Introduction

Early learning settings are filled with culturally diverse children. As an early childhood development professional, you can support children’s early learning and development by respecting the cultural identity of every child. In order to do this, it is important that you have a solid understanding identity development and the role it plays in anti-bias education in today’s society.

To prepare for this discussion:

Read Chapter 1 of the course text.
Review the 7-minute video, Anti-Bias Lessons Help Preschoolers Hold up a Mirror to DiversityLinks to an external site..
Read the four goals of anti-bias education: Understanding Anti-Bias Education: Bringing the Four Core Goals to Every Facet of Your CurriculumLinks to an external site..

In your initial post,

Explain which of the four goals of anti-bias education interests you most and why.
Discuss why anti-bias education is important, considering today’s social issues.
Describe at least one key element of cultural identity (race/ethnicity, language, or socioeconomic status) using the text.
Provide an example of how you might support a child’s cultural identity in an educational setting.

6 November 2019Young Children

Embracing Anti-Bias Education

Understanding
Anti-Bias Education
Bringing the Four Core Goals to Every
Facet of Your Curriculum
By Louise Derman-Sparks and Julie Olsen Edwards

Anti-bias education is not just doing occasional activities about diversity and fairness topics (although that
may be how new anti-bias educators begin). To be effective, anti-bias education works as an underpinning
perspective, which permeates everything that happens in an early childhood program—including your

interactions with children, families and coworkers—and shapes how you put curriculum together each day.

November 2019 Young Children 7

The four core goals of
anti-bias education

Four core goals provide a framework for the practice of
anti-bias education with children. Grounded in what
we know about how children construct identity and
attitudes, the goals help you create a safe, supportive
learning community for every child. They support
children’s development of a confident sense of identity
without needing to feel superior to others; an ease
with human diversity; a sense of fairness and justice;
the skills of empowerment; and the ability to stand up
for themselves or for others.

Goal 1: Identity

› Teachers will nurture each child’s
construction of knowledgeable, confident,
individual personal and social identities.

› Children will demonstrate self-
awareness, confidence, family pride,
and positive social identities.

This goal means supporting children to feel strong and
proud of who they are without needing to feel superior
to anyone else. It means children will learn accurate,
respectful language to describe who they and others
are. Teachers will support children to develop and
be comfortable within their home culture and within
the school culture. Goal 1 is the starting place for all
children, in all settings.

Adding to early childhood education’s long-term
commitment to nurturing each child’s individual,
personal identity, anti-bias education emphasizes
the important idea of nurturing children’s social
(or group) identities. Social identities relate to the
significant group categorizations of the society in

which we grow up and live and which individuals
share with many others. Social identities include
(but are not limited to) gender, racial, ethnic,
cultural, religious, and economic class groups. (In the
forthcoming book, social identity is described in detail
in Chapter 2.) A strong sense of both individual and
group identities is the foundation for the three other
core anti-bias goals.

Goal 2: Diversity

› Teachers will promote each child’s
comfortable, empathetic interaction with
people from diverse backgrounds.

› Children will express comfort and joy
with human diversity, use accurate
language for human differences, and
form deep, caring connections across
all dimensions of human diversity.

This goal means guiding children to be able to think
about and have words for how people are the same and
how they are different. It includes helping children feel
and behave respectfully, warmly, and confidently with
people who are different from themselves. It includes
encouraging children to learn both about how they
are different from other children and about how they
are similar. These are never either/or realities because
people are simultaneously the same and different from
one another. This goal is the heart of learning how to
treat all people caringly and fairly.

Some teachers and parents are not sure they should
encourage children to “notice” and learn about
differences among people. They may think it is best to
teach only about how people are the same, worrying
that talking about differences causes prejudice. While
well intentioned, this concern arises from a mistaken
notion about the sources of bias. Differences do not
create bias. Children learn prejudice from prejudice—
not from learning about human diversity. It is how
people respond to differences that teaches bias and fear.

Another misconception about Goal 2 is that exploring
differences among people ignores appreciating
the similarities. Goal 2 calls for creating a balance
between exploring people’s differences and
similarities. All human beings share similar biological
attributes, needs, and rights (e.g., the needs for food,
shelter, and love; the commonalities of language,

This article is an excerpt of the second edition
of Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and
Ourselves, by Louise Derman-Sparks and Julie
Olsen Edwards. An NAEYC bestseller, this book
helps early childhood educators fulfill their
mission of helping all children reach their full
potential. The new edition—with major updates
to all chapters, including gender identity—will be
available early in 2020.

8 November 2019Young Children

families, and feelings) and people live and meet these
shared needs and rights in many different ways. A
basic premise in anti-bias education is “We are all the
same. We are all different. Isn’t that wonderful!”

Goal 3: Justice

› Teachers will foster each child’s capacity to
critically identify bias and will nurture each
child’s empathy for the hurt bias causes.

› Children will increasingly recognize
unfairness (injustice), have
language to describe unfairness, and
understand that unfairness hurts.

This goal is about building children’s innate, budding
capacities for empathy and fairness, as well as their
cognitive skills for thinking critically about what is
happening around them. It is about building a sense
of safety, the sense that everyone can and will be
treated fairly.

Learning experiences include opportunities for
children to understand and practice skills for
identifying unfair and untrue images (stereotypes),
comments (teasing, name-calling), and behaviors
(isolation, discrimination) directed at themselves or

at others. This includes issues of gender, race,
ethnicity, language, disability, economic class, age,
body shape, and more. These are early lessons in
critical thinking for children, figuring out what they
see and hear and testing it against the notions of
kindness and fairness.

These lessons build on young children’s implicit
interest in what is “fair” and “not fair.”

As children come to identify unfair experiences and
as they learn that unfair can be made fair, children
gain an increased sense of their own power in the
world. Children cannot construct a strong self-
concept, or develop respect for others, if they do not
know how to identify and resist hurtful, stereotypical,
and inaccurate messages or actions directed toward
themselves or others. Developing the ability to think
critically strengthens children’s sense of self, as well as
their capacity to form caring relationships with others.

Goal 4: Activism

› Teachers will cultivate each child’s ability
and confidence to stand up for oneself
and for others in the face of bias.

› Children will demonstrate a sense of
empowerment and the skills to act,
with others or alone, against prejudice
and/or discriminatory actions.

Goal 4 is about giving children tools for learning how
to stand up to hurtful and unfair biased behavior
based on any aspect of social identity. Biased behavior
may be directed at oneself or another. It may come
from another child or adult or from children’s books,
television, and films. This goal strengthens children’s
development in perspective taking, positive interactions
with others, and conflict-resolution education.

Actions of teasing, rejection, and exclusion because
of some aspect of a child’s social identities are a form
of aggressive behavior. They are just as serious as
physical aggression. The old saying “Sticks and stones
may break my bones, but names will never hurt me”
is false. Children’s developing sense of self is hurt by
name-calling, teasing, and exclusion based on identity.
And children who engage in such hurtful behaviors
are learning it is acceptable to hurt others, the earliest
form of bullying. An anti-bias approach calls on

November 2019 Young Children 9

teachers to intervene gently but firmly, support the
child who is the target of the biased behavior, and help
both children learn other ways of interacting.

Children’s growth on Goal 4 strengthens their growth
on the other three goals. If a child is the target of
prejudice or discrimination, she needs tools to resist
and to know that she has worth (Goal 1). When a
child speaks up for another child, it reinforces his
understanding of other people’s unique feelings (Goal
2). When children are helped to act, it broadens their
understanding of “unfairness” and “fairness” (Goal 3).

Guidelines for your curriculum

Just about every subject area in the typical early
childhood program has possibilities for anti-bias
education themes and activities. For instance, early
childhood education themes of self-discovery, family,
and community are deeper, and more meaningful,
when they include explorations of ability, culture,
economic class, gender identity, and racialized
identity. So, too, issues of fairness (Goal 3) and acting
for fairness (Goal 4) arise as children explore various
curriculum topics.

The ideas for specific anti-bias education content and
activities come from three major sources. One is from
children’s questions, interests, or interactions with
each other that classroom teachers see as important to
respond to and develop. Teacher-initiated activities are
a second source of anti-bias activities, based on what
classroom teachers and families think is important for
children to learn. A third source is significant events
that occur in the children’s communities and the
larger world that classroom teachers think need to be
explored with children.

Here is an example of an anti-bias education topic
at snack time.

It is snack time in the 4-year-old room. The
teacher sets a small pitcher of water on the table
for children to pour and drink. Lupe, whose home
language is Spanish, looks up and asks, “Agua?”
Casey, sitting next to her, says with annoyance,
“No! It’s water—not ahhgwa” (exaggerating the
pronunciation). The teacher stops what she is
doing and turns to Casey and says, “Lupe is
right. What you call ‘water’ her family calls ‘agua.’
There are many words for water, for crackers,
for oranges, for everything! We all have words.
We have different words. It’s pretty wonderful!”

At group time, the teacher follows up by
asking children about the different words
they have for people in their family. As the
children call out Grandma, Oma, Pops, Daddy,
Papa, Abuelita, and more, she writes them on
a chart. She assures them that none of the
words are wrong. They are just different. And
they all mean someone who loves them.

Meet anti-bias goals in every
corner of the classroom

The ongoing examination of how people are
simultaneously the same and different provides
children with a conceptual framework for thinking
about the world they live in. For example, children
playing with blocks can learn that although some
children like to build tall towers and some like to
build long, flat structures on the floor, all the children
like to build. Art projects can show enthusiasm
and admiration for blacks and browns along with
all the other wonderful colors of the spectrum. The
common curriculum topic of harvest time can include
respecting and making visible the people who grow,
pick, and transport our food.

Everyday activities offer opportunities for Goals
3 and 4 as well. Arguments over toys can include
discussion of fairness and kindness. Exclusionary
play, stereotypes in books, or teasing are experiences
open to critical thinking about hurtful behavior and
for problem solving toward just solutions.

Differences do not create bias.
Children learn prejudice from
prejudice—not from learning
about human diversity. It is how
people respond to differences
that teaches bias and fear.

10 November 2019Young Children

Use child-initiated and teacher-
initiated activities

Children’s questions, comments, and behaviors
are a vital source of anti-bias curriculum. They
spark teachable moments as well as longer-term
projects. However, it is not sufficient to do anti-bias
activities only when a child brings up a relevant issue.
Teacher-initiated activities are also necessary—be
they intentionally putting out materials and books
to broaden children’s awareness or planning specific
learning experiences around issues that matter to
families and the community.

You do not wait for children to open up the topic
of reading or numbers before making literacy
and numeracy part of the daily early childhood
curriculum. Because you have decided that these
understandings and skills are essential for children,
you provide literacy and numeracy discussions and
activities in your classroom. A balance between
child-initiated and teacher-initiated activities is as
vital in anti-bias education as in any other part of the
early childhood curriculum.

