GrAder

This is the instructions my professor gave us. I have attached the article to the file.

Hey folks,

For this article, I will be looking for primarily a critique of the article, as well as your own thoughts (inspired by the Sex Research lecture) about an experiment you could carry out moving forward (related to the topic of course).

Here is how it will be graded:

30% – at least 1.5 pages

5% – Clerical matters (double-spaced, 1″ margins, 12pt Times New Roman font, NO DOUBLE-SPACED HEADER)

15% – Positives of the article

15% – Negatives of the article

15% – Future direction/your own experiment

20% – Grammar and spelling >> this one is important, folks.

Since you’re all using the same one article, I am not looking for any APA-type citations.

ORIGINAL PAPER

The Dual Role of Media Internalization in Adolescent Sexual
Behavior

Ann Rousseau1 • Ine Beyens2 • Steven Eggermont1 • Laura Vandenbosch1,3,4

Received: 30 June 2015 / Revised: 4 November 2016 / Accepted: 10 November 2016 / Published online: 16 December 2016

� Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016

Abstract Sexualizing media content is prevalent in various

mediatypes.Sexualizingmediamessagesandportrayalsempha-

sizeunattainablebodyandappearanceidealsastheprimarycom-

ponentsofsexualdesirability.Theinternalizationoftheseidealsis

positivelyrelatedtoself-objectificationandsexualbodyconscious-

ness. In turn, self-objectification and sexual body consciousness

affectadolescents’sexualbehavior,albeitinopposingdirections.

While objectifying self-perceptions are linked to higher levels of

sexual behavior, body consciousness during physical intimacy is

linked to lower levels of sexual behavior. Based on this knowl-

edge,thepresentthree-wavepanelstudyof824Belgian,predom-

inant heterosexual adolescents (Mage =15.33; SD=1.45) pro-

poses a dual-pathway model that investigates two different path-

waysthroughwhichtheinternalizationofmediaidealsmayimpact

adolescents’ sexual behavior. An inhibitory pathway links media

internalization to lower levels of sexual behavior through sexual

body consciousness, and a supportive pathway links media inter-

nalization to higher levels of sexual behavior through self-objec-

tification. Structural equation analyses supported the proposed

dual-pathway, showing that the impact of media internalization

on adolescents’ sexual behavior proceeds through an inhibitory

pathway and a supportive pathway. Regarding the supportive

pathway, media internalization (W1) positively predicted sex-

ualbehavior(W3),throughvaluingappearanceovercompe-

tence(W2).Regardingtheinhibitorypathway,mediainternal-

ization (W1) positively predicted body surveillance, which, in

turn, positively predicted sexual body consciousness (all W2).

Sexual body consciousness (W2) is negatively related to sexual

behavior(W3).Fromasexualdevelopmentalperspective,these

findings emphasize the importance of guiding adolescents in

interpreting and processing sexualizing media messages.

Keywords Media internalization � Self-objectification �
Sexual body consciousness � Sexual behavior �
Sexualizing media

Introduction

Sexualizing media content is prevalent in virtually every media

genre (e.g., Bradley, 2013; Graff, Murnen, & Krause, 2013) and

emphasizes the body and appearance ideals as primary compo-

nents of sexual desirability (e.g., American Psychological Asso-

ciation [APA], 2007; Aubrey, 2007). Although physical appear-

ance is a natural occurring component of sexual desirability, the

narrowly defined standards used by popular media to define sex-

ualattractivenessareratherartificialconstructsofaculturalprac-

tice that is called sexualization. In particular, sexualizing content

is characterized by a focus on curvaceously thin women and lean

muscular men; these often unattainable body shapes are consid-

eredtobeimportantcuesforbeingsexuallyattractive(e.g.,Flynn,

Park, Morin, & Stana, 2015; Gunter, 2014). As such, sexualizing

media tend to portray these appearance ideals as providing an

importantadvantageforattractingtheoppositesex(e.g.,Northup

& Liebler, 2010).

& Steven Eggermont
Steven.Eggermont@kuleuven.be

1
Leuven School for Mass Communication Research, Faculty of

Social Sciences, KU Leuven, Parkstraat 45, Box 3603, 3000

Louvain,

Belgium

2
Amsterdam School of Communication Research, University of

Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

3
Research Foundation Flanders (FWO-Vlaanderen), Louvain,

Belgium

4
MIOS (Media, ICT, and Interpersonal Relations in

Organisations and Society), University of Antwerp, Antwerp,

Belgium

123

Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697

DOI 10.1007/s10508-016-0902-4

http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s10508-016-0902-4&domain=pdf

Because sexualizing messages are prevalent in the media

thatarepopularamongadolescents(Savin-Williams&Diamond,

2004), scholars have examined their potential influence on ado-

lescents’sexualwell-being(e.g.,APA,2007;Martinoetal.,2006;

O’Hara et al., 2008). However, research on the relationships

between exposure to sexualizing content and adolescent sexual

behaviorhasrevealedcontradictoryfindings.Whilesomestudies

foundthatsexualizingmediaexposureacceleratestheinitiationof

andprogressinadolescents’sexualtrajectory(Brownetal.,2006;

Martinoetal.,2006;Ybarra,Strasburger,&Mitchell,2014),other

studies reported either no or an inhibitive impact of sexualizing

media exposure on adolescent sexual behavior (Lude et al., 2011;

Steinberg & Monahan, 2011; Tiggemann & Williams, 2012) and

sexual self-perceptions (Doornwaard et al., 2014).

These inconsistent findings may be explained by literature

on self-objectification and sexual body consciousness. While

research has revealed that the use of sexualizing media trig-

gers self-objectification in adolescents and, in turn, acceler-

atesyoungpeople’ssexualtrajectory(Vandenbosch&Eggermont,

2015), research has also demonstrated (e.g., Aubrey, 2007; Van-

denbosch& Eggermont,2014) that sexualizing media trigger sex-

ual body consciousness (i.e., concerns aboutbodily appearance

during physical intimacy; Wiederman, 2000) and that this sex-

ualbodyconsciousnessisrelatedtotheinhibitionofsexualbehav-

ior (e.g., van den Brink, Smeets, Hessen, Talens, & Woertman,

2013; Wiederman & Sarin, 2014). Notably, within media effects

research,bothself-objectificationandsexualbodyconsciousness

havebeenlinkedtothesameunderlyingcause:theinternalization

ofmediaappearanceideals.Thismediainternalizationentailsthe

endorsement of media appearance ideals as a personal goal and

standard and is reflected by individuals’ tendency to compare

themselves with ideal images in the media (Thompson & Stice,

2001).

