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Written Assignment & PowerPoint:
In this assignment, you will investigate a topic of interest to you that is relevant to professional counseling. Consider choosing a topic appropriate to your area of specialization. This is my topic and area of specialization (Sexual Assault, Childhood Sexual Trauma, and Treatment for Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse.) The topic may address a specific population, a disorder or diagnosis, a treatment method or technique, a current professional issue, or a social justice issue in counseling. The literature review is designed to increase your knowledge of the topic and improve clinical mental health counseling practice or service delivery. Information included in the literature review should be current and scholarly in order to be relevant.
PowerPoint Presentation of Literature Review:
Each student will share with the class the information learned from his/her review of the literature. The oral presentation will be approximately 30 minutes in length.
Presenters will provide for every student and the instructor(s) a copy of the PowerPoint presentation and a separate list of the references that were used to prepare the literature review.
Description of RA 2:
In this assignment, you will investigate a topic of interest to you that is relevant to professional counseling. Consider choosing a topic appropriate to your area of specialization. The topic may address a specific population, a disorder or diagnosis, a treatment method or technique, a current professional issue, or a social justice issue in counseling. The literature review is designed to increase your knowledge of the topic and improve clinical mental health counseling practice or service delivery. Information included in the literature review should be current and scholarly in order to be relevant. You must receive instructor approval for your topic by week 3.
Approved Topic: Sexual Assault, Childhood Sexual Trauma, and Treatment for Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse.
Instructions:
1. Access a minimum of ten (10) CURRENT peer reviewed articles in the Argosy library.
2. Based on the articles, develop an introduction on the background of the topic.
3. Analyze all articles and describe the key themes that emerge across the selected articles.
4. Synthesize the material and summarize the patterns of similarities and differences regarding how each of the authors has presented each theme.
5. Based on your analysis of the literature, conclude by evaluating the impact of your chosen topic to clinical mental health counseling practices, and explain how you plan to continue developing in this area.
Your final product will be an 8-10 page Word document written in APA format, utilizing at least ten scholarly sources. Your paper should be written in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
RA 2 Grading Criteria
CACREP Core Standards: 2.F.1.a
CMHC Standards 5.C.1.a; 5.C.2.c; 5.C.2.i
Assignment Components
Proficient
Max Points
Resource Selection:
Access a minimum of ten (10) current peer reviewed articles in the Argosy library.
Chose at least ten articles that discuss some aspects of the chosen topic. Ensured that selected articles reflect a blend of research that has contributed to generation of applicable theories as well as a critique and affirmation of the specific theories.
/40 pts.
Paper Introduction:
Develop an introduction on the background of the topic.
The first paragraph introduces the topic, describes the relevance to counseling, the importance of the topic, and tells the reader what will be discussed in the rest of the paper.
/36 pts.
Literature Review:
Analyze all articles and describe the key themes that emerge across the selected articles.
Major theories and trends associated with the chosen topic are described that emerge from the articles.
/68 pts.
Theme Identification:
Synthesize the material and summarize the patterns of similarities and differences regarding how each of the authors has presented each theme.
Response incorporates analysis and synthesis of similarities and differences in the approaches from the literature.
/68 pts.
Conclusion:
Conclude by evaluating the impact of your chosen topic to clinical mental health counseling practices, and explain how you plan to continue developing in this area.
Evaluation justified the impact the chosen topic has on the clinical mental health counseling practices. Explanation of further growth in this area utilizes best practices in professional development.
/60 pts.
Academic Writing
Write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources (i.e. APA); and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Written in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in appropriate and accurate representation and attribution of sources; and displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Use of scholarly sources aligns with specified assignment requirements.
/28 pts.
Total
/300 pts.
FOUNDATIONS OF MENTAL HEALTH COUNSELING 9
Foundations of Mental Health Counseling
Donna O’HaraDO
Argosy University
January 26, 2018
1. Interview
I interviewed Glendora Dvine, a licensed professional counselor operating in her private practice Dvine Systems GA. Glendora is a successful female counselor who has been interacting with diverse clients for more than 8 years. Her contact details are found on her website at
familycounselorinmcdonoughga.com
.
Glendora noted that her responsibilities as a mental health counselor varied from promoting healthy lifestyles to the provision of group and individual therapy. Additionally, clinical assessments, diagnosis, and treatment are parts of her responsibilities. In general, the counselor argued that mental health counseling was an interdisciplinary and multifaceted profession which targeted the preservation and restoration of the client’s mental health. As a professional counselor, she felt the urge to identify an individual’s problems and develop techniques to alleviate the challenges at the personal level. She also works tirelessly to equip clients with effective tools for self –help- a phenomenon known as psycho-education (Leppma, 2012).
Though Glendora previously worked with multiple clients presenting a wide range of problems, she identified her ideal clients as young adults dealing with substance abuse, self-esteem issues, anxiety, and depression. In this case, the rise in the rates of suicide and incarceration among young adults of the minority groups motivated the interviewee’s choice of client. She also noted that group therapy worked perfectly with her clients as a result of effective leadership skills. Additionally, she argued that as a counselor, she had the moral duty to integrate theory, techniques, and ethics in solving the problems of the multicultural populations.
Glendora revealed that she was registered as a nationally certified counselor. Glendora also completed a CACREP approved program in mental health counseling. She also cited being a professional member of the American Counseling Association.
When it comes to training, the interviewee stated that this far, the theory of the behavioral sciences accounted for many training programs. In addition, she participated in several CACREP accredited programs some of which required 100 hours of face to face supervision. On the other hand, the AMHCA standards of clinical practice provided guidance in clinical assessments, diagnosis, and treatment (Hurt-Avila & Castillo, 2017). The ACA code of ethics also stipulated guidelines for an ethical practice.
Glendora suggested that the same techniques used to identify and remove stressors in clients were useful for the counselor’s self-care. In this case, she noted that counselors should be self-aware in order to externalize and contain their problems. For this reason, counselors should develop a consistent plan that allows them to engage in nourishing activities. They should also create emergency strategies for unprecedented stressors and seek support from peers and colleagues. Lastly, she noted that the most useful self-care tool is self-compassion.
The interviewee’s advice for counselors in training was to identify the passion and sources of motivation before selecting an area of specialization if they envisioned a rewarding career. In addition, she proposed that counselors in training should study the future direction of the counseling profession since it is on an ongoing development.
2. Benefits of ACA Membership
The ACA Government Relations listserv keeps members informed of any new legislation and the implications to the counseling profession (Yep, n.d). Also, by being a member of the ACA, one can access regular updates on relevant program and funding support. On the other hand, the ACA membership certificate serves as an important tool to show the credibility of counselors and leadership in adherence to the ACA code of ethics. Therefore, clients are likely to trust counselors who have an ACA certificate. The membership also keeps members informed on contemporary solutions to emerging issues through magazines, journals, newsletters, and news bulletins. Moreover, it gives unlimited access to professional development courses that can be used as credits during the licensure process (Yep, n.d). Lastly, the ACA-ACES Syllabus Clearinghouse helps counselors to progressively refresh their knowledge based on modern approaches and changes in the profession.
3. Requirements for Counselor Licensure in Georgia and Plan for Licensure and Certification
I plan to work in the state of Georgia where licensing requirements require interested persons to have graduate level education before submitting a formal application to the State’s board. Additionally, the applicant must not have a criminal record for proof of good character. Supervised work experience and passing of an exam are compulsory for individuals who wish to change status from Associate Licensed Professional Counselor (ALPC) to Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC).
A minimum of a master level education in a counseling-oriented field is required for licensure. However, the degree programs must be accredited by agencies that are recognized by the Council on Higher Education Accreditation (Counselor-License, n.d.). Counseling theory or psychotherapy is a mandatory subject of coverage by the applicant. Additionally, the coverage of at least six among the areas listed below is compulsory.
· Social and Cultural Foundations Comment by almcleod: See pages 64-65 in APA manual for how to format a bulleted list.
· Human Growth and Development
· Advanced Psychotherapy Intervention Theory
· Group Counseling Dynamics
· Career Development
· Research Methods
· Individual Appraisal
· Psychopathology
· Professional Orientation (Counselor-License, N.D.)
A minimum of 300 hours of internship that is supervised by an instructor is also compulsory. The board credits applicants for some course work that would be done after the masters. The board in Georgia also requires applicants to have relevant supervised practice that is dependent on the educational background. For instance, applicants holding a doctoral degree in a counseling-oriented program require only one-year internship to serve as proof of supervised practice (Counselor-License, n.d.). However, master’s level applicants should provide evidence of at least four years of supervised practice. The board gives credit for not more than one-year practicum experience acquired before the completion of a degree. The specialist degree in counseling amounts to two years of supervised practice along with an internship. Lastly, a master’s in vocational counseling translates to three years of supervision.
The number of years that one works as an associate are dependent on job status (full time or not) for the associate counselor. The director who is the employer and a supervisor are important figures during this type of employment. The supervisor must be recognized by the board and they evaluate performance and experience for licensure. For testing purposes, applicants must take either the National Counselors Examination or the National Clinical Mental Health Counseling Examination.
Counselors who have licenses from other states can access licensure in Georgia via endorsement provided the requirements in the previous state are higher or similar to Georgia’s.
For maintenance of the license, counselors are required to participate in 35 hours of education programs within every two years where professional ethics counts for at least five hours and the core areas of licensing at least 15 hours.
MY PLAN FOR LICENSURE
Comment by almcleod: Also include estimated dates for each step.
My interest is to secure a counseling license in the state of Georgia and later surrounding states which will allow me to practice virtually and face to face. At first, I will present a notarized application to Georgia’s board to be recognized as an associate counselor. I will include the master’s program transcript, test scores, contact affidavit (director and supervisor), proof of internship and a processing fee.
After completion of the supervised practice, I will apply for the National Clinical Mental Health Counseling Examination. After the NBCC confirms my application, I will pay a fee of $195 and later select my testing center. Having met the requirement for licensure, I will formally apply to be considered an LPC. Lastly, to become a nationally certified counselor, I plan to complete a doctoral degree and later apply through the NBCC website.
4. Why Am I Here?
My journey into counseling is based on my mom being diagnosed with mental illness when I was five years old. Me Bbeing in foster care and living with several different family members left me vulnerable to all forms of abuse from the age of 5 until 18. I had issues with anger and I demonstrated passive aggressive behavior. I used comedy as a way to take the focus off me and I continuously conflicted with others. I was labeled an at-risk child. However, as an adult I went through a process of forgiveness and this process led me to going back to help others labeled as I was as a child.
I am therefore interested in helping people overcome deep rooted mental and emotional challenges. For this reason, I prefer to work with children and young adults who experience or witness domestic violence or abuse because it can have lasting consequences. I’m enthusiastic about the use of therapy to deconstruct internal conflicts and biases that can lower self-esteem or become stressors in an individual’s life. By pursuing a master’s program in a counseling related field, I stand a better chance in getting myself registered as a professional counselor. Thereafter, I would focus on helping people, especially children and teens who encounter scenes similar to mine.
On the other hand, being an African American woman, I am motivated to pursue CMH because the training equips counselors with multicultural skills that can be applied to diverse clientele. The percentage of counselors from the minority groups is significantly low. Therefore, I intend to use the multicultural skills to attend to clients from the minority groups where children encounter a relatively large number of stressors. For instance, Dettlaff (2010) argues that poverty and settlement related factors contribute to abuse of children in immigrant families. Interventions are therefore needed.
Counseling also entails a sequence of challenging but rewarding tasks. In this case, my goal in life is to help as many people as possible. The undertaking to help others creates a feeling of fulfillment and achievement. Indeed, helping people to change their behaviors and perceptions in a positive way that fosters the achievement of goals creates a rewarding experience.
On the other hand, being a patriotic citizen of my country, I would wish to help the victims of natural disasters or national crises such as the great depression. In natural disasters, the victims suffer from post-traumatic stress. Moreover, they are also vulnerable to depression due the drastic changes that occur in their lives. As a patriotic mental health counselor, I would devote my time and resources to ensure that such victims get a helper to aid them in regaining their lives. Similarly, during economic recessions, families face unprecedented changes due to the loss of jobs and livelihoods by the breadwinners. My goal would be to help the families (especially the children) to overcome the stress factors.
Lastly, the CACREP argues that counseling is a highly regarded profession. In this case, the prestige that is associated with the profession motivates the urge to help troubled young ones. In this case, I can easily identify with my profession as a mental health counselor.
References
CACREP. Clinical Mental Health Counseling | CACREP. Cacrep.org. Retrieved 25 January 2018, from http://www.cacrep.org/program/clinical-mental-health-counseling-101/
Counselor-License. Counselor License in Georgia | Requirements for an LPC in GA. Counselor-license.com. Retrieved 25 January 2018, from https://www.counselor-license.com/states/georgia-counselor-license.html#context/api/listings/prefilter
Dettlaff, A. (2010). Child Welfare Practice with Immigrant Children and Families: Challenges and Responses. Journal Of Public Child Welfare, 4(3), 241-244.
Hurt-Avila, K., & Castillo, J. (2017). Accreditation, Professional Identity Development, and Professional Competence: A Discriminant Analysis. Journal Of Counselor Leadership And Advocacy, 4(1), 39-51.
Leppma, M. (2012). Loving-Kindness Meditation and Counseling. Journal Of Mental Health Counseling, 34(3), 197-204.
Yep, R. American Counseling Association Member’s Resource Guide. Counseling.org. Retrieved 25 January 2018, from
https://www.counseling.org/Counselors/ACA-Welcome-Kit
Sixth Edition
Publication.
Manual
of the Amerkan Psythological Assudalion
Sixth Edition
Publication
I
American Psychological Association • Washington, DC
Copyright © 2010 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved. Except as permit-
ted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be
reproduced
or distributed in any form or by any means, including, but not limited to, the process of scanning
and digitization, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of
the publisher.
Published by
American Psychological Association
750 First Street, NE
Washington, DC 20002
www.apa.org
To order
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P.O. Box 92984
Washington, DC 20090-2984
Tel: (800) 374-2721; Direct: (202) 336-5510
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Printer: Automated Graphic Systems, White Plains, MD
Cover Designer: Naylor Design, Washington, DC
Production Manager: Jennifer L. Macomber
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. — 6th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-b: 1-4338-0561-8 (softcover)
ISBN-10: 1-4338-0559-6 (hardcover)
ISBN-lU: 1-4338-0562-6 (spiral bound)
ISBN-13: 978-1-4338-0S61-5 (softcover)
[etc.]
i. Psychology—Authorship—Style manuals. 2. Social sciences—Authorship—
Style manuals. 3. Psychological literature_Publishing—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
4. Social science literature_Publishing—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. American
Psychological Association.
BF76.7.P83 2010
808′ .06615—dc22
2009010391
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record is available from the British Library.
Printed in the United States of America
Sixth Edition, First Printing
Contents
List of Tables and Figures xi
Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Editorial Staff xvii
Introduction 3
Organization of the Sixth Edition 4
Specific Changes in the Sixth Edition 4
How to Use the Publication Manual 6
1. Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 9
Types of Articles 9
1.01 Empirical Studies 10
1.02 Literature Reviews 10
1.03 Theoretical Articles 10
1.04 Methodological Articles 10
1.05 Case Studies 11
1.06 Other Types of Articles 11
Ethical and Legal Standards in Publishing 11
Ensuring the Accuracy of Scientific Knowledge 12
1.01 Ethical Reporting of Research Results 12
1.08 Data Retention and Sharing 12
1.09 Duplicate and Piecemeal Publication of Data 13
1.10 Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism 15
Protecting the Rights and Welfare of Research Participants 16
1.11 Rights and Confidentiality of Research Participants 16
1.12 Conflict of Interest 17
CONTENTS
Protecting Intellectual Property Rights 18
1.13 Publication Credit 18
1.14 Reviewers 19
1.15 Author’s Copyright on an Unpublished Manuscript 19
1.16 Planning for Ethical Compliance 20
2. Manuscript Structure and Content 21
Journal Article Reporting Standards 21
Manuscript Elements 23
2.01 Title 23
2.02 Author’s Name (Byline) and Institutional Affiliation 23
2.03 Author Note 24
2.04 Abstract 25
205 Introduction 27
2.06 Method 29
2.07 Results 32
2.08 Discussion 35
2.09 Multiple Experiments 36
2.10 Meta-Analyses 36
2.11 References 37
2.12 Footnotes 37
2.13 Appendices and Supplemental Materials 38
Sample Papers 40
3. Writing Clearly and Concisely 61
Organization 61
3.01 Length 61
3.02 Organizing a Manuscript With Headings 62
3.03 Levels of Heading 62
3.04 Seriation 63
Writing Style 65
3.05 Continuity in Presentation of Ideas 65
3.06 Smoothness of Expression 65
3.07 Tone 66
3.08 Economy of Expression 67
3.09 Precision and Clarity 68
3.10 Linguistic Devices 70
3.11 Strategies to Improve Writing Style 70
Reducing Bias in Language 70
General Guidelines for Reducing Bias 71
Guideline 1: Describe at the Appropriate Level of Specificity 71
Guideline 2: Be Sensitive to Labels 72
Guideline 3: Acknowledge Participation 73
Reducing Bias by Topic 73
3.12 Gender 73
3.13 Sexual Orientation 74
3.14 Racial and Ethnic Identity 75
C 0 N
3.15 Disabilities 76
3.16 Age 76
3.17 Historical and Interpretive Inaccuracies 76
Grammar and Usage 77
3.18 Verbs 77
3.19 Agreement of Subject and Verb 78
3.20 Pronouns 79
3.21 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers and Use of Adverbs 81
3.22 Relative Pronouns and Subordinate Conjunctions 83
3.23 Parallel Construction 84
4. The Mechanics of Style 87
Punctuation 87
4.01 Spacing After Punctuation Marks 87
4.02 Period 88
4.03 Comma 88
4.04 Semicolon 89
4.05 Colon 90
4.06 Dash 90
4.07 Quotation Marks 91
4.08 Double or Single Quotation Marks 92
4.09 Parentheses 93
4.10 Brackets 94
4.11 Slash 95
Spelling 96
4.12 Preferred Spelling 96
4.13 Hyphenation 97
Capitalization 101
4.14 Words Beginning a Sentence 101
4.15 Major Words in Titles and Headings 101
4.16 Proper Nouns and Trade Names 102
4.17 Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters 103
4.18 Titles of Tests 103
4.19 Names of Conditions or Groups in an Experiment 104
4.20 Names of Factors, Variables, and Effects 104
Italics 104
4.21 Use of Italics 104
Abbreviations 106
4.22 Use of Abbreviations 106
4.23 Explanation of Abbreviations 107
4.24 Abbreviations Accepted as Words 107
4.25 Abbreviations Used Often in APA Journals 108
4.26 Latin Abbreviations 108
4.27 Scientific Abbreviations 108
4.28 Other Abbreviations 110
4.29 Plurals of Abbreviations 110
4.30 Abbreviations Beginning a Sentence 111
CONTENTS
Numbers 111
4.31 Numbers Expressed in Numerals 111
4.32 Numbers Expressed in Words 112
4.33 Combining Numerals and Words to Express Numbers 112
4.34 Ordinal Numbers 113
4.35 Decimal Fractions 113
4.36 Roman Numerals 114
4.37 Commas in Numbers 114
4.38 Plurals of Numbers 114
Metrication 114
4.39 Policy on Metrication 114
4.40 Style for Metric Units 115
Statistical and Mathematical Copy 116
4.41 Selecting Effective Presentation 116
4.42 References for Statistics 116
4.43 Formulas 116
4.44 Statistics in Text 116
4.45 Statistical Symbols 117
4.46 Spacing, Alignment, and Punctuation 118
Equations 123
4.47 Equations in Text 123
4.48 Displayed Equations 123
4.49 Preparing Statistical and Mathematical Copy 124
5. Displaying Results 125
General Guidance on Tables and Figures 125
5.01 Purposes of Data Displays 125
5.02 Design and Preparation of a Data Display 126
5.03 Graphical Versus Textual Presentation 126
5.04 Formatting Tables and Figures 127
5.05 Table and Figure Numbers 127
5.06 Permission to Reproduce Data Displays 128
Tables 128
5.07 Conciseness in Tables 128
5.08 Table Layout 128
5.09 Standard Forms 129
5.10 Relation of Tables and Text 130
5.11 Relation Between Tables 130
5.12 Table Titles 133
5.13 Table Headings 133
5.14 Table Body 137
5.15 Confidence Intervals in Tables 138
5.16 Table Notes 138
5.17 Ruling of Tables 141
5.18 Presenting Data in Specific Types of Tables 141
5.19 Table Checklist 150
Figures 150
5.20 Principles of Figure Use and Construction 150
I
CONTENTS
____
5.21 Types of Figures 151
5.22 Standards for Figures 152
5.23 Figure Legends and Captions 158
5.24 Planning Figures 161
5.25 Preparation of Figures 161
Presenting Electrophysiological, Radiological, and Other Biological Data 161
5.26 Electrophysiological Data 162
5.27 Radiological (Imaging) Data 162
5.28 Genetic Data 165
5.29 Photographs 165
5.30 Figure Checklist 167
6. Crediting Sources 169
When to Cite 169
6.01 Plagiarism 170
6.02 Self-Plagiarism 170
Quoting and Paraphrasing 170
6.03 Direct Quotation of Sources 170
6.04 Paraphrasing Material 171
6.05 Direct Quotations of Online Material Without Pagination 171
6.06 Accuracy of Quotations 172
6.07 Changes From the Source Requiring No Explanation 172
6.08 Changes From the Source Requiring Explanation 172
6.09 Citations Within Quotations 173
6.10 Permission to Quote, Reprint, or Adapt 173
Citing References in Text 174
6.11 One Work by One Author 174
6.12 One Work by Multiple Authors 175
6.13 Groups as Authors 176
6.14 Authors With the Same Surname 176
6.15 Works With No Identified Author or With an
Anonymous Author 176
6.16 Two or More Works Within the Same Parentheses 177
6.17 Secondary Sources 178
6.18 Classical Works 178
6.19 Citing Specific Parts of a Source 179
6.20 Personal Communications 179
6.21 Citations in Parenthetical Material 179
Reference List 180
6.22 Construction of an Accurate and Complete Reference List 180
6.23 Consistency 181
6.24 Using the Archival Copy or Version of Record 181
6.25 Order of References in the Reference List 181
6.26 References Included in a Meta-Analysis 183
Reference Components 183
– 6.27 Author and Editor Information 184
6.28 Publication Date 185
CONTENTS
6.29 Title 185
6.30 Publication Information 186
6.31 Electronic Sources and Locator Information 187
6.32 Providing Publication Data for Electronic Sources 189
7. Reference Examples 193
Types and Variations 193
Examples by Type 198
7.01 Periodicals 198
7.02 Books, Reference Books, and Book Chapters 202
7.03 Technical and Research Reports 205
7.04 Meetings and Symposia 206
7.05 Doctoral Dissertations and Master’s Theses 207
7.06 Reviews and Peer Commentary 208
7.07 Audiovisual Media 209
7.08 Data Sets, Software, Measurement Instruments, and Apparatus 210
7.09 Unpublished and Informally Published Works 211
7.10 Archival Documents and Collections 212
7.11 Internet Message Boards, Electronic Mailing Lists, and Other Online
Communities 214
Appendix 7.1: References to Legal Materials 216
A7.01 General Forms 216
A7.02 Text Citations of Legal Materials 217
A7.03 Court Decisions (Bluebook Rule 10) 217
A7.04 Statutes (Bluebook Rule 12) 219
A7.05 Legislative Materials (Bluebook Rule 13) 221
P.7.06 Administrative and Executive Materials (Bluebook Rule 14) 223
A7.07 Patents 224
8. The Publication Process 225
Editorial Process 225
8.01 Peer Review 225
8.02 Manuscript Acceptance or Rejection 226
Author Responsibilities 228
8.03 Preparing the Manuscript for Submission 228
8.04 Complying With Ethical, Legal, and Policy Requirements 231
8.05 Publisher Policy Requirements 236
8.06 Working With the Publisher When the Manuscript
Has Been Accepted 239
8.07 Checklist for Manuscript Submission 240
Appendix: Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS), Meta-Analysis Reporting
Standards (MARS), and Flow of Participants Through Each Stage of
an Experiment or Quasi-Experiment 245
References 255
Index 259
Tables
Table 2.1 Author Bylines 24
Table 3.1 Format for Five Levels of Heading in APA Journals 62
Table 4.1 Guide to Hyphenating Terms 98
Table 4.2 Prefixes and Suffixes That Do Not Require Hyphens 99
Table 4.3 Prefixed Words That Require Hyphens 100
Table 4.4 Common Abbreviations for Units of Measurement 109
Table 4.5 Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols 119
Table 5.1 Basic Components of a Table 129
Table 5.2 Sample of Effective Table Layout 130
Table 5.3 Sample Factor Loadings Table (With Rotation
Method Specified) 131
Table 5.4 Sample Table With Detailed Specifications of Complex Experimental
Designs 134
Table 5.5 Sample Table Display of a Sample’s Characteristics 135
Table 5.6 Sample Table of Correlations in Which the Values for Two Samples
Are Presented 136
Table 5.1 Sample Table of Results of Fitting Mathematical Models 137
Table 5.8 Sample Table Including Confidence Intervals With Brackets 139
Table 5.9 Sample Table Including Confidence Intervals With Upper
and Lower Limits 140
Table 5.10 Sample Table Display of Psychometric Properties of Key Outcome
Variables 142
Table 5.11 Sample Table of One-Degree-of-Freedom Statistical Contrasts 143
Table 5.12 Sample Regression Table 144
List of Tables and Figures
____
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 5.13 Sample Hierarchical Multiple Regression Table 145
Table 5.14 Sample Model Comparison Table 146
Table 5.15 Sample Multilevel Model Table 147
Table 5.16 Sample Word Table 149
Table 6.1 Basic Citation Styles 177
Figures
Figure 2.1 Sample One-Experiment Paper 41
Figure 2.2 Sample Two-Experiment Paper 54
Figure 2.3 Sample Meta-Analysis 57
Figure 5.1 Complex Theoretical Formulations 152
Figure 5.2 Theory Through a Set of Path Models 153
Figure 5.3 Sampling and Flow of Subjects Through a Randomized Clinical Trial
or Other Experiment 154
Figure 5.4 Flow of Participants in a Survey Study 155
Figure 5.5 Results of One-Way Design Using Error Bars to Represent Precision
of the Resulting Estimates 156
Figure 5.6 Empirical Results From a Complex Multivariate Model 157
Figure 5.1 Kinds of Responses Being Gathered and Scoring Methods 158
Figure 5.8 Details of an Experimental Laboratory Set-Up 159
Figure 5.9 Details of Experimental Procedure 160
Figure 5.10 Event-Related Brain Potential Data 163
Figure 5.11 Neuroimaging Data With Details of Processing Information 164
Figure 5.12 Display of Genetic Material—Physical Map 166
Figure 6.1 Example of Appropriate Citation Level 170
Figure 6.2 Location of Digital Object Identifier (DOl) in Journal Article 189
Figure 6.3 Location of Digital Object Identifier for Article on Database Landing
Page 190
Figure 6.4 Example of Reference in Electronic Document With Digital Object
Identifier Hidden Behind a Button 191
Figure 6.5 Digital Object Identifier Resolver 191
Figure 8.1 Sample Cover Letter 232
Figure 8.2 APA Compliance With Ethical Principles Form 233
Figure 8.3 APA Disclosure of Interests Form 235
Figure 8.4 APA Copyright Permission Request Form 237
I
F
rom its inception as a brief journal article in 1929, the Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association has been designed to advance scholar-
ship by setting sound and rigorous standards for scientific communication. The
creators of the 1929 manuscript included psychologists, anthropologists, and business
managers who convened under the sponsorship of the National Research Council.
