History Civ I homework help

Write an essay, approximately 500 words (two typed pages) that answers the following questions
from the attachments belowWhat were the direct and indirect results of the crusading era in Europe for Byzantines, Muslims, & Europeans?
Note: state building, rise of the merchant class and technologies…
How did the results (which ones in particular) of the crusades facilitate Western Europe’s age of exploration that resulted in a truly global system?

Direct

Results

of the Crusading Era

Results of the Crusades

• Failures
– Jerusalem was in Moslem hands

– Christian pilgrims became fewer and more fearful
than ever

– The Moslem powers, once tolerant of religious
diversity, had been made intolerant by attack

– The effort of the popes to bring peace and unity to
Europe had been thwarted by nationalistic ambitions,
avarice, and internal dissension

– The influence of the Catholic Church and the position
of the pope declined and the schism between the
Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Church
widened

Results of the Crusades

• Failures
– Moslem civilization had been victorious over Christian

civilization

– Indigenous eastern Christians were caught in the
middle between Crusaders and Moslems, and many
who were outraged by the excesses of the Crusaders
or who wanted to avoid persecution by Moslem
leaders who saw them as collaborators with the
Crusaders converted to Islam

• In fact, the Crusades ironically proved instrumental
in making the eastern Mediterranean
predominantly Moslem

Results of the Crusades

• Successes

– Serfs had used the Crusades to leave their
lands and many found new opportunities

– The Turkish capture of Constantinople was
delayed until 1453

– The Moslems, even though victorious, had
themselves been weakened, and fell more
easily when the Mongols attacked

• Remember from Lesson 21

– Trade and exploration were enhanced

Trade

• Italian traders obviously
benefited from supplying the
Crusades while they were
going on, but they also saw
an opportunity to expand
their market by establishing
direct trade with the Moslem
world

• The lucrative trade provided
great profit to the Italian city-
states and ultimately
provided the economic basis
for the Italian

Renaissance

we’ll discuss in Lesson 24

Lorenzo de Medici was part of a

family that ruled Florence and

served as bankers for the

Crusades and patrons of the

Renaissance

Trade

• The most important trade

item were spices

– Other items included

cotton, linen, dates, coral,

pearls, porcelain, silk, and

metal goods

• Damascus was a key

center for industry and

commerce and a stopping

point for pilgrims on their

way to Mecca

Egyptian scarf or garment

fragment ca 1395

Trade

• European Christians also became exposed to new ideas
as they traveled throughout the Mediterranean basin

– The works of Aristotle

– Islamic science and astronomy

– “Arabic” numerals which the Moslems had borrowed
from India

– Techniques for paper production which the Moslems
had learned from China

• While the Crusades may have largely failed as military
adventures, they helped encourage the reintegration of
western Europe into the larger economy of the western
hemisphere

Extended Results of the

Crusades in Europe

EXTENDED RESULTS OF

THE CRUSADES

1. ECONOMIC GROWTH

– As the Europeans gained knowledge of the

East they desired items such as spices, luxury

goods, sugar, citrus fruits, cotton cloth,

carpets, paper, glassware and precious

stones.

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2. TECHNOLOGY

– Technology such as gunpowder, and new

navigation and sailing methods were

introduced to the Europeans.

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3. CULTURAL DIFFUSION

– New ideas were exchanged as Europeans

saw in the East a prosperity with which

they were not familiar, such as great cities,

active trade and industry, and

achievements in the arts and sciences.

Many of these discoveries were brought

back to

Europe.

Arabic numbers…

1,2,3,4…

Chemistry / Algebra

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World

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4. A RISING MIDDLE CLASS

– Throughout Europe trade increased,

money increasingly replaced bartering,

urban populations grew, and a new social

class arose (the middle class). This class

was composed of merchants, bankers, and

professionals. This class would play an

integral role in the future of western

Europe.

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5. INCREASED POWER TO KINGS

(… at least until the Magna Carta)

– As the nobles sold off their lands to kings

to pay for their journeys to the Holy Land,

the monarchs gained more power.

Merchants that favored the stability of a

monarch favored the monarchy over the

power of nobles.

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6. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH GAINED

MORE POWER

– The Crusades provided political power and

wealth to the Catholic Church. The church

was able to have a great influence over

monarchs and the people of Europe.