Drawingontheabovefindings,andfollowingrecentevidence

thattheinternalizationofsexualizedmediaidealsmaycauseatti-

tudinal and behavioral changes (e.g., Vandenbosch & Egger-

mont, 2014, 2015), the main objective of the present study is to

investigate the indirect link between media internalization and

adolescent sexual behavior. More particularly, the present three-

wave panel study proposes a dual-pathway model that addresses

and integrates an inhibitory pathway, linking media internaliza-

tion to lower levels of sexual behavior through sexual body con-

sciousness, and a supportive pathway that relates media internal-

ization to higher levels of sexual behavior through self-objecti-

fication. Acknowledging that adolescent sexual conduct encom-

passes different types of behavior (Impett, Schooler, & Tolman,

2006;Tolman&McClelland,2011),sexualbehaviorinthisstudy

includes petting behavior as well as sexual intercourse. The pro-

posed dual-pathway model also acknowledges earlier research

thatshowedthatmediainternalizationenhancesthedevelopment

of a multidimensional objectified self-concept (Vandenbosch &

Eggermont, 2012). As such, the current study aims to investigate

this multidimensional process of self-objectification (Vanden-

bosch & Eggermont, 2014) in relation with sexual body con-

sciousness (Wiederman, 2000) as a mechanism underlying the

relationship between media internalization and

sexual behavior.

Media Internalization and Adolescent Sexual
Behavior

As adolescents mature, they gradually become more curious

aboutsexualityandsexuallyorientedrelationships(Forbes&

Dahl, 2010). This curiosity makes them more sensitive to

environmental cues that may provide sexual information. Among

the available information sources, scholars have stressed the

importance of media (Bleakley, Hennessy, Fishbein, & Jordan,

2009), as media frequently provide youth with ideas and scripts

fortheirownromanticandsexualbehavior(Ward,2003).How-

ever, previous content analytic research has shown that media

offer a rather distorted image of human sexuality, in which

particulartypesofbodiesareglamorizedandsexualdesirability

is highly appearance-focused via a strong visual emphasis on

narrowly defined body ideals (e.g., Bradley, 2013; Graff et al.,

2013).

Suchbiasedcoverageofsexualcontentleadsviewerstoendorse

thebeliefthatone’svaluecomesfromone’ssexualattractiveness

and that one’s sexual attractiveness should be evaluated against

well-defined standards, such as a very thin yet curvaceous body

for women and a V-shaped torso for men. The endorsement of

such sexualized beliefs holds important implications for adoles-

cents’ body image and sexual behavior (see Ward, 2016, for a

review).Accordingly,concernshavebeenvoicedabouttheimpact

of sexualized media content and, more importantly, the internal-

izationofsuchcontentonadolescentsexualbehavior(e.g.,Martino

et al., 2006; Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2015).

Considering the central role of bodily appearance in both

sexual media content and sexual behavior (Cash, Maikkula, &

Yamamiya, 2004), scholars have often relied on objectification

theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) to explain the potential

impact of sexualizing media use (e.g., Aubrey, 2006; Vanden-

bosch&Eggermont,2015).Accordingly,thepresentstudybuilds

on the objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) and

literature inspired by this theory (e.g., Moradi & Huang, 2008) to

explain how the internalization of media appearance ideals may

both inhibit and motivate sexual behavior.

The Multidimensional Objectified Self-Concept

Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) postulate that exposure to

mediacontentthatemphasizesthebodyasthesoleinstrument

ofsexualattractivenesstriggersasexualobjectificationexperience

1686 Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697

123

that can result in self-objectification. Self-objectification occurs

when individuals apply an observer’s perspective on their body.

Self-objectifying individuals consider themselves as objects that

are solely valued for their outward appearance (Fredrickson &

Roberts,1997).Suchanobjectifiedself-conceptmanifestsitself

through the valuing of appearance over competence (Noll &

Fredrickson, 1998), that is, a greater emphasis on observable

appearance-based body attributes (e.g., sex appeal, weight) at

the expense of competence-based bodyattributes (e.g.,energy

level, stamina) (=first component). In addition, an objectified

self-concept is characterized by body surveillance, that is, a

continuousmonitoringofone’sphysicalappearance(=second

component) (McKinley & Hyde, 1996).

Several researchers have confirmed and refined objectifi-

cation theory by adding new components that are both con-

stitutive for and constituted by an objectified self-concept.

For instance, Moradi and Huang (2008) extended objectifi-

cation theory by adding‘‘the internalization of media appearance

ideals’’asathirdcomponentoftheobjectifiedself-concept.Inter-

nalizationreferstothedegreetowhichindividualscometoincor-

porate societal standards of appearance into their own personal

belief systems (Thompson & Stice, 2001). Vandenbosch and

Eggermont (2012, 2013) were among the first to empirically test

the multidimensional process of self-objectification proposed by

MoradiandHuang(2008).Theirstudyrevealedthattheendorse-

ment of media appearance norms as one’s own standards (i.e.,

media internalization) serves as a trigger for the development of

an objectified self-concept. More precisely, their results showed

thattheinternalizationofmediaappearanceidealspositivelypre-

dictsadolescents’motivationtovaluetheirappearanceovercom-

petence and to continuously monitor their physical appearance

(i.e., body surveillance).

More recently, Vandenbosch and Eggermont (2014) sug-

gested that a fourth component could be added to the multidi-

mensional process of self-objectification, namely, the extent to

which a person focuses on his or her bodily appearance during

physicalintimacy(i.e.,sexualbodyconsciousness;Wiederman,

2000). The follow-up study on the multidimensional process of

self-objectification(Vandenbosch&Eggermont,2014)demon-

stratedthatafter bodysurveillance hadtakenplace,body surveil-

lance induced a preoccupation with bodily appearance during

sexual intimacy in adolescent girls. This result is consistent with

priorresearch(Aubrey,2007)thatidentifiedbodysurveillanceas

the mediating variable linking sexually objectifying media to

higherlevelsofsexualbodyconsciousness,andsupportsFredrick-

son and Roberts (1997) suggestion that the adoption of an obser-

ver’s perspective may carry over to sexual settings.

Insum,theinternalizationofmediaappearanceidealssupports

media users to value appearance over competence and engage in

body surveillance. Body surveillance will subsequently increase

sexual body consciousness. In line with these findings, our first

hypothesis postulates the following:

Hypothesis 1 The internalization of media appearance ideals

will positively predict a multidimensional objectified self-concept

thatfollowsathree-stepprocess(i.e.,valuingappearanceovercom-

petence, body surveillance, and sexual body consciousness).