Here’s an example of how a teacher begins with a
children-generated teachable moment and follows
up with teacher-initiated activities:

After a windstorm broke dozens of small
branches off of the trees surrounding their
preschool, several 4- and 5-year-old boys begin
building a “club house” by dragging branches
and bunches of leaves to a corner in the
playground fence. Valeria (4 years old) starts
dragging a branch to join them and the boys
shout, “No girls allowed! No girls allowed!”

The teacher considers encouraging the boys
to welcome their classmate into their play—but
then she hesitates. There are larger societal
issues embedded in this interaction. As an
anti-bias educator, she decides she needs
to address the underlying ideas, especially
that girls can’t or shouldn’t engage in play
that emphasizes physical strength or that
“real boys” don’t include girls in their play.

Deciding to find out what the children are
thinking, the teacher asks, “Why do you think
no girls are allowed?” She listens carefully
to the boys’ responses: “Girls can’t move the

big branches.” “And they can’t build high!”
“We’re going to be superheroes! Girls can’t
be heroes.” And, finally, “We don’t like girls.”
All these statements reflect commonly held
stereotypes about girls. Additionally, she thinks,
not seriously addressing the situation reinforces
the additional stereotype that boys don’t have
to pay attention to the feelings of others.

Seeing an opportunity to expand their thinking,
the teacher suggests testing these claims.
She says, “Well, let’s find out if girls can move
the big branches and build high or not.” Since
many of the children are now gathering around,

Planning Anti-Bias
Education Activities for Your
Program’s Curriculum
An anti-bias education approach is not a recipe. Rather,
teachers include anti-bias issues in their planning by
considering the children and families they serve and the
curriculum approach their program uses. Here are key
questions to ask yourself as you and your colleagues
plan learning activities and environments. Begin by
asking yourself these questions for one or two activities
a week, and see how they change what you do and how
the children respond.

■ Where do I best fit anti-bias goals and issues into
my curriculum plans for the day and the week?

■ Who might be left out of this curriculum?
How will I use the topic to include each child,
connecting to the diversity of their social
identities and to their individual needs? How
can I be sure no one is invisible or unnoticed?

■ What ideas, misconceptions, and
stereotypes might children have about this
topic? How can I learn what these are and
provide accurate information and counter
misinformation and stereotypes?

■ How can I use this topic to support and strengthen
children’s innate sense of justice and their
capacity to change unfair situations to fair ones?

■ What learning materials do I need
to gather to incorporate an anti-bias
perspective into this curriculum topic?

November 2019 Young Children 11

she invites everyone to join in the challenge.
“What do you think is going to happen?” she
asks. With much laughter the children run and
gather branches. Some girls are faster than
some boys, some boys are faster than some
girls. Everyone is able to add branches to the
club house, which is suddenly much higher!

Bringing the children back together, the teacher
says, “It looks like both girls and boys can lift
big branches and build high. Thinking that
boys would be better at these things than girls
was a stereotype.” Several children repeat
the word stereotype (preschoolers love big
words!). Still holding their attention, the teacher
clarifies and gives words to the program’s
values: “Stereotypes are unfair. In our school
we want everyone to be treated fairly. What
can we do so that we can be sure that we play
together fairly?” The next steps are suggested
by the children. One suggestion is a sign that
says “Everyone can play here.” “How about,”
says one of the boys who began this episode,
“how about if we want to play alone, we just
say ‘you can have a turn in a few minutes’?”

Knowing that one interaction is never enough
to help children think in new ways, the teacher
plans and carries out further activities. She adds
to the classroom library books in which female
athletes and firefighters are strong and fast.
At circle time, she reads books in which girls
and boys play together in big muscle games.
She invites a female carpenter in to help the
children build with real tools. And she begins
a curriculum on “Being a hero,” about all the
ways boys and girls can be powerful helpers.

In the next staff meeting, the teacher relates
what she has done and is planning to do, and
why. She asks her colleagues to consider the
frequency of gendered exclusionary play in the
program and they agree to take the important
step of identifying how (explicitly and implicitly)
they may be supporting a binary view of gender
(see Chapter 9 in the forthcoming book) in their
classroom. For example, how often do they call
out “boys and girls” rather than “children”? Do
they ask “strong boys” to help move furniture
and big blocks? Do they comment on girls’
clothing or hair instead of asking about their
interests and accomplishments?

Do they support boys’ tender, sharing, inclusive
behaviors or mainly comment on their noisy,
power-focused play? The teachers agree to
observe each other as well as the children
and see what changes they can make to avoid
the damage that gender stereotypes have on
children’s sense of themselves and of others.

Using a combination of child-initiated, teachable
moments and teacher-initiated, pre-planned activities
is the most effective way to expand children’s ability
to grow in the four anti-bias education goals and to
talk about, think about, and understand the world
around them.

Pay attention to the realities
of children’s lives

While the four core anti-bias education goals are the
same for all children, specific activities should be
relevant to the children’s backgrounds and their lives.
Some children need support to resist messages of
racial or cultural inferiority; others need guidance to
develop a positive self-concept without absorbing social
messages that they are the “normal” ones and other
children are less than, strange, or negatively different.
Children of wealthy families need help resisting the
message that material accumulation defines their

12 November 2019Young Children

worth and that of others; children of families with
fewer resources need support to resist messages that
undercut their families’ worth. Some girls may need
extra support to develop confidence and interest in
experiences that are math and science related; some
boys may require help to develop skills for having
nurturing, cooperative interactions with their peers
and to engage in play that reflects these attitudes.

Closing thoughts

As in all other areas of the curriculum, teachers
tailor and scaffold anti-bias education materials
and activities to each child’s cognitive, social, and
emotional developmental capacities. They plan and
choose learning experiences that stimulate children to
explore the next step of new ideas and skills and allow
each child to apply new understandings and behaviors
in his or her daily life.

Learn more and
get started today!

NAEYC.org/accreditation

Quality—It’s What
We’re All About!
For over 30 years NAEYC’s Early Learning Accreditation
has been the gold standard by which quality
early childhood programs are measured.

Our new streamlined system lets you take control

Online access to
your data

Less paperwork

Assessments
focused around
10 main standards

Customized
support

Take the first step in seeing how Accreditation
can help you increase

Retention

Occupancy
 Profitability

Photographs: © Getty Images

About the authors

Louise Derman-Sparks, MA, has worked with children
and adults in early childhood education for more than 50
years and is a faculty emerita of Pacific Oaks College. She
is coauthor of several books, including Leading Anti-Bias
Early Childhood Programs: A Guide for Change, Anti-Bias
Education for Young Children and Ourselves, and Teaching/
Learning Anti-Racism: A Developmental Approach.

Julie Olsen Edwards, coauthor of Anti-Bias Education
for Young Children and Ourselves, was on the faculty
of Cabrillo College’s early childhood education
department for 45 years. A lifetime activist for children
and families, she continues to write, teach, and
consult on issues of equity, diversity, and anti-bias.

http://www.naeyc.org/accreditation

Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction
prohibited without permission.

Juice Images/SuperStock

Learning Objectives

By the time you reach the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe current demographic trends that are causing an increase in cultural diversity in the United
States.

2. Define the aspects of cultural identity that are important to early childhood teaching, such as race/
ethnicity, language, and socioeconomic status.

3. Explain why poverty is an aspect of cultural diversity.

4. Compare and contrast access to preschool education in the United States and in Europe.

5. Explain the ways that culture is transmitted through language and the unique strengths of dual
language learners (DLLs).

6. Identify types of cultural mismatches for children and early childhood programs.

7. Describe ways to encourage cultural diversity in early childhood education.

Cultural Diversity in Early
Childhood Education 1

Comstock/Thinkstock

CHAPTER 1Section

1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–

Introduction

Imagine yourself walking into a 21st-century early childhood classroom in the United States. A
group of chatty youngsters happily greets you at the door. Some are tall and lean, others are
short and stocky. You squat down so that you are eye to eye with them. The first girl who hugs

you is wearing thick glasses and hearing aids. The children are ethnically diverse—Latino, Black,
Somali, Hmong. Most of them shout, “Good morning!” but a few chime in with “¡Buenos dias!”
You greet each of them in their native language as they run into your arms for hugs. You notice a
boy lingering on the outskirts of the group. He is attentive, but quiet, and he’s not making direct
eye contact with you or the other children. He appears to have something to say, but he can’t
seem to find the words.

Clearly, the children in the classroom represent different cultural backgrounds and have different
levels of English-language skills. This imaginary classroom depicts the wide range of cultural diver-

sity found in today’s early child-
hood education programs. How
can you, as a teacher, best incor-
porate your children’s cultural
experiences and their diverse
language skills into the classroom
learning environment?

This chapter will lay the founda-
tion for early childhood teach-
ers as they prepare to educate
today’s diverse student popula-
tion. First, we will describe the
recent rise in cultural diversity
across the United States, espe-
cially among the preschool and
school age population. Next, we
define the key concepts of culture
and cultural diversity, and discuss

why they are important. Third, we describe the value of language in various cultures, its important
role in teacher-child interactions, and how it affects teachers’ relationships with culturally diverse
children. Lastly, we discuss some ways in which early childhood educators can help prepare this
upcoming generation of culturally diverse children to succeed in school.

1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Before we discuss the rising cultural diversity within the United States, we must understand
the key concepts of culture and cultural identity. Culture consists of the shared beliefs,
values, expectations, rules, or patterns of behavior, goals, and practices that characterize a

group, such as a family, a community, an institution, or an organization. It includes the characteris-
tic features of everyday existence (how people live their lives) shared by people in a place or time.
Culture is evident in how humans do things, and it explains why we want (or feel the need) to do
these things. Cultural heritage and traditions shape children’s communication practices, interests
in instructional activities, and classroom behavior.

Comstock/Getty Images/Thinkstock

Being a culturally competent early education instructor will
allow you to help your diverse students succeed in school.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

We each have a cultural identity that can be defined by various demographic, geographic, reli-
gious, or social indicators, and people can belong to several different cultural groups. For example,
a child may be culturally defined as an Israeli boy from an upper-income Jewish family living in
New York City, or an early childhood teacher might culturally identify with Southern African Ameri-
cans from the Pentecostal Christian denomination. People’s cultural identities not only shape how
they think, feel, and behave, but sometimes these identities also shape how others view them. For
example, some people may have negative opinions about people with a cultural identity of a non-
English-speaking immigrant working in a lower socioeconomic status job, such as a migrant farm
worker. These negative opinions
form the basis for prejudice and
discrimination; we will talk more
about prejudice and discrimina-
tion in Chapter 2.

Because culture is an integral part
of human nature, cultural identity
is an important aspect of chil-
dren’s and families’ lives, and since
the United States is becoming
increasingly diverse, it behooves
educators to learn to appreciate
cultural diversity. An informed
understanding of the differences
(and similarities) between cul-
tures, though, requires an under-
standing of what a culture is and
the acknowledgement that all
human beings are a product of
their culture (Cole, 1992/1998). When teachers recognize how important their own culture is to
themselves, they will be better able to appreciate the diverse cultural backgrounds of their stu-
dents, and they will ultimately be better teachers to their students.