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7. THE STATUS OF WOMEN

IMPROVED

– As they managed the family property while

male members were off at war, women

gained respect and knowledge in running

the estates of Europe. Many women joined

their husbands on the Crusade as well.

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8. ITALIAN CITY-STATES FLOURISHED

– Italian city-states such as Venice flourished

and became wealthy selling supplies and

providing ships to transport the crusaders

to the Holy Land.

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What did Europe gain from

contact with the Muslim

East?
*New Farming ideas and animals:

Windmills, mules, donkeys, Arab horses

*New good from the East:

Cotton, Oil, spices, perfumes, figs, plums,
melons

*Knowledge:

decimals, geometry, algebra, medicine,
biology, astronomy, military science

Crusading in Western

Europe

Results of the Reconquista

The Reconquista of Spain

• The Christians did have
better success wresting
Sicily and Spain from the
Moslems in actions
separate from the Crusades

• Sicily was regained
relatively easily
– Moslems had conquered it in

the 9th Century but in the
1090, after about 20 years of
fighting, Norman warriors
returned it to Christian hands

• Spain would be a bit more
of a challenge

The Reconquista of Spain

• Moslems invaded the Iberian Peninsula in the early 8th
Century and ruled all but small Christian states such as
Catalonia

• In the 1060s Christians began attacking outward from
these toeholds

The Reconquista of Spain

• By 1150 Christians had recaptured Lisbon and controlled
over half the peninsula

• These successes lured reinforcements from England and
France and a new round of campaigning in the 13th
Century brought all but Granada into Christian hands

• In 1492, Christian forces conquered Granada and the
Reconquista was complete

Immediate Impact of the

Reconquista
• After the successful

Reconquista, the
devoutly Christian rulers
of Spain and Portugal
were eager to dominate
the Islamic states in
North Africa and to
convert non-Christians

• The desire to spread
Christianity would be
one of the motives for
the European
explorations we’ll
discuss in Lesson 25

1492 was the year of both the

completion of the Reconquista and

Columbus’ voyage to the New

World

Results of the Crusades
I.F. Turks Traveled they would Trade

• I = Improvements – Ships, Maps, Explorers

• F = Feudalism declines because Feudal lords die or
spend too much money on military.

• T = Turks still rule the Holy Land

• T = Travel – Europeans want to travel more

• T = Trade – Europeans want product from the East
such as sugar, cotton, silk, spices, etc.

World Impact of the Crusader Era in

Europe

THE AGE OF EXPLORATION

Crusading in Europe, Changes in Crusading and Effects of Crusade

HIST 6543, History of the Crusades

Danny Kopp

December 7, 20

Although the term crusade evolved to accommodate a plethora of events and the

terminology continued to evolve long after the era of the crusades, the basic tenets of crusade

changed little. From 1095-1291, the crusades in the East all purposed the liberation of the Holy

Sepulcher from the infidel Muslims. The warring European society, prior to the watershed call

to Crusade in 1095 by Pope Urban II, continued to adopt western Christianity and accept the

Pope as the head of Christ’s church on Earth. Three hundred years of church reformation

allowed few changes in the idea of crusading that parallels the Reconquista in Iberia.

The

definition of crusade changed little during the crusading era, but the use of crusade differed as

the individual European nations grew and developed.

Crusade became a tool used by Popes and Lords for a combination of economic,

religious and political expansionism. Allegiance to the Pope in Rome grew as the Catholic

Church expanded its influence through missionary outreach in Western Europe. By 1291, the

use of the Papacy’s temporal powers in political and economic affairs brought about an

appearance of the Pope as another warlord. After 1291, the Pope was unable to mount a large

campaign, but kings and religious orders continually sought the blessing of the Pope to gain the

crusader indulgence for military campaigns that affected the Church. Some scholars indicate

countries or individuals undertook additional crusades, but there can be no crusade without the

blessing of the Pope. After 1291, the religious military campaigns became limited in scope and

number due to the rise in economic viability of large countries and the rise of the kings.

Categorization into direct and indirect effects best illustrates the consequences of

the crusading era. Many direct consequences are localized or immediate. Direct consequences

of the crusades include military, religious, economic and social effects. Direct consequences

also consider the transfer of culture and lifestyle, which directly affected the belligerent parties.

Indirect consequences result from direct consequences. For example, the direct consequences of

the crusading mind of the Spanish and Portuguese after the Reconquista contain decisive indirect

effects that eventually affected the cultures of the entire planet.