They sought to establish a simple set of procedures, or style rules, that would codify
the many components of scientific writing to increase the ease of reading comprehen-
sion. This goal was subsequently embraced not only by psychologists but also by schol-
ars in other social and behavioral sciences who wished to enhance the dissemination
of knowledge in their respective fields.
Uniform style helps us to cull articles quickly for key points and findings. Rules of
style in scientific writing encourage full disclosure of essential information and allow
us to dispense with minor distractions. Style helps us express the key elements of quan-
titative results, choose the graphic form that will best suit our analyses, report critical
details of our research protocol, and describe individuals with accuracy and respect. It
removes the distraction of puzzling over the correct punctuation for a reference or the
proper form for numbers in text. Those elements are codified in the rules we follow
for clear communication, allowing us to focus our intellectual energy on the substance
of our research.
Today, Style sets a standard that is realized in APA journals, books, and electron-
ic databases. In my tenure as APA publisher, the APA Journals program has grown from
one that publishes 17,700 pages a year to one that publishes 37,000 pages a year. The APA
Books program has grown from 12 books to over 1,214 books as well as 160 psychother-
apy training videos. APA electronic products have grown from one database to five data-
bases that offer users immediate connection to abstracts, books, journals, reviews, and
quality gray literature. This profusion of scholarship has been supported and defined by
the guidance provided in the Publication Manual. Together with the APA Dictionary of
Foreword
FOREWORD 4
Psychology and Encyclopedia of Psychology, it establishes a sound foundation for the
advancement of the field.
The Publication Manual is consulted not only by psychologists but also by stu-
dents and researchers in education, social work, nursing, business, and many other
behavioral and social sciences. Its standards are available in English as well as Spanish,
Portuguese, Korean, Chinese, and many other languages. A central focus of delibera-
tion for this edition has been the way in which web-based technological innovations
have altered the way we conceptualize, conduct, and consume scientific research. The
sixth edition of the Publication Manual is devoted in large part to interpreting these
advances and incorporating them into the style lexicon, It is my hope that, in concert
with our other reference products, it will serve as a solid base for all of your scientific
communications.
Gary R. VandenBos, PhD
Publisher, American Psychological Association
j
rfo
better understand the complex changes in scientific publishing and address
them in this edition, many experts and professional groups were consulted. We
began the revision process in 2006 by looking closely at the fifth edition, ana-
lyzing more than five years of accumulated user feedback; evaluating published criti-
cism; and commissioning reviews from senior editors in psychology, education, nurs-
ing, history, and business. After deliberation of and debate about these comments, the
APA Publications and Communications Board set broad parameters for the revision
and appointed a panel of experienced editors and scientists from diverse specialty areas
to collaborate with dedicated staff on the revision.
The six-member Publication Manual Revision Task Force met for the first time in
February 2007. They determined that revisions were needed in seven key areas: ethics,
journal article reporting standards, reducing bias in language, graphics, writing style,
references, and statistics. Working groups of experts were established to support the
work of the task force in each area.
As the revision progressed, APA staff continued to solicit recommendations for
revision from the APA Council of Editors, from Publication Manual users at the
www.apastyle.org website, from APA members at professional meetings, and from
APA boards and committees. Those recommendations were passed along to working
group and task force members for consideration.
Thus, this edition of the Publication Manual is the result of creative collaboration
with many groups and individuals. We must first thank the members of the Publication
Manual Revision Task Force. They devoted many hours to analyzing reviews, consid-
ering the scholarly publishing climate, identifying topics in need of greater coverage,
meeting with working group members to generate and revise text, critiquing and dis-
cussing new drafts, and poring over the final draft with a persistent commitment to
getting it right. We are fortunate to have benefited so thoroughly from their enthusias-
tic and generous support of this project.
Preface
PREFACE
We are also grateful for the contributions that came from the working groups of
experts who helped shape this edition. They dialed in faithfully to join Webex confer-
ence calls, collaborating to ensure accurate and comprehensive coverage for their
respective areas. We benefited from the welcome blend of tact, humor, and insight that
they brought to this project.
Early in the revision process, we solicited critiques from selected core users, that is,
from senior editors and writers in the areas of psychology, nursing, education, and
business. The overall recommendations gained from those individuals greatly influ-
enced the approach taken in planning this edition of the Publication Manual. For shar-
ing their insights and suggestions, we thank Barney Beins, Geoff Cumming, Janet
Shibley Hyde, Judy Nemes, Kathryn Riley, Henry Roediger III, Peter W. Schroth,
Martha Storandt, and Sandra P. Thomas. On a related note, we are indebted to Linda
Beebe and the PsycINFO staff for their invaluable guidance on how evolving technolo-
gies continue to affect the reading, storage, and retrieval of scholarly work.
To guide us in our commitment to provide sound and timely instruction on scien-
tific reporting, we solicited comments from several APA boards and committees. We are
grateful for recommendations received from the APA Committee on Ethnic Minority
Affairs; the APA Board of Scientific Affairs; the APA History Oversight Committee; the
APA Committee on Disability Issues in Psychology; the American Psychological
Association of Graduate Students; the APA Task Force on Gender Identity, Gender
Variance, and Intersex Conditions; and the APA Committee on Socioeconomic Status.
Several writing instructors and coaches contacted us with suggestions for making
APA Style more accessible for students. For taking the time to share their recommen-
dations, we are most grateful to Dee Seligman, Wendy Packman, Scott Hines, Geeta
Patangay, Mylea Charvat, and Jeff Zuckerman.
Last, we thank the APA Office of Publications and Databases staff for their many
contributions to this edition, including Paige Jackson, Susan Herman, Annie Hill,
Harriet Kaplan, Edward Porter, Shenyun Wu, Amy Pearson, Ron Teeter, Hal Warren,
Beverly Jamison, Susan Harris, and Julia Frank-McNeil. Nora Kisch, Julianne Rovesti,
Peter Gaviorno, and the entire sales and marketing team have worked tirelessly to
inform the broad social science community about the new edition. We are particular-
ly grateful to Jennifer Macomber for her skilled and meticulous care in shepherding the
manuscript through production. Finally, we thank Anne Woodworth Gasque, who man-
aged the process with ingenuity and grace, for her superb stewardship of this project.
Mary Lynn Skutley
Editorial Director, APA Books
Gary R. VandenBos, PhD
Publisher, American Psychological Association
Publication Manual of the
American Psychological
Association, Sixth Edition
Editorial Staff
Editor in Chief
Gary R. VandenBos, PhD
Project Director
Mary Lynn Skutley
Senior Editors
Anne Woodworth Gasque
Paige Jackson
Publication Manual Revision Task Force
Mark Appelbaum, Chair
Lillian Comas-Diaz
Harris Cooper
Leah Light
Peter Ornstein
Lois Tetrick
EDITORIAL STAFF
Publication Manual Revision Working Groups
Bias-Free Language Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS)
Lillian Comas-Din, Co-Chair Mark Appelbaum, Co-Chair
Peter Ornstein, Co-Chair Harris Cooper, Co-Chair
Norman Abeles Scott E. Maxwell
Kevin Cokley Valerie F. Reyna
Sari H. Dworkjn Kenneth J. Sher
Alba A. Ortiz Arthur Stone
Denise Sekaquaptewa
Nathan Grant Smith References
Glen W. White Mark Appelbaum, Co-Chair
Peter Ornstein, Co-Chair
Ethics Susan Herman
Leah L. Light, Co-Chair Annie Hill
Lois Tetrick, Co-Chair
Celia B. Fisher Statistics
Lenore W. Harmon Mark Appelbauin, Co-Chair
Mieke Verfaellie Harris Cooper, Co-Chair
Geoff Cumming
Graphics Michael Edwards
Mark Appelbaum, Co-Chair Joel Levin
Lois Tetrick, Co-Chair Abigail Panter
John Jonides
Penny Pexman Writing Style
David Thissen Leah L. Light, Co-Chair
Howard Wainer Peter Ornstein, Co-Chair
David F. Bjorklund
Catherine Haden
Annie Hill
I
;sociation t\’:
Publication
T
he Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was first
published in 1929 as a seven-page “standard of procedure, to which exceptions
would doubtless be necessary, but to which reference might be made in cases of
doubt” (Bentley et a!., 1929, p. 57). Eighty years later, we launch the sixth edition of
the Publication Manual in the same spirit. Over the years, the Publication Manual has
grown by necessity from a simple set of style rules to an authoritative source on all
aspects of scholarly writing, from the ethics of duplicate publication to the word choice
that best reduces bias in language.
The rules of APA Style are drawn from an extensive body of psychological litera-
ture, from editors and authors experienced in scholarly writing, and from recognized
authorities on publication practices. This edition of the Publication Manual has been
extensively revised to reflect new standards in publishing and new practices in infor-
mation dissemination. Since the last edition of the manual was published, we have
gone from a population that reads articles to one that “consumes content.” New tech-
nologies have made increasingly sophisticated analyses possible, just as they have
accelerated the dissemination of those analyses in multiple forms, from blogs to per-
sonal Web postings to articles published in online databases.
To provide readers with guidance on how these and other developments have
affected scholarly publishing, we have reordered and condensed the manual signifi-
cantly. Our first goal was to simplify the reader’s job by compiling all information on
a topic in a single place. We have ordered information in accordance with the publica-
tion process, beginning with the idea stage and ending with the publication stage. We
have retained and strengthened the basic rules of APA writing style and the guidelines
on avoiding bias in language that were first published by APA more than 30 years ago.
Most important, we have significantly expanded guidance on ethics, statistics, journal
article reporting standards, electronic reference formats, and the construction of tables
and figures.
Introduction
ORGANIZATION OF THE SIXTH EDITION
Key to this revision is an updated and expanded web presence, which exponential-
ly increases the information we are able to provide. At www.apastyle.org, readers will
find a full range of resources for learning APA Style as well as additional guidance on
writing and publishing, which will evolve with changing standards and practices.
Organization of the Sixth Edition
In Chapter 1, we acquaint readers with the types of articles common in scholarly pub-
lications. We also describe the role of ethics in publishing and offer guidance in follow-
ing best practices for compliance.
In Chapter 2, we define all parts of a scholarly manuscript, from title to appendix,
emphasizing both function and form. We also summarize current reporting standards
for journal articles. The chapter ends with sample papers that illustrate the rules of
APA Style.
In Chapter 3, we offer basic guidance on planning and writing the article. We
advise readers on how to organize their thoughts, choose effective words, and describe
individuals with accuracy and sensitivity.
In Chapter 4, we instruct readers on the nuts and bolts of style: punctuation,
spelling, capitalization, abbreviations, numbers, and statistics in text. Consistency in
the use of these basic aspects of style is key to clear scientific communication.
In Chapter 5, we describe the effective use of graphic elements in text and provide
readers with illustrations of graphic elements that are useful for the presentation of
data in tables and figures.
In Chapter 6, we provide guidance on citing sources. We discuss ground rules for
acknowledging contributions of others and for formatting quotations. We instruct
readers on when and how to cite references in text and on how to construct a refer-
ence list that contains everything readers need to locate each source.
In Chapter 7, we provide a comprehensive selection of reference examples in APA
Style. The examples cover a range of categories, from periodicals to podcasts, with an
emphasis on references to electronic formats.
In Chapter 8, we provide an overview of the journal publishing process. We
emphasize the author’s responsibilities in manuscript preparation and at each subse-
quent stage of publication.
Specific Changes in the Sixth Edition
General Approach
We considered two broad issues in planning this revision. First, given the wide use of
the Publication Manual by readers outside the field of psychology, to what extent
should this edition focus specifically on the APA journals program? Detailed infor-
mation on APA journals is available on the web (see http://www.apa.org/journals/);
each journal has its own web page, which includes specific instructions to authors. We
decided to remove from the Publication Manual much of the APA-specific information
that is readily accessible on the web, where guidelines are kept current. In this edition
of the Publication Manual, we emphasize general principles that researchers need to
know as well as principles of clear textual and visual communication.
INTRODUCTION
Second, to what extent should the Publication Manual be prescriptive rather than
descriptive of current practices in the field? A section in the foreword to the fourth edi-
tion is reJevant:
The Publication Manual presents explicit style requirements but ackndWledges
that alternatives are sometimes necessary; authors should balance the rules of
the Publication Manual with good judgment. Because the written language of
psychology changes more slowly than psychology itself, the Publication Manual
does not offer solutions for all stylistic problems. In that sense, it is a transition-
al document: Its style requirements are based on the existing scientific literature
rather than imposed on the literature. (American Psychological Association,
1994, p. xxiii)
Because of the diversity of practices in the social and behavioral sciénèes, we antici-
pated that the Publication Manual would likely prescribe new direction for some
subdisciplines and merely describe the current state of scientific reporting for other
subdisciplines.
New and Expanded Content
Chapter 1. Because of the importance of ethical issues that affect the conduct of scien-
tific inquiry, we have placed ethics discussions in this opening chapter and have signif-
icantly expanded coverage of several topics. New guidance is included on determining
authorship and terms of collaboration, duplicate publication, plagiarism and self-
plagiarism, disguising of participants, validity of instrumentation, and making data
available to others for verification.
Chapter 2. In Chapter 2, we provide comprehensive information on specific manuscript
parts, which were located in several chapters in the last edition. For each manuscript
part, we describe purpose and core content as well as how it should appear in text.
This chapter has been significantly expanded with the addition of journal article
reporting standards to help readers report empirical research with clarity and preci-
sion. We also provide an expanded discussion of statistical methods, including guid-
ance on reporting effect sizes. In addition, we provide a new section on the use and
preparation of supplemental materials for the web. We close the chapter with a new
selection of sample papers that instantiate elements of APA Style.
Chapter 3. In this chapter, we offer two areas with significantly changed content. First,
we have simplified APA heading style to make it more conducive to electronic publi-
cation. Second, we have updated guidelines for reducing bias in language to reflect cur-
rent practices and preferences. A new section on presenting historical language that is
inappropriate by present standards has been added, and examples of good and bad
language choices have been expanded and moved to the web, where they are more
accessible to all and can be easily updated.
Chapter 4. New content in Chapter 4 includes guidelines for reporting inferential
statistics and a significantly revised table of statistical abbreviations. A new discus-
slon of using supplemental files containing lengthy data sets and other media is also
included.
HOW TO USE THE PUBLICATION MANUAL
ChapterS. Procedures for developing graphic material have changed dramatically since
the last edition of the Publication Manual was published. This chapter contains signif-
icantly expanded content on the electronic presentation of data. It will help readers
understand the purpose of each kind of display and choose the best match for commu-
nicating the results of the investigation. We provide new examples for a variety of dis-
plays, including electrophysiological, imaging, and other biological data.
Chapter 6. In this chapter, we have consolidated information on all aspects of citations,
beginning with guidance on how much to cite, how to format quotations, and how
to navigate the permission process. Basic in-text citation styles and reference compo-
nents are covered in detail. The discussion of electronic sources has been greatly
expanded, emphasizing the role of the digital object identifier as a reliable way to
locate information.
Chapter 7. Chapter 7 contains a significantly expanded set of reference examples, with
an emphasis on electronic formats, for readers to use in mastering the changes described
in Chapter 6. New examples have been added for a number of online sources, from data
sets and measurement instruments to software and online discussion forums.
Chapter 8. Chapter 8 has been revised to focus more on the publication process and less
on specific APA policies and procedures. It includes an expanded discussion of the func-
tion and process of peer review; a discussion of ethical, legal, and policy requirements
in publication; and guidelines on working with the publisher while the article is in press.
How to Use the Publication Manual
The Publication Manual describes requirements for the preparation and submission of
manuscripts for publication. Chapters in the Publication Manual provide substantive-
ly different kinds of information and are arranged in the sequence in which one con-
siders the elements of manuscript preparation, from initial concept through publica-
tion. Although each chapter is autonomous, individuals new to the publication process
may benefit from reading the book from beginning to end to get a comprehensive
overview.
Organizational Aids
We have included checklists throughout the book to help you organize tasks and
review your progress. These are listed below.
Checklist name Page
Ethical Compliance Checklist 20
Table Checklist 150
Figure Checklist 167
Checklist for Manuscript Submission 240
We have also provided sample papers to illustrate applications of APA Style. These
include a one-experiment paper (Figure 2.1, pp. 41—53), a two-experiment paper (Figure
2.2, pp. 54—56), and a sample paper reporting a meta-analysis (Figure 2.3, pp. 57—59).
INTRODUCTION
Format Aids
Examples of points of style or format that appear throughout the book are in a con-
trasting typeface. This typeface is intended to help you locate examples quickly.
This is an example of the typeface used to illustrate style points.
The following are other formatting aids that are designed to help the reader locate
specific information quickly:
• A detailed table of contents lists the sections for each chapter and will help you
locate categories of information quickly.
• An abbreviated table of contents appears inside the front cover for ease in locating
broad categories of information.
• A list of tables and figures follows the table of contents and will help you locate spe-
cific tables and figures.
• An abbreviated index of commonly used references appears inside the back cover.
We hope that these format aids will assist you in finding the instruction you need
in the pages that follow.1
‘You may find that the appearance of these pages occasionally deviates from APA Style rules. For example, sections
may not be double-spaced and may not be in 12-point Times Roman typeface. APA Style rules are designed for ease
of reading in manuscript form. Published work often takes a different form in accordance with professional design
standards.
R
esearch is complete only when the results are shared with the scientific com-
munity. Although such sharing is accomplished in various ways, both formal
and informal, the traditional medium for communicating research results is
the scientific journal.
The scientific journal is the repository of the accumulated knowledge of a field.
The findings and analyses, the successes and failures, and the perspectives of many
investigators over many years are recorded in the literature. Familiarity with the liter-
ature allows an individual investigator to avoid needlessly repeating work that has
been done before, to build on existing work, and in turn to contribute something new.
Just as each investigator benefits from the publication process, so the body of sci-
entific literature depends for its vitality on the active participation of individual inves-
tigators. Authors of scientific articles contribute most to the literature when they com-
municate clearly and concisely.
In this chapter, we discuss several considerations that authors should weigh before
writing for publication—considerations both about their own research and about the sci-
entific publishing tradition. We begin by identifying the types of articles that appear in sci-
entific journals. In the rest of the chapter, we focus on overarching ethical and legal stan-
dards in publishing that must be addressed as a first step in planning an investigation.