Factors Contributing to Cultural Diversity
According to data from the Children’s Defense Fund (2023), in 2021 there were approximately
74 million children living in the United States, and more than half of them (50.64%) had Hispanic,
Black, Asian, American Indian/Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, or multiracial
backgrounds. The factors behind the recent growth in U.S. cultural diversity include the increases
in immigration rates from non-European countries, in the number of children from non-White
race and ethnic groups, in students who are dual language learners, and in the number of children
living in poverty.

Immigration
The number of children in immigrant families has more than doubled since 1990 (Migration Pol-
icy Institute, 2021). In 2019, the top five countries of origin for immigrants were Mexico, India,
China, the Philippines, and El Salvador (American Immigration Council, 2023). In 2021, 44% of
immigrants described themselves as Hispanic or Latino (Ward & Batalova, 2023). As shown in Fig-
ure 1.1, the number of Hispanic children living in the United States more than tripled from 1980 to

Siri Stafford/Digital Vision/Thinkstock

Increased immigration, particularly among Hispanic groups, is one
factor contributing to the increased diversity of the United States.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

2021 (Children’s Defense Fund, 2023, Table 1). According to the Migration Policy Institute (2021),
25.9% of children have at least one immigrant parent. Almost all of these children (87.9%) were
born in the United States and have at least one parent who was born outside the United States,
which makes them second-generation immigrants, meaning they were born within the United
States and are citizens. On the other hand, first-generation immigrants are people who were born
in another country who migrate to the States, either as adults or as children.

Figure 1.1: Number of Hispanic Children in U.S. in 1980 and 20

As shown in this graph, the number of Hispanic children in the United States has more than tripled since 1980.

Sources: Data from The State of America’s Children Handbook: 2012, by Children’s Defense Fund, 2012, Washington, DC, and The State of America’s
Children® 2023, by Children’s Defense Fund, 2023 (https://www.childrensdefense.org/the-state-of-americas-children/soac-2023-child-population/).

This rise in immigration means that there is a greater chance that more children in early child-
hood programs either have at least one parent not born in the U.S. or they themselves were not
born in the U.S. In Chapter 4, we talk in detail about immigrant families and how to build on these
families’ strengths and challenges when their children are enrolled in early education programs.

Because recent trends in immigration are diversifying our population quickly, we need to look next
at the ways this diversity is defined, such as in terms of race and ethnicity.

Race and Ethnicity
Parents are often asked to identify their child’s race and ethnic category on various forms, such as
the one shown in Figure 1.2. While checking a box on a form does not provide a complete picture
of a child’s or family member’s cultural identity, people are typically affiliated with the racial and
ethnic groups that they choose on such forms. In other words, people choose to indicate these
aspects of their cultural identity because such categories have psychological and social meaning
for them. Otherwise, they would opt to not identify with such categories.

Number of Hispanic Children (in millions)

202119

18.9

https://www.childrensdefense.org/the-state-of-americas-children/soac-2023-child-population/

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Figure 1.2: Questions on Hispanic Origin and Race From the 2020 Census

What does the information requested on this census questionnaire tell us about the U.S. government’s
definitions of race and ethnicity?

Source: Decennial Census of Population and Housing Questionnaires & Instructions, by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021h (https://www.census.gov/programs
-surveys/decennial-census/technical-documentation/questionnaires.2020_Census.html).

NOTE: Please answer BOTH Question 8 about Hispanic origin and
Question 9 about race. For this census, Hispanic origins are not races.

8. Is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?

9. What is Person 1’s race? Mark one or more boxes AND print origins.

No, not of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin

Yes, Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano

Yes, Puerto Rican

Yes, Cuban

Yes, another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin — Print, for example,
Salavadoran, Dominican, Colombian, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Ecuadorian, etc.

White — Print, for example, German, Irish, English, Italian, Lebanese,
Egyptian, etc.

Black or African Am. — Print, for example, African American, Jamaican,
Haitian, Nigerian, Ethiopian, Somali, etc.

American Indian or Alaska Native — Print name of enrolled or prinicpal
tribe(s), for example, Navajo Nation, Blackfeet Tribe, Mayan, Aztec, Native
Village of Barrow Inuplat Traditional Government, Nome Eskimo
Community, etc.

Chinese

Filipino

Asian Indian

Other Asian — Print for
example, Pakistani, Cambodian,
Hmong, etc.

Native Hawaiian

Samoan

Chamorro

Other Pacific Islander — Print,
for example, Tongan, Fijian,
Marshallese, etc.

Vietnamese

Korean

Japanese

Some other race — Print race or origin.

https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/technical-documentation/questionnaires.2020_Census.html

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

As anyone who has filled out such a form might know, there is always a limited number of options
for race and ethnicity. The United States Census Bureau, for example, which is responsible for col-
lecting and reporting demographic data about the nation’s population, has defined the most prev-
alent race and ethnic categories. Figure 1.2 shows the options presented for Hispanic origin and
race during the 2020 census. First, people are asked to indicate their ethnicity; ethnicity is defined
as having a shared nationality, language, religion, or sociopolitical history (e.g. a group’s exposure
to conquest, slavery, or segregation). In other words, ethnicity is a broad cultural identifier that
could describe multiple groups. Yet, the only choices for ethnic categories on the U.S. census are
Hispanic versus Non-Hispanic; people of Hispanic origin can be from any racial background, and
Hispanic origin refers to a heritage, nationality, or ancestral lineage.

The census also asks respondents to indicate their race; race is defined as a shared ancestral
heritage that distinguishes groups of people based on physical characteristics that were once mis-
takenly believed to be genetic or biological. On the census form, the specified racial categories
include White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Chinese, Filipino,
Asian Indian, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, Native Hawaiian, Samoan, Chamorro, Other Asian,
Other Pacific Islander, or Some Other Race. When U.S. Census Bureau analysts combine these
ethnic and race categories for cross-tabulation, they result in the following:

• Hispanic or Latino
• White alone non-Hispanic
• Black or African American alone non-Hispanic
• American Indian and Alaska Native alone non-Hispanic
• Asian alone non-Hispanic
• Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone non-Hispanic
• Some Other Race alone non-Hispanic
• Multiracial non-Hispanic (Jensen et al., 2021)

Despite the fact that the census describes its categories of people as “racial” groups, it is impor-
tant to understand that these categories of people also represent “ethnic” groups.

The definitions of race in the United States have frequently and dramatically changed since the first
census in 1790, based on public policies or population trends at different time periods, such as the
legalization of slavery, the granting of citizenship rights, or the influx of new immigrants (Brown,
2020). Such changes in the way society defines race were never—and still are not—based on biol-
ogy. The Spotlight on Research feature, “Scientists Were Wrong About Race,” explains how for
centuries, scientists drew inaccurate conclusions about the nature of race. Categorizing people
according to racial groups has no basis in biological science, because all people are the same at
the genetic level. Race is more accurately defined as a social construct that was created, and has
been manipulated, over time in order to shape public will and deny certain groups of people rights.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Spotlight on Research: “Scientists Were Wrong About Race”
The modern concept of race was developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. At the time, scientists
categorized humans into three main racial groups: Caucasoid (White), Negroid (Black), and Mongoloid
(Asian). During that time, scientists did not understand genetic or evolutionary biology; they wrongly
believed that groups of human beings who had different physical characteristics had different genes
and descended from different evolutionary ancestors.

Thanks to advances in technology that have allowed us to examine the human genetic code, we now
know that all people are genetically similar, no matter how different their physical appearance (Caesar
& Williams, 2002). In fact, if you compare the DNA of people from each of the “racial” groups, you will
find that they share over 99% of their genes (Jorde & Wooding, 2004). In addition, because of break-
throughs in evolutionary science, we now know that all human beings are descendants of the same
female ancestor from central Africa (Wilson & Cann, 1992).

If you want to learn more about how all humans share a common ancestor and are similar genetically,
go to the PBS website, “Race: The Power of an Illusion.”

Now that you have been introduced to the social and political history of race, you can more clearly
see how race and even ethnicity are social constructs; the definitions of these words are based
on the political battles and immigration trends at a given time. You can also understand why
people may choose to define themselves using multiple terms across the various aspects of their
cultural identities.

In this book, whenever possible, we will describe groups according to their ethnicity because,
compared to race, ethnicity speaks more to one’s cultural identity. Because ethnicity includes
shared nationality, language, religion, and sociopolitical history, people can be described more
specifically and across multiple aspects of their identity. Therefore, we might use specific terms
such as Panamanian or Jamaican to describe children and families, rather than simply Latino or
Black, respectively.

There are times, however, when there is a need to describe larger pan-ethnic groups that combine
subgroups sharing a similar ancestral heritage, language, religion, or sociopolitical history, regard-
less of their nationality. In these cases, we will use terms such as White (e.g., people of European,
North African, or Middle Eastern descent, regardless of country of origin), Black (e.g., people of
African descent, regardless of country of origin), Asian (e.g., people of East Asian, South Asian, and
Polynesian descent), and Native American (e.g., people whose ancestors originated in precolonial
United States).

Dual Language Learners
Given the diversity of immigrants of different nationalities, it should not be surprising that 21.7%
of the United States population speaks a language other than English at home (U.S. Census Bureau,
n.d.). The children within this population are referred to as dual language learners (DLLs)—children
who are acquiring two or more languages at the same time. The term DLL can encompass other
terms frequently used to describe students, such as Limited English Proficient (LEP), bilingual, and
English language learner (ELL).

http://www.pbs.org/race/000_General/000_00-Home.htm

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

When working with DLLs, teachers have to remember that not all DLL families share the same
experiences, national customs, or even dialect. There are variations in the home languages that
families speak, the ages when children were first exposed to English, their fluencies in English and
their other languages, and the degrees of the families’ linguistic isolation (Espinosa, 2010).

In addition, there is wide variety across racial and ethnic groups in the percentage of the popu-
lation that speaks a language other than English at home. Figure 1.3 shows that the majority of
Asian and Hispanic people speak another language at home besides English, as do many American
Indians and Pacific Islanders. Whites and Blacks are the least likely to speak another language
besides English at home.

Figure 1.3: Percentage of the Population Speaking Another Language at Home

What does this graph show you about the cultural makeup of the United States?

Source: Data for Hispanic or Latino from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Hispanic or
Latino) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021d (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B160
05I?q=B16005i&y=2021). Data for White alone, not Hispanic or Latino from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the
Population 5 years and Over (White Alone, Not Hispanic or Latino) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau,
2021f (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005H?q=B16005h&y=2021). Data for Black or African American alone from Nativity by Language
Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Black or African American Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community
Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021c (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005B?q=B16005b&y=2021). Data for American
Indian and Alaska Native alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (American Indian
or Alaska Native Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021a (https://data.census.gov/table/ACS
DT1Y2021.B16005C?q=B16005c&y=2021). Data for Asian alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population
5 years and Over (Asian Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021b (https://data.census.gov
/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005D?q=B16005d&y=2021). Data for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home
by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community
Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021e (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005E?q=B16005e&y=2021).