VandenboschandEggermont(2015)havesuggestedthatthe

differentdimensionsofthemultidimensionalobjectifiedself-con-

ceptmaybedifferentlyrelatedtosexualbehavior.Inparticular,lit-

eraturereportsthatvaluingappearanceovercompetenceandsex-

ualbodyconsciousnessrelatetosexualbehaviorinoppositedirec-

tions:Whilethepathwayfromtheobjectifiedself-conceptthrough

thevaluingofappearanceovercompetencesupportssexualbehav-

ior(e.g.,Vandenbosch&Eggermont,2014),thepathwayfromthe

objectified self-concept through sexual body consciousness in-

hibitssexualbehavior(e.g.,Milhausen,Buchholz,Opperman,&

Benson, 2015; Steer & Tiggemann, 2008). As such, we assume

thattwoopposingpathwaysexistbywhichmediainternalization

affects sexual behavior: a supportive pathway, in which media

internalization supports sexual behavior, and an inhibitory path-

way, in which media internalization inhibits sexual behavior.

The Supportive Pathway

The valuing of appearance over competence has been linked to

adolescent sexual behavior (Claudat & Warren, 2014; Vanden-

bosch&Eggermont,2015).Specifically,scholarshavefoundthat

adolescents who value appearance-based body attributes over

competence-based body attributes are more likely to initiate sex-

ual intercourse (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2015), which is

consistentwithearlierresearch(Pearson,Kholodkov,Henson,&

Impett, 2012) that described body objectification as the strongest

predictor of early coital debut among adolescents.

Coy(2013)andRamseyandHoyt(2015)havepointedatbody

dissociation, that is, losing awareness of one’s own desires and

bodilyfeelings,asanexplanationforthisrelationship.Individuals

whovalueappearanceovercompetencefinditdifficulttoacknowl-

edge their own desires and concentrate instead on their body as a

physical object that needs to be desired and used by others (Impett

etal.,2006;Ramsey&Hoyt,2015).Inturn,individualswhoview

themselvesasasexualobjectandwhohaveadiminishedabilityto

act in accordance with their own desires, show lower levels of

sexual agency (Impett et al., 2006). A decreased level of sexual

agency is linked to more advanced sexual experiences and the

inability to refuse sexual requests (e.g., Curtin, Ward, Merri-

wether, & Caruthers, 2011).

Based on this reasoning, we hypothesize that valuing appear-

anceovercompetenceplaysanexplanatoryroleintherelationship

between media internalization and adolescents’ increased sexual

behavior.Assuch,ourhypothesisonthesupportivepathwayreads:

Hypothesis 2 Media internalization supports higher levels of

sexual behavior through valuing appear

ance over competence.

Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697 1687

123

The Inhibitory Pathway

Higher levels of sexual body consciousness are associated with

lower levels of sexual behavior (La Rocque & Cioe, 2011; van

den Brink et al., 2013). The self-conscious focus on the body

during physical intimacy appears to play an inhibitory role in

one’s sexual functioning (Cash et al., 2004; La Rocque & Cioe,

2011; van den Brink et al., 2013).

Literature explainsthatindividualsare socializedintothe idea

thatanadequatesexpartnerneedstoconformtonormsregarding

physicalattractivenessandsexiness(Dove&Wiederman,2000).

However,asthisstandardofsexualattractivenessisalmostimpos-

sible to attain, people’s tendency to monitor their physical appear-

ance to conform to internalized media appearance ideals likely

leads to the experience of a gap between their own body and the

body ideal prescribed by media (e.g., Bessenoff, 2006). The

perceived failure to attain the ideal of sexual attractiveness can

leadtoanegativeoutcomeexpectancy,asitmayinduceanxiety

about a sexual partner’s negative response to one’s body (e.g.,

Weaver&Byers,2013).Asnegativeoutcomeexpectanciesand

performanceanxietyhavebeenidentifiedastwotypesofthreats

that activate the sexual inhibitory system, which is responsible

for avoidant sexual behavior (e.g., Bancroft & Janssen, 2000;

Bancroft, Graham, Janssen, & Sanders, 2009), we presume that

sexual body consciousness negatively relates to adolescent sex-

ual behavior (e.g., La Rocque & Cioe, 2011).

In line with this reasoning, research showed that sexual

bodyconsciousnessisnegativelyrelatedtogirls’sexualactivity,

inthatitinhibitsgirlstoengageinsexuallyintimaterelations(La

Rocque & Cioe, 2011; Yamamiya, Cash, & Thompson, 2006).

Therefore,wehypothesizethatsexualbodyconsciousnessplays

an inhibitive role in the relationship between media internal-

ization and adolescents’ sexual behavior. As such, our hypoth-

esis on the inhibitive pathway reads:

Hypothesis 3 Media internalization supports lower levels of

sexual behavior through a shared process of body surveillance

and sexual body consciousness.

Insum,weaimtoexaminetheexplanatorypoweroftwodif-

ferent pathways that underlie the relationship between adoles-

cents’mediainternalizationandadolescentsexualbehavior.All

hypotheses are summarized in Fig.1. The model controls for

age,gender,andbodymassindex,asprior researchshowedthat

these factors may affect both hypothesized pathways, due to

theirrelatednesswithbodyimage(Calzoetal.,2012)andsexual

functioning (Cash et al., 2004).

Moreover, we aim to test whether gender moderates the rela-

tionships of our hypothesized model. While valuing appearance

over competence (e.g., Gunter, 2014), body surveillance (e.g.,

Grabe,Hyde,&Lindberg,2007),andsexualbodyconsciousness

(e.g., Meana & Nunnink, 2006) vary across gender, with women

reportinghigherscoresonallvariables,studieshaverarelyexam-

ined whether these concepts differently mediate the relationship

between media internalization and sexual behavior for boys and

girls.However,pastresearchhasdemonstratedthat,comparedto

men,women’ssexualfunctioningisfarmoresensitivetocultural

factors such as media images (Baumeister, 2000; Toates, 2009).

Accordingly, women’s sexual motivation may be more easily

aroused or inhibited by retrieving and processing desire-related

culturalinformation,aprocesstermederoticplasticity(Baumeis-

ter, 2000). Given women’s sexual functioning as culturally

responsiveandmedia’srelativelystrongeremphasisonthefemale

bodyandappearanceasprimarycomponentsofsexualdesirability,

body image may play a more important role in women’s sexual

functioning(e.g.,Graham,Sanders,Milhausen,&McBride,2004).

Insupportofthisreasoning,scholarsrecentlynotedthatawoman’s

perceptionofherphysicalattractivenessisanimportantfactorinthe

perception of herself as a sexually desirable object and in eliciting

sexual desire or the motivation to engage in sexual activities

(Grahametal.,2004).Drawingonthesefindings,thefollowing

hypothesis is generated.

Hypothesis 4 The supportive and inhibitory path will be

stronger among girls than among boys.