Types of Articles
Journal articles are usually reports of empirical studies, literature reviews, theoretical
articles, methodological articles, or case studies. They are primary or original publica-
tions. Members of the scientific community generally agree that the characteristics of
these publications are that (a) articles represent research not previously published (i.e.,
first disclosure; for a discussion of duplicate publication, see section 1.09.), (b) articles
Writing for the Behavioral and
Social Sciences
TYPES OF ARTICLES
are reviewed by peers before being accepted or rejected by a journal, and (c) articles
are archival (i.e., retrievable for future reference).
1.01 Empirical Studies
Empirical studies are reports of original research. These include secondary analyses
that test hypotheses by presenting novel analyses of data not considered or addressed
in previous reports. They typically consist of distinct sections that reflect the stages in
the research process and that appear in the following sequence:
• introduction: development of the problem under investigation, including its histori-
cal antecedents, and statement of the purpose of the investigation;
• method: description of the procedures used to conduct the investigation;
• results: report of the findings and analyses; and
• discussion: summary, interpretation, and implications of the results.
1.02 Literature Reviews
Literature reviews, including research syntheses and meta-analyses, are critical evalu-
ations of material that has already been published. In meta-analyses, authors use quan-
titative procedures to statistically combine the results of studies. By organizing, inte-
grating, and evaluating previously published material, authors of literature reviews
consider the progress of research toward clarifying a problem. In a sense, literature
reviews are tutorials, in that authors
• define and clarify the problem;
• summarize previous investigations to inform the reader of the state of research;
• identify relations, contradictions, gaps, and inconsistencies in the literature; and
• suggest the next step or steps in solving the problem.
The components of literature reviews can be arranged in various ways (e.g., by group-
ing research based on similarity in the concepts or theories of interest, methodological
similarities among the studies reviewed, or the historical development of the field).
1.03 Theoretical Articles
In theoretical articles, authors draw on existing research literature to advance theory.
Literature reviews and theoretical articles are often similar in structure, but theoretical
articles present empirical information only when it advances a theoretical issue. Authors
of theoretical articles trace the development of theory to expand and refine theoretical
constructs or present a new theory or analyze existing theory, pointing out flaws or
demonstrating the advantage of one theory over another. In this type of article, authors
customarily examine a theory’s internal consistency and external validity. The sections of
a theoretical article, like those of a literature review, can vary in order of their content.
1.04 Methodological Articles
Methodological articles present new methodological approaches, modifications of
existing methods, or discussions of quantitative and data analytic approaches to the
WRITING FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
community of researchers. These articles focus on methodological or data analytic
approaches and introduce empirical data only as illustrations of the approach.
Methodological articles are presented at a level that makes them accessible to the well-
read researcher and provide sufficient detail for researchers to assess the applicabilit$’
of the methodology to their research problem. Further, the article allows the reader to
compare the proposed methods with those in current use and to implement the pro-
posed methods. In methodological articles, highly technical materials (e.g., derivations,
proofs, details of simulations) should be presented in appendices or as supplemental
materials to improve the overall readability of the article.
1.05 Case Studies
Case studies are reports of case materials obtained while working with an individual,
a group, a community, or an organization. Case studies illustrate a problem; indicate
a means for solving a problem; and/or shed light on needed research, clinical applica-
tions, or theoretical matters. In writing case studies, authors carefully consider the bal-
ance between providing important illustrative material and using confidential case
material responsibly. (See section 1.11 for a discussion on confidentiality.)
1.06 Other Types of Articles
Other, less frequently published types of articles include brief reports, comments and
replies on previously published articles, book reviews, obituaries, letters to the edi-
tor, and monographs. Consult with the editor of the journal to which you are con-
sidering submitting the manuscript for specific information regarding these kinds of
articles.
Ethical and Legal Standards in Publishing
Much of the Publication Manual addresses scientific writing style. Style involves no
inherent right or wrong. It is merely a conventional way of presenting information that
is designed to ease communication. Different scholarly disciplines have different pub-
lication styles.
In contrast, basic ethical and legal principles underlie all scholarly research and
writing. These long-standing principles are designed to achieve three goals:
• to ensure the accuracy of scientific knowledge,
• to protect the rights and welfare of research participants, and
• to protect intellectual property rights.
Writers in the social and behavioral sciences work to uphold these goals and fol-
low the principles that have been established by their professional associations. The
following guidance is drawn from the “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct” (hereinafter referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002; see also
http://www.apa.org/ethics), which contains standards that address the reporting and
Publishing of scientific data. Note that the APA Ethics Code is not a static document—
it may be revised and updated over time. Updates appear on the website as they
become available.
ENSURING THE ACCURACY OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Ensuring the Accuracy of Scientific Knowledge
1.07 Ethical Reporting of Research Results
The essence of the scientific method involves observations that can be repeated and
verified by others. Thus, psychologists do not fabricate or falsify data (APA Ethics
Code Standard 8.lOa, Reporting Research Results). Modifying results, including visu-
al images (for more discussion on visual images, see Chapter 5, section 5.29), to sup-
port a hypothesis or omitting troublesome observations from reports to present a more
convincing story is also prohibited (APA Ethics Code Standard S.Ola, Avoidance of
False or Deceptive Statements).
Careful preparation of manuscripts for publication is essential, but errors can still
occur. Authors are responsible for making such errors public if the errors are discov-
ered after publication. First, inform the editor and the publisher so that a correction
notice can be published. The goal of such a notice is to correct the knowledge base so
that the error is brought to the attention of future users of the information. Each cor-
rection notice is appended to the original article in an online database so that it will be
retrieved whenever the original article is retrieved (for more details on correction
notices, see section 8.06; APA Ethics Code Standard 8.lOb, Reporting Research
Results).
1.08 Data Retention and Sharing
Researchers must make their data available to the editor at any time during the review
and publication process if questions arise with respect to the accuracy of the report.
Refusal to do so can lead to rejection of the submitted manuscript without further con-
sideration. In a similar vein, once an article is published, researchers must make their
data available to permit other qualified professionals to confirm the analyses and
results (APA Ethics Code Standard 8.14a, Sharing Research Data for Verification).
Authors are expected to retain raw data for a minimum of five years after publication
of the research. Other information related to the research (e.g., instructions, treatment
manuals, software, details of procedures, code for mathematical models reported in
journal articles) should be kept for the same period; such information is necessary if
others are to attempt replication and should be provided to qualified researchers on
request (APA Ethics Code Standard 6.01, Documentation of Professional and Scientific
Work and Maintenance of Records).
APA encourages the open sharing of data among qualified investigators. Authors
are expected to comply promptly and in a spirit of cooperation with requests for data
sharing from other researchers. Before sharing data, delete any personally identifiable
information or code that would make it possible to reestablish a link to an individual
participant’s identity. In addition to protecting the confidentiality of research partici-
pants, special proprietary or other concerns of the investigator or sponsor of the
research sometimes must be addressed as well. Generally, the costs of complying with
the request should be borne by the requester.
To avoid misunderstanding, it is important for the researcher requesting data and
the researcher providing data to come to a written agreement about the conditions
under which the data are to be shared. Such an agreement must specify the limits on
how the shared data may be used (e.g., for verification of already published results, for
inclusion in meta-analytic studies, for secondary analysis). The written agreement
WRITING FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL
should also include a formal statement about limits on the distribution of the shared
data (e.g., it may be used only by the person requesting the data, it may be used by the
person requesting the data and individuals the requestor directly supervises, or there
are no limits on the further distribution of the data). Furthermore, the agreepierit
should specify limits on the dissemination (conference presentations, internal
journal articles, book chapters, etc.) of the results of analyses performed on the data
and authorship expectations. Data-sharing arrangements must be entered into with
proper consideration of copyright restrictions, consent provided by subjects,
ments of funding agencies, and rules promulgated by the employer of the holder of the
data (APA Ethics Code Standard 8.14b, Sharing Research Data for Verificáti&ñ).
1.09 Duplicate and Piecemeal Publication of Data
The scientific literature is our institutional memory. Thus, reports in the literature must
accurately reflect the independence of separate research efforts. Both duplicate and
piecemeal publication of data constitute threats to these goals. Duplicate publication
is the publication of the same data or ideas in two separate sources. Piecemeal publi-
cation is the unnecessary splitting of the findings from one research effort into multi-
pie articles.
Duplicate publication. Misrepresentation of data as original when they have been pub-
lished previously is specifically prohibited by APA Ethics Code Standard 8.13,
:w Duplicate Publication of Data. Duplicate publication distorts the knowledge base by
making it appear that there is more information available than really exists. It also
n- wastes scarce resources (journal pages and the time and efforts of editors and review-
ers). The prohibition against duplicate publication is especially critical for the cumula-
id tive knowledge of the field. Duplicate publication can give the erroneous impression
that findings are more replicable than is the case or that particular conclusions are
more strongly supported than is warranted by the cumulative evidence. Duplicate pub-
nt lication can also lead to copyright violations; authors cannot assign the copyright for
in the same material to more than one publisher.
if Previously published research. Authors must not submit to an APA journal a man-
uscript describing work that has been published previously in whole or in substantial
Ic part elsewhere, whether in English or in another language. More important, authors
should not submit manuscripts that have been published elsewhere in substantially
rs similar form or with substantially similar content. Authors in doubt about what con-
ta stitutes prior publication should consult with the editor of the journal in question.
le This policy regarding duplicate publication does not necessarily exclude from con-
al sideration manuscripts previously published in abstracted form (e.g., in the proceed-
ings of an annual meeting) or in a periodical with limited circulation or availability
i.e (e.g., in a report by a university department, by a government agency, or in a U.S. dis-
sertation). This policy does exclude from consideration the same or overlapping mate-
rial that has appeared in a publication that has been offered for public sale, such as
conference proceedings or a book chapter; such a publication does not meet the crite-
rion of “limited circulation.” Publication of a brief report in an APA journal is with
the understanding that an extended report will not be published elsewhere because
APA brief reports include sufficient descriptions of methodology to allow for replica-
tion; the brief report is the archival record for the work. Similarly, the restraints against
____
ENSURING THE ACCURACY OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
duplicate publication do not preclude subsequent reanalysis of published data in light
of new theories or methodologies, if the reanalysis is clearly labeled as such and pro-
vides new insights into the phenomena being studied.
Acknowledging and citing previous work Authors sometimes want to publish what
is essentially the same material in more than one venue to reach different audiences.
However, such duplicate publication can rarely be justified, given the ready accessibil-
ity of computerized retrieval systems for published works. If it is deemed scientifically
necessary to re-present previously published material—for instance, in reports of new
analyses or to frame new research that follows up on previous work from the authors’
laboratory—the following conditions must be met:
1. The amount of duplicated material must be small relative to the total length of the
text.
2. The text must clearly acknowledge in the author note and other relevant sections of
the article (i.e., Method and/or Result sections) that the information was reported
previously, and the citation to the previous work must be given.
3. Any republished tables and figures must be clearly marked as reprinted or adapted,
and the original source must be provided both in the text and in a footnote to the
table or figure.
4. The original publication venue must be clearly and accurately cited in the reference
list (see also the discussion on self-plagiarism in section 1.10).
When the original publication has multiple authors and the authorship is not iden-
tical on both publications, it is important that all authors receive agreed-upon credit
(e.g., in an author note) for their contributions in the later publication.
Piecemeal publication. Authors are obligated to present work parsimoniously and as
completely as possible within the space constraints of journal publications. Data that
can be meaningfully combined within a single publication should be presented to-
gether to enhance effective communication. Piecemeal, or fragmented, publication of
research findings can be misleading if multiple reports appear to represent independ-
ent instances of data collection or analyses; distortion of the scientific literature, espe-
cially in reviews or meta-analyses, may result. Piecemeal publication of several reports
of the results from a single study is therefore undesirable unless there is a clear benefit
to scientific communication. It may be quite difficult to determine whether such a ben-
efit exists when multiple dependent variables that were observed in the same sample
and at the same time are reported in separate manuscripts. Authors who wish to divide
the report of a study into more than one article should inform the editor and provide
such information as the editor requests. Whether the publication of two or more
reports based on the same or on closely related research constitutes fragmented publi-
cation is a matter of editorial judgment.
Reanalysis of published data. There may be times, especially in instances of large-
scale, longitudinal, or multidisciplinary projects, when it is both necessary and appro-
priate to publish multiple reports. Multidisciplinary projects often address diverse top-
ics, and publishing in a single journal may be inappropriate. Repeated publication
from a longitudinal study is often appropriate because the data at different ages make
unique scientific contributions. Further, useful knowledge should be made available to
others as soon as possible, which is precluded if publication is withheld until all the
studies are completed.
1
I
WRITING FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
As multiple reports from large-scale or longitudinal studies are created, authors are
obligated to cite prior reports on the project to help the reader understand the work
accurately. For example, in the early years of a longitudinal study, one might cite all
previous publications from it. For a well-known or long-term longitudinal study, one
iat might cite the original publication, a more recent summary, and earlier articles that
es. focused on the same or related scientific questions addressed in the current report.
il- Often it is not necessary to repeat the description of the design and methods of a Ion-
Ily gitudinal or large-scale project in its entirety. Authors may refer the reader to an earli-
er publication for this detailed information. It is important, however, to provide suffi-
rs cient information so that the reader can evaluate the current report. It is also important
to make clear the degree of sample overlap in multiple reports from large studies.
Again, authors should inform and consult with the editor prior to the submission of a
manuscript of this type.
of Alerting the editor. Whether the publication of two or more reports based on the same
ed or closely related research constitutes duplicate publication is a matter of editorial
judgment, as is the determination of whether the manuscript meets other publication
d, criteria. Any prior publication should be noted (see previous section on acknowledg-
he ing and citing previous work) and referenced in the manuscript, and authors must
inform the journal editor of the existence of any similar manuscripts that have already
ce been published or accepted for publication or that may be submitted for concurrent
consideration to the same journal or elsewhere. The editor can then make an informed
judgment as to whether the submitted manuscript includes sufficient new information
lit to warrant consideration. If, during the review or production process, a manuscript is
discovered to be in violation of duplicate publication policies and authors have failed
to inform the editor of the possible violation, then the manuscript can be rejected with-
as out further consideration. If such a violation is discovered after publication in an APA
tat journal, appropriate action such as retraction by the publisher or notice of duplicate
publication will be taken.
of Journal articles sometimes are revised for publication as book chapters. Authors
d- have a responsibility to reveal to the reader that portions of the new work were previ-
ously published and to cite and reference the source. If copyright is owned by a pub-
lisher or by another person, authors must acknowledge copyright and obtain permis-
fit sion to adapt or reproduce.
n-
de
1.10 Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism
de Plagiarism. Researchers do not claim the words and ideas of another as their own; they
re give credit where credit is due (APA Ethics Code Standard 8.11, Plagiarism).
Ii- Quotation marks should be used to indicate the exact words of another. Each time you
paraphrase another author (i.e., summarize a passage or rearrange the order of a sen-
tence and change some of the words), you need to credit the source in the text. The
following paragraph is an example of how one might appropriately paraphrase some
of the foregoing material in this section.
As stated in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American
to Ps ychological Association (APA, 2010), the ethical principles of scientific publica-
Eie tion are designed to ensure the integrity of scientific knowledge and to protect
the intellectual property rights of others. As the Publication Manual explains,
Mt I PROTECTING THE RIGHTS AND WELFARE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
authors are expected to correct the record if they discover errors in their publi-
cations; they are also expected to give credit to others for their prior work when
it is quoted or paraphrased.
The key element of this principle is that authors do not present the work of anoth-
er as if it were their own work. This can extend to ideas as well as written words. If
authors model a study after one done by someone else, the originating author should
be given credit. If the rationale for a study was suggested in the Discussion section of
someone else’s article, that person should be given credit. Given the free exchange of
ideas, which is very important to the health of intellectual discourse, authors may not
know where an idea for a study originated. If authors do know, however, they should
acknowledge the source; this includes personal communications. (For additional infor-
mation on quotations and paraphrasing, see sections 6.03—6.08; for instructions on
referencing publications and personal communications, see sections 6.11—6.20.)
Self-plagiarism. Just as researchers do not present the work of others as their own (pla-
giarism), they do not present their own previously published work as new scholarship
(self-plagiarism). There are, however, limited circumstances (e.g., describing the details
of an instrument or an analytic approach) under which authors may wish to duplicate
without attribution (citation) their previously used words, feeling that extensive self-
referencing is undesirable or awkward. When the duplicated words are limited in scope,
this approach is permissible. When duplication of one’s own words is more extensive,
citation of the duplicated words should be the norm. What constitutes the maximum
acceptable length of duplicated material is difficult to define but must conform to legal
notions of fair use. The general view is that the core of the new document must consti-
tute an original contribution to knowledge, and only the amount of previously pub-
lished material necessary to understand that contribution should be included, primarily
in the discussion of theory and methodology. When feasible, all of the author’s own
words that are cited should be located in a single paragraph or a few paragraphs, with
a citation at the end of each. Opening such paragraphs with a phrase like “as I have pre-
viously discussed” will also alert readers to the status of the upcoming material.
Protecting the Rights and Welfare of Research
Participants
1.11 Rights and Confidentiality of Research Participants
Certification of standards. Standards 8.01—8.09 of the APA Ethics Code specify the princi-
ples psychologists are to follow in conducting research with humans and animals.
Authors, regardless of field, are required to certify that they have followed these standards
as a precondition of publishing their articles in APA journals (see http://www.apa.org/
journals; see also Figure 8.2, pp. 233—234). Authors are also encouraged to include such
certifications in the description of participants in the text of the manuscript. Failure to fol-
low these standards can be grounds for rejecting a manuscript for publication or for
retraction of a published article.
Protecting confidentiality. When researchers use case studies to describe their research,
they are prohibited from disclosing “confidential, personally identifiable information
concerning their patients, individual or organizational clients, students, research par-
WRITING FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
–
ticipants, or other recipients of their services” (APA Ethics Code Standard 4.07, Use of
Confidential Information for Didactic or Other Purposes). Confidentiality in case stud-
ies is generally handled by one of two means. One option is to prepare the descriptive
case material, present it to the subject of the case report, and obtain written consent for
its publication from the subject. In doing so, however, one must be careful not to exploit
persons over whom one has supervisory, evaluative, or other authority such as clients,
ild patients, supervisees, employees, or organizational clients (see APA Ethics Code
of Standard 3.08, Exploitative Relationships). The other option is to disguise some aspects
of of the case material so that neither the subject nor third parties (e.g., family members,
employers) are identifiable. Four main strategies have emerged for achieving this: (a)
tld altering specific characteristics, (b) limiting the description of specific characteristics, (c)
obfuscating case detail by adding extraneous material, and (d) using composites.
Such disguising of cases is a delicate issue because it is essential not to change vari-
ables that would lead the reader to draw false conclusions related to the phenomena
[a- being described (Tuckett, 2000). For example, altering the subject’s gender in a case illus-
tip trating a promising therapy for rape trauma might compromise its educative value if the
ils client—patient’s gender played a significant role in the treatment. Subject details should be
Lte omitted only if they are not essential to the phenomenon described. Subject privacy, how-
If- ever, should never be sacrificed for clinical or scientific accuracy. Cases that cannot ade-
quately disguise identifiable subject information should not be submitted for publication.
re, t For additional information on the presentation of case material, see VandenBos (2001).
m!
al 1.12 Conflict of Interest
In all scientific disciplines, professional communications are presumed to be based on
ly
objective interpretations of evidence and unbiased interpretation of fact. An author’s
in economic and commercial interests in products or services used or discussed in a paper
may color such objectivity. Although such relations do not necessarily constitute a con-
•e-
flict of interest, the integrity of the field requires disclosure of the possibilities of such
• potentially distorting influences where they may exist. In general, the safest and most
• open course of action is to disclose in an author note activities and relationships that
if known to others might be viewed as a conflict of interest, even if you do not believe
that any conflict or bias exists.
Whether an interest is significant will depend on individual circumstances and can-
not be defined by a dollar amount. Holdings in a company through a mutual fund are
not ordinarily sufficient to warrant disclosure, whereas salaries, research grants, con-
sulting fees, and personal stock holdings would be. Being the copyright holder of and/or
recipient of royalties from a psychological test might be another example. Participation
on a board of directors or any other relationship with an entity or person that is in some
way part of the paper should also be carefully considered for possible disclosure.
In addition to disclosure of possible sources of positive bias, authors should also
carefully consider disclosure when circumstances could suggest bias against a product,
service, facility, or person. For example, having a copyright or royalty interest in a
competing psychological test or assessment protocol might be seen as a possible source
of negative bias against another test instrument.
The previous examples refer to possible conflicts of interest of a researcher in the con-
duct of the research. It is important to recognize that reviewers of research reports also
have potential conflicts of interest. In general, one should not review a manuscript from a
Colleague or collaborator, a close personal friend, or a recent student. Typically, the action
PROTECTING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
editor will not select individuals to be reviewers in which this obvious conflict of interest
may exist. Howeveç if this might occuç a potential reviewer should consult with the
action editor about whether recusal from the evaluation process would be appropriate.
Reviewers also have an ethical obligation to be open and fair in assessing a man-
uscript without bias. If for any reason a reviewer may find this difficult, it is appropri-
ate to discuss the potential conflict of interest with the action editor as soon as this sit-
uation becomes apparent.
Last, reviewers have an obligation to maintain the confidentiality of a manuscript.
This means, in general, that one does not discuss the manuscript with another individ-
ual. Moreover, as noted in section 1.14, “editors and reviewers may not use the mate-
rial from an unpublished manuscript to advance their own or others’ work without the
author’s consent.”
Protecting Intellectual Property Rights
1.13 Publication Credit
Authorship is reserved for persons who make a substantial contribution to and who
accept responsibility for a published work.
Definition of authorship. Individuals should only take authorship credit for work they
have actually performed or to which they have substantially contributed (APA Ethics
Code Standard 8.12a, Publication Credit). Authorship encompasses, therefore, not only
those who do the actual writing but also those who have made substantial scientific con-
tributions to a study. Substantial professional contributions may include formulating the
problem or hypothesis, structuring the experimental design, organizing and conducting
the statistical analysis, interpreting the results, or writing a major portion of the paper.
Those who so contribute are listed in the byline. Lesser contributions, which do not con-
stitute authorship, may be acknowledged in a note (see section 2.03). These contributions
may include such supportive functions as designing or building the apparatus, suggesting
or advising about the statistical analysis, collecting or entering the data, modifying or
structuring a computer program, and recruiting participants or obtaining animals.
Conducting routine observations or diagnoses for use in studies does not constitute
authorship. Combinations of these (and other) tasks, however, may justify authorship.
Determining authorship. As early as practicable in a research project, the collaborators
should decide on which tasks are necessary for the project’s completion, how the work
F will be divided, which tasks or combination of tasks merits authorship credit, and on
what level credit should be given (first author, second author, etc.). Collaborators may
need to reassess authorship credit and order if changes in relative contribution are made
in the course of the project (and its publication). This is especially true in faculty—
student collaborations, when students may need more intensive supervision than origi-
nally anticipated, when additional analyses are required beyond the scope of a student’s
current level of training (Fisher, 2003), or when the level of the contribution of the stu-
dent exceeds that originally anticipated.
When a paper is accepted by an editor, each person listed in the byline must verify
in writing that he or she agrees to serve as an author and accepts the responsibilities of
authorship (see the section on author responsibilities at the beginning of Chapter 8).