The reasons for crusade changed throughout the crusading era, but although the

mandates of crusading changed, the basic principles remained the same. The complete definition

of crusade was a synthesis of ideas, which had developed and exercised by Christian warlords

within Europe. The definition of crusade after Pope Urban II’s call for crusade in1095 included

three basic requirements, which were just war, pilgrimage and indulgence.
1
The accepted 12

century definition of crusade was an act of penance by answering the Popes’ call for

participation in a defensive military action coinciding with a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulcher.

Long before the 1
st
Crusade, Augustine of Hippo’s 5

th
century theological adaptation of

The Just War was used in the 6
th

century to justify armed conflicts between, the now Catholic,

Visigoths and Arian Christian sects in Gaul and Iberia.
2
From 711 to 756, the Moors continually

crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and subsequently conquered a large portion of Southern Iberia,

which they called Al-Andalus.
3
Alfonso II, the Frankish King who allied with Charlemagne and

the Pope, conquered territories as far south as Lisbon in 798. Justification for the ensuing

conflict began with the Just War as defined by St. Augustine.
4
These empire building or political

conquests between the powers in Iberia were the beginning of the Reconquista.

The Reconquista derives its name from an incorrect viewpoint that Christendom was

retaking former Christian lands, but this was clearly not the case. The changing definition of

crusade throughout the Reconquista provides an excellent model of the crusade ideology because

it was contemporary and changed with the changes of the major Eastern Crusades. The early

successful holy war against the Arian heretics supported by the Pope and clergy of the Catholic

Church provided to important truths to the warlords of Iberia. First, a holy war supported by the

early Popes provided victory and second, it provided new territory.
5

Simple medieval logic

dictated that the Christians would succeed in their eventual endeavor to conquer Al-Andalus.

The Spanish Reconquista was the most successful example of medieval European

territorial expansion. Beginning in the 730’s the tiny Christian Kingdom of Asturias was the sole

Christian state in Spain. By the early 900s, the Asturias king (who) took advantage of Muslim

infighting to move his capital south to Leon. The Castilian kingdom worked with Muslim

leaders when it was beneficial. The resulting economic stability attracted numerous Christian

settlers to their territory. The Northern Christian kingdoms shared the region with the Muslim

tribes, but not always amicably. Significant changes in the Catholic Church parallel expansionist

motivations in Iberia.

Beginning in 910, the Cluniac Reform, eventually placed the abbots under the direct

control of the pope, which expanded the Pope’s temporal power. By the mid-11
th

century, the

church reformation provided the Spaniards a reinvigorated Christian identity.
6
Although

territorial expansion had always been the motivator for conquest in this region, the religious

fundamentalism of the late 11th century provided a religious motivation for conquering the

Muslim territories.
7
Pope Urban II’s call to crusade in 1095 utilized the Reconquista developed

ideology to complete the definition of crusade.
8
The development of the idea of crusade shifted

to the Eastern Crusades and the Papacy derived crusader ideology henceforth drove the

Reconquista in Iberia.

The early Reconquista in Iberia is arguably the nursery for the crusading ideology, but

although not officially over until 1492, the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa on 16 July 1212 was

the turning point in the war against the Muslims.
9
Although the Holy Sepulcher was lost in the

East, victories continued in Iberia. The Battle of Rio Salado on October 30, 1340, was the last

large military campaign of the Reconquista, but the coastal cities of Granada, Almeria and

Malaga remained Muslim until 1492. Many Muslims found Christian rule intolerable and moved

from the peninsula.
10

The impact of the Reconquista beyond the immediate effects of Muslim

expulsion culminates in a mindset of convictions, values, practices and goals that survive into the

age of exploration. Although the Reconquista birthed the idea of crusade, it became infected

with the subtle changes throughout the crusading era. The Reconquista, predominately in the

later period, utilized crusade as a tool to conquer territories.

The Albigensian Crusade or Cathar Crusade, 1209-1229, was a military campaign

initiated by the Catholic Church to eliminate the heretical Cathars from southern France. After

initial attempts at converting the Cathars failed and papal legate Pierre de Castelnau was

murdered, Pope Innocent III called for a crusade against the nobles who sheltered the Cathars.