Method

Participants and Procedure

Athree-wavepanelstudywithintervalsof6monthswasconducted

amonganadolescentsample(12-to18-yearsold).Ethicalapproval

for the study was grantedby the institutional board of the host uni-

versity. Survey data were gathered by means of a two-step sam-

plingmethod.First,secondaryschoolsfromdifferenteducational

and geographical backgrounds were asked to participate in our

Fig. 1 Hypothesized model examiningthe impact ofthe internalization of
appearance ideals, through valuing appearance over competence, body

surveillance, and sexual body consciousness. Striped lines represent the

supportive pathway; solid lines represent the inhibitory pathway

1688 Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697

123

study. Second, the 12 schools that agreed to participate were

visited.Atthetimeofvisit,allenrolledstudentswereaskedtofill

in a pencil-and-paper questionnaire.
1
Participants were informed

on the confidentiality of their answers before they started com-

pleting the survey. As a reward, participants were entered into a

lottery to win a reward card. Overall, this approach resulted in a

total sample of 1504 completed questionnaires at baseline, 1426

completed questionnaires at Wave 2, and 1433 completed ques-

tionnaires at Wave 3.

Atotalof824adolescentscompletedthemeasuresusedinthis

study for all three waves (56.6% boys and 43.4% girls) and were

included in the analytical sample. The mean age was 15.33years

(SD=1.45) and the majority of the sample was born in Belgium

(95.0%). With regard to sexual orientation, the sample waspre-

dominantlyheterosexual(97.8%),followedby1.6%bisexualand

.6% homosexual.

Measures

Internalization of Media Appearance Ideals

The Internalization subscale of the Sociocultural Attitudes

Toward Appearance Scale (Thompson, van den Berg, Roehrig,

Guarda, & Heinberg, 2004) was used to measure adolescents’

internalization of media appearance ideals. Participants used a

5-point scale ranging from 1 (I totally disagree) to 5 (I totally

agree) to evaluate nine statements, such as ‘‘I try to look like

charactersonTV’’and‘‘Icomparemyappearancetotheappear-

ance of people in magazines.’’ Both the scale’s reliability and

validity have been demonstrated by prior research (Thompson

et al., 2004). The reliability test in this study indicated that two

items decreased the alpha coefficient. Consequently, these two

items (i.e.,‘‘I compare my body to the bodies of TV and movie

stars’’and‘‘I compare my appearance to the appearance of TV

and movie stars’’) were deleted. After removing these items, the

Cronbach’salphaimprovedfrom.82to.92forWave1,from.82

to.93for Wave2,andfrom.85to.94for Wave3.Higherscores

indicated greater internalization of media appearance ideals.

Valuing Appearance Over Competence

Valuingappearanceovercompetencewasassessedusingamod-

ified version (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2015) of Noll and

Fredrickson’soriginalSelf-ObjectificationQuestionnaire(1998).

Participants were asked to rate the importance of 12 body attri-

butesona10-pointscalerangingfrom1(notatallimportant)to10

(very important). Principal components analysis, using direct

oblimin, yielded two factors: appearance-based (e.g., physical

attractiveness,sexappeal)andcompetence-basedattributes(e.g.,

physicalenergylevel,stamina).Thedifferencebetweenthemean

scores of the newly formed appearance (Girls aw1 = .75; aw2 =
.77; aw3 = .80; Boys aw1 = .84; aw2 = .85; aw3 = .86) and com-
petence-based(Girlsaw1 = .80;aw2 = .80;aw3 = .83;Boysaw1=
.83; aw2 = .86; aw3 = .87) factors addressed the estimated
level of valuingappearance overcompetence (rangingfrom -9

to 9). Positive scores on this measure indicated valuing appear-

ance as more important than competence.

Body Surveillance

Participants completed the Surveillance Subscale of the Objec-

tifiedBodyConsciousnessScale(McKinley&Hyde,1996).Par-

ticipants evaluated four statements (e.g.,‘‘I often compare how I

look with how other people look’’) on a 5-point Likert scale,

rangingfrom1(Almostnever)to5(Almostalways).Internalcon-

sistency was demonstrated in each wave (aw1 = .79; aw2 = .81;
aw3 = .82). Higher scores indicated greater body surveillance.

Sexual Body Consciousness

FiveitemswereadaptedfromtheBodyImageSelf-Consciousness

Scale (Wiederman, 2000). Participants indicated their level of

agreementwitheachofthe five items(e.g.,‘‘I feltverynervous

when my boyfriend explored my body and touched it every-

where during sex’’) on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Almost

never) to 5 (Almost always). Participants who did not yet

engage in sexual intercourse were requested to fill in an adapted

scale, which included items that referred to hypothetical situations

of having sexual intercourse (e.g., ‘‘I would feel nervous if my

(future)boyfriendwouldexploremybodyandtouchiteverywhere

during sex’’). Mean scores were computed across the five items,

suchthat higher scores indicatedhigher consciousnessduring sex-

ualactivitywithapartner.Thescaleevidencedinternalconsistency

reliability across the different waves (aw1 =.78; aw2 =.82; aw3 =
.95).

Sexual Behavior

Sexual behavior was operationalized by means of a multi-item

question.Participantswereaskedwhethertheyhadeverengaged

ineachofthefollowingsexualbehaviors:‘‘Frenchkissing,’’‘‘Hav-

ing your breasts/penis touched by a guy/girl,’’‘‘Touching the

vagina/penis of your partner,’’and‘‘Having sexual intercourse.’’

Engagement in a particular sexual behavior was coded 1, and the

inverse was coded 0. To avoid problems with the dichotomous

nature of each of these four items, sexual experience with a par-

ticular behavior was recoded by adding a specific weight to each

variable. In particular, more sexually advanced behaviors were

givenahigherweight.Anoverallestimateofsexualbehaviorwas

calculatedbysummingacrossthescoresonallfouritems.Higher

scores indicated more sexual behavior.1 All of the questionnaires, as used in the study, are available upon request.

Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697 1689

123

Control Variables

Age,gender,andbodymassindex(BMI)wereincludedascon-

trolvariables.Self-reportedmeasuresofheightandweightwere

used to estimate BMI, which was calculated as weight (kg) per

square height (m).

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Zero-Order Correlations

Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. A multivariate

analysis of variance (MANOVA) using Pillai’s Trace indi-

cated significant differences between boys and girls on all

relevantvariablesofWave1,V = .35,F(6,817) = 73.17,p\.
001, gp2 = .35. Separate univariate ANOVAs showed that
girlsscoredhigherontheinternalizationofmediaappearance

ideals, F(1, 822)=77.82, p\.001, gp2 = .09, valuing appear-
ance over competence, F(1, 822)=267.34, p\.001, gp2 = .25,
body surveillance, F(1, 822)=172.79, p\.001, gp2= .17, sex-
ual body consciousness, F(1, 822)=98.79, p\.001, gp2 = .11,
and sexual activity, F(1, 822)=12.70, p\.001, gp2 = .02 .