WHITING FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Order of authorship. Authors are responsible for determining authorship and for spec-
ifying the order in which two or more authors’ names appear in the byline. The gen-
eral rule is that the name of the principal contributor should appear first, with subse-
in- quent names in order of decreasing contribution, but this convention can vary froth
ri- field to field. If authors played equal roles in the research and publication of their
;it- study, they may wish to note this in the author note (see section 2.03 for more infor-
mation on author notes).
pt. Principal authorship and the order of authorship credit should accurately reflect
id- the relative contributions of persons involved (APA Ethics Code Standard 8.12b,
te- Publication Credit). Relative status (i.e., department chair, junior faculty member, stu-
:he dent) should not determine the order of authorship. Because doctoral work is expect-
ed to represent an independent and original contribution devised by students, except
under rare circumstances, students should be listed as the principal author of any mul-
tiauthored papers substantially based on their dissertation (APA Ethics Code Standard
8.12c, Publication Credit). Unusual exceptions to doctoral student first authorship
might occur when the doctoral dissertation is published as part of a collection of stud-
ies involving other researchers (Fisher, 2003). Whether students merit principal author-
ship on master’s-level or other predoctoral research will depend on their specific con-
tributions to the research. When master’s-level students make the primary
contributions to a study, they should be listed as the first author. When students are
Ley just beginning to acquire skills necessary to make a primary scientific contribution,
ics they may conduct master’s theses that involve the opportunity to learn these skills
ily through collaboration on a faculty-originated project. In such cases, authorship should
n- be determined by the relative contributions of student and faculty member to the proj-
he ect (Fisher, 2003).
ng
er. 1.14 Reviewers
Editorial review of a manuscript requires that the editors and reviewers circulate and
ng discuss the manuscript. During the review process, the manuscript is a confidential and
or privileged document. Editors and reviewers may not, without authors’ explicit permis-
Is. sion, quote from a manuscript under review or circulate copies of it for any purpose
ite other than editorial review (APA Ethics Code Standard 8.15, Reviewers; see section
8.01 for a detailed discussion of the peer review process). If reviewers for APA journals
wish to consult with a colleague about some aspect of the manuscript, the reviewer must
rs request permission from the editor prior to approaching the colleague. Publishers have
rk different policies on this, and reviewers should consult with the editor about this mat-
ter. In addition, editors and reviewers may not use the material from an unpublished
ay manuscript to advance their own or others’ work without the author’s consent.
de
1.15 Author’s Copyright on an Unpublished Manuscript
t’s Authors are protected by federal statute against unauthorized use of their unpublished
manuscripts. Under the Copyright Act of 1976 (title 17 of the United States Code), an
unpublished work is copyrighted from the moment it is fixed in tangible form—for
example, typed on a page. Copyright protection is “an incident of the process of
of authorship” (U.S. Copyright Office, 1981, p. 3). Until authors formally transfer copy-
right (see section 8.05), they own the copyright on an unpublished manuscript, and all
PROTECTING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
exclusive rights due the copyright owner of a published work are also due authors of
an unpublished work. To ensure copyright protection, include the copyright notice on
all published works (e.g., Copyright [year] by [name of copyright holder]). The notice
need not appear on unpublished works; nonetheless, it is recommended that a copy-
right notice be included on all works, whether published or not. Registration of
copyright provides a public record and is usually a prerequisite for any legal action.
1.16 Planning for Ethical Compliance
Regardless of the type of article involved, attention to ethical concerns begins long
before a manuscript is submitted for publication. Authors submitting a manuscript to an
APA journal are required to submit a form stating their compliance with ethical standards
for publication as well as a form disclosing any conflicts of interest (see Chapter 8,
Figures 8.2 and 8.3, pp. 233—235) once a manuscript is accepted. We encourage authors
to consult these forms before beginning their research project and at regular intervals
throughout the entire research process. Whether or not the work will be submitted to
an APA journal, issues related to institutional approval, informed consent, deception in
research, and participant protections should be carefully considered while the research is
in the planning stages and may be the basis of questions for editors or reviewers (see
Chapter 8). In particular, we urge researchers to review the following checklist.
Ethical Compliance Checklist
D Have you obtained permission for use of unpublished instruments, proce-
dures, or data that other researchers might consider theirs (proprietary)?
S Have you properly cited other published work presented in portions of your
manuscript?
El Are you prepared to answer questions about institutional review of your study
or studies?
S Are you prepared to answer editorial questions about the informed consent
and debriefing procedures you used?
S If your study involved animal subjects, are you prepared to answer editorial
questions about humane care and use of animals in research?
U Have all authors reviewed the manuscript and agreed on responsibility for its
content?
S Have you adequately protected the confidentiality of research participants,
clients—patients, organizations, third parties, or others who were the source of
information presented in this manuscript?
S Have all authors agreed to the order of authorship?
S Have you obtained permission for use of any copyrighted material you have
included?
of
ce
y-
of
Manuscript Structure
and Content
in
is
ee
Jn
this chapter, we describe the structure of the manuscript, with a focus on function
and format. For each manuscript element, we detail current expectations for the
content. In each section, the following kinds of information are included:
• a definition or description of the manuscript part,
• specific guidelines on content to be included, and
• guidelines on how the part should appear in text.’
In this edition of the Publication Manual, we present updated journal article
reporting standards, and these are also discussed in this chapter. These reporting stan-
dards relate to material recommended to appear in the abstract, the introduction of the
research problem, the method section, the results, and the discussion of the results.
Also presented are three specific modules relating to studies with manipulated condi-
tions or interventions. The chapter ends with sample papers that illustrate the function
and format of the sections described.
Journal Article Reporting Standards
Reporting standards provide a degree of comprehensiveness in the information that is
routinely included in reports of empirical investigations. The motivation for the devel-
opment of reporting standards has come from within the disciplines of the behavioral,
social, educational, and medical sciences. Uniform reporting standards make it easier
to generalize across fields, to more fully understand the implications of individual stud-
ies, and to allow techniques of meta-analysis to proceed more efficiently. Also, decision
makers in policy and practice have emphasized the importance of understanding how
research was conducted and what was found. A set of comprehensive reporting stan-
dards facilitates this understanding.
‘Note that guidelines for the formatting and preparation of the complete manuscript can be found in section 8.03.
JOURNAL ARTICLE REPORTING STANDARDS
Reporting standards are based on the research design and implementation of the
study being reported, not on the topical focus of the study or the particular journal
that might serve as the vehicle for its publication. Reporting standards are emergent
and have not yet been developed for all types of studies.
In the next section, we describe a set of reporting standards relating to the mate-
rial recommended to appear in (a) the abstract; (b) the introduction of the research
problem; (c) subsections of the method section describing the characteristics of the par-
ticipants; sampling procedures; sample size, power, and precision; measures and covari-
ates; and the general descriptor of the research design; (d) the statistical results; and (e)
the discussion of results. These standards relate to all types of research designs. Then
we present three specific modules relating to studies with manipulated conditions or
interventions. You can use (or a journal editor may ask you to use) these modules in
addition to the general template if they are relevant to the research at hand. One mod-
ule contains standards for describing the experimental manipulation or intervention
itself, and the other two modules describe features of designs with experimental (i.e.,
random assignment) and quasi-experimental (i.e., nonrandom assignment) research
designs. We also provide a flow chart to help you describe how subjects moved
through the experimental or quasi-experimental study. In the same spirit, we include
standards for reports of meta-analyses. Before you begin to write a manuscript, con-
sult the particular journal to which you are considering submitting and see whether
there are journal-specific guidelines regarding your research design.
We relied heavily on previous efforts to construct reporting standards in develop-
ing the standards presented here. For example, for the Journal Article Reporting
Standards, Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT; 2007; see
http://www.consort-statement.org/) and Transparent Reporting of Evaluations With
Nonexperimental Designs (TREND; see http://www.trend-statement.org/asp/
trend.asp) were used. Four earlier efforts contributed to the meta-analysis reporting
standards. A complete description of how the standards were developed can be found
in “Reporting Standards for Research in Psychology: Why Do We Need Them? What
Might They Be?” (APA Publications and Communications Board Working Group on
Journal Article Reporting Standards, 2008).
Four sets of guidelines, which can be found in the Appendix, have been created to
help you decide which elements are relevant to your study. These guidelines are from
the American Psychologist article (see previous paragraph) and include entries beyond
those discussed in this chapter. For information on content, refer to Table 1 of the
Appendix, Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS): Information Recommended
for Inclusion in Manuscripts That Report New Data Collections Regardless of
Research Design. The additional modules for designs involving experimental manipu-
lations and interventions can be found in Table 2 of the Appendix, Module A:
Reporting Standards for Studies With an Experimental Manipulation or Intervention
(in Addition to Material Presented in Table 1) and Table 3 of the Appendix, Reporting
Standards for Studies Using Random and Nonrandom Assignment of Participants to
Experimental Groups. The fourth set of guidelines is titled Meta-Analysis Reporting
Standards [MARS]: Information Recommended for Inclusion in Manuscripts
Reporting Meta-Analyses, which can be found in Table 4 of the Appendix.
Not everything in these guidelines will be relevant to every article you prepare.
Also, as descriptions of research expand, so does the space needed to report them.:
Technological changes now allow authors to supplement their articles with additional
I
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
the online-only material to facilitate complete reporting. Most scholarly publishers,
ma! including the APA, now make available to authors online supplemental archives that
can be used to store supplemental materials associated with the articles that appear in
print. So, some of the material in the appendices may not appear in the published arti-
ate- cle itself but rather in an online supplemental archive. We discuss supplemental mate-
rch na1 more fully in section 2.13.
)ar-
an-
Manuscript Elements
2.01 Title
A title should summarize the main idea of the manuscript simply and, if possible, with
-ion style. It should be a concise statement of the main topic and should identify the van-
I e
ables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them. An
Lrch
example of a good title is “Effect of Transformed Letters on Reading Speed.”
ved A title should be fully explanatory when standing alone. Although its principal
d
function is to inform readers about the study, a title is also used as a statement of arti-
cle content for abstracting and reference purposes in databases such as APA’s PsycINFO.
-h
A good title is easily shortened to the running head used within the published article.
– er
Titles are commonly indexed and compiled in numerous reference works. Therefore,
avoid words that serve no useful purpose; they increase length and can mislead indexers.
For example, the words method and results do not normally appear in a title, nor shouldmg
– such terms as A Study of or An Experimental Investigation of. Occasionally a term such
see
as a research synthesis or a meta-analysis or fMRI study of conveys important informa-
it
tion for the potential reader and is included in the title. Avoid using abbreviations in a
title; spelling out all terms helps ensure accurate, complete indexing of the article. The
.mg
recommended length for a title is no more than 12 words.
Linu
The title should be typed in uppercase and lowercase letters, centered between the
left and right margins, and positioned in the upper half of the page.
ito 2.02 Author’s Name (Byline) and Institutional Affiliation
om Every manuscript includes the name of the author and the institutional affiliation of
nd the author when the research was conducted.
the
ded Author’s name (byline). The preferred form of an author’s name is first name, middle
of initial(s), and last name; this form reduces the likelihood of mistaken identity. To
pu- assist researchers as well as librarians, use the same form for publication throughout
A: your career; that is, do not use initials on one manuscript and the full name on a later
:ion one. Determining whether Juanita A. Smith is the same person as J. A. Smith, J.
:ing Smith, or A. Smith can be difficult, particularly when citations span several years and
to institutional affiliations change. Omit all titles (e.g., Dr., Professor) and degrees (e.g.,
:ing
PhD, PsyD, EdD).
pts Institutional affiliation. The affiliation identifies the location where the author or
authors were when the research was conducted, which is usually an institution. Include
a dual affiliation only if two institutions contributed substantial support to the study.
Include no more than two affiliations per author. When an author has no institutional
affiliation, list the city and state of residence below the author’s name. If the institu-
MANUSCRIPT ELEMENTS
Byline variation Example
One author, no affiliation Mary S. Haggerty
Rochester, New York
Two authors (with suffixes), John 0. Foster II and Roy R. Davis Jr.
one affiliation Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey
Three authors, one affiliation Juanita Fuentes, Paul Dykes, and Susan Watanabe
University of Colorado at Boulder
Two authors, two affiliations David Wolf
University of California, Berkeley
Amanda Blue
Brandon University
Three authors, two affiliations Mariah Meade and Sylvia Earleywine
Georgetown University
Jeffrey Coffee
Dartmouth College
tional affiliation has changed since the work was completed, give the current affilia-
tion in the author note (see Table 2.1).
The names of the authors should appear in the order of their contributions, cen-
tered between the side margins. For names with suffixes (e.g., Jr. and III), separate the
suffix from the rest of the name with a space instead of a comma. The institutional
affiliation should be centered under the author’s name, on the next line.
John 0. Foster II and Roy R. Davis Jr.
Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey
2.03 Author Note
An author note appears with each printed article to identify each author’s departmen-
tal affiliation, provide acknowledgments, state any disclaimers or perceived conflict of
interest, and provide a point of contact for the interested reader. (Students should note
that an author note is usually not a requirement for theses and dissertations.) Notes
should be arranged as follows.
First paragraph: Complete departmental affiliation. Identify departmental affiliations at
the time of the study for all authors. Format as follows: name of the author as it appears
in the byline, comma, department name, comma, university name, semicolon, next
author name, and so on, and end with a period. If an author is not affiliated with an
institution, provide the city and state (provide city and country for authors whose affil-
iations are outside of the United States, and include province for authors in Canada or
Australia). No degrees should be given, and state names should be spelled out.
Second paragraph: Changes of affiliation (if any). Identify any changes in author affili-
ation subsequent to the time of the study. Use the following wording: [author’s name)
is now at [affiliationl. The affiliation should include the department and institution.
S
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
Third paragraph.
Acknowledgments. Identify grants or other financial support (and the source, if
appropriate) for your study; do not precede grant numbers by No. or #. Next,
acknowledge colleagues who assisted in conducting the study or critiquing the manu-
script. Do not acknowledge the persons routinely involved in the review and accept-
ance of manuscripts—peer reviewers or editors, associate editors, and consulting edi-
tors of the journal in which the article is to appear. (If you would like to acknowledge
a specific idea raised by a reviewer, do so in the text where the idea is discussed.) In
this paragraph, also explain any special agreements concerning authorship, such as if
authors contributed equally to the study. End this paragraph with thanks for personal
assistance, such as in manuscript preparation.
Special circumstances. If there are any special circumstances, disclose them before
the acknowledgments in the third paragraph. For example, if the manuscript is based
on data also used in a previously published report (e.g., a longitudinal study) or a
doctoral dissertation, state that information in this paragraph. Also, acknowledge the
publication of related reports (e.g., reports on the same database). If any relationships
may be perceived as a conflict of interest (e.g., if you own stock in a company that
manufactures a drug used in your study), explain them here. If your employer or
granting organization requires a disclaimer stating, for example, that the research
reported does not reflect the views of that organization, such a statement is included
in this paragraph.
en- Fourth paragraph: Person to contact (mailing address, e-mail). Provide a complete
the mailing address for correspondence. End this paragraph with an e-mail address and
nal no period.
Jane Doe, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at
Urbana—Champaign; John Smith, Department of Educational Psychology,
University of Chicago.
John Smith is now at Department of Psychology, University of California,
San Diego.
This research was supported in part by grants from the National Institute on
en- Aging and from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.
of Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jane Doe,
ote Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Champaign, IL 61820.
tes E-mail: jdoe@uiuc.edu
at Place the author note on the title page, below the title, byline, and affiliation.
ars Center the label Author Note. Start each paragraph of the note with an indent, and
ext type separate paragraphs for the authors’ names and current affiliations, changes in
an affiliations, acknowledgments, and special circumstances, if any, along with the person
Ill- to contact. The author note is not numbered or cited in the text.
or
2.04 Abstract
An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article; it allows
readers to survey the contents of an article quickly and, like a title, it enables persons inter-
ested in the document to retrieve it from abstracting and indexing databases. Most schol-
MANUSCRIPT ELEMENTS
arty journals require an abstract. Consult the instructions to authors or web page of the
journal to which you plan to submit your articte for any journal-specific instructions.
A well-prepared abstract can be the most important singte paragraph in an articte.
Most peopte have their first contact with an articte by seeing just the abstract, usually
in comparison with severat other abstracts, as they are doing a titerature search.
Readers frequently decide on the basis of the abstract whether to read the entire arti-
cle. The abstract needs to be dense with information. By embedding key words in your
abstract, you enhance the user’s ability to find it. A good abstract is
• accurate: Ensure that the abstract correctty reflects the purpose and content of the
manuscript. Do not inctude information that does not appear in the body of the
manuscript. If the study extends or replicates previous research, note this in the
abstract and cite the author’s tast name and the year of the relevant report.
Comparing an abstract with an outtine of the manuscript’s headings is a usefut way
to verify its accuracy.
• nonevaluative: Report rather than evaluate; do not add to or comment on what is in
the body of the manuscript.
• coherent and readabte: Write in ctear and concise tanguage. Use verbs rather than
their noun equivalents and the active rather than the passive voice (e.g., investigated
rather than an investigation on The authors presented the results instead of Results
were presented). Use the present tense to describe conctusions drawn or resutts with
continuing appticability; use the past tense to describe specific variables maniputat-
ed or outcomes measured.
• concise: Be brief, and make each sentence maximally informative, especially the tead
sentence. Begin the abstract with the most important points. Do not waste space by
repeating the title. Inctude in the abstract onty the four or five most important con-
cepts, findings, or imptications. Use the specific words in your abstract that you
think your audience will use in their electronic searches.
An abstract of a report of an empirical study shoutd describe
• the problem under investigation, in one sentence if possible;
• the participants, specifying pertinent characteristics such as age, sex, and ethnic
andlor raciat group; in animat research, specifying genus and species;
• the essential features of study method—you have a timited number of words so restrict
your description to essential and interesting features of the study methodotogy—
particutarty those tikety to be used in etectronic searches;
• the basic findings, inctuding effect sizes and confidence intervals and/or statistical
significance tevels; and
• the conclusions and the implications or applications.
An abstract for a literature review or meta-analysis should describe
• the probtem or relation(s) under investigation;
• study eligibility criteria;
• type(s) of participants inctuded in primary studies;
• main resutts (inctuding the most important effect sizes) and any important modera-
tors of these effect sizes;
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
he • conclusions (including limitations); and
• implications for theory, policy, and/or practice.
An abstract for a theory-oriented paper should describe
:h. • how the theory or model works and/or the principles on which it is based and
ti- • what phenomena the theory or model accounts for and linkages to empirical results.
ur
An abstract for a methodological paper should describe
he
• the general class of methods being discussed;
he
• the essential features of the proposed method;
he • the range of application of the proposed method; and
rt. • in the case of statistical procedures, some of its essential features such as robustness
ay or power efficiency.
An abstract for a case study should describe
• the subject and relevant characteristics of the individual, group, community, or
organization presented;
an • the nature of or solution to a problem illustrated by the case example; and
• the questions raised for additional research or theory.
th Do not exceed the abstract word limit of the journal to which you are submitting
it- your article. Word limits vary from journal to journal and typically range from 150 to
250 words. For information on how abstracts are used to retrieve articles, consult
ad Record Structure for APA Databases (Sick, 2009).
by
When preparing your manuscript, begin the abstract on a new page and identify it
in-
with the running head or abbreviated title and the page number 2. The label Abstract
should appear in uppercase and lowercase letters, centered, at the top of the page. Type
the abstract itself as a single paragraph without paragraph indentation.
2.05 Introduction
Introduce the problem. The body of a manuscript opens with an introduction that pres-
ents the specific problem under study and describes the research strategy. Because the
introduction is clearly identified by its position in the manuscript, it does not carry a
heading labeling it the introduction.
Before writing the introduction, consider the following questions:
• Why is this problem important?
• How does the study relate to previous work in the area? If other aspects of this study
have been reported previously, how does this report differ from, and build on, the
earlier report?
I What are the primary and secondary hypotheses and objectives of the study, and
what, if any, are the links to theory?
• How do the hypotheses and research design relate to one another?
• What are the theoretical and practical implications of the study?
A good introduction answers these questions in just a few pages and, by summa-
rizing the relevant arguments and the past evidence, gives the reader a firm sense of
what was done and why.
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Explore importance of the problem. State why the problem deserves new research. For
basic research, the statement about importance might involve the need to resolve any
inconsistency in results of past work and/or extend the reach of a theoretical formula-
tion. For applied research, this might involve the need to solve a social problem or treat
a psychological disorder. When research is driven by the desire to resolve controversial
issues, all sides in the debate should be represented in balanced measure in the intro-
______
duction. Avoid animosity and ad hominem arguments in presenting the controversy.
_______
Conclude the statement of the problem in the introduction with a brief but formal
_______
statement of the purpose of the research that summarizes the material preceding it. For
literature reviews as well as theoretical and methodological articles, also clearly state
the reasons that the reported content is important and how the article fits into, the
cumulative understanding of the field.
Describe relevant scholarship. Discuss the relevant related literature, but do not feel
compelled to include an exhaustive historical account. Assume that the reader is
knowledgeable about the basic problem and does not require a complete accounting
of its history. A scholarly description of earlier work in the introduction provides a
summary of the most recent directly related work and recognizes the priority of the
work of others. Citation of and specific credit to relevant earlier works are signs of
scientific and scholarly responsibility and are essential for the growth of a cumula-
tive science. In the description of relevant scholarship, also inform readers whether
other aspects of this study have been reported on previously and how the current use
of the evidence differs from earlier uses. At the same time, cite and reference only
works pertinent to the specific issue and not those that are of only tangential or gen-
eral significance. When summarizing earlier works, avoid nonessential details;
instead, emphasize pertinent findings, relevant methodological issues, and major
conclusions. Refer the reader to general surveys or research syntheses of the topic if
they are available.
Demonstrate the logical continuity between previous and present work. Develop
the problem with enough breadth and clarity to make it generally understood by as
wide a professional audience as possible. Do not let the goal of brevity lead you to
write a statement intelligible only to the specialist.
State hypotheses and their correspondence to research design. After you have intro-
duced ‘the problem and have developed the background material, explain your
approach to solving the problem. In empirical studies, this usually involves stating
your hypotheses or specific question and describing how these were derived from theo-
ry or are logically connected to previous data and argumentation. Clearly develop the
rationale for each. Also, if you have some hypotheses or questions that are central to
your purpose and others that are secondary or exploratory, state this prioritization.
Explain how the research design permits the inferences needed to examine the hypoth-
esis or provide estimates in answer to the question.
In preparing your manuscript, begin the introduction on a new page, identifying it
with the running head and the page number 3. Type the title of the manuscript in
uppercase and lowercase letters centered at the top of the page, and then type the text.
The remaining sections of the article follow each other without a break; do not start a
new page when a new heading occurs. Each remaining manuscript page should also
carry the running head and a page number.