The Papal Bull calling for a crusade against Languedoc offered conquered lands to the

crusaders.
11

The crusade to expel the heretical Cathars from the south of France incited a war

between the North and the South. It would be improper to assume the war was a civil war

because it also contained attributes of an invasion. Numerous knights from various regions of

France joined the land rush, which adds the economic motivator to the religious impetus of the

crusade.

Because the Pope authorized the military action, Simon de Montfort and other knights

wore the Crusader’s Cross. In 1209, the papal legate, Arnaud-Amaury commanded the assault

on the town of Beziers.
12

Both Catholics and Cathars refused to surrender to the crusaders. The

city fell on July 22, 1209 and the entire population of the city was subsequently massacred and

the city destroyed by the crusaders.
13

The crusade attacked Carcassonne on August 1, 1209, but

failed to destroy the city. The crusaders allowed the citizens to leave with “minimal clothes on

their backs.”
14

The barbaric actions of Simon de Montfort and Arnaud-Amaury triggered panic

throughout the region. Raymond of Toulouse rose against the crusaders, who, after retreating to

England in 1215, returned to recapture and defend Toulouse and successfully defended it with

the reported aid of the town’s women and children.

Innocent III died in 1216 and Montfort died in the attack on Toulouse, which eventually

forced King Louis VIII to take charge of the crusade.
15

The lands of Raymond of Toulouse were

ceded to the King of France after the Treaty of Paris on April 12, 1229.
16

The Albigensian

crusade ended after significant exchange of land and wealth, but the heresy that had caused the

war had not been eradicated.
17

The Albigensian crusade provides an excellent example transition

of power from Pope to Kings and correctly illustrates the economic, political and religious

motivators for crusade. The Albigensian crusade also provides an example of a minor change in

crusading. Crusading for a period provided adequate payment for the indulgence, which relieved

the crusaders from pilgrimage to a holy place. The period was generally 40 days.
18

Notably the

failure of the crusade to abolish heresy necessitated the use of inquisition, which was used

according to the manual by monks throughout Christendom.
19

Important popular uprisings occurred at various times throughout the crusading era in

Europe. Some of these crusades do not fit the definition. The Children’s Crusade of 12

consisted of two movements of people who followed small boys in France and Germany.

Nicholas, a shepherd from the Rhineland and Stephan from France were supposedly on a mission

from Jesus to free the Holy Land because the adults had failed. Many scholars dispute these

crusades using contemporary evidence, but the stories themselves indicate a religious fervor

during the period, which was possibly a result of the loss of Jerusalem.
20

The Shepherd’s

Crusade of 1251 was a popular uprising of poor peasants who desired to free Louis IX and free

the Holy Land. The crusade ended in the excommunication of the crusaders due to their

disturbances in the cities. Another Shepherd’s Crusade in 1320 rose to defeat the moors in

Spain.
21

None of the popular uprisings achieved any credible goal, and authors such as Matthew

Paris were outraged at the false prophets.
22

These crusades did not fit the definition of crusade,

but they indicate a significant religious fervor among the peasants.

Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades are a conglomeration of individual crusades

occurring in the Northern portions of Europe. The Wendish Crusade was a crusade of relatively

newly converted Catholic German lords attacking the pagan Slavs in Western Poland. In 1147,

Pope Eugenius issued a papal bull, Divini dispensation, approving the northern crusade of nobles

against the Slavs.
23

The Saxons succeeded in taking Slavic lands, but the conversions were

minimal. Local barons used the religious zealousness related to the Second Crusade to further

their landholdings in Germany. The continual reapplication of the Papal Blessing such as by

Alexander III in 1171 provided continual religious support for the German efforts in the Baltic

regions.
24

Germans crusaded against the Livonians on the Baltic Sea, after Pope Celestine III

gave orders in 1192 and Pope Innocent III in 1198. The Baltic region contained principal ports

on the trade route to Byzantium.
25

In 1202, Bishop Albert established the Livonian Brothers of

the Sword to convert pagans and protect German trade routes. The Livonian Crusades are an

excellent example of the economic and political motivations for crusade.
2627

The remaining

Crusades of the North and the Teutonic attempts to conquer Orthodox Russia indicate a primacy

of the economic motivation for the continuation of the crusade in the North.