Zero-order correlations showed significant relationships

between the internalization of media appearance ideals, valuing

appearanceovercompetence,bodysurveillance,sexualbodycon-

sciousness, and sexual behavior (Table2).

To assess whether adolescents who completed all three

questionnaires (N = 824) differed from those who completed

only the first questionnaire (N = 297), a MANOVA analysis

was conducted. Using Pillai’s Trace, the analysis revealed

significant differences with respect to relevant Wave 1 vari-

ables, V= .047, F(6, 1114)=9.20, p\.001, gp2 = .05. Separate
univariate ANOVAs on the outcome variables showed that

adolescents who participated in all three waves reported lower

levels of sexual activity (M=2.95, SD=3.65 vs. M=4.23,

SD=4.13),F(1,1119)=24.92,p\.001,gp2 = .02,higherlevels
of internalization (M=2.50, SD= .87 vs. M=2.31, SD= .84),

F(1, 1119)=11.10, p\.005, gp2 = .01, higher levels of body
surveillance (M=3.10, SD= .83 vs. M=2.85, SD= .89), F(1,

1119)=18.41, p\.001, gp2 = .02), and higher levels of sexual
body consciousness (M=2.51, SD= .83 vs. M=2.24, SD=

.91), F(1, 1119)=22.89, p\.001, gp2 = .02) than those who did
not participate in all three waves. No significant differences were

found for valuing appearance over competence.

Testing the Hypothesized Model

Thehypothesizedrelationshipsweretestedbymeansofstructural

equationmodeling(AMOS)usingthemaximumlikelihoodmethod.

Inordertoexaminetheindirectrelationshipbetweenmediainter-

nalizationandsexualbehaviorthroughtheinhibitoryandsupport-

ive pathway, we specified user-defined estimands using a boot-

strapping procedure (Cheung & Lau, 2008). Multiple impu-

tations were performed, since the bootstrapping method does not

allow the sample to include missing values (Honaker & King,

2010).FollowingByrne(2006),weusedthreeindicestoevaluate

the fit of our model: the chi-square-to-degrees-of-freedom ratio

(v2/df), the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA),
and the comparative fit index (CFI). An acceptable model fit is

expressed in a v2/df ratio of\3.0, an RMSEA value of\.06 (a
value between .05 and .09 indicates a fair model fit and a value

Table 1 Descriptive statistics

Boys (N = 466) Girls (N = 358) Gender differences

M SD M SD t test

Internalization W1
b

2.31 .81 2.78 .87 t(951) = -8.79***

Valuing appearance over competence W1
c

-1.47 1.45 .05 1.45 t(964) = -15.79***

Valuing appearance over competence W2
c

-1.31 1.47 .37 1.39 t(964) = -17.35***

Body surveillance W1
b

2.79 .77 3.48 .76 t(979) = -13.47***

Body surveillance W2
b

2.84 .80 3.51 .74 t(970) = -13.30***

Sexual body consciousness W1
b

2.27 .75 2.83 .81 t(980) = -10.86***

Sexual body consciousness W2
b

2.16 .71 2.82 .83 t(834.31) = -12.68***

Sexual behavior W1
d

2.66 3.36 3.30 3.95 t(796.72) = -2.85**

Sexual Behavior W2
d

3.47 3.74 4.50 4.25 t(841.22) = -2.07*

Sexual behavior W3
d

3.94 3.96 4.54 4.28 t(841.81) = -2.23*

* p\.05; ** p\.01; *** p\.001
a
Absolute range, .48 to 2.43

b
Absolute range, 1 to 5

c
Absolute range, -9 to 9

d
Absolute range, 0 to 10

1690 Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697

123

below .05 indicates a close model fit), and a CFI value above .90,

butpreferablyabove.95(Byrne,2006).Ourmodelcontrolledfor

the baseline value of age, gender, and body mass index and for

prior values oneach criterion variable byusingthemaspredictors

of the endogenous variables. For instance, valuing appearance over

competence at Wave 1 was entered as an exogenous variable, pre-

dicting valuing appearance over competence at Wave 2. All vari-

ables at Wave 1 were allowed to covary, and same-item residuals

wereallowedtocorrelateacrossmeasurementoccasions.Acknowl-

edging the problem of multicollinearity within multiple mediator

models, we further allowed the residuals of all three mediators to

covary with each other.

Our observed model,presented in Fig. 2,showed a good fit

to the data, RMSEA = .04, CFI = .95, v2/df = 2.98, p\.001.
Figure2 presents the standardized regression weights of the esti-

mated paths. For reasons of graphical parsimony, the measure-

ment details and control variables are not given. The model

explained 81.3% of the variance in sexual behavior, 64.5% of

thevarianceinsexualbodyconsciousness,67.3%ofthevariance

inbodysurveillance,and47.9%ofthevarianceinvaluingappear-

ance over competence.

In line with Hypothesis1,we found that media internalization

positively predicted valuing appearance over competence, body

surveillance,andsexualbodyconsciousness.First,apositiverela-

tionship between media internalization at Wave 1 and adoles-

cents’valuingappearanceovercompetenceatWave2wasfound,

b= .06, B= .18, SE= .08, p\.05. The model further indicated
thattheinternalizationofmediaappearanceidealsatWave1also

positively predicted body surveillance at Wave 2, b = .07,
B= .09, SE= .04, p\.05. In turn, body surveillance at Wave 2
waspositivelyassociatedwithadolescents’sexualbodyconscious-

ness at Wave 2, b=.15, B=.12, SE=.04, p\.01.
With respect to Hypothesis 2, the results supported the

proposition of a supportive pathway, in that valuing appear-

ance over competence at Wave 2 positively predicted adoles-

cents’ sexual behavior at Wave 3, b= .06, B= .01, SE= .00,
p\.01. In line with Hypothesis 3, the results also provided evi-
dence for the existence of an inhibitory pathway, as sexual body

consciousnessatWave2negativelypredictedadolescents’sexual

behavior at Wave 3, b=-.15, B=-.08, SE= .01, p\.001. In
additiontoestimatingbothhypothesizedpathways,wealsotested

whether there was a direct relationship between media internal-

izationandadolescents’sexualbehavior.Resultsindicatedapos-

itive relationship between media internalization at Wave 1 and

adolescentsexualbehavioratWave3,b= .05,B= .03,SE= .01,
p\.05.