These differences across the racial and ethnic groups can illustrate why Spanish is the second
most widely spoken language in the United States, and Chinese is the third (Dietrich & Hernandez,

P
er

ce
n

Hispanic or
Latino

Black or
African

American

alone

White
alone

American
Indian and

Alaska Native
alone

68.2

41.9

9.5
5.

Asian
alone

72.0

Native
Hawaiian
and Other

Pacific Islander

40.0

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005I?q=B16005i&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005H?q=B16005h&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005B?q=B16005b&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005C?q=B16005c&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005D?q=B16005d&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005E?q=B16005e&y=2021

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

2022b). The most commonly spoken Native American language is Navajo, followed by Yupik,
Dakota, Apache, Keres, Cherokee, and Choctaw (Siebens & Julian, 2011). Some Native Hawaiians
also speak Hawaiian, the official language of the state of Hawaii, along with English.

The U.S. census information about languages spoken at home only captures a fraction of the
nation’s language diversity because it does not include those families and children who speak a
creole language. Creole languages (also referred to as pidgin languages or dialects) are formed
by blending aspects of two or more languages; this blending most often arises when two or more
groups of people are forced into contact with each other through colonization and conquest. For
example, Haitian Creole is primarily based on 18th-century French and various African languages,
as well as some English, Arabic, Portuguese, and Spanish. Creoles tend to be different in phonol-
ogy, semantics, and syntax (e.g., verb tense and word order) from their parent languages. Creoles
that U.S. teachers are most likely to encounter are Hawaiian Pidgin (Rivera et al. 2002), Haitian
Creole (see Terrell & Jackson, 2002), and Jamaican Patois (Best, Tyler, Gooding, Orlando, & Quann,
2009; Washington, 2012); in addition, African American children might speak African American
English Vernacular (AAEV) (Bailey, Baugh, Mufwene, & Rickford, 2013; Craig, Zhang, Hensel,
& Quinn, 2009).

Worldwide, people often mistakenly judge creoles, dialects, or pidgins as the languages of the
uneducated and the poor, and children who come to school speaking such languages are often
told to “speak properly” rather than being given systematic, intentional language instruction that
might help them transition more easily from creole to the standard language. However, culturally
diverse children, especially Black children (Bland-Stewart, Elie, & Townsend, 2013), can benefit
from modified instruction to accommodate their creole dialect differences that is similar to modi-
fied instruction for children who speak another language (Boutte & Johnson, 2013). For example,
teachers might read stories in which the characters use dialect, and then have a conversation
about how people speak differently depending on the situation they are in and the person to
whom they are talking.

Poverty Status
While somewhat controversial, economic status is another factor by which our society is becom-
ing more diverse. In 2021, one in seven children were poor, with children under age 5 more likely
to live in poverty than older children (Children’s Defense Fund, 2023). Early childhood teachers are
likely to have some children in their classrooms who are living in poverty. They need to be aware
of the specific financial needs of these children and their parents, such as the need for affordable
housing in a safe neighborhood, and they need to understand how to work with the parents in a
nonjudgmental and supportive way.

The U.S. Poverty Threshold

What exactly is meant by poverty status, and how does living at or below the poverty threshold
affect the early education care children receive? To answer the first part of the question, the U.S.
poverty guidelines are defined by the federal government and adjusted yearly. Table 1.1 shows
the poverty guidelines for 2023 based on family size. As you can see, the poverty threshold for a
mother and her child is $19,720 per year (amounting to a wage of about $9.86 per hour), which
means that in order to qualify for public policy programs geared toward families, a mother would
have to be making no more than $19,720 per year. These eligibility requirements are exact, mean-
ing families making only a few more dollars can be excluded from early education services.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Table 1.1: Poverty Guidelines for 2023

Family Size 48 Contiguous States and District of Columbia

1 $14,580

2 $19,720

3 $24,860

4 $30,000

The poverty guidelines are higher for Hawaii and Alaska.

Source: Data from HHS Poverty Guidelines for 2023, by U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2023 (https://aspe.hhs.gov/
topics/poverty-economic-mobility/poverty-guidelines).

Research has shown that children living in urban and some rural areas are more likely to live in
communities with concentrated poverty—poverty rates greater than 30%—than are children in
the suburbs (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2019). The communities that have high concen-
trations of children living in poverty also have a high concentration of immigrant children and
U.S.-born minority children. This overlap indicates a strong connection between poverty, race and
ethnicity, and immigrant status (Kids Count, 2012). Figure 1.4 shows the percentage of children
living in high-poverty communities by race/ethnicity.

Figure 1.4: Percentage of Children Living in High-Poverty Communities

How might living in poverty affect children’s learning? What additional factors might come into play for children
also living in a high-poverty community?

Source: Data from Children Living in High-Poverty Areas by Race and Ethnicity in United States (Population Reference Bureau analysis of data from the U.S.
Census Bureau, 2006–2010 to 2017–2021 American Community Survey 5-year data), The Annie E. Casey Foundation, January 2023 (https://datacenter.aecf
.org/data/tables/7753-children-living-in-high-poverty-areas-by-race-and-ethnicity?loc=1&loct=1#detailed/1/any/false/2454/10,11,9,12,1,185,13/14943,14942).

Total

Two or
More Races

Non-Hispanic
White

Black or
African

American

Hispanic
or Latino

American
Indian

Asian and
Pacific Islander

P
er

ce
n

Children Living In High-poverty Communities

https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/poverty-economic-mobility/poverty-guidelines

https://datacenter.aecf.org/data/tables/7753-children-living-in-high-poverty-areas-by-race-and-ethnicity?loc=1&loct=1#detailed/1/any/false/2454/10,11,9,12,1,185,13/14943,14942

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Children Living in Poverty Need Early Education

Living in poverty can disrupt children’s growth and learning. Aber, Morris, and Raver (2012) explain
that poverty is linked to health, academic, and social-emotional problems for children. Children
who live in poverty often live in inferior housing conditions—for example, homes that have inad-
equate heating and cooling or that are near environmental pollutants like toxic waste dumps,
congested highways, or airports—which can cause health problems like asthma and untreated
allergies. In turn, these health problems cause them to miss more school. Families living in com-
munities with concentrated poverty are also more likely to have difficulty paying for food, housing,
and health care.

Children who live in concentrated poverty are more likely to attend lower-quality schools, have
fewer resources, and less experienced teachers (Kieffer, 2008; Burdick-Will, Ludwig, Rauden-
bush, Sampson, Sanbonmatsu, & Sharkey, 2010). These school-level differences contribute to the
achievement gap. Lastly, concentrated poverty is associated with high levels of chronic stress that
lead to behavioral and emotional problems (Turner & Kaye, 2006).

Teachers must consider all these factors in combination when teaching children and working with
their families. One early childhood program that has worked for decades to offset the problems
that children and families in poverty face is Head Start.

Head Start: An Early Education Program Designed
to Serve Children in Poverty

In his State of the Union speech in January of 1964,
President Lyndon B. Johnson launched the War on
Poverty. One of its components was a comprehen-
sive child development program that would help
communities meet the emotional, social, health,
nutritional, and psychological needs of disadvan-
taged preschool children. Head Start began in 1965
as an eight-week summer program. Since then, it
has provided services to more than 30 million chil-
dren, from birth to age 5, and their families (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.).

Head Start was most recently reauthorized in 2007
with several provisions to strengthen its quality,
including alignment of Head Start school readiness
goals with state early learning standards; higher
qualifications for the Head Start teaching workforce;
State Advisory Councils on Early Care and Educa-
tion in every state; increased program monitoring,
including a review of child outcomes and annual
financial audits; and a shift from indefinite project
periods to five-year grant cycles, within which pro-
grams are required to demonstrate that they are of
high quality to avoid a competitive grant opportu-
nity being made available within the community.

Sam Myers/Associated Press

Head Start was one of the first federal early
childhood education programs created to
assist in the education of disadvantaged
children.

CHAPTER 1Section

1.2 Global Access to Early Childhood Education

Head Start has a history of embracing ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity in the communities
in which it operates. A key tenet of the program is to be culturally responsive to the communities
and families served through local governance, such as family policy councils. To formalize its com-
mitment to diversity, Head Start developed the Multicultural Principles for Head Start Programs in
1992 and incorporated it into their Program Performance Standards in 1996. The four elements of
Head Start’s overall philosophy in multilingual and multicultural programming are

1. building trusting relationships,
2. being sensitive to cultural preferences of families,
3. building bridges between cultures for both children and adults, and
4. acknowledging that staff and parents are in a true partnership.

Head Start has helped shepherd new programs by bringing attention to the importance of early
education for children, especially children living in poverty. Head Start and similar programs have
helped set the standard for quality while accommodating the cultural and linguistic diversity of
children and families.

1.2 Global Access to Early Childhood Education

Globalization is the merging of worldviews and consumer products due to modern
advances in transportation and telecommunications (like cell phones, the internet,
and wireless technologies). One consequence of globalization is the sharing of values

around the globe. One such value that seems to be spreading rapidly is the belief in the impor-
tance of early childhood education (ECE). There is
consensus worldwide that early childhood educa-
tion represents a promising strategy to mitigate
the long-range effects of poverty and parents’ lim-
ited education.

The mission of the international Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is
to promote policies that will improve the economic
and social well-being of people around the world by
sharing information and policy suggestions with its
34 member countries. In its Education at a Glance
2022 report (OECD, 2022), the OECD described an
8% increase in early childhood education enroll-
ment from 2005 to 2020. Among OECD countries,
83% of children ages 3–5 are now enrolled in early
childhood education programs; an additional 4%
are enrolled in primary education institutions.

International results of early childhood education
appear quite hopeful, indeed. Data from 2015 and
2018 from the Programme for International Student
Assessment (PISA) indicated that 15-year-olds who
attended early childhood education outperformed

Fuse/Thinkstock

Numerous statistics show that early
childhood education improves children’s
school performance.

CHAPTER 1Section

1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

their peers who did not attend, even after considering differences in students’ socioeconomic
backgrounds (Del Boca et al., 2022). Early childhood education has an even stronger effect on the
performance of 15-year-olds who attended preschool for longer periods of time, were in class-
rooms with smaller pupil-to-teacher ratios, and lived in countries that invest more in per-pupil
funding (OECD, 2017).

Because the OECD provides comparative information with other countries, we in the United States
can get a sense of how we are competing globally when it comes to early childhood education.
Unfortunately, in comparison with 46 other countries, the United States ranks near the bottom—
at 42—in enrollment rates for 3- to 5-year-olds in early childhood or primary education (OECD,
2023, Chart PF3.2.E). Only 66% of children in the United States attend preschool, whereas the
OECD combined country average is 87.1%. In fact, in some countries, such as France, the United
Kingdom, Ireland, Israel, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Norway, and Iceland, the enrollment rate
exceeds 95%.