After the fall of Acre in 1291, the crusades significantly changed, but the greatest

changes came from the increasing secular power and religious changes and eventual turmoil

within the Catholic Church. The idea of crusading to receive an indulgence began to lose

primacy during the evolution of Church doctrine in the 13
th

Century. Church Doctor St. Thomas

Aquinas’ Summa Theologica, was a compendium of all central theological teachings of the

Church. This document endorses the principles of just war and natural law, but places special

emphasis on the Sacraments, which are provided in order to obtain God’s grace. The Summa

also encourages corporal works of mercy. Although pilgrimage and crusading provided grace

from God, one could also obtain grace by burying the dead, feeding the hungry or any of the

other seven Corporal Works of Mercy.
28

Changes and disarray within the Catholic Church

allowed kings to launch and control later crusades in Europe with papal approval. Often the

belligerent kingdom could obtain aid from fellow Christian kings and lords by obtaining the

endorsement of crusade, but as evidenced by numerous smaller conflicts within Europe, it was

not necessary and often frowned upon.
29

The papal blessing for crusade appeared less powerful

as the papacy fell into disarray during the Western Schism between 1378 and 1417.
30

The

apparent influence of the secular kings over the papacy during the Western Schism illustrates

both the growing secular power of the kings and the diminishment of the temporal powers of the

papacy. Although the power of the popes had comparatively diminished, several crusades

continued within Europe, but the Ottoman encroachment in the east became a primary concern in

the late 14
th

century.

The Balkan Crusades including the Crusade of Nicopolis in 1396, The Crusade of Varna

in 1444 and the Crusade of 1456 were organized to counter the expansion of the Ottomans. The

Ottomans conquered the lower Balkans and the rest of the Byzantine Empire save the city of

Constantinople by the end of the 14
th

Century. The Ottomans became a threat to central Europe

and as well as the Republic of Venice and the Genoese because each merchant city had colonized

ports in the regions threatened by the Ottomans. In 1394, Pope Boniface IX called for a crusade

against the Turks. Sigismund, the King of Hungary, led a combined force of an estimated 9-12

thousand from the major Christian powers in Europe. After surrender at Viden and a victory,

albeit tainted by French treachery, at Oryahovo, the crusaders arrived and were decisively

defeated at Nicopolis on September 12, 1396.
31

On January 1, 1443, Pope Eugene IV called for

a crusade against the Ottomans who had resumed their attacks on Hungary. The Hungarian army

and the Ottomans clashed at the Battle of Varna. The Crusaders were defeated on November 10,

1444, after losing approximately 10 thousand men and their King Vladislaw III.
32

Considered to

have decided the fate of Christendom, the Crusade of 1456 was organized to aid the City of

Belgrade from the siege by the Ottoman Turks. Led by John Hunyadi and Giovanni da

Capistrano, the crusaders repulsed the Ottoman invaders.
33

Although considered to have been

primarily religiously motivated, the impending doom for the trading outposts belonging to

Venice and Genoa indicate these crusades were, in part, economically motivated. When a

common enemy rose to threaten commerce or numerous countries, groups joined forces for a

period, which Jonathan Riley-Smith calls leagues of interest.
34

In central Europe, the Hussite crusades illustrate a former anti-Heretical theme in

Western Europe. The Hussites were religious reformers who followed the teachings of Jan Hus.

Hus was martyred after the Council of Constance on July 6, 1415, which enticed his followers to

revolt. In the end, the Wycliffites and Hussites were involved in political turmoil with the

leaders of Hungary and Serbia and religious turmoil with the Catholic Church. Pope Martin V

issued the papal bull on March 17, 1420, which gave the Christian belligerents the authority to

begin the first anti-Hussite crusade. Sigismund was defeated when the Hussite citizens of Prague

conquered almost all of Bohemia. The second anti-Hussite crusade began in 1421 and was

immediately unsuccessful, but resulted in Bohemian civil war.
35

Several additional efforts on

behalf of the Catholic Church and other regional kingdoms resulted only in economic

devastation for the region. The political aspects of the internal feud rise from the original

religious intent of the crusade intervention in this local dispute. Interestingly, the Church did not

squash the heresy nor did the larger Western European kingdoms come to the aid of the Church.