SiLL
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2.06 Method
The Method section describes in detail how the study was conducted, including con-
ceptual and operational definitions of the variables used in the study. Different types
of studies will rely on different methodologies; however, a complete description of
the methods used enables the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of your meth-
ods and the reliability and the validity of your results. It also permits experienced
investigators to replicate the study. If your manuscript is an update of an ongoing or
earlier study and the method has been published in detail elsewhere, you may refer
the reader to that source and simply give a brief synopsis of the method in this sec-
tion (see also section 1.10, regarding self-plagiarism). The following is an example
of such a synopsis:
We present cross-sectional and 3-year longitudinal data from a study of adults
aged 55 to 84. . . . The memory tasks were those used in our previous research
g
(Zelinski et al., 1990; Zelinski, Gilewski, & Thompson, 1980).
If you are reporting on multiple experiments, see section 2.09.
Identify subsections. It is both conventional and expedient to divide the Method sec-
t- tion into labeled subsections. These usually include a section with descriptions of the
T participants or subjects and a section describing the procedures used in the study. The
e latter section often includes description of (a) any experimental manipulations or inter-
y ventions used and how they were delivered—for example, any mechanical apparatus
used to deliver them; (b) sampling procedures and sample size and precision; (c) meas-
urement approaches (including the psychometric properties of the instruments used);
and (d) the research design. If the design of the study is complex or the stimuli require
if detailed description, additional subsections or subheadings to divide the subsections
may be warranted to help readers find specific information.
in these subsections the information essential to comprehend and replicate
the study. Insufficient detail leaves the reader with questions; too much detail burdens
0 the reader with irrelevant information. Consider using appendices and/or a supplemen-
tal website for more detailed information (see section 2.13).
Participant (subject) characteristics. Appropriate identification of research partici-
pants is critical to the science and practice of psychology, particularly for generalizing
the findings, making comparisons across replications, and using the evidence in
research syntheses and secondary data analyses. If humans participated in the study,
report the eligibility and exclusion criteria, including any restrictions based on demo-
graphic characteristics.
Describe the sample adequately. Detail the sample’s major demographic charac-
teristics, such as age; sex; ethnic and/or racial group; level of education; socioeco-
nomic, generational, or immigrant status; disability status; sexual orientation; gen-
der identity; and language preference as well as important topic-specific
characteristics (e.g., achievement level in studies of educational interventions). As a
rule, describe the groups as specifically as possible, with particular emphasis on
characteristics that may have bearing on the interpretation of results. Often, panic-
ipant characteristics can be important for understanding the nature of the sample
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and the degree to which results can be generalized. For example, the following is a
useful characterization of a sample:
The second group included 40 women between the ages of 20 and 30 years
(M = 24.2, SD = 2.1), all of whom had emigrated from El Salvador; had at least
12 years of education; had been permanent residents of the United States for at
least 10 years; and lived in Washington, DC.
To determine how far the data can be generalized, you may find it useful to identify
subgroups:
The Asian sample included 30 Chinese and 45 Vietnamese persons.
or
Among the Latino and Hispanic American men, 20 were Mexican American and
20 were Puerto Rican.
Even when a characteristic is not used in analysis of the data, reporting it may give
readers a more complete understanding of the sample and the generalizability of results
and may prove useful in meta-analytic studies that incorporate the article’s results.
When animals are used, report the genus, species, and strain number or other spe-
cific identification, such as the name and location of the supplier and the stock desig-
nation. Give the number of animals and the animals’ sex, age, weight, and physiolog-
ical condition.
Sampling procedures. Describe the procedures for selecting participants, including (a)
the sampling method, if a systematic sampling plan was used; (b) the percentage of
the sample approached that participated; and (c) the number of participants who
selected themselves into the sample. Describe the settings and locations in which the
data were collected as well as any agreements and payments made to participants,
agreements with the institutional review board, ethical standards met, and safety
monitoring procedures.
Sample size, power, and precision. Along with the description of subjects, give the
intended size of the sample and number of individuals meant to be in each condition,
if separate conditions were used. State whether the achieved sample differed in known
ways from the target population. Conclusions and interpretations should not go
beyond what the sample would warrant.
State how this intended sample size was determined (e.g., analysis of power or pre-
cision). If interim analysis and stopping rules were used to modify the desired sample
size, describe the methodology and results.
When applying inferential statistics, take seriously the statistical power considera-
tions associated with the tests of hypotheses. Such considerations relate to the likeli-
hood of correctly rejecting the tested hypotheses, given a particular alpha level, effect
size, and sample size. In that regard, routinely provide evidence that the study has suf-
ficient power to detect effects of substantive interest. Be similarly careful in discussing
the role played by sample size in cases in which not rejecting the null hypothesis is
desirable (i.e., when one wishes to argue that there are no differences), when testing
various assumptions underlying the statistical model adopted (e.g., normality, homo-
geneity of variance, homogeneity of regression), and in model fitting.
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
Alternatively, use calculations based on a chosen target precision (confidence inter-
val width) to determine sample sizes. Use the resulting confidence intervals to justify
conclusions concerning effect sizes (e.g., that some effect is negligibly small).
Measures and covariates. Include in the Method section information that provides def-
initions of all primary and secondary outcome measures and covariates, including
measures collected but not included in this report. Describe the methods used to col-
lect data (e.g., written questionnaires, interviews, observations) as well as methods
used to enhance the quality of the measurements (e.g., the training and reliability of
assessors or the use of multiple observations). Provide information on instruments
used, including their psychometric and biometric properties and evidence of cultural
validity.
Research design. Specify the research design in the Method section. Were subjects
placed into conditions that were manipulated, or were they observed naturalistically?
Jf multiple conditions were created, how were participants assigned to conditions,
through random assignment or some other selection mechanism? Was the study con-
ducted as a between-subjects or a within-subject design?
Different research designs have different reporting needs associated with them.
Information that should be reported for all studies that involve experimental manip-
ulations or interventions is summarized in Table 2 of the Appendix, Module A:
Reporting Standards for Studies With an Experimental Manipulation or Intervention
(in Addition to Material Presented in Table 1) and Table 3 of the Appendix,
Reporting Standards for Studies Using Random and Nonrandom Assignment of
Participants to Experimental Groups. When reporting studies that are not of the
manipulation or intervention variety (e.g., observational, natural history studies),
provide sufficient description of the study procedures to allow the reader to fully
comprehend the complexity of the study and to be prepared to conduct a near repli-
cation of the study (see APA Publications and Communications Board Working
Group on Journal Article Reporting Standards, 2008, for a discussion of the emer-
gence of these standards).
Experimental manipulations or interventions. If interventions or experimental manipu-
lations were used in the study, describe their specific content. Include the details of the
interventions or manipulations intended for each study condition, including control
groups (if any), and describe how and when interventions (experimental manipula-
tions) were actually administered.
The description of manipulations or interventions should include several elements.
Carefully describe the content of the intervention or specific experimental manipula-
tions. Often, this will involve presenting a brief summary of instructions given to par-
ticipants. If the instructions are unusual or compose the experimental manipulation,
you may present them verbatim in an appendix or in an online supplemental archive.
If the text is brief, you may present it in the body of the paper if it does not interfere
with the readability of the report.
Describe the methods of manipulation and data acquisition. If a mechanical appara-
tus was used to present stimulus materials or collect data, include in the description of
procedures the apparatus model number and manufacturer (when important, as in neu-
roimaging studies), its key settings or parameters (e.g., pulse settings), and its resolution
(e.g., regarding stimulus delivery, recording precision). As with the description of the
MANUSCRIPT ELEMENTS
intervention or experimental manipulation, this material may be presented in the body
of the paper, in an appendix, in an online supplemental archive, or as appropriate.
When relevant—such as, for example, in the delivery of clinical and educational
interventions—the procedures should also contain a description of who delivered the
intervention, including their level of professional training and their level of training
in the specific intervention. Present the number of deliverers along with the mean,
standard deviation, and range of number of individuals or units treated by each
deliverer.
Provide information about (a) the setting where the intervention or manipulation was
delivered, (b) the quantity and duration of exposure to the intervention or manipulation
(i.e., how many sessions, episodes, or events were intended to be delivered and how long
they were intended to last), (c) the time span taken for the delivery of the intervention or
manipulation to each unit (e.g., would the manipulation delivery be complete in one ses-
sion, or if participants returned for multiple sessions, how much time passed between the
first and last session?), and (d) activities or incentives used to increase compliance.
When an instrument is translated into a language other than the language in which
it was developed, describe the specific method of translation (e.g., back-translation, in
which a text is translated into another language and then back into the first to ensure
that it is equivalent enough that results can be compared).
Provide a description of how participants were grouped during data acquisition (i.e.,
was the manipulation or intervention administered individual by individual, in small
groups, or in intact groupings such as classrooms?). Describe the smallest unit (e.g., indi-
viduals, work groups, classes) that was analyzed to assess effects. If the unit used for sta-
tistical analysis differed from the unit used to deliver the intervention or manipulation
(i.e., was different from the unit of randomization), describe the analytic method used to
account for this (e.g., adjusting the standard error estimates or using multilevel analysis).
2.07 Results
In the Results section, summarize the collected data and the analysis performed on
those data relevant to the discourse that is to follow. Report the data in sufficient detail
to justify your conclusions. Mention all relevant results, including those that run
counter to expectation; be sure to include small effect sizes (or statistically nonsignifi-
cant findings) when theory predicts large (or statistically significant) ones. Do not hide
uncomfortable results by omission. Do not include individual scores or raw data, with
the exception, for example, of single-case designs or illustrative examples. In the spirit
of data sharing (encouraged by APA and other professional associations and some-
times required by funding agencies), raw data, including study characteristics and indi-
vidual effect sizes used in a meta-analysis, can be made available on supplemental
online archives. See section 2.13 for a detailed discussion of the use of supplemental
online archives. Discussing the implications of the results should be reserved for presen-
tation in the Discussion section.
Recruitment. Provide dates defining the periods of recruitment and follow-up and the
primary sources of the potential subjects, where appropriate. If these dates differ by
group, provide the values for each group.
Statistics and data analysis. Analysis of data and the reporting of the results of those
analyses are fundamental aspects of the conduct of research. Accurate, unbiased, com-
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
od
plete, and insightful reporting of the analytic treatment of data (be it quantitative or
y qualitative) must be a component of all research reports. Researchers in the field of
nal
psychology use numerous approaches to the analysis of data, and no one approach is
th
uniformly preferred as long as the method is appropriate to the research questions
e
being asked and the nature of the data collected. The methods used must support their
analytic burdens, including robustness to violations of the assumptions that underlie
ad
them, and they must provide clear, unequivocal insights into the data.
Historically, researchers in psychology have relied heavily on null hypothesis sta-
tistical significance testing (NHST) as a starting point for many (but not all) of its ana-
ivas
lytic approaches. APA stresses that NHST is but a starting point and that additional
reporting elements such as effect sizes, confidence intervals, and extensive description
are needed to convey the most complete meaning of the results. The degree to which
‘es-
any journal emphasizes (or de-emphasizes) NHST is a decision of the individual edi-
the
tor. However, complete reporting of all tested hypotheses and estimates of appropriate
effect sizes and confidence intervals are the minimum expectations for all APA jour-
ich
nals.2 The research scientist is always responsible for the accurate and responsible
in
reporting of the results of research studies.
ire I
Assume that your reader has a professional knowledge of statistical methods. Do
not review basic concepts and procedures or provide citations for the most commonly
e
used statistical procedures. If, however, there is any question about the appropriateness
ajl
of a particular statistical procedure, justify its use by clearly stating the evidence that
di-
exists for the robustness of the procedure as applied.
ta-
Similarly, missing data can have a detrimental effect on the legitimacy of the infer-
on ences drawn by statistical tests. For this reason, it is critical that the frequency or per-
to
centages of missing data be reported along with any empirical evidence and/or theoret-
Ls)
ical arguments for the causes of data that are missing. For example, data might be
described as missing completely at random (as when values of the missing variable are
not related to the probability that they are missing or to the value of any other vari-
able in the data set); missing at random (as when the probability of missing a value on
on
a variable is not related to the missing value itself but may be related to other com-
ail
pletely observed variables in the data set); or not missing at random (as when the prob-
un
ability of observing a given value for a variable is related to the missing value itself). It
fi-
is also important to describe the methods for addressing missing data, if any were used
de
(e.g., multiple imputation).
th
When reporting the results of inferential statistical tests or when providing esti-
nt mates of parameters or effect sizes, include sufficient information to help the reader
fully understand the analyses conducted and possible alternative explanations for the
outcomes of those analyses. Because each analytic technique depends on different
al
aspects of the data and assumptions, it is impossible to specify what constitutes a “suf-
al
ficient set of statistics” for every analysis. However, such a set usually includes at least
n-
the following: the per-cell sample sizes; the observed cell means (or frequencies of cases
in each category for a categorical variable); and the cell standard deviations, or the
pooled within-cell variance. In the case of multivariable analytic systems, such as mul-
2
Issues dealing with the controversy over the use of NHST and its alternatives are complex and outside the scope
of a publication manual. For those interested in this controversy, a discussion of these and related issues can be
found in the article by Wilkinson and the Task Force on Statistical Inference (19991; 1-larlow, Mulaik, and Steiger’s
se (1997) What If There Were No significance Tests? Kline’s (2004) Beyond Significance Testing: Reforming Data
Analysis Methods in Behavioral Research; and the article by Jones and Tukey (2000).
— MANUSCRIPT ELEMENTS
tivariate analyses of variance, regression analyses, structural equation modeling
analyses, and hierarchical linear modeling, the associated means, sample sizes, and
variance—covariance (or correlation) matrix or matrices often represent a sufficient set
of statistics. At times, the amount of information that constitutes a sufficient set of sta-
tistics can be extensive; when this is the case, this information could be supplied in a
supplementary data set or appendix (see section 2.13). For analyses based on very
small samples (including single-case investigations), consider providing the complete
set of raw data in a table or figure. Your work will more easily become a part of the
cumulative knowledge of the field if you include enough statistical information to
allow its inclusion in future meta-analyses.
For inferential statistical tests (e.g., t, F, and tests), include the obtained magni-
tude or value of the test statistic, the degrees of freedom, the probability of obtaining
a value as extreme as or more extreme than the one obtained (the exact p value), and
the size and direction of the effect. When point estimates (e.g., sample means or regres-
sion coefficients) are provided, always include an associated measure of variability
(precision), with an indication of the specific measure used (e.g., the standard error).
The inclusion of confidence intervals (for estimates of parameters, for functions of
parameters such as differences in means, and for effect sizes) can be an extremely effec-
tive way of reporting results. Because confidence intervals combine information on
location and precision and can often be directly used to infer significance levels, they
are, in general, the best reporting strategy. The use of confidence intervals is therefore
strongly recommended. As a rule, it is best to use a single confidence level, specified on
an a priori basis (e.g., a 95% or 99% confidence interval), throughout the manuscript.
Wherever possible, base discussion and interpretation of results on point and interval
estimates.
For the reader to appreciate the magnitude or importance of a study’s findings, it
is almost always necessary to include some measure of effect size in the Results sec-
tion.3 Whenever possible, provide a confidence interval for each effect size reported to
indicate the precision of estimation of the effect size. Effect sizes may be expressed in
the original units (e.g., the mean number of questions answered correctly; kg/month
for a regression slope) and are often most easily understood when reported in original
units. It can often be valuable to report an effect size not only in original units but also
in some standardized or units-free unit (e.g., as a Cohen’s d value) or a standardized
regression weight. Multiple degree-of-freedom effect-size indicators are often less use-
ful than effect-size indicators that decompose multiple degree-of-freedom tests into
meaningful one degree-of-freedom effects—particularly when the latter are the results
that inform the discussion. The general principle to be followed, however, is to provide
the reader with enough information to assess the magnitude of the observed effect.
Ancillary analyses. Report any other analyses performed, including subgroup analyses
and adjusted analyses, indicating those that were prespecified and those that were
exploratory (though not necessarily in the level of detail of primary analyses). Consider
putting the detailed results of these analyses on the supplemental online archive.
Discuss the implications, if any, of the ancillary analyses for statistical error rates.
Participant flow. For experimental and quasi-experimental designs, there must be a
description of the flow of participants (human, animal, or units such as classrooms or
Grissom and Kim (2005) provide a comprehensive discussion of effect sizes.
I
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
____
hospital wards) through the study. Present the total number of units recruited into the
d study and the number of participants assigned to each group. Provide the number of
participants who did not complete the experiment or crossed over to other conditions
and explain why. Note the number of participants used in the primary analyses.
number might differ from the number who completed the study because participants
might not show up for or complete the final measurement.) The flowchart in the
Appendix (Figure 1) provides a useful device for displaying the flow of participants
through each stage of a study (see also Figures 5.3 and 5.4, pp. 154—155).
Intervention or manipulation fidelity. If interventions or experimental manipulations
were used, provide evidence on whether they were delivered as intended. In basic
experimental research, this might be the results of checks on the manipulation. In
applied research, this might be, for example, records and observations of intervention
delivery sessions and attendance records.
Baseline data. Be sure that baseline demographic and/or clinical characteristics of each
group are provided.
Statistics and data analysis. In studies reporting the results of experimental manipula-
tions or interventions, clarify whether the analysis was by intent-to-treat. That is, were
n all participants assigned to conditions included in the data analysis regardless of
whether they actually received the intervention, or were only participants who com-
pleted the intervention satisfactorily included? Give a rationale for the choice.
Adverse events. If interventions were studied, detail all important adverse events
(events with serious consequences) and/or side effects in each intervention group.
it
2.08 Discussion
0
n
After presenting the results, you are in a position to evaluate and interpret their imph-
h
cations, especially with respect to your original hypotheses. Here you will examine,
interpret, and qualify the results and draw inferences and conclusions from them.
Emphasize any theoretical or practical consequences of the results. (When the discus-
d
sion is relatively brief and straightforward, some authors prefer to combine it with the
Results section, creating a section called Results and Discussion.)
Open the Discussion section with a clear statement of the support or nonsupport
for your original hypotheses, distinguished by primary and secondary hypotheses. If
e
hypotheses were not supported, offer post hoc explanations. Similarities and differ-
ences between your results and the work of others should be used to contextualize,
confirm, and clarify your conclusions. Do not simply reformulate and repeat points
already made; each new statement should contribute to your interpretation and to the
reader’s understanding of the problem.
Your interpretation of the results should take into account (a) sources of potential
bias and other threats to internal validity, (b) the imprecision of measures, (c) the over-
all number of tests or overlap among tests, (d) the effect sizes observed, and (e) other
limitations or weaknesses of the study. If an intervention is involved, discuss whether
it Was successful and the mechanism by which it was intended to work (causal path-
Ways) and/or alternative mechanisms. Also, discuss barriers to implementing the inter-
vention or manipulation as well as the fidelity with which the intervention or manip-
MANUSCRIPT ELEMENTS
ulation was implemented in the study, that is, any differences between the manipula-
tion as planned and as implemented.
Acknowledge the limitations of your research, and address alternative explana-
tions of the results. Discuss the generalizability, or external validity, of the findings.
This critical analysis should take into account differences between the target popula-
tion and the accessed sample. For interventions, discuss characteristics that make them
more or less applicable to circumstances not included in the study, how and what out-
comes were measured (relative to other measures that might have been used), the
length of time to measurement (between the end of the intervention and the measure-
ment of outcomes), incentives, compliance rates, and specific settings involved in the
study as well as other contextual issues.
End the Discussion section with a reasoned and justifiable commentary on the
importance of your findings. This concluding section may be brief or extensive provid-
ed that it is tightly reasoned, self-contained, and not overstated. In this section, you
might briefly return to a discussion of why the problem is important (as stated in the
introduction); what larger issues, those that transcend the particulars of the subfield,
might hinge on the findings; and what propositions are confirmed or disconfirmed by
the extrapolation of these findings to such overarching issues.
You may also consider the following issues:
• What is the theoretical, clinical, or practical significance of the outcomes, and what
is the basis for these interpretations? If the findings are valid and replicable, what
real-life psychological phenomena might be explained or modeled by the results? Are
applications warranted on the basis of this research?
• What problems remain unresolved or arise anew because of these findings?
The responses to these questions are the core of the contribution of your study and
justify why readers both inside and outside your own specialty should attend to the
findings. Your readers should receive clear, unambiguous, and direct answers.
2.09 Multiple Experiments
If you are presenting several studies in one manuscript, make the rationale, logic, and
method of each study clear to the reader. If appropriate, include for each study a short
discussion of the results, or combine the discussion with the description of results (e.g.,
Results and Discussion). Always include a comprehensive general discussion of all the
work after the last study. Report only conceptually linked studies in a single paper.
The arrangement of sections reflects the structure previously described. For exam-
ple, label a series of experiments Experiment 1, Experiment 2, and so forth. They,
organize the subsections and make referring to a specific experiment convenient for the’
reader. The Method and Results sections (and the Discussion section, if a short discus-
sion accompanies each study) appear under each study heading. (Refer to Figure
pp. 54—56, for the form of a two-experiment paper.)
2.10 Meta-Analyses
The same factors that have led to proposals for reporting standards for manuscripts tha
report new data collections have led to similar efforts to establish standards for
ing the methods and results of meta-analyses. Guidelines for reporting research synthe4
1
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
ses and meta-analyses are in the Appendix (Table 4, Meta-Analysis Reporting Standards
[MARS]: Information Recommended for Inclusion in Manuscripts Reporting Meta-
ma- Analyses). In the guidelines, it is assumed that the research synthesis being reported used
rigs, quantitative procedures to combine the results of studies. However, many of the guide-
uia- lines (e.g., regarding introductory material and literature searching procedures) could
iem apply to a research synthesis even if meta-analytic procedures were not carried out.
)ut- Because this type of research is more specialized, we do not detail each item. The terms
tue and issues should be familiar to researchers undertaking a meta-analysis and are
ire- described in numerous texts.
the
I
Note that easy access to electronic storage of information means that all of the ele-
ments listed in the MARS guidelines need not appear in printed journal articles. The
tue online supplemental archives of journals can be used to store supplemental materials
vid- associated with the articles that appear in print. This supplemental material might
you include, for example, the list of citations to the research included in a meta-analysis and
the the table giving descriptive information for each included study, especially when the
eld, number of included studies is large. If the number of articles contributing studies to the
I by meta-analysis is relatively small (e.g., about SO or fewer), they should appear in the ref-
erence list with an asterisk included to identify them. If the number of articles in the
meta-analysis exceeds SO, then the references to the articles should be placed in a list
hat and in a supplemental online archive. If an article is mentioned in the text of a meta-
hat analytic article and the results reported in that article are included in the meta-analysis,
Are the article should be cited both in the reference list and in the supplemental materials.
2.11 References
and References acknowledge the work of previous scholars and provide a reliable way to
the locate it. References are used to document statements made about the literature, just
as data in the manuscript support interpretations and conclusions. The references cited
in the manuscript do not need to be exhaustive but should be sufficient to support the
need for your research and to ensure that readers can place it in the context of previ-
ous research and theorizing.
The standard procedures for citation ensure that references are accurate, complete,
and useful to investigators and readers. For detailed guidance on citing sources and
preparing the reference list, consult Chapters 6 and 7.
Start the reference list on a new page. The word References should appear in upper-
case and lowercase letters, centered. Double-space all reference entries. APA publishes
references in a hanging indent format, meaning that the first line of each reference is
set flush left and subsequent lines are indented.