Clearly, efforts must be made within the United States to improve young children’s access to early
childhood education programs if we want to stay competitive with other countries in long-term
education goals. Increasing access to early childhood education for children in the U.S. has impli-
cations for the ECE workforce and the value placed on early childhood, with potential implications
for wages and benefits for ECE teachers.

1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Humans pass down their culture from generation to generation using artifacts (objects
or tools) such as books, musical instruments, houses, and weapons. However, artifacts
can also be intangible tools, such as spoken and written language, laws, religion, and

rites of passage. The family is an important vehicle of cultural transmission. Culture is evident in
outwardly observable things like the foods we eat, the holidays we celebrate, the way we dress,
and the art we create. It is also apparent in the way we tell stories and express our feelings, in our
beliefs about how to care for children and how families should operate, and even in our spiritual
beliefs about God, nature, and life after death.

The Cultural-Context Framework
Cole (1992/1998) has proposed a cultural-context framework for interpreting child development
that can be applied specifically to language and cognitive development. Cole’s framework takes
into consideration children’s individual differences (e.g., their biological features, personality, and
natural-born curiosity level) and their environmental experiences (e.g., participation in educa-
tional programs and the quality of such programs), which are the two factors research scholars
commonly consider when investigating children’s educational outcomes. Cole also considers chil-
dren’s cultural experiences (e.g., their family and community traditions).

Cole’s framework is unique in that he believes educational outcomes are the result of children’s
individual differences and the quality of their educational experience being funneled through
their cultural experiences, a process researchers refer to as mediation. Figure 1.5 compares the
manner in which education outcomes are typically viewed and how they are viewed within the

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

cultural-context framework. In the cultural-context framework, not only are children’s individual
differences and their education environments interacting, as they do in the typical model, but
these two factors are also processed through children’s cultural experiences. What this means is
that children’s cultural experiences are central to any interpretation of children’s education out-
comes. For example, when a child is asked to retell a story that a teacher has read in class, he will
likely retell it using the vocabulary, grammar, and narrative style of storytelling that is typical of his
culture (Curenton, 2006).

Figure 1.5: Typical View of Education Outcomes versus the Cultural-Context
Framework View of Education Outcomes

The cultural-context framework takes the children’s culture into account as a major contributing factor to how
they learn.

Source: Based on Cole, M. (1991). Culture in development. In M. Lamb & M. Bornstein (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced text. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum. Reprinted in Cultural worlds of early childhood. M. Woodhead, D. Faulkner, & K. Littleton (Eds.) (1998). New York: Routledge. pp. 11–33.

Children’s
Individual

Differences

Quality of
Their Education

Environment

Education
Outcomes

Children’s
Individual

Differences

Children’s
Cultural

Experiences

Quality of
Their Education

Environment

Education
Outcomes

Typical View of How Education Outcomes Are Achieved

View of How Education Outcomes Are Achieved
Considering the Cultural-Context Framework

+ =

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

The cultural-context position is very similar to Rogoff’s (1993) sociocultural theory on cognitive
development, which states that individuals learn to solve problems within the context of cultural
activities facilitated by more experienced and knowledgeable peers and adults. The sociocul-
tural perspective acknowledges that children bring certain personal strengths and challenges to
teaching interactions, such as voluntary attention, memory, and cognitive capacities, and these
strengths and challenges provide the foundation for the education interaction because they can
be influential in sustaining the interaction.

For example, teachers are more likely to spend more time talking to and teaching a child who is
engaged in the lesson, who has the language skills to answer questions, and who asks additional
questions. In fact, language, both conversations and literature, is the primary way teachers share
cultural traditions and ideas with their students. The most important and efficient way in which
humans have transmitted cultural traditions from generation to generation is through language.
Therefore, we will spend time explaining how language is used as a cultural tool.

Language as a Cultural Tool
Language and culture are interconnected. Language is a cultural tool that children must mas-
ter in order to function in society, and language is different from other cultural tools because it

has the ability to create and tran-
scend reality (Bruner, 1993). Oral
language is the socially shared,
culturally constructed, and rule-
governed system of spoken com-
munication that consists of recep-
tive language skills (i.e., the ability
to understand what has been said,
or listening skills) and expressive
language skills (i.e., the ability to
use speech to convey meaning, or
speaking skills). Written language
is typically expressed through text
that can be read or written; the
abilities to decode, transcribe,
and comprehend written text are
literacy skills.

Oral language is the bridge to writ-
ten language. According to one

researcher, the most powerful preschool classroom predictor of children’s later literacy skills is
teacher instruction strategies that support extended conversation (Dickinson, 2006). A large-scale
study using a socioeconomically and ethnically diverse sample suggested children’s oral language
skills at 3 years of age form the basis for their emergent literacy skills at 4 1/2 years of age and for
their actual reading ability at first grade (National Institute of Child Health and Human Develop-
ment [NICHD], 2005). Subsequent studies have provided additional evidence of the relationship
between early oral language skills and literacy in elementary school (Ecalle et al., 2023; Hulme
et al., 2015; van Viersen et al., 2018). Strong oral language in the preschool years is a significant
contributor to children’s emergent literacy, later reading, and academic outcomes.

Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Thinkstock

How does your use of language affect your day-to-day
communication? How might you take children’s unique or
varying language skills into account as you interact with them?

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Conversely, weak oral language skills elevate children’s risks for later reading difficulties (Catts
et al., 2002). Therefore, oral language skills, along with the well-researched code-based emer-
gent literacy skills (e.g., letter recognition and phonological awareness), can be seen as a critical
developmental domain associated with preschoolers’ emergent literacy (NICHD, 2005; Storch &
Whitehurst, 2002). See Figure 1.6 for specific oral language skills that overlap with literacy skills.

Figure 1.6: Relationship between Oral Language and Literacy Skills

Understanding the relationship between language and literacy is critical for an early childhood education
teacher who has students who speak multiple languages.

Source: Curenton, S. M. (2013, October). Instructional Conversations in Early Childhood Classrooms: Policy Suggestions for Standards and Professional
Development. Paper presented at Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Language and Literacy Development for DLLs
From birth, children learn language through interactions with their family and community mem-
bers. Through these interactions, they learn not only linguistic code (e.g., Spanish or English or
Chinese) but also the pragmatic rules of communication (i.e., how to adjust their language based
on the speaker’s knowledge and how to ask questions). When working with culturally diverse stu-
dents who are DLLs, additional aspects of language and literacy need to be considered (Table 1.2).
For DLLs, it is critical that parents and other adults, including teachers, continue to provide rich
interactions in children’s home language because it builds a strong foundation that will advance
children’s ability to learn the second language.

Auditory Memory

Interactive Listening

Peer Conversations

Oral Presentations

Alphabet Knowledge

Print Awareness

Phonemic Awareness

Vocabulary

Grammar

Listening
Comprehension

Inferential
Reasoning

Oral Language Literacy

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Table 1.2: Classroom Strategies: Language and Literacy for DLL Children

Building DLL Children’s Language Skills

Strategy Rationale Examples

Provide explicit, systematic
instruction in vocabulary

Children require multiple
exposures to words in order to
develop a rich understanding
of their meanings and different
ways to use them.

• Present vocabulary words
in a thematic way, using
themes such as soap or
clothing

• Read-alouds that include
explanations of targeted
vocabulary

• Dramatic play organized
around carefully chosen
themes

Ensure that DLLs have ample
opportunities to talk with
both adults and peers and
provide ongoing feedback and
encouragement

DLLs need lots of opportunities
to engage in social interactions
with other children, but they
also need support from adults
as they develop the language
skills they need to negotiate
those interactions.

• Pair DLL children with
children who have strong
English language skills,
and don’t group together
children who speak the
same home language

• Provide opportunities for
self-directed activities
so that DLLs can choose
activities that match both
their interests and their
language abilities

• Encourage children to
talk by providing prompts
when they need help
expressing themselves
(e.g., “Ask Tia, ‘May I
please play with the bike
now?’”)

• Use open-ended questions
and find ways to extend
conversation with DLLs
(e.g., “Why do you like
playing with this toy?”)

Expose DLLs to rich language
input

Exposure to rich language, such
as through book reading or
through teacher talk, enhances
children’s oral language
development.

• Provide ongoing dialogue
on activities taking place
in the classroom (e.g.,
discuss every step when
transitioning from one
activity to another)

• Select books that have rich
language and connect to
children’s home language
and lives

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Building DLL Children’s Language Skills

Strategy Rationale Examples

Structure the classroom
space and routine to provide
scaffolding for DLLs’ language
learning

Routine and structure of the
classroom will help DLLs know
what they are to do and how
they are allowed to behave.
It will also expose them to a
consistent language about
specific things so they can
connect words to activities.

• Arrange the classroom
to support each type of
instructional activity (e.g.,
middle of the room is for
whole group activities,
corners of the room are for
self-directed activities)

Encourage continued
development in the home
language

Children who have strong
language skills in their home
language are likely to develop
strong language skills in their
new language.

• Encourage parents to talk
and read to their children
in their home language
as a way of strengthening
children’s home language
skills

• Incorporate children’s
home language in the
classroom through books,
songs, and videos as much
as possible

Building DLL Children’s Literacy Skills

Strategy Rationale Examples

Design instruction that focuses
on all of the foundational
literacy skills

Some of the key foundation
skills that children need to
know to be prepared for
kindergarten include alphabet
knowledge, phonological
awareness (e.g., recognizing
rhyming words, recognizing
beginnings of words, matching
sounds to letters), and print
awareness (e.g., recognizing
parts of books, knowing
direction of words is from
left to right). It is critical for
children to understand the
relationship between spoken
language and oral language.

• Interactive storybook
reading

• “Pretend” reading and
writing

• Games and other activities
to help children identify
the letters of the alphabet

• Interactive experiences
with language and print
through poems, nursery
rhymes, and songs

Table 1.2: Classroom Strategies: Language and Literacy for DLL Children (continued)

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Building DLL Children’s Literacy Skills

Strategy Rationale Examples

Recognize that many literacy
skills can transfer across
languages

A child with strong literacy
skills in their home language
will find it easier to develop
these same skills in English.

• Parents and teachers
proficient in the child’s
home language can use
the home language to
teach rhymes and songs,
play word games, share
storybooks, and tell stories

• Teachers can send books
home with the child in
the child’s home language
to encourage families to
continue use of the home
language

Accelerate English literacy
development by helping DLLs
make the connection between
what they know in their first
language and what they need
to know in English

Similarities between English
and the child’s home language
can be used as a foundation for
instruction because they are
sounds and words children are
familiar with. Children usually
have the most difficulty when
they encounter sounds that are
present in English but do not
occur in their home language,
such as the vowels a, e, i, and u
and the consonants j, r, v, and
z, which are not common in
Spanish.