To further examine the dual-pathway structure, as hypoth-

esizedbyHypotheses2and3,indirecteffectswerecalculated

for both pathways. User-defined estimands (Arbuckle, 2013)

were created to calculate the individual indirect impact of the

Table 2 Zero-order inter-order correlations

Int W1 VA W1 VA W2 BS W1 BS W2 Sbc W1 Sbc W2 Sex W1 Sex W2 Sex W3

Int W1 1 .39*** .33*** .56*** .50*** .24*** .24*** .12*** .14*** .15***

VA W1 1 .70*** .49*** .40*** .12*** .10*** .29*** .25*** .26***

VA W2 1 .46*** .44*** .16*** .12*** .25*** .25*** .24***

BS W1 1 .71*** .29*** .25*** .15*** .14*** .15***

BS W2 1 .26*** .31*** .06 .06** .06

Sbc W1 1 .63*** -.28*** -.28*** -.27***

Sbc W2 1 -.26*** -.29*** -.31***

Sex W1 1 .85*** .80***

Sex W2 1 .89***

Sex W3 1

Int internalization of appearance ideals, VA valuing appearance over competence, BS body surveillance, SBC sexual body consciousness, Sex sexual

behavior

* p B .05; ** p B .01; *** p B .001

Fig. 2 Final model examining the impact of the internalization of
appearance ideals through valuing appearance over competence, body

surveillance, and sexual body consciousness. Note values reflect

standardized coefficients; *p B .05; **p B .001; ***p B .001

Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697 1691

123

supportiveandinhibitorypathway,respectively.A95%bias-

corrected bootstrap confidence interval was used to test the

significance levels (e.g., Bekalu & Eggermont, 2015). Con-

sistent with the study prediction of an inhibitory pathway,

body surveillance and sexual body consciousness (Wave 2

variables) emerged as mediators of the relationship between

media internalization at Wave 1 and lower levels of sexual

behavior at Wave 3 (-.001 = .07 9 .15 9 -.15; p = .03).

Media internalization at Wave 1 positively predicted body

surveillance at Wave 2, which, in turn, was positively related

to sexual body consciousness at Wave 2. Sexual body con-

sciousness at Wave 2 negatively predicted sexual behavior at

Wave 3. Similarly, the hypothesis of a supportive pathway

could be confirmed as well, with valuing appearance over

competence at Wave 2 significantly linking media internal-

ization at Wave 1 with higher levels of sexual behavior at

Wave 3 (.001 = .06 9 .06; p = .02).

Testing the Moderating Role of Gender

Totestwhethertheobserved modelwould bestronger among

girls(H4),weconductedamultiplegroupanalysis(Jöreskog,

1971) withgender asour grouping variable. FollowingByrne

(2006), we used a two-step method to assess the moderating

role of gender. In the first step, metric invariance was mea-

sured to investigate whether the meaning of the constructs

was equivalent for boys and girls. To thisend, we constrained

the factor loadings of each construct to be equal across gen-

der. Following Cheung and Rensvold (2002), metric invari-

ance is supported if the difference in CFI (DCFI) between the
unconstrainedandtheconstrainedmodeldoesnotexceed.01.

According to the global model fit, the difference in CFI was

not significant (CFI unconstrained model = .932; CFI con-

strained model = .929;DCFI\.01), indicating metric invari-
ance. In the second step, structural invariance was measured

by constraining all structural weights to be equal across gen-

der. The difference between the CFI values (CFI unconstrained

model= .929; CFI constrained model= .930; DCFI\.01) met
the recommendedcutoff criterionof .01,indicatingthat the

observed model was not moderated by adolescents’ gender.

Discussion

The current three-wave panel study aimed to broaden our under-

standing of how adolescents’ media internalization affects their

sexualbehavior.Whilescholarshaverepeatedlyproventhatsexual

mediaexposureisassociatedwithmoreadvancedsexualbehavior

among adolescents (e.g., Martino et al., 2006; Ybarra et al., 2014),

thisstudywasthefirsttolookatboththe inhibitingandsupporting

role of media internalization in adolescent sexual behavior. In line

withthehypothesisofadual-pathwaymodel,ourresultssupported

the contention that media internalization can be linked to

both higher andlower levelsof adolescent sexual behavior.

The results of the current study offer three key contributions.

First, the present study advances the literature on media, body

image,andsexuality,inthatouranalysisrevealedajoinedimpact

ofbodilyandsexualityrelatedfactorsontherelationshipbetween

media internalization and adolescents’ sexual behavior. In par-

ticular, our study was among the first to extend the multidimen-

sionalmodelofself-objectification(Vandenbosch&Eggermont,

2012, 2013) with sexual body consciousness to explain the asso-

ciation between the internalization of media appearance ideals

and adolescent sexual behavior. Furthermore, examining the

shared influence of both bodily and sexuality related factors

was essential to fully grasp the double role of media internal-

ization in adolescents’ sexual behavior. The direction of the

indirectrelationship between media internalization and sexual

behavior reversed between the supportive pathway (including

solely bodily related factors) and inhibitory pathway (includ-

ing bodily and sexuality related factors). Future research should

thereforecontinuetoinvestigatethecombinedinfluenceofbodily

andsexualityrelatedmediators,ratherthanassessingthesefactors

separately in distinct models.

Second,thepresentstudyextendspreviousfindingsbydemon-

stratingthedualroleofmediainternalizationinadolescentsexual

behavior.Usingadual-pathwaymodel,weidentifiedtwodistinct

processes responsible for the impact of media internalization on

adolescents’ sexual behavior: an inhibiting process and a sup-

porting process. While most media research has focused on how

sexual content is tied to higher levels of sexual experiences (e.g.,

Martinoetal.,2006),littleornoattentionhasbeenpaidtohowthe

internalizationofappearanceidealsinsuchcontentmaydelaysex-

ualactivities.Nevertheless,theattainmentofsatisfactorysexualrela-

tionships is an important developmental task in adolescence (e.g.,

Tolman & McClelland, 2011), as previous research (Reissing,

Laliberté,&Davis,2005)stressedtheimportanceofpositivesex-

ualexperiencesinthedevelopmentofpositivesexualself-schema

(i.e.,positive cognitive representationsof sexual aspectsof the self

that are derived from past experiences, Anderson & Cyranowski,

1994, p. 1079). In turn, a positive sexual self-schema has been

linkedwithhigherlevelsofsexualfunctioningandsatisfaction(Li,

Rew, & Chen, 2015). However, sexually avoidant adolescents,

who lack confidence to engage in sexual activities due to negative

bodyperceptions,arenotinapositiontodisconfirmnegativesexual

self-perceptions and to develop positive sexual self-schema (e.g.,

Reissing et al., 2005).