After 1291, as evidenced in the preceding individual accounts of the European crusades,

the rise of the secular governments and their subsequent increase in economic viability and

influence overshadowed the influence of the Pope in Rome. The use of crusade as a political,

economic and religious tool was continually used, but the Pope never directed or successfully

mounted a large crusade. Crusades became smaller and more clearly local issues except for the

oncoming threat presented by the Ottomans. Local rivalries prevented larger kingdoms from

working together except during times of great crisis as Riley-Smith mentioned. Crusading on the

local level in Europe also served to combine smaller entities into larger countries. The best

example of empire building is how the Albigensian Crusade facilitated unilateral French control

under Louis IX. The Reconquista is another good example of state building because it allowed

the formation of both Spain and Portugal. Economic motivations after 1291 include the

Northern Crusades providing the opportunity for German acquisition of lands and trade routes.

Kings called for crusade when religion could be used as a motivator. The problem with the

heresy crusades, as evidenced by the all the previously mentioned heretical crusades, they did not

completely abolish the heresies.

The self-interest of individual countries was only set aside when the Ottomans posed an

economic, territorial and religious threat to all of Christendom in 1456. The lack of cooperation

among Christian nations prior to the Reformation indicates a possible precursor to nationalism

among the people that prevents the unification of various peoples under the banner of

Christendom, which posed a significant reason for the smaller and less unified crusading

movement in Europe after 1291.

To gain a clear perspective on the results of the crusading era one must first distinguish

between the direct and indirect effects. The lasting effects or the legacies of the crusades are

most clearly tied to the indirect effects largely because they encompass a larger group of people

over a larger period, but the direct effects were no less profound. Direct effects most often

consider the changes occurring from military campaigns that directly relate to the development

of more effective war machines, political reorganizations and significant changes within the

belligerent societies. Direct effects also include lifestyle changes in that develop from the

cultural transfer that occurs with continual contact and trade. The indirect results of the crusades

consider the lingering historical effects that emanate from cultural contact. Scholars continually

debate the intricacies of the intercultural contact, but all agree there was cultural exchange

between parties as well as cultural transfer between affected groups and culture derived from

groups not directly affected during the crusading era.
36

Although the crusades had little direct effect on the whole of Islam, the border regions

were greatly affected both culturally and economically. In contrast, a total transformation of

European society occurred during the era of the crusades. The largely disunited feudal system

developed into centralized monarchies. An increase in education practices, science, medicine

and architecture was realized from the contact with the Islamic world. Societal changes in

taxation, social mobility and agricultural technology were realized from continual contact with

the Levant. The direct effects on trade included the use of trading colonies, the rise of the

mercantile system, the increase in naval technology and the increase in the European lifestyle

due to the formerly unknown goods. The European standard of living increased from the

available spices, oranges, apples and other Asian crops as well as gunpowder, ivory and jade.

Direct effects of the crusades on Byzantium occur primarily within the Greek Orthodox

Church. Because of the 4
th

Crusade and later conflicts between the Catholics and the Orthodox

Churches, the Orthodox Church developed a sense of union that would not waver throughout the

occupation of Islam. Although Constantinople became an Islamic city and the Byzantines were

subjugated, the Greek Orthodox Church continues to survive. The Latin West had little to offer

the Muslims other than military technology. Encounters with the earliest crusaders provided

knowledge of armor, European style horsemanship, siege technology and castle construction.
37

Muslims also strengthened the idea of Jihad during the crusader conflicts.

Indirect effects of the crusading era are more profound because they affect a larger group

of people over a larger territory. The simple Arabic compass and the astrolabe allowed European

ships to sail farther from the coastlines and other developments in naval technology facilitated

the means for the Age of Exploration. The European societies need for Asian products resulting

from their exposure during the crusading era supplied the need for the Age of Exploration. The

European mindset provided the labor needed for the Age of Discovery.
38

The evolving global

trade network helped to propel Europe into the Renaissance, Age of Enlightenment and

Industrial Age.
39

The expansion of European civilization is the most profound result of the

crusading era.

Although the use of crusading changed after 1291, the development of the European

society continued to grow by using crusade as a tool for religious, economic and political

expansion. The crusades within Europe served to increase and consolidate smaller kingdoms

into larger, more productive entities. Allegiance to the kings of the new states facilitated the rise

of nationalism, which offset the temporal powers of the Popes. The lasting consequences of the

three major parties of the crusades constitute significant increases in religion, economy,

government and culture. Although each society benefited in various ways, the Europeans

benefited most from the transfer of culture during the crusading era. Throughout the 400 years

of crusading, Europe developed into a productive relatively unified group of countries that rose

from barbaric obscurity to explorers of the globe.