• Start with sounds and
words that are similar
in English and the home
language

• For words more difficult
for children whose first
language is not English,
find ways to connect them
to their home language

Source: Adapted from Ford, K. (2010). 8 strategies for preschool ELLs’ language and literacy development. © WETA. www.ldonline.com

Pragmatic Language Skills: Code Switching, Language Mixing,
and Answering Questions
Pragmatic skills allow speakers to change their speech based on the situation or the conversa-
tion partner. It is typical for all speakers to adapt their speech to the specific social situations
in which they find themselves. For example, we speak differently to children than we do to our
bosses, and differently at parties than at city council meetings. However, when a speaker switches
to another language or dialect, then that person is using the pragmatic skill of code-switching.
Code-switching is the act of adapting the language or dialect that one uses in order to reflect the
situation or language traditions of the conversation partners. Code-switching is used by children
who speak more than one language or dialect, and it shows they are socially and linguistically
adaptive. Understanding code-switching and other pragmatic skills is especially important when
teaching DLLs.

Table 1.2: Classroom Strategies: Language and Literacy for DLL Children (continued)

www.ldonline.com

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Language mixing is another pragmatic skill common among DLL children. Language mixing means
inserting single items from one language into the other. Espinosa (2010, p. 71) shares an example
of language mixing when a Spanish-speaking child complains, “He is pegging me.” In this example,
the child does not know the English verb to hit, so he substitutes the Spanish verb of pegar, which
means to hit, and then he conjugates it using English grammatical rules (by adding the –ing to the
verb).

When a young child is language mixing, there are several ways in which a teacher can scaffold the
child’s developing language skills. First, if the teacher is bilingual herself and understands what
the child is attempting to say, she can model the language for him in both English and Spanish
by saying, “He’s hitting you? In English, we say ‘He is hitting me’ and in Spanish we say ‘Me está
pegando.’ You tell him, ‘Please don’t hit me.’”

If the teacher is monolingual, it will take more effort for her to figure out what the child is trying
to say. She will have to rely on cues from the environment and what she sees going on between
the children, and then she can ask, “Is he hitting you?” and in this way provide the English word
that the child does not know. Then the monolingual teacher should still continue to add, “You tell
him, ‘Please don’t hit me.’” It is important for her to model this phrase because it teaches the child
language skills that can help him solve social problems.

As you can see from this example, DLLs receive more complex language interactions when they
are interacting with bilingual teachers because these teachers are able to code-switch along
with the child and because they are explicitly able to talk about vocabulary and grammar cus-
toms in both languages. Whether monolingual or bilingual, all teachers must seize the oppor-
tunity to attempt to decipher what the child means and to give him the English language skills
to express himself.

Code-switching and language-
mixing do not mean that chil-
dren do not know the difference
between the two languages. On
the contrary, they are indications
that children are becoming more
sophisticated in their language
understanding or language iden-
tity. For example, code-switching
shows that children understand
that they must adapt their speech
to meet the needs of the listener,
which is both a language and
a social-perspective-taking mile-
stone. Eventually, many bilin-
gual children will learn how to
use language mixing intention-
ally for dramatic emphasis when

Monkey Business/Thinkstock

As an instructor of students with diverse cultural backgrounds,
it is important to understand your students’ cultural differences
and become literate in how best to interact with them.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

speaking or writing. For example, Sandra Cisneros, the well-known Latina author who wrote the
House on Mango Street, uses language mixing to emphasize her characters’ cultural and language
heritage.

A third important pragmatic skill is recognizing social expectations about answering questions.
This skill is important for DLL children, as well as other cultural minorities. For example, some
ethnic minority children are socialized to be quiet when communicating with adults (Hwa-Froelich
& Vigil, 2004); therefore, these children may not seem very talkative around adults. Children from
Asian cultures may be unaccustomed to interacting with adults on a one-on-one basis because
they directly communicate more often with other children than with adults (Cheng, 2002).

As another example, some Native American children may have particular problems with the
abrupt question-answer format and timed responses of standardized testing (Robinson-Zanartu,
1996). Similarly, some African American children may have difficulty with the question-answer
format because in their cultural tradition adults do not ask children questions to things that they
already know the answer to, or what Heath (1983) referred to as test questions, such as “What
word rhymes with tree?”

Building a Strong Foundation in the Home Language
Children who are provided with the opportunity to develop foundational skills in preschool such
as language, problem solving, and social skills are likely to enter kindergarten ready to learn and
follow direction (Ballantyne, Sanderman, & McLaughlin, 2008; NICHD, 2002; Ramey & Ramey,
2004). In order for DLL children to develop these foundational skills, the home language is a
critical vehicle. The home language is the first language that children hear and learn, and, as a
result, it is how they make meaning of the world and develop their knowledge. It is, thus, para-
mount that teachers and families of DLLs respect and support children’s continued use of their
home language, especially as they
learn a new language and develop
their skills.

Research shows that children learn
best in their second language
through instruction in their home
language (Cummins, 1991; Paez
& Rinaldi, 2006; Proctor, August,
Carlo, & Snow, 2006). According to
a Teachers of English to Speakers
of Other Languages (TESOL) (2010)
Position Paper on Language and
Literacy Development for Young
English Language Learners, lan-
guage and literacy knowledge in
one language serves as the founda-
tion for the new language, and the
use of the home language in the

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

As a teacher, you must be aware that students’ home language
plays a very important part in their educational and personal
development.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

classroom. Moreover, use of the native language builds a connection between the home and school.
Therefore, teachers should encourage families to talk and read with children in their home language.
If parents do not have the literacy skills in their home language because of limited formal education,
they should be encouraged to strengthen their skills through courses and support from agencies that
support home language.

DLLs often need specific and explicit instruction in English vocabulary and need opportunities to
hear and use the language throughout the day. Teachers of young DLLs need to seek ways to build
children’s vocabulary in the first and second language. This means that while parents continue to
build children’s vocabulary and language in the home language, teachers should seek opportuni-
ties to build children’s language and vocabulary in the second language.

At home, DLL children should be exposed to rich language interactions through various meth-
ods, including talking, reading, and singing. At school, teachers can seek ways to use children’s
home language during classroom activities, such as through books and songs, but also seek ways
to build children’s second language by providing opportunities for DLL children to interact with
adults and peers through reading, writing, and speaking. Table 1.2 provides suggestions of activi-
ties to develop DLL children’s language and literacy skills.

1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the
School Environment

The main goal of early childhood programs, according to the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC), is to support children’s development and learning.
Other goals include fostering children’s school readiness, which is based on a mastery of

age-appropriate skills across a combination of several developmental domains, such as academic,
social-emotional, and health.

By the time children enter preschool, they have a wealth of knowledge about, and are profi-
cient in, their home language traditions and cultures. For children from ethnic minority and lan-
guage minority backgrounds, however, their family traditions and experiences are often different
from the traditions accepted in the typical classroom within the United States. Early education
teachers face special challenges when promoting school readiness among diverse student popu-
lations because some traditional K–12 school systems ignore or denigrate the cultural heritage
and diverse skills that ethnic and language minority children bring into the classroom. So early
childhood educators must contend with the challenge of preparing these children for the tradi-
tional K–12 school environment. Teachers must master the balancing act of actively encouraging
cultural diversity within the classroom while at the same time helping students become familiar
with—and comfortable—interacting in the culture of the school system.

Going Beyond Middle-Class, European-American
Cultural Traditions
Anglo-American Protestant traditions shape how the U.S. education system operates and how
teachers are taught to teach (Spring, 2010). Such traditions emphasize individualism and indepen-
dence, and scientific inquiry that takes the form of a linear and logical approach to problem-solving

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Design an Activity: Challenging Cultural Metaphors
You may be familiar with the metaphor of the United States as a “melting pot,” in which ethnic groups
are supposed to assimilate and blend together, thereby losing their distinct “flavor” and becoming part
of the larger society. The melting pot idea can be traced back to 1782, when J. Hector de Crevecoeur,
a French settler in New York, envisioned the United States not only as the land of opportunity but as a
society where individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men (Parrillo, 1997). However, in
recent decades, the melting pot metaphor has been recognized as ignoring non-European immigrants,
who have always had a harder time mixing in.

Multicultural education replaced the “melting pot” metaphor with the “salad bowl” metaphor, in which
ethnic groups represent “flavors” that are tossed into the salad. In this metaphor, every group main-
tains their distinct flavor. The tossed salad allows ethnic groups to maintain their cultural identities.

You can use this metaphor in your classroom for a cooking activity. Inform the children’s families that
the class is going to make a salad and that you would like each family to suggest one ingredient that
represents the family’s cultural traditions or history. Ask the family to provide a picture of the ingredi-
ent and to explain why this ingredient represents their family. During the cooking activity, explain to
the children how everyone in the class is different, yet they are all part of the same classroom group,
and when everyone works together and shares, the whole class gets to have fun and eat things that
are yummy.

as the highest level of reasoning. However, many
ethnic minority cultures instead value collectivism,
interdependence, and a holistic form of reasoning
that relies on shared knowledge and contextualized
experiences. The distinctions between these two
cultural traditions result not only in differences in
how children might prefer to learn (e.g., working in
groups versus independently) but also in how chil-
dren express their knowledge (i.e., how they com-
municate what they know).

In 2015, 80% of elementary and secondary school
teachers were White (National Center on Educa-
tional Statistics, 2019). The lack of diversity in the
group of educators leading our schools causes dis-
sonance in the classroom. The values and beliefs
of middle-class European Americans continue to
be promoted in classrooms throughout the United
States (Spring, 2011), despite the growing diversity
of the school-aged population. To address this dis-
cord in the classroom, multicultural education must
be implemented. Multicultural education will be
discussed in detail in Chapter 3; for now, the Design
an Activity feature, “Challenging Cultural Meta-
phors,” provides a preview of how the philosophy
behind multicultural education differs from tradi-
tional education.

Purestock/Thinkstock

To instruct diverse students, an instructor
must see that the standard Anglo-
American Protestant education traditions
no longer successfully achieve education
outcomes.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Whenever teachers expose children to the rules, expectations, and rituals of the classroom,
enculturation is taking place. Enculturation is the act of shaping a child’s thinking and behav-
ior to conform to their native culture—in this case, the broader U.S. education system, which is
based upon European American culture (Spring, 2010; York, 2006). This is especially true for early
childhood education because the European American view of development is so entrenched in
child development and child rearing practices. For example, this view assumes that autonomy and
individuality should be fostered in children, whereas in other cultures, collectivism and family-
centeredness are fostered. Additional examples of European American cultural characteristics and
beliefs that dominate early childhood education practices are presented in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Characteristics of European-American Culture and How They Operate in Early
Childhood Programs

Cultural Characteristic Description Classroom Example

Communication Greetings are brief, informal,
and casual. People say, “Hi!” and
call each other by first names.
Communication is polite yet
candid and explicit. Individuals
communicate at arm’s length from
one another and look each other
in the eye.

Drop-off time in the center is brief.
Essential communication about
how the child ate or slept the night
before is written on a daily activity
sheet instead of communicated
through a dialog between the
teacher and parent.

