noise by simplifying the
features of their whistles. The ambient noise environment
could also affect vocal learning, as young animals exposed to
elevated noise may hear adjusted calls from conspecifics [19].
Biol. Lett. 14: 20180484
delta frequency (KHz)
10
rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org
15
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sustainability over time. Ambient noise levels are likely to
rise in the future as vessel traffic increases and an offshore
wind energy facility is proposed. Regulations and voluntary
incentives to reduce the sound production of vessels, for
example with speed limits or quieter engines, could help to
decrease the effects on dolphins and other species sensitive
to sound.
Data accessibility. The datasets are available in the Dryad Digital
Repository: http://dx.doi.org/10.5061/dryad.t530ps6 [16].
Authors’ contributions. H.B. and L.F. conceived and designed the study.
Competing interests. We declare no competing interests.
Funding. The Maryland Department of Natural Resources secured
funding for this project from the Maryland Energy Administration’s
Offshore Wind Development Fund and the US Department of
Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Environmental
Studies Program (contract nos 14-14-1916 BOEM/BOEM Award no.
M14AC00018 and 14-17-2241BOEM).
Acknowledgements. Thanks to the many volunteers from the Chesapeake
Biological Laboratory and the crew from Cornell University for
field assistance. Thanks to Slava Lyubchich for help with statistical
analyses and Aimee Hoover for assisting with the ambient
noise analyses.
Disclaimer. The views and conclusions contained in this document are
those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the
opinions or policies of the US Government, the Maryland Department of Natural Resources or the Maryland Energy Administration.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
their endorsement by the US Government or the state.
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4
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In addition to modifying the shape, dolphin whistles
were also higher frequency during increased broadband
and 2.5 kHz TOL ambient noise immediately prior to the
call. Marine mammals have been recorded increasing the
amplitude [20,21], altering the frequency parameters [12,14]
or call rate [22] of their calls in response to ambient noise.
Masking occurs when ambient noise overlaps with the frequency band of the calls (energetic masking), but can also
occur when signals cannot be perceptually distinguished
from other noise (informational masking) [23]. Dolphins
adjusted their calls when noise levels were elevated at a
range of frequencies, including below the frequencies of
their whistle calls. Increased low-frequency ambient noise
may be causing dolphins to change their vocalization behaviour to avoid or compensate for masking. These changes
could be detrimental to conspecific communication and
potentially reduce group cohesion as has been found in
terrestrial species [3,6].
Although ambient noise may increase as a result of natural processes, elevated noise conditions in our study were
primarily attributed to vessel noise. The study area is adjacent
to the shipping lanes into Delaware Bay (electronic supplementary material, figure S1) and had ambient noise
levels comparable to other coastal areas with frequent
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from conspecifics, there may be a decrease in masking (spatial
release from masking) [23], but the observed changes in the
whistle signals indicate that the dolphins simplified their
calls to counter the masking effects of vessel noise. Although
marine mammals demonstrate vocal plasticity, there may be
constraints to their vocal compensatory capabilities and its
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Parijs SM, Frankel A, Ponirakis D. 2009 Acoustic
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increase their call amplitude in response to vessel
Biol. Lett. 14: 20180484


EDITION
ENVIRONMENT
10/27/2018 01:06 pm ET
Humans Are Screwing Up Dolphins’ Abilities To Talk
To Each Other
Noise from ships and boats are causing dolphins to make their calls less complex,
according to a new study.
By Hilary Hanson
___
As if humans weren’t already doing enough to destroy the planet and harm our fellow creatures, a new study has
revealed that human-caused noise is hindering the ability of dolphins to communicate with one another.
Dolphins ― highly intelligent and social animals ― use a complex array of whistle calls to talk to each other that some
scientists have compared to human speech.
But in a study published this week in the journal Biology Letters, researchers found that bottlenose dolphins in an area
off the Maryland coast made their calls less complicated when noise created by shipping lanes and recreational boats
was present.
WILD HORIZON VIA GETTY IMAGES
A mother Atlantic bottlenose dolphin and her offspring in Curacao.
“It’s kind of like trying to answer a question in a noisy bar and after repeated attempts to be heard, you just give the
shortest answer possible,” marine biologist Helen Bailey of the University of Maryland Center for Environmental
Science said in a news release. “Dolphins simplified their calls to counter the masking effects of vessel noise.”
Bailey’s assistant, Leila Fouda, added, “The simplification of these whistles could reduce the information in these
acoustic signals and make it more difficult for dolphins to communicate.”
The researchers, who gathered data by putting microphones on the ocean floor, noted in the study that while it’s
possible for ambient noise to occur naturally, the noise they recorded underwater was “mainly” caused by ships.
Their findings echo another study also published this week. Japanese scientists found that humpback whales around
the country’s Ogasawara Islands are reducing their famous whale songs in response to noise caused by passing
ships. And, as the site Inverse notes, a 2016 study on orcas also found that sound from ships hindered their
communication abilities.
Bailey said in the statement on the dolphin study that people designing ships need to start taking the environmental
impact of sound more seriously.
“We need to be working to engineer quieter boats,” she said.
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