Third, researchers have traditionally perceived women as

morevulnerabletosexualizingexperiences(e.g.,APA,2007;

Zurbriggen & Roberts, 2013). Although girls scored signifi-

cantly higher on the internalization of media appearance ideals,

valuing appearance over competence, and body surveillance, the

present study showed that the observed relationships among our

main variables did not differ across gender. Hence, it might be

desirable for future research to give equal attention to male and

1692 Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697

123

female experiences of (media) sexualization, as well as the pos-

sible consequences that arise from such sexualizing experiences.

Consistent with the idea of a supportive pathway, our study

showed that media internalization is positively related to ado-

lescent sexual behavior, through valuing appearance over com-

petence. In line with previous research, the results indicated that

media internalization positively predicted adolescents’ valuing

appearance over competence (e.g., Moradi & Huang, 2008; Daka-

nalisetal.,2014;Nowatzki&Morry,2009),which,inturn,was

positively tied to adolescents’ sexual behavior.

The finding of a supportive pathway corresponds with recent

objectificationtheoryresearch that haslinked self-objectification

withbothlowerlevelsofsexualassertivenessandhigherlevelsof

sexual risk taking (e.g., Ramsey & Hoyt, 2015; Tolman, 2013).

Specifically,scholarsarguedthatindividualswhoarebeingsocial-

ized into sexual objects would experience more difficulties with

asserting sexual choices and advocating their own sexual feelings

(e.g.,Brotto,Heiman,&Tolman,2009;Nowatzki&Morry,2009).

Additionally,individualswhopossesslowerlevelsofsexualagency

more frequently exhibit sexual risk behavior (Schooler, Ward,

Merriwether, & Caruthers, 2005). Knowing that the internal-

ization of media appearance ideals increases adolescents’ propen-

sitytoobjectifythemselvesinsexualcontexts(e.g.,Erchull,Liss,&

Lichiello,2013),itmightbearguabletopointatmediainternaliza-

tion as a possible trigger of adolescents’ lower level of sexual

assertiveness or agency. Moreover, as argued by Fine and

McClelland (2006), constraints on sexual agency can give

risetosexualriskbehaviors,includingunwantedsex(Curtin

et al., 2011; Impett et al., 2006).

Leaning on these empirical insights, we expect that media

internalization may indirectly add to adolescents’ lower levels of

sexualagencywithinsexualcontexts,viavaluingappearanceover

competence. Since adolescents who lack control over sexual situ-

ations experience more difficulties in refusing (unwanted) sexual

proposals, the aforementioned processes might provide a feasible

explanation for the accelerating impact of sexualizing media on

sexual behavior.

Congruent with the hypothesis of an inhibitory pathway,

our results demonstrated that body surveillance and sexual body

consciousnessseriallymediatedtherelationbetweenmediainter-

nalization and adolescents’ lower experience with sexual behav-

ior.Inparticular,theinternalizationofmediaappearanceidealswas

positively related to adolescents’ body surveillance (e.g., Aubrey,

2006; Fitzsimmons-Craft et al., 2012), which, in turn, positively

predicted adolescents’ concern about their physical appearance

during sexual activities (i.e., sexual body consciousness) (e.g.,

Aubrey, 2007). A lack of self-confidence about one’s bodily

appearance during sexual intimacy eventually negatively pre-

dicted adolescents’ sexual behavior (e.g., van den Brink et al.,

2013).

As with the supportive path, the results of our inhibitory path

analysisagainprovidesupportfortherelationshipsthathavebeen

proposed by Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) and other objecti-

fication scholars. First, congruent with their idea of media as a

sexualizing agent, constitutive for the development of an objec-

tified self-concept among its users, we evidenced a positive rela-

tionship between media internalization and adolescents’ body

surveillance,confirmingearlierstudies(e.g.,Fuchs,2011;Knauss,

Paxton, & Alsaker, 2008). Second, body surveillance positively

predicted sexual body consciousness, which supports Fredrick-

sonandRoberts(1997)suggestionthatgeneralbodysurveillance

may carry over into sexual settings, in the form of sexual body

consciousness (e.g., Steer & Tiggemann, 2008). Lastly, our data

also supported Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) expectation that

individuals’ objectified body consciousness would be associated

with their diminished (healthy) sexual functioning, in that sexual

body consciousness was positively tied to lower levels of sexual

experience (e.g., Cash et al., 2004; La Rocque & Cioe, 2011; van

den Brink et al., 2013; Wiederman, 2000).

Thesefindingscanbeinterpretedwithinthedualcontrolmodel

(Bancroft & Janssen, 2000; Janssen & Bancroft, 2007), which

posits that both sexual arousal and motivation (e.g., the drive to

engage in sexual encounters) result from the interaction between

twodifferentcognitiveprocesses:thesexualexcitatorysystemand

the sexual inhibitory system (Janssen & Bancroft, 2007). The sex-

ualexcitatorysystem(SES)canbetriggeredbyattentionalfocuson

externalandinternalsexualcues,suchassexualfantasiesorthe

observationofaphysicallyattractivepartner,andisresponsiblefor

theactivationofhumansexualbehavior.ContrarytotheSES,acti-

vation of the sexual inhibitory system (SIS) is mainly triggered by

performanceanxietyandnegativeoutcomeexpectancies(Janssen,

Vorst,Finn,& Bancroft,2002)andreducesthelikelihoodthatone

willexhibitasexualbehavior(e.g.,Bancroftetal.,2009).Whethera

sexualstimuluswillelicita sexual response,dependsontheextent

to which both systems are activated (e.g., Janssen et al., 2002).

Applying this theoretical model to our results and, more

specifically, to our inhibitory pathway, we might argue that

the internalization of media appearance ideals, body surveil-

lance, and sexual body consciousness function as a chain that

canactivatethesexualinhibitorysystem.First,contentanalyses

consistently proved that media carry the idea that physical

appearance is of value, especially in romantic and sexual rela-

tionships (e.g., Ward, 1995). The appearance standards that are

beingequatedwithsexinessareoftennarrowlydefinedandasso-

ciated with a particular body type that is almost impossible to

attain(e.g.,Flynnetal.,2015;Rohlinger,2002;Vandenbosch&

Eggermont, 2013).

Second, despite their impossibility to match these body types,

individuals often internalize these unrealistic ideals of attractive

sexiness as a standard for themselves. Third, due to the internal-

ization of media appearance ideals, individuals come to gauge

theirsexualattractivenessagainstthosemediaimagesofphysical

perfection (i.e., body surveillance), which, in turn, will increase

the likelihood that they will be left concerned about and dissat-

isfied with their (sexual) physical appearance (i.e., (sexual) body

consciousness).Sinceadolescentshavebeentaughtthatattractive

Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697 1693

123

sexiness is an important prerequisite in attracting romantic part-

ners (e.g., Rivadeneyra & Lebo, 2008), the idea that one will not

appear as sexy toward his or her partner may foster the develop-

ment of sexual anxiety (i.e., performance anxiety) as well as the

development of negative outcome expectancies (e.g., romantic

rejection by devaluing partners). As negative outcome expectan-

ciesandperformanceanxietyhavebeenidentifiedastwotypesof

threatsthatinhibitsexualbehavior(e.g.,Bancroftetal.,2009),this

might explain why negative body consciousness is a negative

predictor of adolescents’ sexual behavior.