Time Clock-conscious time perspective.
Time is seen as a valuable
commodity (e.g., “Time is money.”).
People are usually punctual and
being late is considered rude.
Events are scheduled and planned.

Children’s daily activities are
scheduled down to 15 minute
increments. Most centers have
policies that fine parents who are
late for pick-up.

Future-oriented Emphasis on future rather than
present, and tendency to minimize
the past. Feel it is a person’s
responsibility to plan for their
future, such as with life insurance
policies, retirement plans, or wills.

Teachers are concerned with
“kindergarten readiness.”

Youth-oriented Children’s development is central,
and events and family plans
revolve around children’s needs.
Elderly are seen as a burden or
liability, and families often use
nursing homes to care for the
elderly.

Schools focus on family events that
highlight the needs of the child.

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Cultural Characteristic Description Classroom Example

Nuclear family Family is defined by a husband,
wife, and children. Contracts and
legal agreements define family
relationships, such as marriage
licenses and formal adoptions.
Family viewed as mobile.
Infrequent, not daily, interaction
with extended family.

Schools’ family events often
only invite mothers and fathers,
without recognizing the role of
extended family.

Eating habits Focus on eating as a necessity, not
as a pleasure or social experience.
Individuals may eat alone while
doing other activities such as
driving, working, or watching
television. When families eat
together, food is often served
“family style”: All family members
sit down together to eat and food
is placed in serving bowls and
platters that are passed around as
people serve themselves.

School provides family-style dining
at breakfast and lunch.

Work People should work first, then play.
Work is usually task-oriented and
assigned to individuals. Individuals
talk of working on relationships
and working on parenting skills.
Prefer rewards based on individual
achievement rather than group
achievement.

Teachers create assignments that
ask children to work on individual
art projects, and classrooms
display individual work.

Thinking style Logical sequential thinking.
Knowledge is fixed and static.
Values rational and objective
thinking that can be proven
scientifically or mathematically.
Subjective or intuitive knowledge
is not highly respected.

Asking children to learn to
problem-solve in a manner that
includes steps.

Learning style People learn through exploration,
problem solving, and interaction
with objects. Values creative
problem-solving, seeking
creative solutions, continuous
improvement, and progress.

Teachers allow children to engage
in free choice and explore the
materials in the classroom.

(continued)

Table 1.3 Characteristics of European-American Culture and How They Operate in Early
Childhood Programs (continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Cultural Characteristic Description Classroom Example

Individualism People are unique individuals,
distinct from their family or
culture. Individuals control their
lives through the decisions they
make. Values personal freedom,
personal choice, and autonomy.

Teachers offer children “choices”
about what they want to do and
take “votes.”

Egalitarianism There is stated value of treating
women and men the same.
Children are given equal status
with adults. Challenging authority
is acceptable behavior.

Having “family meetings” in which
everyone has a chance to share
their opinions and “vote” on
decisions.

Self-responsibility/
self-sufficiency

People are responsible for their
own behavior and managing their
own lives. Individuals should
provide for their own basic needs
and not rely on others. Needing
help from others is viewed as
being a burden or being weak.

Saving for retirement and not
expecting your children to provide
for you during old age.

Materialism High value placed on things such as
clothing, furniture, toys, and other
consumer goods. Owning goods
contributes to an individuals’
sense of self and status in the
community.

Teachers and parents value a
plethora of toys, books, and
furniture in what would be
considered a “high-quality”
classroom.

Source: Adapted from Roots and Wings: Affirming Culture in Early Childhood Programs, Second Edition, by Stacey York. © 2003 by Stacey
York. Reprinted with permission of Redleaf Press, St. Paul, MN; http://www.redleafpress.org

Because young children and their families are regularly exposed to the enculturation process
through their routine daily experiences with their early childhood program, they cannot help but
begin to adopt the beliefs, values, and traditions of the program. Acculturation is the process of
adopting the cultural traditions of the dominant group. To acculturate is to take on the culture
and norms of a society that is not your own or that is not native to you. This is sometimes done
when you move to a new state or country. Acculturation can have a negative connotation when
it is forced.

If both the school and the family are exposing the child to the traditions, norms, and expectations
of the dominant culture, there may be limited distress for the child. However, if the family is try-
ing to maintain its cultural identity, the acculturation process may cause distress and discomfort
for the children, as well as weaken the home-school relationship. Table 1.4 provides examples of
types of distress caused by differences in the family’s and the early childhood program’s cultural
traditions. Understanding these potential mismatches between the culture of the program and
the child’s culture can help teachers facilitate children’s connection to the classroom environment.

Table 1.3 Characteristics of European-American Culture and How They Operate in Early
Childhood Programs (continued)

http://www.redleafpress.org

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model
Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families

Description of
Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural
Model

Commonly
Associated
with Early
Education
Program?

Potential Distress when the
Two Models are in Conflict

Family System

Nuclear family
that is highly
mobile

The idealized family unit
consists of a husband, wife,
and child. Families are formed
by contracts/legal agreements,
such as legalized marriage
and adoptions. Child has little
contact with extended family;
friends take the place of
extended family. Child taught
that the individual comes
before the family; one is not
expected to sacrifice personal
desire for the family.

Yes Parents who are not married
may feel embarrassed, and
lesbian or gay families may feel
ignored.

Children are taught to make
decisions based on what they
want rather than the needs
of the larger group, which can
cause friction at home.

Extended family
that lives within
close proximity
and shares
everyday, basic
resources (e.g.,
food, housing)

The idealized family consists of
a network of adults who take
responsibility for rearing the
child. Families are formed by
the need to share resources,
and non-blood relatives,
custodial guardianships,
and non-marital romantic
relationships warrant the
same respect and privileges as
legalized connections. Family
activities are planned jointly
with lots of input from others.
Child is used to a high level of
activity within the home, with
people dropping by. Child may
regularly eat or sleep in more
than one household. Infant
is usually in the company of
others and is held most of
the time, or passed from one
person to the next.

No Teachers may not recognize
the emotional importance that
extended family, like cousins
and aunts, play in child’s life.

Teachers may not understand
that extended kin share in the
decisions regarding the child.

Children may not feel free
to share stories, drawings
or photographs that include
members of their extended
family.

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Description of
Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural
Model

Commonly
Associated
with Early
Education
Program?

Potential Distress when the
Two Models are in Conflict

Family Decision Making

Democratic
decision making
style

Child is allowed/encouraged
to negotiate, compromise;
everyone’s needs/wants are
given equal status; family
members share in decision
making.

Yes Conflict may result at home if
parents feel child is not being
obedient or is “talking back.”

Autocratic
decision-making
style

Child is expected to obey,
follow commands, and respect
adult authority; one family
member has the power and
authority to make decisions
for the whole family.

No Child may not be good at
expressing desires.

Child may seem very compliant
and obedient, but may have
hard time making choices
without directions from adults.

Work/Employment

Career-oriented Parents have jobs they find
meaningful and rewarding.
Parents want child to have
opportunities to be creative
and develop own interests;
child relates to learning
through play. Parent brings
work home and has few other
interests or hobbies; child
care is seen as primarily a key
source for supporting parental
employment.

Yes Teachers and program directors
may overlook the skills a
parent has developed via
their hobbies and recreational
activities, only focusing on
the skills gained via their
occupation.

Leisure-oriented Parents have jobs that “pay
the bills” but find enjoyment
in other activities/hobbies;
attitude can be described
as “work now, play later.”
May expect child to sit
through long lessons but
then be rewarded with lots
of unstructured play time
where they “let off steam”;
personal fulfillment comes
from recreation, hobbies,
volunteer activities; child care
is seen primarily as a source of
socialization for children.

No Parents view play as a leisure
activity, not a way to learn.

(continued)

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model
Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

(continued)

Description of
Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural
Model

Commonly
Associated
with Early
Education
Program?

Potential Distress when the
Two Models are in Conflict

Role of Child Care and Early Education

Child care is
for the child to
enjoy herself,
and time there
is viewed as
informal and
an extension of
home life

The child may come in worn,
casual play clothes; the child
and parent call teachers by
their first names. Children are
expected to get messy during
the course of the day and they
are encouraged to engage
in activities independently
even though these activities
might result in a mess, such as
serving themselves, feeding
themselves, painting, playing
the sandbox or dirt.

Yes Teachers may not understand
why parents get upset when
children get dirty.

Child care is
viewed as
a place for
children to learn,
and time there is
viewed as having
formal education
purpose that
is separate
from the home
environment

Child comes to school in dress
clothes and is expected to
stay clean, is told to obey
the teacher, and may not call
teachers by their first names.

No Teachers may think the family
is too “formal” if they insist the
child refers to the teacher by
“Miss” or “Mister.”

Sleeping Patterns

Sleep training Infants need to be trained to
sleep alone and on schedule.

Yes Parents may feel ashamed if
they engage in co-sleeping.

Co-sleeping Child may sleep with mother
or other family members;
children are assumed to
naturally outgrow the need
and desire to co-sleep.

No Children may have difficulty
adjusting to nap time.

Teachers may judge the
parents as “spoiling” the child
by letting him/her co-sleep.

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model
Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Description of
Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural
Model

Commonly
Associated
with Early
Education
Program?

Potential Distress when the
Two Models are in Conflict

View of Family Hardships

Parents
experience
privilege
and many
opportunities,
and live in a safe,
comfortable
environment

Child is given what she wants
and is taught to expect that
her needs will be met and that
world is a safe place.

Yes Parents may view the teacher
as setting the child up for
disappointment by focusing on
meeting the child’s desires and
wishes.

Parents may view the teacher
as being naïve to the struggles
and the dangers they face.

Parents
experience
discrimination,
lack of
opportunities,
violence, and
police hostility

Child is prepared to survive in
a hostile environment, taught
to tolerate unfairness, and
conditioned not to expect too
much.

No Teachers may view the parents
as harsh and unloving.

Relationship of Child to Others

Independence Infant only held for feeding,
comforting, and moving from
place to place; child sleeps
alone for long periods of time.
Child has own space and toys
at home; child enjoys playing
alone for extended periods
of time and making his own
“projects.”

Yes Parent may view teacher as
cold and not loving because of
the lack of physical touch.

Parents may worry that school
is not teaching children how to
cooperate within large groups.

Interdependence Child is raised to understand
that being a member of the
family involves relying on
others to get his or her needs
met; child is not pushed
to reach developmental
milestones or learn self-
help skills early; child is fed
even though he is capable
of feeding himself or carried
when she is capable of
walking.

No Children may be dependent on
the teacher to do things that
the teacher thinks they should
do for themselves.

Child may want to spend what
the teacher perceives as “too
much” time cuddling.

Teacher may view the child as
immature.

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model
Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Description of
Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural
Model

Commonly
Associated
with Early
Education
Program?

Potential Distress when the
Two Models are in Conflict

Time Orientation

Future
orientation

Emphasis on future rather
than present; tend to minimize
the past. Feel it is a person’s
responsibility to plan for their
future; teacher engages in
weekly lesson planning and
there are scheduled activities.