2.12 Footnotes
Footnotes are used to provide additional content or to acknowledge copyright permis-
sion status.
Content footnotes. Content footnotes supplement or amplify substantive information in
the text; they should not include complicated, irrelevant, or nonessential information.
Because they can be distracting to readers, such footnotes should be included only if
they strengthen the discussion. A content footnote should convey just one idea; if you
find yourself creating paragraphs or displaying equations as you are writing a footnote,
H
MANUSCRIPT ELEMENTS
your information. Another alternative is to indicate in a short footnote that the materi-
:I
then the main text or an appendix probably would be a more suitable place to present
al is available online as supplemental material. In most cases, an author integrates an
article best by presenting important information in the text, not in a footnote.
Copyright permission. Copyright permission footnotes acknowledge the source of
lengthy quotations, scale and test items, and figures and tables that have been reprint-
ed or adapted. Authors must obtain permission to reproduce or adapt material from a
copyrighted source. (See Chapter 8 for a discussion of what authors should know
about permissions and copyright.)
A numbered footnote is generally used to provide source material for long quota-
tions. For tables, the source material is provided in a table note (see section 5.16), and
for figures, the source is credited at the end of the caption (see section 5.23). Use the
wording below for copyright permission footnotes.
Type of source Copyright permission footnote
Journal From [or The data in column 1 are from] “Title of Article,”
by A. N. Author and C. 0. Author, year, lit/a of Journal,
Volume, p. xx. Copyright [year] by the Name of Copyright
Holder. Reprinted [or adapted] with permission.
Book From [or The data in column 1 are from) lit/a of Book
(p. xxx), by A. N. Author and C. 0. Author, year, Place
of Publication: Publisher. Copyright [year) by the Name
of Copyright Holder. Reprinted [or adapted] with
permission.
Number all footnotes consecutively in the order in which they appear in the man-
uscript with superscript Arabic numerals. Footnote numbers should be superscripted,
like this,1 following any punctuation mark except a dash. A footnote number that
appears with a dash—like this2_always precedes the dash. (The number falls inside a
closing parenthesis if it applies only to matter within the parentheses, like this.3) Do
not place footnote numbers in text headings. Subsequent references to a footnote are
by parenthetical note:
the same results (see Footnote 3)
When using the footnote function in your word-processing program, place each
content or copyright permission footnote at the bottom of the page on which it is dis-
cussed. Footnotes may alternatively be placed in consecutive order on a separate page
after the references. Be sure that the number of the footnote corresponds with the
appropriate text discussion.
2.13 Appendices and Supplemental Materials
Sometimes, material that supplements article content would be distracting or inappro-
priate in the body of the manuscript. Material of this type can often be included in an
appendix or in a supplemental materials section—the former being an element of the
print version of the article, the latter being an online supplemental archive that the
publisher of the archival source maintains.
i
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
ent Appendices. In general, an appendix is appropriate for materials that are relatively
en- brief and that are easily presented in print format. Some examples of material suitable
an for an appendix are (a) a list of stimulus materials (e.g., those used in psycholinguistic
research), (b) a detailed description of a complex piece of equipment, (c) a list of
of
des that provided the source data for a meta-analysis but are not directly referred to
int-
in any other way in an article, and (d) a detailed demographic description of subpop-
a
ulations in the study and other detailed and/or complex reporting items suggested in
the reporting standards section of this chapter.
If your manuscript has only one appendix, label it Appendix; if your manuscript
ta- F has
more than one appendix, label each one with a capital letter (Appendix A,
Appendix B, etc.) in the order in which it is mentioned in the main text. Each appen-
the dix must have a title. In the text, refer to appendices by their labels:
produced the same results for both studies (see Appendices A and B for com-
plete proofs).
Like the main text, an appendix may include headings and subheadings as well as
tables, figures, and displayed equations. Number each appendix table and figure, and
number displayed equations if necessary for later reference; precede the number with
the letter of the appendix in which it is included (e.g., Table Al). In a sole appendix,
which is not labeled with a letter, precede all tables, figures, and equation numbers
with the letter A to distinguish them from those of the main text. All appendix tables
and figures must be cited within the appendix and numbered in order of citation.
If one table constitutes an entire appendix, the centered appendix label and title serve
in lieu of a table number and title. Generally, treat multiple tables as separate appendices.
If multiple tables (but no text) are combined into one appendix, number the tables.
Begin each appendix on a separate page. Center the word Appendix and the iden-
tifying capital letters (A, B, etc., in the order in which they are mentioned in text) at
lat the top of the page. Center the title of the appendix, and use uppercase and lowercase
a letters. Begin the text of the appendix flush left, followed by indented paragraphs.
Supplemental materials. Web-based, online supplemental archives tend to be more
appropriate for material that is more useful when available as a direct download as
well as materials that are not easily presented in standard print format. Some exam-
ples of materials suitable for inclusion in online supplemental archives are (a) lengthy
computer code, (b) details of mathematical or computational models, (c) audio or
video clips, (d) oversized tables, (e) detailed intervention protocols, (f) primary or
supplementary data sets, (g) expanded methodology sections, and (h) color figures.
Because this content may be useful to the field, APA and many other publishers make
it possible to provide them to a wide audience by posting them on the web, with a
link to the published article. These files (like an appendix) then become part of the
primary journal record and cannot be augmented, altered, or deleted.
Materials for inclusion in supplemental online archives should be submitted in for-
mats that will be widely accessible. The following multimedia formats are generally
widely available to most users and are preferred:
• Text—ASCII, Word, PDF HTML
• Tables__Excel, Word, HTML, XHTML, XML
U Audio and Video—AW, MPG, Quicktime, RM, MP3, WAV
SAMPLE PAPERS
• Animation—GIF, JPEG, FlashlShockwave
• Images—GIF, JPEG, TIFF
Less widely used file formats, including TeX, LaTeX, any client- or server-side
scripting (e.g., Java, CCI), executable files, and software applications, are acceptable
but may be of less use to the reader who does not have access to specialized programs.
Many users refuse to deal with executable files or operate from systems that refuse to
access them.
For APA journals, the link to online supplemental archives that appears in the pub-
lished article leads readers to a landing page that includes a bibliographic citation, a
link to the published article, and a context statement and link for each supplemental
material file (see an example of a sample landing page at
Supplemental materials should include enough information to make their contents
interpretable when accompanied by the published text. For more information on sup-
plemental materials, see Chapter 8.
Most journals make supplemental materials subject to peer review and require that
they be submitted with the initial manuscript. Once accepted, the supplemental mate-
rials will be posted with no further editing or polishing.
Include an appendix or supplemental materials only if they help readers to under-
stand, evaluate, or replicate the study or theoretical argument being made. Be sure that
all relevant ethical standards have been followed for appendices and supplemental
materials, including copyright protection, accurate representation of data, and protec-
tion of human subjects (e.g., content of video clips if human images).
Sample Papers
These sample papers illustrate three kinds of manuscripts: one-experiment (Figure 2.1),
two-experiment (Figure 2.2), and meta-analysis (Figure 2.3). The three manuscripts
have been adapted for the Publication Manual from articles published in APA journals.
The numbers referred to in the shaded boxes refer to numbered sections in the
Publication ManuaL
L
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
Sample One Experiment Paper (The numbers refer to numbered
sections in the Publication Manual)
de
______________________________________
,le
IS. Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION
to
a titlq 2 Preparing the
manuscript for submission 603
Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information
Chaislina M. Lcclerc and Etizabeth A. Kenainger
Boston College
Author Note
mit research Was S Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 2
Elizabeth A. Kenain
Abstract the abstract 204
Correspondence co
Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the contexi of a viauat search task.
of Psychology Boat
Young and older adults were fatter to detect high arouaat images compared with tow arousal and
Chestnut HitI, MA I
neutral items. Younger adults were fatter to detect potitive high arousal targets compared with
other categories. hi contrast, otder adults exhibited ass overatt detection advantage for emotional
images compared with neutrat images. Together, these findings auggesi that otder adutta do not
ditptay valence -based effects on affective processing at relatively automatic stages.
Keywords: aging, attention, information processing, emotion, visual search
Times Roman typeface
Ii inch margins 803
Paper adapted ffom Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional lnfofrnation/’ by C. M. Leclerc and E. A. Kensinger,
2008, Psychology and Aging, 23, pp. 209—215. Copyfight 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
SAMPLE PAPERS
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 3
Writtng the tntroduction, 2 OS
Effects of Age on Detection ofEnsotional Information
*’Frequently, people encounter ailtialions in (heir environment in which ills impoaaible 10
aItend 10 all available aiimuli. II is therefore ofgreat importance for one’s attentional processes to
select only Ihe moat salient infomalion in the environment to which one ahould attend. Previous
research has suggested that emolional informalion ia privy 10 attentional selection in young
adulls (e.g., Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang. 2004; Carrette, Hinojosa, Mann-leeches, Mecado
Ordering citations withtn-
& Tapia 2004 Nmnmensnss Hyons & Calvo 2006)ln obvious service to evolutionary &ives the same parentheses 6 16
SeleOting ‘to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger (Davis & Whalen 2001 Dolan
Ui&CO?rect
tense ate 2003 Lang Bmdley & Cuthtsert, 199? Lefloux 1995)
s ,, Numbers that represent:
For example Ohman Flyki and Eateves (2th’Jl)preaented paretcipanla with 3 x S*iial
or mathematical
atTaya with images (snakes, spiders, flowers, mushrooms). In half !fuflCttOns;4.31
itt words the arrays all nine images were from ihe ssme category whereas in the remaining half ofihe
4.82 I
sn’aya eight images were from one category and one image was from a different category (e g
Use Of hyphenation fOr
flowers and I snake) Pauticipanls were asked to indicate whether ihe matrix included p compound words 4 13,
discrepant arimulue. Reaulta indicated that images were more quickly detected ihan Thbtetl
fear-irrele
were
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 4
atlention-g
not attend’ Catvo & Lang, 200k Carretie et al., 2004; Juth, Lundqvist. Karlsaon, & Ohman,
2
Nummenmaaet al., 2006).
not iitnites From this research, is aeems clear ihas younger adulta show detection benefita for
detected n .’Iousing information in the environment. Is is less clear whether these effecis are preserved
across the adult life apan. The focua ofihe current research is on determining she exient to which
tO aging influences the early, relatively automatic deteciion ofemolionat inforiaiaiion.
of ideas,305
– Regions ofihe hrain thought to he importanl for emotional detection remain relatively
intact with aging (reviewed by Chow& Cummings, 2000). Thus, isis plausible that Ihe detection
ofemosional information remains relatively alable as adults age. However, despite the
preservation of emotion-proceaaing regions with age (or perhapa because of the contrast between
the preservation of these regions and age-related declines in cognitive-processing regions; Good
et al.,200l; Hedden & Gahrieli, 2004; Ohnishi, Matsuda, Tahira,Asada, & Uno, 2001; Rsz,
–
. i.,-,., West, recent hehaviorsi research has revealed changes that occur wiih aging in the by six- Iocapttatlzation in
or more-
naming theories 416 regulaiion and processing ofemotion According to selectivity theory authors, 612
(Caratensen, with aging, lime is perceived as increasingly limited, and at a result, emotion
regulation becomes a primary goal (Carsiensen, lsaacowitz, & Charles, 1999). According so
socioemolionai seleclivity theory, age is astociated with an increased motivation to derive
emotional mesning from life and a simultaneous decreasing molivaiion so expand one’s
knowledge base, As a consequence of these motivational ahifts, emotional aapecis of the
I
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
$ample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
Running head: OF AGE ON DEfECTION OF EMO1ION 5
;he colpn between
To maintain positive affect in she face of negative age related change (e g limited time grammaticaily
complets clauses 4 05
eemaining, phyaicat and cognitive decline), older adults may adopt new cognitive tirategies. One
such strategy, diucuused recently, is the potitivity effect (Caratenten & in which
older adutta spend propoil ionately mnee time procesting pouitive material and teas
time processing negative emotional material. Studies influence ofemotiun on
memory (Charles. Maiher, & Cam tensen, 200t KemigdjMather, & Carstenten, 2004) have
found that compared with younger ndutts, ol4eritdutts recall proportionally mnre poeitive
information and proportionally lest infotmation. Similar results have heen found when
words:
examining eye trackang pattems ciEer at potittve images longer titan younger elter
adults did, even when no age differences were observed in looking time for negative
(tsaacowsle Wadhnger Gores & Wilson However this positivity effect has not gone
uncontested some researchers have found evtdence inconsistent with the positivity effect Ce g Hypotheses add their
Lcorraspondence to research
Oetlhn Smith & Battes 2005 Kenatngrr Onerley Medford Omwdon & Coeksn 2002) design Intioduction 205
Based on this previously discussed research, three competing hypotheses exits to explain
age differences in emotiooal processing associated with the notanal aging procest. First,
Ustng the semIcolon to
emotional informaeton
fscitttated detection of e Running head EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION clauses not jotned by
emotional information n
rapidly detect emotional information. We hypotheuiced thnt op.IUJ whole, older adults would he
detection of emotional ii
alower to detect informatiun than young adults woul$be (consiatent with Hahn, Cartson, Singer,
principally on positive e 4f’
& Gronlund, 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006); the critical question was whether the two age
not negative, emotional i
groups would show similar or divergent facilitation effects with regard to the effects ofemotion
The primary goal
on item detection. On the basis of the existing literature, the first two previously discussed
To do so, we employed
hypotheses seemed to be more plausible than the third alternative. Thu is because there is reason
the comma between to think that the positivity effect may be operating only at later ttages ofprocesting (e
télement$ in a series 4 03
– strategtc. elaberatree, and emotion regulation processes) rather than at the earlier stages of
with citations pmcesting involved in the rapid detection of information (tee Mather & Knight 2005 for
material
ditcussion) Thuu the first two hypotheses that emotional tnfomistion matntsins its importance
across the life span or that emntiunal infotmstion in general takes on greater importance with
age, seemed particularly applicable to early singes ofemotionai procesuing.
Indeed, a couple of prior studies have provided evidence for intact early processing of
emotional iscisl expressions with aging. Mather and Knight (2006)esstnined young and older
in
adstts’ abilities to detect happy, sad, angry, or neutral faces presented in a complex visual may.
of year within Msther found that like younger adulti older adults detected threatening faces more
611 012
quickly than they detected other types of emotional slimuli. Similarly. Hahn et at. (2006)also
Prefixes and
found no age differences in efftctsscy of search time when angry faces were presented in an suffixes that
army of neutral faces compared with happy faces in neutral face dtsptsys When angry faces do not fequire
hyphens,
compared with positive and neutral faces, served as tiunthlget distractors in the visual search
Table 4.2
stays, however, older sdulls were more efficient in searching, compared with yonngsr adults,
•!
SAMPLE PAPERS
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 7
negative stinauti were not ofeqaaivalent arousal revels (fenrfiul facet sypically am mum arouaing
than happy fares; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). Given that arnus at is thought to be a key factor in
naodulating the allenniunal focus effect (Haasen & Hansen, Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann
& McNally, 1995), to tasom clearly understand emutionat processing in the context ofaging. it ia
necessary to include bulb positive and negative emotional items with equal levels ofsrousal.
In the current research, ttaerefoee, we compared young attd older adults’ detection of fonr
cstegorieu ofemotionat information (positive high arousal, positive tow arouaat, negative high Prefixed Words that
srousal, and negative tosv arouuat) with their detection of neutral information. Ttse
wire hyphens,
‘Table 4.3
negative stimuli wem carefully matched ota arousal level, attd the categories of law
aeoasat were closely matched on valence to atunre that the facturs ?I.serence (positive, negative)
and aroasat (high, low) could he investigated anuther. Patticipanta were
presented with a visual search task from these different categories (e.g., snakes, Using abbrsvtatiqiis, 4.22; ExplanatIon
a” ,df
cars, teapots). Foe half ofthe multi-image strays, alt of the images were ofihe tame item. and for in 4.25;
the eemairsing half of the assays, a tin PlurMs of —
items was included. Parlicipants were
Running head: EFftOFSOYAbE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 8
the army, and their reaction times we
for the arousing items than uhown by the young adutts (resulting in net interaction between age
dtffereaces in reuponse times (leTs)
and asounat). ElehierltsoflilQ Method
2%;
Method , a manuscript with lavets
Participants 1dfiiüadipg,3.03 ‘
Younger adults (14 women, to men, Mat, = 19.5 years. age range: 18-22 years) were
recmited with flyers posted on the Bouton College campus. Older aduttu (15 women, 9 men,M.t,
A
= 76.1 years, age eange: 68—84 years) were recruited through the Harvard Cooperative on Aging:
A
/ (see Tablet, foe demographica and test acores),’ Participants were compensated $10 per hour
/ for tlteir participation. There were 30 additional patlicipsnts, recruited in the tsar way aa
/ described above, who provided pitut rating values: 5 young and S old pasticipants for the
assignment of items within individual categories (i.e., images depicting cats), and tO young and
IC old patuicipanta for the assignment of insages within valence nod arousal categories. Alt
participants were asked to hring cotrective eyewear if needed, resulting in normal orcoasreted to
tsomsat vtstosa for all parttcspants PartIcipant
characteristics
Materials and Procedure
2:os 1
The vinstal search task was adapted fromOhman et al. (2001). There were tO different
types of itemu (2 each of five Valence as Arousal categories: positive high arouual, positive tow
arousal, neutral, negative tow arousal, negative high arousal), each containing nine individual
exemplars that used to cooutntct 3 as 3 stimulus mntxices. A total of 90 images wear used,
each appearing an a target sad as a mtmber ofa distracting amsy. A total of 360 matrices were
presented to each paslicipatat; halfcoutaintd a target item (i.e., 8 items ofone type and t target
item of another type) and half did nut (i.e., all 9 images ofthe same type). Within the ’80
I
I One-Experiment Paper (continued)
categories. We reasoned thas if youoi
information, then we would expect ai
stimuli for the Iwo age groups. By co
were younger adults, older adults aho
etnotionnt items (relative to the
Identifying
within the
Mothod
sectiOn, 2.06.
Using numerals to OXflfOSS
numbers representing age, 4.31
I
MANU SC R IPT SIR UCTURE AND CO NTENT
Sample Paper (continued)
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 9
matrix. Within the ISO target trials, each of the five emotion categories (e.g., positive high ii
arousal, neutral, etc.) was represented in 36 trials. Further, within each of the 36 trials for each
emotion category, 9 trials weue created for each of the combinations with the remaining four
other emotion categoeiea (e.g.. 9 triale with 8 positive high arousal items and I neutral item).
Location of the target was randomly varied such that no target within an emotion category was
presented in the same location in arrays of more than one other emotion category (i.e., a negative
high arouual target appeared in a different location when presented with potitive high arousal
Latin abbreviatIons 428
areay images than when presented with neutral atmy images). ‘
The items within each category of grayacale images ahared the same verbal label
– -\
mushroom anake) and the ttems were selected from onitne databates and photo cltpaet fl ofsentenbe 4
packages. Each image depicted a photo ofihe actual object. participants were asked to
write down the name corresponding to each object; any object that did not consistently generate io
the intended response war eliminated from the set. For the remaining images, an additional 20
high arousal
pilot participants rated the emotional valence and arouaal of the objects and assessed the degree –
arousal.
ofvisusl timilarity among objects within a set (i.e., how aimilar the mushrooms were to one
iween -categories
another) and between objecte across sete (i.e.. how aimitar she mushrooms were to the snakes).
akemplasa (e.g., a set
Valence and arousal ratings. Valence and arousal were judged on 7-point scales (I
The rest of the
valence or lotv oros,sal and 7 =posirive vale,sceorhigls arousal). Negative objects
Ipants made these
received mean valence ratings of 2.5 or lower, neutral objects received mean valence ratings of
al dimensions in
3.5 to 4.5, and positive objects received mean valence ratings of 5.5 or higher. High arousal
ed how aimilar
objects received mean arousal ratings greater than 5, and low arousal objects (including all
the mushrooms
neutral stimuli) received mean arousal ratings of less than 4. We selected categories for which
on within.
both young and older adults agreed on the valence and aroutal classifications, and stimuli were
well as for the
— yvs’salt assnumity us tan lJn svae4ed pasitesilar
mushrooms and particular cats so that the mushrooms were as similar to one another as were the
cats (i.e., within-group similarity was held constant across the categories). Oar object selection
alto assured that the categories differed from one another los similar degree (e.g., that the
mushrooms were as similar to the snakes as the cats were similar to the snakes).
Procedure
Earh trial began with a white fixation cross presented on a black screen for 1,000 ma; the
matrix was then presented, and it remained on the ecreen until a participant responte was
recorded. Participants were instructed to respond as quickly as posaible with a button marked yes
if there was a target present, or a button marked no if no target was present. Response latencies
sad accuracy for each trial were automatically recorded with E-Prime (Version 1.2) experimental
Sample Paper (continued)
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION II
software. Before beginning the actual task, patticipants performed 20 practice trials to assure
compliance with the task instructions.
Elements Qttl a
Results4 Results section 2 07
Analyses focus on participants RTs to the 120 trials in which a target was present and
was from a different emotional category from the diatractor (e.g., RTs were not included for
Abbrevlation&
atTsya containing eight images of a cat and one image ofa butterfly because cats and butterflies
accepted as sre both posstsve low arouaal items) RTs were analyzed for 24 tnals ofeach target emotion
424 4.45,
ETa forerror trials were excluded (fewer than 5%of all responses) as were RTs that
from each participant’s mean (approximately 1.5% of responses). Median RTs were
then calculated for each of the five emotional target categoeiet, collapsing acrosa assay type (see
Table 2 for mw RT values for each ofthe two age groups). This allowed us to examine, for
.”example, whether were fatter to detect images than
Nouns followed
bY numerals or
;letters,4ii.
regardless of the type ofarray in which they were presented. Because our main interest was in
examining the effects of valence and arousal on participants’ target detection times, we created
scores for each emotional target category that controlled for the participant’s RTa to detect
neutral targets (e.g., subtracting the RT to detect neutral targets from the RT to dctcct positive
P Values,
high arousal targets). These difference scores were then examined with a 2 x 2 x 2 (Age [young,,.’
decimal
older] x Valence [positive, negative] x Arousal thigh, low]) analysis of variance fracuiens,j
435
ANOVA revealed only a significant main effectofarousal, F(l, 46) = 8.41,p = .006, .16,
with larger differences between neutral and high arousal images (Al = 137) than between Statistical siimbolsj
and tow arousal images (M 93; i.e., high arousal items peocessed more quickly across both age 4.45, Table 4.6
groups compared with low arousal items; see Figure I). There was no significant mails effect for
valence, nor was there an interaction valence snd arousal. It is critiral that the analysis
Numbering and discussing
figures in text,
1
SAMPLE PAPERS
MANu 5CR PT SIR ucTuRE AND CO
Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
Running head: EFFECTS OF AOE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 12
revealed only a main effect of age but no interactions with age. Thua, the arousal-mediated
effects on detection time appeared stable in young and older adults.