The findings of the current study are limited in some respects.

First, participants were recruited from a European sample com-

posed mainly of White adolescents. Given the existence of race

differencesintherelationshipbetweenmediaandsexualbehavior

(Brown et al., 2006), our results can thus not be extrapolated to a

morediverseethnicpopulation.Second,experimentalresearchis

needed to fully understand the causal relationships among our

studied variables. These experimental designs may focus on out-

comes, such as willingness to engage in sexual behavior (Van

Oosten,Peter,&Vandenbosch,2015)andintentionstoengagein

sexualbehavior(Bleakley,Hennessy,Fishbein,&Jordan,2008).

Third, we cannot rule out the possibility that the results derived

fromourhypotheticalbodyimageself-consciousnessscaledonot

applytoreal-lifesituationsorreflectnervousnessabouthavingsex

rather than concerns about one’s bodily appearance during sex.

Fourth, in support of our inhibitory pathway, we theoretically link

‘valuing appearance over competence’ to lower levels of sexual

agency, which, in turn, has been linked to higher levels of sexual

risk taking (e.g., Schooler et al., 2005). Unfortunately, we did not

gatherdataonsexualrisktaking,renderingitimpossibletotestthe

dual-pathway model for sexual risk behavior. Fifth, adolescents

who did not participate in all three waves reported higher levels of

sexualexperienceandlowerlevelsofinternalization,bodysurveil-

lance, and sexual body consciousness. Given that positive sexual

experiences are related to higher levels of body satisfaction and

lower levels of body consciousness (van den Brink et al., 2013),

attrition bias may have had some impact on the study findings.

Futurestudiesmightconsidertheprotectiveroleofconsensual

sexualexperiencesinthe relationshipbetweenadolescents’media

exposure and their sexual attitudes and behavior.

Finally, it is important to note that we do not imply that ado-

lescents are passive media recipients. In line with prior studies,

we acknowledge that adolescents play an active role in their inter-

pretationof media content andcan responddifferentlytothe same

sexualizing media content (Valkenburg, Peter, & Walther, 2016).

Hence, future studies should consider how individual difference

(e.g., self-esteem, sexual orientation) and social context (e.g., rela-

tionship status) variables influence the way in which sexualizing

media content is processed.

Despite these limitations, the present study provides evidence

for the dual role of media internalization in adolescent sexual

behavior. An important next step is to investigate the relative

importance of each of the pathways. Given that media effects

can be enhanced by individual difference and social context vari-

ables (Valkenburg et al., 2016), it is important to examine which

adolescents are particularly prone to value appearance over com-

petence and/or to develop sexual body consciousness. Consid-

ering the role of personality in adolescents’ sexual development and

vulnerabilitytowardself-objectification(e.g.,Miner-Rubino,Twenge,

&Fredrickson,2002;Swami,Taylor,&Carvalho,2011),itmightbe

interesting to extend the impact of personality characteristics to

our supportive and inhibitory pathways. Contextual factors, such

as being in a romantic relationship, are worthy of exploring as

well,asrecentstudiesemphasizedtheimpactofrelationshipsatis-

faction and partner objectification on individuals’ sexual func-

tioning and self-objectification (e.g., DeVille, Ellmo, Horton, &

Erchull, 2015; Ramsey & Hoyt, 2015).

Our findings also hold important implications for parents,

educators, and policy makers concerned with the effects of

sexualizing mediaonadolescents’ sexualsocialization. First,

our results demonstrate that the internalization of media appear-

anceidealsisthecommonoriginofbothpathwayslinkingmedia

withhigherandlowerlevelsofsexualbehavior.Wethereforecon-

firm scholars’ call for the design of media literacy programs that

helppreventadolescentsfrominternalizingmediaappearanceideals

(e.g., Wilksch, Tiggemann, & Wade, 2006). Up to now,how-

ever, most studies have considered the protective role of media

literacyinadolescentsbodyimageandhealthbehavior,without

paying much attention to the way it might affect adolescents’

sexualbehavior (e.g.,McLean,Paxton,&Wertheim, 2013;Pri-

mack & Hobbs, 2009). Future research should therefore con-

tinuetoexaminetheintegrationofappearanceidealinternaliza-

tions within media literacy programs, albeit this time with the

focus shifted to its impact on adolescents’ sexual behavior. Par-

ents may also empower their children to critically reflect on

media imagery and messages. Previous research has already

stressedtheimpactofparentalmediationinmitigatingandrein-

forcing the effects of media exposure on youth sexual behavior

(e.g., Fisher et al., 2009; Guo & Nathanson, 2011). Future

researchmayinvestigatehowdifferentparentalmediationstrate-

gies(restrictivevs.activemediation)relatetothedifferentmech-

anisms proposed in our dual-pathway model.

Overall,ourfindingshighlighttwodifferentpathwaysthrough

whichmediainternalizationmayimpactadolescents’sexualbehav-

ior:an inhibitory pathwayand a supporting pathway. Although we

acknowledgethatmediatedappearanceidealsarejustoneofmany

forces contributing to adolescents’ sexual development, we hope

that the patterns documented here will encourage further study of

the role of media internalization.

Funding This study was funded by a grant from the Research Foundation
Flanders (FWO) (Grant No. 1145212N) granted to the last author.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of interest All authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.

1694 Arch Sex Behav (2017) 46:1685–1697

123

Ethical Approval This article does not contain any studies with ani-
mals performed by any of the authors. All procedures performed in stud-

ies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical

standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and

with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or com-

parable ethical standards.

Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual
participants included in the study.

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The Dual Role of Media Internalization in Adolescent Sexual Behavior

Abstract
Introduction
Media Internalization and Adolescent Sexual Behavior
The Multidimensional Objectified Self-Concept
The Supportive Pathway
The Inhibitory Pathway
Method
Participants and Procedure
Measures
Internalization of Media Appearance Ideals
Valuing Appearance Over Competence
Body Surveillance
Sexual Body Consciousness
Sexual Behavior
Control Variables

Results
Descriptive Statistics and Zero-Order Correlations
Testing the Hypothesized Model
Testing the Moderating Role of Gender
Discussion
Funding
References

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