Notes:

1
Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (The Middle Ages Series)

(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 7, 8.

2
Christopher Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2009),

33-37.

3
Richard Fletcher, Moorish Spain, 2 ed. (Berkley: University of California Press, 2006), 1.

4
Tyerman, 33.

5
Ibid., 40-42.

6
Christopher Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom: Holy War and the Crusades (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2004), 82-83.

7
Ibid., 72.

8
Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade, 8.

9
Alan G. Jamieson, Faith and Sword: A Short History of Christian-Muslim Conflict (London: Reaktion,

2006), 70.

10
Henry Kamen, Spain, 1469-1714: A Society of Conflict, 3rd ed. (LONDON: Longman, 2005), 37-38.

11
Innocent III, Call for Albigensian Crusade, In Dana C. Munro, “Urban and the Crusaders,” In

Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History, Vol. 1 (Philadelphia:

University of Pennsylvania, 1895), 18.

12
Laurence W. Marvin, The Occitan War: A Military and Political History of the Albigensian Crusade,

1209-1218 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 43-44.

13
Ibid., 45.

14
Ibid., 52.

15
William of Puylauruens, The Chronicle of William of Puylaruens, in De Re Militari: The Society for

Medieval Military History, http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/sources/puylaurens.htm (Accessed

December 3, 2011).

16
Ibid., 301.

17
Ibid., 302.

18
Ibid., 297.

19
Bernard Gui, The Inquisitor’s Manual, translated by J.H. Robinson in Readings in European History

(Boston: Ginn, 1905)

http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/sources/puylaurens.htm

Simon Lloyd, “The Crusading Movement, 1096-1274,” In Jonathan Riley-Smith, ed., The Oxford

History of the Crusades (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 47.

21
Jonathan Riley-Smith, “The State of Mind of Crusaders to the East 1095-1300” In Jonathan Riley-

Smith, ed., The Oxford History of the Crusades (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 69.

22
Matthew Paris, Matthew Paris’s English History, in The Crusades: A Reader, edited by S.J. Allen and

Emily Amt (Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2003), 375-377.

23
Kenneth M. Setton and Marshall W. Baldwin eds., The Crusades, Vol. 1. “The First Hundred Years”

(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 479.

24
Alexander III, Papal Bull of 1171, translated by E. Amt, in The Crusades: A Reader, edited by S.J.

Allen and Emily Amt (Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2003), 269-270.

25
Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A History (New York: Continuum, 2005), 161.

26
Innocent III, Letter to Bishop Albert of Riga, 19 October 1211, Translated by Helen J. Nicholson, in

“Documents Relating to the Baltic Crusade (1199-1266)

http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/sources/baltic1.htm Accessed December 3, 2011.

27
Helmold, Helmold’s Chronicle of the Slavs, translated by F.J. Tschan, in The Crusades: A Reader,

edited by S.J. Allen and Emily Amt (Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2003), 271.

28
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 2

nd
revised edition, 1920, translated by Fathers of the English

Dominican Province, online edition http://www.newadvent.org/summa/4062.htm (Accessed December

3, 2011)

29
Marsilius of Padua, The Defender of Peace, translated by A. Gewirth, in The Crusades: A Reader,

edited by S.J.

Allen and Emily Amt (Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2003), 375-377.

30
Johan Huzinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1999), 14.

31
Johann Schiltberger, Travelbook, translated by J.B. Telfer, in The Crusades: A Reader, edited by S.J.

Allen and Emily Amt (Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2003), 375-377.

32
Alan G. Jamieson, Faith and Sword: A Short History of Christian- Muslim Conflict (London: Reaktion

Books, 2006), 84-85.

33
Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom, 216.

34
Jonathan Riley-Smith, ed., The Oxford History of the Crusades (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1999), 4-5.

35
Tyerman, God’s War, 902.

36
Ibid., 914.

37
Usama ibn Muniqidh, The Frankish Cavalry, excerpt from The Autobiography of Usama ibn Muniqidh,

translated by E. J. Costello in Francesco Gabrieli, ed. Arab Historians of the Crusades (New York:

Routledge, 2010), 44.

John France, The Crusades and The Expansion of Catholic Christendom, 1000-1714 (New York:

Routledge, 2005), 295-298

39
Robert B. Marks, Origins of the Modern World: A Global and Ecological Narrative from the Fifteenth

to the Twenty-first Century (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 34-39.

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