The results described above suggeated that there was no influence of age on the
influences ofemotion. To further teat the validity of this hypothetia, we submitted the RTs to the
five categoetes of targeta to a 2 sc 5 (Age iyoung, old] as Target Category [positive high asousat,
pottttve low arousal neutral negattve tow arousal negattve htgh arousal]) repeated measures Spacing alignment
WI tøxt 4 ANOVA2 Both the age grouth'(l 46) = 54032 pc 001 m 9Z and the target
mathematIcal copy 446
F(4, 184) a S.98,p COOl, = were significant, as well as the AgeGroup as
TargerCategouy interaction, F(4, lI4)=3,59,p=.OOI. =07. This interaction appeared to r
reflect the fact that for the younger adulta poattave high arousal targets were detected faster than of variables when
targets from alt other categories zs(23) C 1 90 p c OOt wtth no other target categonea they with
multlpllcetifin
differtng signaficantly frotn one another (although there were Irenda for negative htgh arousal
stgns 4 20
and negative low arousal targets to he detected more rapidly than neutral targeta @ <.12). For -
older adults, all emotional categories of targets were detecled more eapidly than were neutral
targets, sa(23) > 2.56,p <.011, and RTa to the different emotion categories of targets did not
differ significantly from one another. Thus, these results provided tome evidence that older
adults may show a broader advantage for detection of any type ofemotional infonnation,
wheeeas young adults' benefit may be more narrowly reatricted to only certain categories of
emottonal tnformntton Elements of the
a section, 2.03
Discussion
As outlined previously, there were thsee plausible alternatives for young and older adults'
performance on the visual search tauk: The two age groups could show a similar pattern of
etthassced detection ofernotional information, older adults could shows greater advantage for
SAMPLE PAPERS
Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 13
emotional deteclion than young adults, or older adulla could show a grealer facilitation (han
young adulls only for the detection of positive information The results lent aome auppott
first two alternatives, but no cvidcnce was found to auppoet (he Ihird alterntative.
In line wilh (he first alternative, no effecta of age were found when (he influence of
valence and arouaal on target detection times was esamined; both age groups showed only an
arousal effect. This result is consistent with prior studies that indicated (hat arousing information
can he detected rapidly and automatically by young adults (Anderson, Chriatoff,Panitz, De
Rosa, & Oabrieli, 2003; Ohnsa,t & Mineka, 2001) and that older adults, like younger adults,
continue to display a threat deteclion advantage when searching for negative facial targets in
arrays of positive and ncutral distractoee (Hahn et al., 2006; Msthcr & Knight, 2006). Given the
relative preservation o
& Bennett, 2004; Jenni
to take advanlage of lb
However, despi
age groups, the present
age-related enhanceme
the five categoties of
high arousal images (a
advantage for detectin1
suggests a broader infi
for the hypothesis that
It is interesting
that the positivity effec
$Jss of en em dash to
ind(cnte an jnte;rupttpn.
tin the condnu'itv of a
sentence, 4.06;
Description of an
em dash, 4.13
non!
Disälj.
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION
;tatejnSnt of support or
pp,qri 0 hypotheses,
14
processing, given that no effects of valence were observed in otder sdults' deteclion speed. tn the
present study, older adults were equally fast to detect positive and negative information,
consistent wilh peior research that indicated that older adults often attead equally to positive and
negative slimuti (RosIer et al., 2005). Although the pattern of results for the young adults has
differed across studies—in the present study and in some past research, young adulls have shown
facilitated information (e.g., Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Canetie
et al., 2004; al., 2005; Nutntnenmaa et sI., 2006). whereas in other studies, young sdulls
have shownM advantage for negative information (e.g., Armony & Dolan, 2002; Hansen &
Hansen, Mogg. Bradley,de Bono, &Paintcr, Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann &
McNal,Iji, 1995; Wiltianta, Mathews, & MacLeod, 1996)—what it important to note is that the
oldet'adults detected holh positive and negative slimuli at equal rates. 'ntis equivalent deteclion
a( positive and negative informalion provides evidence that older adults display an advantage for
the detection of emotional information that is not vatence-apecinc.
Thus, although younger and older adulls exhibited eomewhat divergent patterns of
emotional detection on a task reliant on early, relatively automatic atages of ptocetaing, we
found uo evidence of an age-related positivity effect. The lack of a positivity focus in the older
adults is in keeping with the proposal (e.g., Maiher & Knight. 2006) thst the positivity effect
does not arise thtough automatic attentional influences. Rather, when Ihit effect is observed in
older adulta, it is likely due to age-related changes in emotion regulation goala that operate at
later stages ofprocessing (i.e.. during consciously controlled procesaing), once informalion has
been attended to and once the emotional nature of the atinsulua has been discerned.
Although we cannot conclusively say that the cutrent task relies atricily on automalic
processes, there ate two lines ofevidence tuggeating that the conatruct examined in the cuerent
I
I
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECIION OF EMOTION IS
research examines relatively automatic processing. First, in their previous work, Ohman et at.
(2001) compared RTs with both 2 at 2 and 3 at 3 arrays. No signirtcant RT differences based on
Ar..
the number ofimages presented in the arrays were found. Second, in both Ohman et al's (2001)
study and the present study, analyses were performed to examine the influence of target location
on RT. Across both studies, and across both age groups in the cureent work, emotional targets
were delected more quickly than were neutral targets, regardless ofiheir location. Together,
these findings suggest that task performance is dependent on relatively automatic detection
processes rather than on controlled search processes. Discussion sectton ending
with comments on
Although further work is required to gain a more complete understanding of the Importance of findings 2 08
related changes in the early processing ofemolinnal information, our findinga4dicste that
young and older adultu
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETEC'IlON OF EMOTION 16
Construction of an accurate and
References4 complete reference list 622
General desctption of references 211
Anderson, A. K. (2005). Affective influences on the attentional dynamics supporting awareness.
Joianua! of Ex,oerinue,ueolPsycl,ology: Genera!, 154,258—281. doi:lO.l037/0096.
3445.134.2258
Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panils, D., De Rota, E., & GabriciL J. D. E. (2003). Neural
correistes of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. Jotunto! ofNeuaroscieuuce,
23, 5627—5633.
Armony, J. L.. & Dolan, R. 2. (2002). Modulation of spatial attention by
stimuli: An event.reiated fMRJ study,Nenropsychologio,4f3, 817-826.
doi: 10.10 l6/50028'3932%2801 %2900 178.6
Beck, A. T., Epstein. N., Brown, G.. & Stesr, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical
anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulling and Clinical Psychology, 56,
893—897. doi:l0.l03710022'006X.56.6.893
Calvo, M. G., & Lang. P. J. (2004). Gaze pattemu when looking at emotional pictures:
Motivationally biased attention. Moeivoe!oai o,udEuauoeio,t,28, 221—243. doi:
l0.10231B%3AMOEM,0000040l53,26l56.ed
Carretie, L. Hinojota, J. A., M., Mecsdo, F., & Tapia, M. (2004). Automatic
attention to emotional stimuli: Neural correiates. Huueno,u Drain Mopping.22, 290—299.
doi:lO,l002Thbnt20037
Caestensen, L. L. (1992). Social and emolional patternu in adulthood: Support for aocioemotionai
selectivity theory. Psychology rauudAging, 7,331—338. doi: l0.1037/0882.7974.7.3.331
Caratensen, L. L. Futig. H., & Charles. 5. (2003). Sociocniotional aeieclivity theory and the
regulation of emotion in the second halfof life. Moeivoiion ond Eanonon 27, 103— 123.
Use of parallel construction
with coordinating conjunctions
':used in pairs, 3.23
atudy provides fluiher
of emotional images a
(Fleiachmsn et al.,
although them it evide
information (e.g., Cars
present results suggest
taiks require relatively
SAMPLE PAPERS
Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTiON OF EMOTION
Oriihn, 0., Smith, 3., & Eatles, P. B. (2005). No aging bias favoring memory for positive
Carsteneen, L. L. & Mikela, J. A. (2005). At the intersection of emotion and cognition: Aging
and the positiviey effect. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 8 87—828. dci:
10.11 I t/j.0963-7214.2005.00348.x
Charles, S. T., Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L.(2003). Aging and emotionst memory: The
forgettable na
Psychology:
Chow, T. W., & Cur
Aggleton (Ed
Oxford Univr
Davis, M., & Whalet
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION It
material: Evidence from a heterogeneiey.liomogeneity list paradigm using emotionally
toned worde.Psychology ondAging, 20,579-588. doi: to. t03710tt2-7974.20.4.579
Hahn, S., Caelaon, C., Singer, S., & Grontund, S. D. (2006). Aging and visual search: Automatic
doi:
19
Kenesnger, F. A. Bnerley, B., Medfoed, N., Gmwdon, J. H., &Corkjn, 5. (2002). Effects of
F
normal agtng and Atzhetmer's disease on emotional memory Emotion 2 188—834 dot 8818018 31
tx$mple of rOt erence to
tO 1037/8528-3542 221184
701
Lang, P.J.,Bradtey,M. M., &Cuthberl, B.N.(t997). Motivatedattention: Affect, activation,
and action. In P. J. Lang. R. F. Simona, & M. Balaban (Edej, Ascension nnd orienting:
Exampto of ref proD ce
97—835) Mahwals NJ Erlbaum.4
book cbaptpr pdjt
Leclerc, C M & Hess T M (2005 August) Age differences in processing of affectively 001 t 02 Example 25
primed information. Poster eesuton presented at the 113th Annual Convention of the
$ing,
Amencan Psychological Aeeociaeton, Washington, DC.
LeDoux, J. E.(t995). Emotion: Clues from the brain. Annual Review of Psycho!agy,46, 209—
235. doi:10.t l4dlannurev.ps.46.020195.001233
Mather,M., & Knight, M. (2005). GoaI.directed memory: The rote of cognitive control in older
adults' emotional memory. Psychology andAging, 20,554—570. doi: 10.803710882-
7974.20.4.554
Msdser, M., & Knight, M. R. (2006). Angry faces get noticed quickly: Threat detection is not
impaired among older adults. Jotsrnnls of Gerontology. Series B: Psychological Sciences,
61B, P54-PS?.
Mogg. K.. Bradley. B. P.. de Bono,J., & Painter, M. (8997). Time coerce ofsttentionat bias for
threat information in non-clinical anxiety. Behavioral Research Therapy, 35, 297—303.
Nelson, H. E. (1976). A modified Witconsin card aorling teat aenaittvc to frontal lobe defects.
Cortex, 12,313—324.
related
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION
I
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT 51
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 20
Nummenmaa, L.. flyona, J.. & Calvo, M. 0. (2006). Eye movement attesament of aeleclive
attentional capture by emotional pictures. E,ssoiiost,6, 257—268. doi: lO.103fl1528-
with more than 3542 6 2 257
authors 701
lExample 2
Ohman A F]ykt, A &Eatevm F (2001) Emotion drives attention Detecting the anake in the
\Runoing head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 21
A., Ulriek C., Btliino,J., Sterzer, P.,Weidauer, S., Eemhardl,T Kieinnchmidl, A.
(2005). Effects of arousing emotional scenes on the diaiributioo of viauoapatial attention:
Changm with aging and early subcortical vascular dementia. Journal of site Net,rological
Scie,tces,229, l09—ll6.dot:10.1016/jjna.2004.l1.007
phology
Shipley,W. C. (1986) Slttpleylsssnnr,e of Livi,tg Scale. Lot Angeles: Weatem Psychological
Services.
Sptelbrrger, C. D., Go
Palo Alto, CA:
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 22
Wechaler. D. (1987). 5 Plirnént and format
Corporation
Footnotes of footnotes 212
Wechsler, D. (1997).
Anatyaes of covariance were conducted with these covariatm, wilh no reaullittg
III. New York: influences of Iheac variables on the paltens or magnitude of the results.
Wear, R. L. (1996). An
1'These data were also analyzed with a 2 sc 5 ANOVA 10 examine the effect of target
Psycltological
category when presented oniy in arrays containing neutral images, with the results remaining
qualitatively the tame. More broadly, the erfecta of emotion on target detection were not
Williams, J. M., Mathe
paychopatholoj
qualitatively impacted by the distractor category.
Witaon, 8. A., Alderm
BelsnviouralA:
England: Tham
SAMPLE PAPERS
SeIectinU effective
presentSiQn, 4.41;
Logical ahd
table layout 5.08
Running
Table 2
Raw Res
Catego
Poeitiv
Positiv.
Neutral
Negatis
Note. V;
of the an
positive
arousal,
recorded
Measure F(l,46) p
Years ofeducation 13.92 1.28 16.33 2.43 18.62 <.001
Deck Anxiety Inventory 9.39 5.34 6.25 6.06 3.54 .066
BADS—DEX 20.79 7.58 13.38 8.29 10.46 .002
STAI—State 45.79 4.44 47.08 3.48 1.07 .306
STAI—Trait 45.64 4.50 45.58 3.15 0.02 .963
Digit Symbol Substitution 49.62 7.18 31.58 6.56 77.52 <.001
Generative naming 46.95 9.70 47.17 12.98 .004 .951
Vocabulary 33.00 3.52 35.25 3.70 4.33 .043
Digit Span—Backward 8.81 2.09 8.25 2.15 0.78 .383
Arithmetic 16.14 2.75 14.96 3.11 1.84 .182
Mental Control 32.32 3.82 23.75 5.13 40.60 <.001
Self-Ordered Pointing 1.73 2.53 9.25 9.40 13.18 .001
WCST perseverative etrors 0.36 0.66 1.83 3.23 4.39 .042
Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 23
Table 1
Participant Choracteristics
Vouneer arpuo Older wools
M SD M SD
Note. The Beck Anxiety Inventory is from Beck et at. (1988); the Behavioral Assessment of the
Dysexecutive Syndromo—Dysexecutive Questionnaire (BADS-DEX) qutaliotnnaire is from
Wilson ci al. (1996); the State—Trait Inventory (STAI) measures are from Spielberger ci al.
(1970); and the Digit Symbol Substitution, Digit Span Backward, and Arithmetic Wechsler
Adult Intelligence and Memory Scale—Itt measures are 1mm Wechsler (1997). Generalive
naming scores represent the total number of words produced in 60s each for letter F, A • and S.
the Vocabulary measure is from Shipley (1986); the Mental Control measure Ia from Wechaler
(1987); the Self.Oedeeed Pointing measure was adapted from Petrides and Mimer (1982); and the
Wisconsin Card Sorting Taak (WCST) measure is from Nelson (1976). All values represent raw,
nonstandardized scores.
table holes 101
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
Sample One-Experiment {cpnttnued)
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DEFECTION OF EMOTION 25
Figure!. Mean difference values (nm) representing detection speed for each larget category
aubtrscted from ihe mean deteelion speed for nermiral largeta. No age differences were found in Figure legends
the arousal-mediated effecla on detection speed. Standard errors are represented in the figure bYand captions
523
she error baes allached 10 each
DNoosrng .NonarooahgI
I
I
0
I
Age Group
of figure use
and
of figures, 5.20—525
I hills Sample Two-Lxperiment Paper (The numbers refer to num
bered sections in the Publication Manual This abridged manu-
script illustrates the organizational structure cMracteriattc of
multiple-experiment papers Of course, a complete multiple-
experiment paper would include a title page, an abstract page,
and so forth
Running head; INhIBITORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY
Inhibitory Influences on Asychrony as a Cue for Auditory Segregation
Auditory grouping involves the formation of auditory objects from the round mixture
reaching the ears. The cues used to integrate or segregate these rounds and to form auditory
objects have been defined by several authors (e.g., Bregtnan, 1990) Darwin, 1997; Darwin &
Canyon, The key acoustic cues for segregating concutTent acouatic eletnenta are
differences in onset time (e.g., Dannenbring & Bregman, 1978; Rasch, t978) and hannonie
relations (e.g., Brunatrom & Roberts l998i Moore, Glasberg, & Peters, l98e. In an example of
the importance of onset time, Darwin (1984a, l984b) showed that increasing the level of a
harmonic near the first formant (Fl) frequency by adding a synchronous pure tone changes the
phonetic quatity of a vowel, However, when the added tone began a few hundred milliseconds
before the vowel, it was essentially removed from the vowel percept [seelion continuesi.
General Method 4 Elements of empirtcai studies 1 01
Overview
tn the espetlinenta reported here, we used a paradigm developed by Darwin to assess the
perceptual integration of additional energy in the Ft region of a vowel theough its effect on
phonetic quality (Darwin, 1984a, 1914b; Darwin & Sutherland, 1984),,,,[aeetian continuosi,
Stimuli
Amplitude and phase values for the vowel harmonics were obtained frotn the vocal-tract
transfer function using cascaded fotmant resonatots (Klalt. 1910). Fl values varied in 10-Hz
steps from 360—550 Hz—except in Experiment 3, which used values from 350—540Hz—to
produce a continuum of 20 tokens... ,iseetion continueal,
LIsteners
Paper adapted from "inhibitory influences on Asychrony as a Cue for Auditory Segregation," by S. D.
Holmes and B. Roberts, 2006, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32,
pp. 1231—1 242. Copyright 2006 by the American Psychological Association.
SAMPLE PAPERS
I
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT II
Running head: INHIBITORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY
Listeners were volunteers recruited from the stosdettl population of the University of
Birmingham and were paid for their participation. All listeners wore native speakers of British
Al the alan of each session, listeners took part in a wamn-up block. Depending on the
number of conditiona in a particular experiment, the warm-up htock consisted ofone htock of alt
the experimental stimuli or every second or fourth Fl step in that block. This gave between
and 100 randomized trials... (rattan continuoti.
Data Analysis
The data for each listener contiatcd of the number of/Il responses out of 10 repetitions
for each nominal Fl value in each condition. An estimate ofshe Ft frequency at the phoneme
boundary wat obtained by fitting a probit ftsnction (Finney. 1971)10 a liatener 'a idetitification
data for each condition. The phoneme houndaty was defined as the mean ofthe probit function
(the 50% point)... [section continues].
Multiple Experiments 209
In this experim
pure-tone captor. Each
tone captor and a ernie
continues!.
Method
as the vowel but continues after lhr vowel ends.. [section continues].
Method
ItLili Sample Two-Fxperlment PaØer (continued)
2
English who reported normal hearing and hid successfully completed a screening procedure
Plural forms of nouns.
(deacnbed below) For each expenment the data for 12 Itstenera areiresented (section of foretgn ortgtn, 319
continues!.
Procedure
).Experimemt 1
Running head: INHIBTTORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY 3
There were nine conditiono: the three standard ones (vowel alone, incremented fourth,
and leading fourth) pius three captor conditions and their controls. A lead time of240 mt was
iAbbreviating Units!
used for the added 500-Hz ne... Iserttonconttnues].
of measurement,
Results and Discussion 427 Table 44
Figure 4 ahowa the mean phoneme boundaries for all conditions and the resloration effect
for each captor type. The restoration effects are shown shove the histogram bars bolh as
houndary shift in hertz and as a percentage of the difference in houndary position between the
iocremenled-foutth and leading-fourth conditions [section continuesl.
Experiment 2
This experiment considers the case where the added 500.Hz tone begins at the same time
There were five conditions: two of the standard ones (vowel alone and incremented
oh metrication fourth) a lagging fourth condilton (analogous to the trading fourth conditton uteri elsewhere)
units,4.40 mawsa sited for the added 500.flz
tone.. [section continues]
Results and Diacussiom
SAMPLE PAPERS
Sample Two-Experiment Paper (continued)
a perceptual group between the leading portion and the captor tons, on the basis of their common
onset time and harmonic relationship, leaving the remainder of the extra energy to integrate into
the vowel percept... section continues].
[Follow the form of the one-experiment serspie paper Ce type references, the author note,
footnetes, tables, and figure captions.I
Running head: INHIBITORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY 4
984; Roberts & Holmes, This experiment used a gap between captor offset and vowel
onset to measure the decay time of the captor effect.. - - [section continues].
Method
There were17 conditions: the three standard ones (vowel alone, incremented foueth, and
leading fourth), five captor conditions and their controls, and four additional conditions
(described sepsestely below). A lead time of 320 ms was used for the added 500-Hz tone, The
captor conditions were crested by sdding a li-leNs pure-tone csptor, of various durations, to
each member of the leading-fourth continuum [section continues].
Results 0
Figure 6showa the boundaries forall conditions, There was a
significant effect ofcondieion on the phoneme boundary values, F(16, 176) = 39.l0,p cOOl,
Incrementing the level ofthe fourth harnsonic lowered the phoneme boundary relative to the
vowel-alone condition (by 58 Hs, p <071), which indicates that tho extm energy was integrated
into the vowel percept... .Iseetion continues].
DIscussion
The results oflhis experiment show that the effect of the captor disappears somewhere
between 80 and t60 nrs afler captor offset. This indicates that the captor effect takes quite a long
time to decay away relative to the time constants typically found for cells in the CN uting
physiological measures (e.g.. Needham & Psolini, 2003)... .Iseetion continues].
Summary and ConcludIng Discussion
Daewin and Sutherland (l984)first demonstrated that accompanying the leading portion
of additional energy in the Fl region of a vowel with a captor tone partly reversed the effect of
the onset asynchrony on perceived vowel quality. This finding was attributed to the formation of
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
Running head: THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION
The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion:
A Mets-Analytic Review
Persuasive mrsaagea are often accompanied by information that induces suspicions of
invatidity. For instance, recipients of communications about a political candidate may discount a
message coming from a representative of the opponent party because they do not perceive the
source ofthe message as credible (e.g., Lariscy & Tinktsam, t999). Becauae the source of the
potiticat message serves as adiscounting cue aisd temporarily decreases the impact of the
message, recipients may not be persuaded by the advocacy immediatety after they receive the
communication. Over time, however, recipients of an othensise influential message may recall
the message but not the nonceedibte source and thus become more persuaded by the message at
that time than they were immediately following site communication. The term sleeper effectias
used to denote such a
Running head: THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 2
retention, aieies,de and decay, andperstsasion attd decay. Because researchers often use tht terms
opinion and belief, inetesd ofsassisude, we conducted searches using these substitute terms as
well of mets analysts 1 02
Second [aectton eonttnuas]
OutdeIlnQs fur reporting mota analysis
10 Aøpondix
Selection Criteria
'p
We used the following criteria to select studies for inclusion in the mets-analysis.
I. We only included studies that involved the presentation of a communication containing
persuasive arguments. Thus, we esciuded studies in which the parlicipsnts played a rote or were
asked to make a speech that contradicted their opinions. We also excluded developmental studies
involving delayed effects ofan early event (e.g., child abuse), which sometimes are also referred
so as sleeper effects... .(ssetion continuasi
For descnpttve we the year and (b) source (i.e.. jonmal
unpublished dissertations and theses, or other unpublished document) of each report as well as
(c) the sample composition (i.e., high-school students, university students, or other) and (d) the
countty in which the study was conducted.
We also coded each experiment in terms of iaaelion eonlinueal.
Studies were coded independently by the first author and another graduate student,
Paper adapted from "The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion: A Mets-Analytic Review," by C. Kumkale and D.
Albarracin 2004 Psychological Bulletin 130 pp 143—172 Copyflght 2004 by the Ameflcan Psychological
Association.