Yes Parents may view the teacher
as inflexible and preoccupied
with sticking to a rigid schedule

Present-time
orientation

Child’s lifestyle is very
process-oriented with little
emphasis on routines, such as
eating or sleeping by a strict
time. Feel as if the future is
undetermined and not to
be worried about; activities
are decided on spur of the
moment.

No Teacher may feel like parents
do not appreciate the time and
effort.

Teacher may view the family as
unorganized.

Teacher may view the child’s
home life as chaotic.

Public Expressions

Self-expression Child taught to express
personality through verbal
communication; child is
praised for speaking and
listening well. Expressing
feelings is permitted. Child
is allowed to cry, scream,
and have temper tantrums;
physical and verbal affection is
often expressed among family
members.

Yes Parents may view the teachers
as too lenient by allowing
children to display such strong
emotions.

Modesty Child taught to keep a
low profile in public and
discouraged from drawing
attention to herself; not
acceptable for a child to ask
for what he/she wants. There
may be few public displays of
physical or verbal affection.
Feelings are expected to be
hidden, especially negative
feelings, in public.

No Teacher may view the child
as emotionally immature or
unexpressive.

Children may have a hard time
articulating their feelings and
opinions.

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model
Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Description of
Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural
Model

Commonly
Associated
with Early
Education
Program?

Potential Distress when the
Two Models are in Conflict

Child Discipline

Positive
discipline

Child is given freedom to
explore consequences; adults
discipline without shouting
voices and pre-warn child of
possible consequences as a
result of misbehavior; goal is
to motivate child toward good
behavior by praising them for
being compliant and obedient.

Yes Parents may feel that children
are able to “get away with”
misbehavior at school.

Punishment/
shaming

Child learns to respect
authority without question
and to immediately do what
he is told. Child is disciplined
by spanking, scolding, threats,
shaming, or humiliation.

No Parents may feel judged for
their discipline style.

Teachers may view the parents
as too harsh, and maybe even
abusive.

Source: Adapted from Roots and Wings: Affirming Culture in Early Childhood Programs, Second Edition, by Stacey York. © 2003 by
Stacey York. Reprinted with permission of Redleaf Press, St. Paul, MN; http://www.redleafpress.org

To understand the challenges that families might face during the acculturation process, early
childhood educators should reflect on their own cultural viewpoint. Review Table 1.4 and think
about where you fall on these cultural model continuums; then consider how your culture affects
your expectations and assumptions as a teacher. Teachers must realize that their own cultural her-
itage, even if it is from a culturally diverse identity group, affects how they view children’s abilities
and skills and, subsequently, how they interact with children. Often children who do not follow
a teacher’s expectations or ideas about child development are viewed as deficient or a deviant
(Bernhard, 1995), and when they surpass the expectations, they are viewed as gifted.

Current research examines how early education experiences and adult-child interactions can have
implications for how well children do during their transition from pre-K to kindergarten. Read the
Spotlight on Research feature, “How Teachers’ Perceptions of African-American Boys Are Associ-
ated With Their Transition to Kindergarten,” to learn more about this study.

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model
Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

http://www.redleafpress.org

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Spotlight on Research: How Teachers’ Perceptions of African-American
Boys Are Associated With Their Transition
to Kindergarten

A study conducted by Iruka, Gardner-Neblett, Matthews, & Winn (2013) investigated how African
American preschool boys transitioned from preschool to kindergarten. The data for this study was
drawn from a large national database that follows children from birth to age 8, the Early Childhood
Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B). Using family variables (socioeconomic status and parenting
style) and early education variables (attendance in a center-based program), they predicted four types
of transition patterns the boys experienced. They found that the boys were very different, but overall
they could be classified into one of four groups.

• Stable Average Students: This description fits about 51% of the preschool boys in the sample.
These boys received average scores for language, reading, and math both at pre-K and kindergar-
ten, and their scores for social competence were also average across these two time points.

• Early Achievers Who Become Aggressive: The next largest group in the sample (20%) can be
described as becoming disengaged from learning. During pre-K and kindergarten these young
boys were high achievers in language, reading, and math. They were also rated by teachers to
have very strong social skills, such as strong interpersonal skills and low anxiety. However, at
kindergarten something changed; whereas the pre-K teachers rated this group of boys as low on
aggression, the kindergarten teachers rated them as high. Similarly, their pre-K teachers rated
these boys as having a healthy approach to learning, but the kindergarten teachers rated their
approach to learning as poor. These boys were more likely to live in higher income families with
mothers who were more educated.

• Highly Emotional Underachievers: Nineteen percent of the boys can be described as consistent
underachievers because they were low both in terms of academics and social-emotional skills at
both pre-K and kindergarten. During pre-K, the teachers of these boys rated them as being more
aggressive and anxious than other students, and as having poorer interpersonal skills. However,
in kindergarten the boys’ aggression declined, even though teachers still rated them as having
lower interpersonal skills and higher anxiety.

• The Worried High Achievers: These young boys comprised only 11% of the sample, and they can
be described as very high achievers in math and reading during pre-K. During kindergarten their
achievement declined somewhat, but they still remained above their peers. In terms of social-
emotional skills, the boys were very mild-mannered as indicated by their low scores for aggres-
sion, but both their pre-K and kindergarten teachers rated them as above average on anxiety.
These boys tended to come from higher income families with mothers who were more educated
and more likely to engage in frequent literacy and learning activities at home.

This research shows a wide variety among children’s achievement and social-emotional development,
even when children share the same cultural identity. It also demonstrates how features of the home
environment can interact with school performance. Overall, the study shows that the majority of Afri-
can American boys transition to kindergarten without any problem and that their academic perfor-
mance and social-emotional development remains stable. Nevertheless, there are smaller pockets of
boys who experience drastic changes over the course of this one-year transition.

Unfortunately, results from this study do not tell us whether these changes could be the result of life
stressors the children may have faced over the course of the year, such as divorce, death in the family,
birth of a new sibling, or a household move. While such life stressors happen all the time, they impact
children greatly. Thus, they may provide some explanation for why certain groups of boys changed in
terms of their achievement and social emotional skills.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Developmentally Appropriate Practice Is Culturally Competent
NAEYC’s original guidelines for developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood programs
paid limited attention to culture (1997). In contrast, the current NAEYC position statement (2020)
emphasizes the need for early childhood educators to understand “the social and cultural contexts
in which each child lives—including family and community values, expectations, and linguistic
conventions” (p. 34). Educators understanding the social and cultural contexts of the children in
their class will help “ensure that learning experiences in the program or school are meaningful,
relevant, and respectful for each child and family” (NAEYC, 2020, p. 34).

In the following sections, we describe two programs and how they have attempted to combine
developmentally appropriate practice with cultural competence. Both of these programs were
instrumental in shaping the United States’ approaches to what is high quality, developmentally
appropriate instruction.

Two Approaches to Culturally Relevant Early Childhood Education: Montessori
and Reggio Emilia
The Montessori and Reggio Emilia teaching approaches have been noted for promoting culturally
relevant instruction for diverse children because of their focus on individualization and incorporat-
ing the experiences of children—including their cultures and families.

The Montessori classroom is set up to allow chil-
dren to work in groups or independently. Materials
are kept in reachable spaces so children can make
choices about what they want to engage in, such as
in art and reading sections. Activities are designed to
be completed in specific sequences and the materi-
als are self-correcting so that children can work inde-
pendently. The Montessori approach is individual-
ized so that children lead their own learning, which
encourages children’s love of and engagement with
learning. Montessori classrooms may have children
of different ages (within an approximately 3-year
range), with older children helping younger children
master skills.

Montessori preschool teachers work with children
on the floor or at tables, where they can observe
the children’s learning and offer assistance when
they see that a child needs it; they also record chil-
dren’s progress and introduce lessons according to
the children’s needs. The key role of the teacher is
to create a stimulating and enriching environment
that encourages children’s independent learning and
ensures children’s development.

The Reggio Emilia approach is similar to Montessori’s in that children are regarded as leaders of
their learning, and the role of teachers and adults is to guide children’s exploration and critical
thinking.

Hemera/Thinkstock

The materials used in Montessori
classrooms are unique and designed to
promote independent learning.

CHAPTER 1

Chapter Summary

The infusion of the Montessori and Reggio Emilia approaches into our early education programs
shows the strong influence of international culture. These two Italian approaches started because
communities were seeking ways to improve the lives of children and families by ensuring that
the early education programs were safe and nurturing for children and friendly for families. This
meant that schools had to think about the things that made children and their families feel safe
and loved, which required incorporating the cultures of families, including family histories and
pictures, into all aspects of the program. These two approaches emphasize the need for teachers
to be culturally competent and ensure that the classroom environment and instructional practices
reflect the cultures and lives of children and their families.

Chapter Summary

1.1: Cultural identity is defined by various demographic, geographic, religious, and social
indicators, and people typically belong to several different cultural groups. Factors that
contribute to cultural diversity in the United States among children between birth and 8
years of age include immigration, race and ethnicity, home language, and socioeconomic
status. Because of the high rate of immigration in the United States, many children in
early childhood programs were either not born in the United States or have at least one
parent who was born in another country.

Although social agencies and educational institutions often ask people to name their
race and ethnicity, these categories are socially determined and have no scientific basis.
Many first- and second-generation immigrants have a home language other than Eng-
lish, so preschool classrooms are likely to have some children who are dual language
learners (DLLs). In addition, more children live in poverty than any other age group, so
preschool classrooms are likely to have some children living in poverty. The Head Start
program was designed to serve these children and to embrace their cultural diversity.

1.2: Research shows that adolescents who attended preschool outperform peers who did
not, regardless of socioeconomic background. Many of the 34 member nations of the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) provide preschool
opportunities to more of their young children than the United States does.

1.3: According to Cole’s cultural-context framework, children’s cultural experiences, as well as
their individual differences and the quality of their educational experiences, determine
their education outcomes. Rogoff’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development also
points to the importance of cultural context for learning. Children who are dual language
learners need to learn in both their home language and their second language. Doing
so enhances their language and literacy skills in both languages. DLLs and children who
speak a creole or dialect also need to learn the pragmatic language skills of code switch-
ing, language mixing, and answering questions according to social expectations.

1.4: To promote cultural diversity, teachers in early childhood programs need to be culturally
competent; they need to recognize and respect the differences between the culture of
middle-class European Americans and the many other cultures in which the students in
their classrooms are immersed at home. Teachers need to consciously balance fostering
school readiness with encouraging children to express cultural diversity, and they need to
be sensitive to the potential for acculturation to cause distress for some children. Because
of their focus on individualized learning and instructional practices that reflect the
children’s culture, Montessori and Reggio Emilia are two approaches to early childhood
education that are appropriate for culturally diverse classrooms in the United States.

CHAPTER 1

Key Terms

Discussion Questions

1. Describe why language is so important for culture.
2. Describe the specific language needs of DLL children.
3. What is Cole’s cultural-context model?