Sample Meta-Analysis (The numbers refer to numbered sec
tions In the Publication Manual This abridged manuscript illus-
trates the organizational structure characteristic of reports of
meta-analyses Of course a complete meta-analysis would
include a title page an abstract page and so forth
I:
4.21
noncredible source) be
memory of the messag
Sample of Studies
We retrieved tr
means of multiple pro
(lsgl-2m3), Diaserta
Sociat-Science-Citatio
credibility, rosa-ce cre,
persistence, altlinden
a sentét
I
s Sample Meta-Analysis (continued)
Running head: THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 3
was satisfactosy (Onvisa, 1994). We resolved disagreements by discussion and consultation with
colleagues. Characteristics of the individual studies included in this review ate presented in
Table 1. The studies often contained several independent datssess such as different messages and
different experiments. The characteristics Ihat distinguish different dataaets within a report
appear on the second column of the table.
Dependent Measures and Computation of Effect Sizes
We calculated effect sizea for (a) persuasion and 0) recall—recognition ofthe message
content. Calculations were based on the data described in the primary reports as well as available
responses of the authors to requests of flsrsher infonaation...jssction continues].
Analyses of Efreee Sizes
There are two a
effecis....jaettion ronti Running head: THE SLEEPER EFFEC'F IN PERSUAStON 4
Use atloast
To benefit from the tt place over time,...tsectton eontinstaj. .
In S siction,conduct analyses uasnj In light of these reqnirements, we first examined whether ditcounting quan ieã In a decrease
agreement with the connmunicatinn (boomerang continues]5..'''
The data analy Ruling out a nonperslseing boomeranAffeet To determine or not a delayed
estimation of overall e increase in persuasion represents an abeolute sleeper effect, to male out a nonpereiating
Sample ofStudies an boomerang effect, which takes place when a backfires but later loses this
Descriptive ch: reverse effect (see panel A ofFigure eontisuasj.
Table 2... .!Saction con Average steeper effect4elevant atatiatica corresponding to average changes in
Overview of the Aver persuasion from the immediate to (he delayed posttest appear in Table 4, organized by the
A thorough uns different conditions we conaidered (i.e., acceptance-cue, discounting-cue, no-mesaage control,
condition differences a and message-only control). In Table 4, positive effect sizes indicate increases in persuaaion over
time, negative effect sizes indicate decay in persuasion, and zero effects denote stability in
persuasioa. Confidence intervals that do not include zero indicate significant changes over time.
The first row of Table 4 shows that recipients of acceptance cues agreed with the message less at
time went by (fixed-effecla,d+ =—0,2l; randon,-effeeta, d. =—0.23). in contrast to the decay in
persuasion for recipirala of acceptance cues, there was a alight increase in persuasion for
recipients
ofdiscounting cues over time (ri+ = 0.08). It is important to note that change in
discounting-cue conditiona significantly differed from change in acceptance-cue conditions,
B=—0.29,$E=0.04), Qsll)=53.l5,p c Qs{l2)) = l93.82,p C
- - .[seclisn eoatinuesj.
Suutrna,y and variability oft/se overall effect. The overall analyses identified a relative
sleeper effect in persuasion, but no absolute sleeper effect. The latter was not surprising, because
the sleeper effect was expected to emerge under conditiona.. - - section continussl.
SAMPLE PAPERS
MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
Sample (continued) -
Running head: THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION
Moderator Analyses
Although oven!! effects have descriptive value, the variability in the change observed in
discounting-cue conditions makes it unlikely that the tame effect waa present under all
conditiona. Therefore, we tested Ihe hypotheses Ihar the aleeper effect would be more likely (e.g.,
moee consistent with the abaolute pattern in Panel B I ofFigure I) when.. .Isectinn continues].
a mete analysis with loss
than references 626
/
Running head: THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 6
tgsl References
021
Refeeences marked with an atterigk indicate studies included in the meta-analyttt. The in-text
citaliona to atudies selected foe meta-anatysis are not preceded by atteeiaks!'
AtbasTacin, D. (2002). Cognition in peesuasion: An anatysit of infoesnation processing in
reapontr to persuasive communications. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental
social psychology (Vol. 34, pp.6l—l3O). San Diego, CA: Academic Prest....Iraferaneas
continual. doi:I0.1016/S0065-26O1(02)80004-l
Johnaon, B. T., & Esgty, A. H. (1989). Effects of involvement in persuasion: A mets-analysis.
Psychological Btsllelt,t, 106. 290—314.doi: l0.l03710033-2909.l06.2.290
5johnaon, H. H., Torcivia, J. M., & Poprick, M. A. (1968). Effecb ofsonrce credibility on the
relationahip between authoritarianism and attitude change. Journal of Perscsnolisy ond
Social Psychology, 9, 179—183.doi:I0.1037Th002l250
Johnson, H. H., & Watkina, T. A. (1971). The effects ofmesnage repetitions on immediate and
delayed attitude change. Psychonomic Scie,tce, 22, lOt—103.
Jonas, K., Diehl, M., & Brootr, P. (1997). Effects of attitudinal ambivalence on information
processing and attitude-intention consistency. loss-na! of ExpeHmest rat Social
Ps)vho!ogy, 33. l90—2t0.doi:l0.1006/jmp.1996.t317. . . Ireferences cnntinuej.
{Followthe form of the one-experiment sample papee to type the authoe note, tontnntet,
tables, and liguro captions.!
Writing Clearly and Concisely
T
his chapter provides some general principles of expository writing and suggests
ways to improve writing style. We focus first on the benefits of planning and
choosing the best organizational structure to develop your argument. We next
describe some basic principles for writing with clarity and precision and for avoiding
bias in language. Last, we demonstrate how correct grammar is the foundation of clear,
effective, and persuasive communication.
Organization
Before beginning to write, consider the best length and structure for the findings you
wish to share. Ordering your thoughts logically, both at the paragraph and at the sen-
tence levels, will strengthen the impact of your writing.
3.01 Length
The optimal length of a manuscript is the number of pages needed to effectively com-
municate the primary ideas of the study, review, or theoretical analysis. As a rule "less
is more." Discursive writing often obscures an author's main points, and condensing
long manuscripts often improves them. If a paper is too long, shorten it by stating
points clearly and directly, confining the discussion to the specific problem under inves-
tigation, deleting or combining data displays, eliminating repetition across sections,
and writing in the active voice. At times, a paper may need to be divided into two or
more papers, each with a more specific focus (however, see section 1.09 on piecemeal
publication). Journals differ in average length of articles published. It is generally wise
to be consistent with the usual practices of the journal to which you are submitting
Your paper.
I
r
ORGANIZATION
3.02 Organizing a Manuscript With Headings
In scientific writing, sound organizational structure is the key to clear, precise, and log-
ical communication. This includes the use of headings to effectively organize ideas
within a study as well as seriation to highlight important items within sections. Concise
headings help the reader anticipate key points and track the development of your argu-
ment.
Readers familiar with earlier editions of the Publication Manual will note that we
have changed and simplified the heading styles in this edition. This change was moti-
vated by the desire to make planning a less complicated process for the writer and to
make articles more accessible for those reading them in electronic formats.
Levels of heading establish the hierarchy of sections via format or appearance. All
topics of equal importance have the same level of heading throughout a manuscript.
For example, in a multiexperiment paper, the headings for the Method and Results sec-
tions in Experiment 1 should be the same level as the headings for the Method and
Results sections in Experiment 2.
Avoid having only one subsection heading and subsection within a section, just as
you would in an outline. Use at least two subsection headings within any given section,
or use none (e.g., in an outline, you could divide a section numbered I into a minimum
of A and B sections; just an A section could not stand alone).
3.03 Levels of Heading
The heading style recommended by APA consists of five possible formatting arrange-
ments, according to the number of levels of subordination. Each heading level is num-
bered (see Table 3.1).
Regardless of the number of levels of subheading within a section, the heading struc-
ture for all sections follows the same top-down progression. Each section starts with the
Level of heading Format
1 Centered, Boldface. Uppercase and
Lowercase Headinga
2 Flush Left, Boldface, Uppercase and
Lowercase Heading
3 Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.b
4 Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase
paragraph heading ending with a period.
5 Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.
F 'This type of capitalization is also referred to as title case.
bin a lowercase paragraph heading, the first letter of the first word is uppercase and the
remaining words are lowercase.
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
highest level of heading, even if one section may have fewer levels of subheading than
another section. For example, the Method and Results sections of a paper may each have
two levels of subheading, and the Discussion section may have only one level of subhead-
:as ing. There would then be three levels of heading for the paper overall: the section head:
ings (Method. Results, and Discussion) and the two levels of subheading, as follows:
Method
Sample and Participant Selection
Assessments and Measures
0-sort measures of inhibition and aggressiveness.
Life History Calendar.
Results
Outcome of Inhibited Children at 23 Years
Personality and self-esteem.
Social network.
Life history and 10.
rn Outcome of Aggressive Children at 23 Years
Discussion
Inhibited Children: Delayed Social Transitions During Emerging Adulthood
Inhibited Children: Weak Evidence for Internalizing Difficulties
Limitations of the Present Study
Conclusions and Future Prospects
The introduction to a manuscript does not carry a heading that labels it as the
he introduction. (The first part of a manuscript is assumed to be the introduction.)
Do not label headings with numbers or letters. (The sections and headings in the
Publication Manual are numbered only to permit indexing and cross-referencing.) The
number of levels of heading needed for your article will depend on its length and com-
plexity. If only one level of heading is needed, use Level 1; for a paper with two levels of
heading, use Levels 1 and 2; if three levels are needed, use Levels 1, 2, and 3; and so forth.
3.04 Seriation
Just as the heading structure alerts readers to the order of ideas within the paper, seri-
ation helps the reader understand the organization of key points within sections, para-
graphs, and sentences. In any series, all items should be syntactically and conceptual-
ly parallel (see section 3.23).
Separate paragraphs in a series, such as itemized conclusions or steps in a proce-
•
dure, are identified by an Arabic numeral followed by a period but not enclosed in or
followed by parentheses. Separate sentences in a series are also identified by an Arabic
numeral followed by a period; the first word is capitalized, and the sentence ends with
a period or correct punctuation.
Using the learned helplessness theory, we predicted that the depressed and
nondepressed participants would make the following judgments of control
ORGANIZATION
1. Individuals who .
. [paragraph continuesj.
2. Nondepressed persons exposed to. . . [paragraph continues].
3. Depressed persons exposed to. . . [paragraph continues].
4. Depressed and nondepressed participants in the no-noise groups. . . [paragraph
continues].
The use of "numbered lists" may connote an unwanted or unwarranted ordinal
position (e.g. chronology, importance, priority) among the items. If you wish to
achieve the same effect without the implication of ordinality, items in the series should
be identified by bullets. Symbols such as small squares, circles, and so forth, may be
used in creating a bulleted list. At the time that an article accepted for publication is
typeset, the bullet notation will be changed to the style used by that journal.
• Individuals who . . . [paragraph continues].
• Nondepressed persons exposed to. . . [paragraph continues].
• Depressed persons exposed to. . . [paragraph continues].
• Depressed and nondepressed participants in the no-noise groups . . . [para-
graph continues].
Within a paragraph or sentence, identify elements in a series by lowercase letters in
parentheses.
The participant's three choices were Ca) working with another participant, (b)
working with a team, and Cc) working alone.
Within a sentence, use commas to separate three or more elements that do not have
internal commas; use semicolons to separate three or more elements that have internal
commas.
We tested three groups: Ca) low scorers, who scored fewer than 20 points; (b)
moderate scorers, who scored between 20 and 50 points; and Cc) high scorers,
who scored more than 50 points.
Alternatively, you may use bulleted lists within a sentence to separate three or more
elements. In these instances, capitalize and punctuate the list as if it were a complete
sentence.
In accordance with this theory, these relations should be marked by
• equity, social justice, and equal opportunity;
• sensitivity to individual differences and promotion of a goodness-of-fit
between individually different people and contexts;
• affirmative actions to correct ontogenetic or historical inequities in person—
-
—
context fit
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
• efforts to recognize and celebrate diversity; and
• promotion of universal participation in civic life, and hence democracy (Lerner,
Balsano, Banik, & Naudeau, 2005, p. 45).
Writing Style
nat The prime objective of scientific reporting is clear communication. You can achieve
to this by presenting ideas in an orderly manner and by expressing yourself smoothly and
ild precisely. Establishing a tone that conveys the essential points of your study in an inter-
be esting manner wilt engage readers and communicate your ideas more effectively.
is
3.05 Continuity in Presentation of Ideas
Readers will better understand your ideas if you aim for continuity in words, concepts,
and thematic development from the opening statement to the conclusion. Continuity
can be achieved in several ways. For instance, punctuation marks contribute to conti-
nuity by showing relationships between ideas. They cue the reader to the pauses, inflec-
tions, subordination, and pacing normally heard in speech. Use the full range of punc-
tuation aids available: Neither overuse nor underuse one type of punctuation, such as
commas or dashes. Overuse may annoy the reader; underuse may confuse. Instead, use
punctuation to support meaning.
Another way to achieve continuity is through the use of transitional words. These
words help maintain the flow of thought, especially when the material is complex or
abstract. A pronoun that refers to a noun in the preceding sentence not only serves as
a transition but also avoids repetition. Be sure the referent is obvious. Other transition
devices are time links (then, next, after, while, since), cause—effect links (therefore, con-
sequently, as a result), addition links (in addition, moreover, furthermore, similarly),
and contrast links (but, conversely, nevertheless, however, although).
3.06 Smoothness of Expression
Scientific prose and creative writing serve different purposes. Devices that are often
found in creative writing—for example, setting up ambiguity; inserting the unexpected;
omitting the expected; and suddenly shifting the topic, tense, or person—can confuse
or disturb readers of scientific prose. Therefore, try to avoid these devices and aim for
clear and logical communication.
Because you have been so close to your material, you may not immediately see cer-
tain problems, especially contradictions the reader may infer. A reading by a colleague
may uncover such problems. You can usually catch omissions, irrelevancies, and
abruptness by putting the manuscript aside and rereading it later. Reading the paper
aloud can make flaws more apparent. (See also section 3.11.)
If, on later reading, you find that your writing is abrupt, introducing more transi-
tion devices may be helpful. You may have abandoned an argument or theme prema-
turely; if so, you need to amplify the discussion.
Abruptness may result from sudden, unnecessary shifts in verb tense within the
same paragraph or in adjacent paragraphs. By using verb tenses consistently, you can
help ensure smooth expression. Past tense (e.g., "Smith showed") or present perfect
WRITING STYLE
tense (e.g., "researchers have shown") is appropriate for the literature review and the
description of the procedure if the discussion is of past events. Stay within the chosen
tense. Use past tense (e.g., "anxiety decreased significantly") to describe the results.
Use the present tense (e.g., "the results of Experiment 2 indicate") to discuss implica-
tions of the results and to present the conclusions. By reporting conclusions in the pres-ent tense, you allow readers to join you in deliberating the matter at hand. (See section
3.19 for details on the use of verb tense.)
Noun strings, meaning several nouns used one after another to modify a finalnoun, create another form of abruptness. The reader is sometimes forced to stop todetermine how the words relate to one another. Skillful hyphenation can clarify therelationships between words, but often the best approach is to untangle the string. For
example, consider the following string:
commonly used investigative expanded issue control question technique
This is dense prose to the reader knowledgeable about studies on lie detection—and gibberish to a reader unfamiliar with such studies. Possible ways to untangle the
string are as follows:
• a control-question technique that is commonly used to expand issues in
investigations
• an expanded-issue control-question technique that is commonly used in
investigations
• a common technique of using control questions to investigate expanded issues
• a common investigative technique of using expanded issues in control
questions
One approach to untangling noun strings is to move the last word to the beginningof the string and fill in with verbs and prepositions. For example, early childhood
thought disorder misdiagnosis might be rearranged to read misdiagnosjs of thoughtdisorders in early childhood.
Many writers strive to achieve smooth expression by using synonyms or near-synonyms to avoid repeating a term. The intention is commendable, but by usingsynonyms you may unintentionally suggest a subtle difference. Therefor; choose syn-onyms with care. The discreet use of pronouns can often relieve the monotonous rep- Ietition of a term without introducing ambiguity.
3.07 Tone
Although scientific writing differs in form from literary writing, it need not lack styleor be dull. In describing your research, present the ideas and findings directly but aimfor an interesting and compelling style and a tone that reflects your involvement withthe problem.
Scientific writing often contrasts the positions of different researchers. Differences
should be presented in a professional, noncombative manner. For example, "Fong and
Nisbett did not address is acceptable, whereas "Fong and Nisbett completely
overlooked . . ." is not.
L
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
One effective way to achieve the right tone is to imagine a specific reader you are
intending to reach and to write in a way that will educate and persuade that individual.
Envisioning a person familiar to you may make this technique more effective. You may
wish to write, for example, to a researcher in a related field who is trying to keep abreast
of the literature but is not familiar with jargon or insider perspectives. What would
facilitate his or her understanding of and appreciation for the importance of your work?
3.08 Economy of Expression
Say only what needs to be said. The author who is frugal with words not only writes
a more readable manuscript but also increases the chances that the manuscript will be
accepted for publication. The number of printed pages a journal can publish is limited,
_____
and editors therefore often request that authors shorten submitted papers. You can
________
tighten long papers by eliminating redundancy, wordiness, jargon, evasiveness, overuse
________
of the passive voice, circumlocution, and clumsy prose. Weed out overly detailed
descriptions of apparatus, participants, or procedures (beyond those called for in the
reporting standards; see Chapter 2); elaborations of the obvious; and irrelevant obser-
vations or asides. Materials such as these may be placed, when appropriate, in an
online supplemental archive (see sections 2.13 and 8.03 for further details).
Short words and short sentences are easier to comprehend than are long ones. A
long technical term, however, may be more precise than several short words, and tech-
nical terms are inseparable from scientific reporting. Yet the technical terminology in
a paper should be readily understood by individuals throughout each discipline. An
article that depends on terminology familiar to only a few specialists does not suffi-
ciently contribute to the literature.
Wordiness. Wordiness can also impede the ready grasp of ideas. Change based on the
fact that to because, at the present time to now, and for the purpose of to simply for
or to. Use this study instead of the present study when the context is cleat Change
there were several students who completed to several students completed.
Unconstrained wordiness lapses into embellishment and flowery writing, which are
clearly inappropriate in scientific style.
Redundancy. Writers often use redundant language in an effort to be emphatic. Use no
more words than are necessary to convey your meaning.
In the following examples, the italicized words are redundant and should be
omitted:
they were both alike one and the same
a total of 68 participants in close proximity
four different groups saw completely unanimous
instructions, which were exactly just exactly
the same as those used
very close to significance
absolutely essential
penod of time
has been previously found .
summarize bnefly
small in size
the reason is because
____
WRITING STYLE
Unit length. Although writing only in short, simple sentences produces choppy and bor-
ing prose, writing exclusively in long, involved sentences results in difficult, sometimes
incomprehensible material. Varied sentence length helps readers maintain interest and
comprehension. When involved concepts require long sentences, the components
should proceed logically. Direct, declarative sentences with simple, common words are
usually best.
Similar cautions apply to paragraph length. Single-sentence paragraphs are abrupt.
Paragraphs that are too long are likely to lose the reader's attention. A new paragraph
provides a pause for the reader—a chance to assimilate one step in the conceptual
development before beginning another. If a paragraph runs longer than one double-
spaced manuscript page, you may lose your readers. Look for a logical place to break
a long paragraph, or reorganize the material.
3.09 Precision and Clarity
Word choice. Make certain that every word means exactly what you intend it to mean.
In informal style, for example, feel broadly substitutes for think or believe, but in sci-
entific style such latitude is not acceptable. A similar example is that like is often used
when such as is meant:
Correct:
Articles by psychologists such as Skinner and Watson.
Correct:
Like Watson, Skinner believed.
Incorrect:
Articles by psychologists like Skinner and Watson.
Colloquial expressions. Avoid colloquial expressions (e.g, write up for report), which
diffuse meaning. Approximations of quantity (e.g., quite a large part, practically all, or
very few) are interpreted differently by different readers or in different contexts.
Approximations weaken statements, especially those describing empirical observations.
Jargon. Jargon is the continuous use of a technical vocabulary, even in places where
that vocabulary is not relevant. Jargon is also the substitution of a euphemistic phrase
for a familiar term (e.g., monetarily felt scarcity for poverty), and you should scrupu-
lously avoid using such jargon. Federal bureaucratic jargon has had the greatest pub-
licity, but scientific jargon also grates on the reader, encumbers the communication of
information, and wastes space.
Pronouns. Pronouns confuse readers unless the referent for each pronoun is obvious;
readers should not have to search previous text to determine the meaning of the term.
Pronouns such as this, that, these, and those can be troublesome when they refer to
something or someone in a previous sentence. Eliminate ambiguity by writing, for
example, this test, that trial, these participants, and those reports (see also section 3.20).
Comparisons. Ambiguous or illogical comparisons result from omission of key verbs
or from nonparallel structure. Consider, for example, "Ten-year-olds were more like-
ly
to play with age peers than 8-year-olds." Does this sentence mean that 1O-year-olds
were more likely than 8-year olds to play with age peers> Or does it mean that 10
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
year-olds were more likely to play with age peers and less likely to play with 8-year-
es Old5? An illogical comparison occurs when parallelism is overlooked for the sake of
id brevity, as in “Her salary was lower than a convenience store clerk.” Thoughtful
Lts
attention to good sentence structure and word choice reduces the chance of this kind
re of ambiguity.
Attribution. Inappropriately or illogically attributing action in an effort to be objective
can be misleading. Examples of undesirable attribution include use of the third person,
anthropomorphism, and use of the editorial we.
Thirdperson. To avoid ambiguity, use a personal pronoun rather than the third per-
son when describing steps taken in your experiment.
Correct:
We reviewed the literature.
Incorrect:
The authors reviewed the literature.
Ant hropomorphism. Do not attribute human characteristics to animals or to inani-
mate sources.
Correct:
Pairs of rats (cage mates) were allowed to forage together.
Incorrect:
Rat couples (cage mates) were allowed to forage together.
Correct:
The staff for the community program was persuaded to allow five of the
observers to become tutors.
Incorrect:
The community program was persuaded to allow five of the observers to
become tutors.
An experiment cannot attempt to demonstrate, control unwanted variables, or
interpret findings, nor can tables or figures compare (all of these can, however, show
or indicate). Use a pronoun or an appropriate noun as the subject of these verbs. I or
we (meaning the author or authors) can replace the experiment.
Editorial we. For clarity, restrict your use of we to refer only to yourself and your
coauthors (use I if you are the sole author of the paper). Broader uses of we may leave
your readers wondering to whom you are referring; instead, substitute an appropriate
noun or clarify your usage:
Correct:
Researchers usually classify birdsong on the basis of frequency and temporal
structure of the elements.
Incorrect:
We usually classify birdsong on the basis of frequency and temporal structure of
the elements.
REDUCING BIAS IN LANGUAGE
Some alternatives to we to consider are people, humans, researchers, psychologists,
nurses, and so on. We is an appropriate and useful referent:
Correct:
As behaviorists, we tend to dispute
Incorrect:
We tend to dispute
3.10 Linguistic Devices
Devices that attract attention to words, sounds, or other embellishments instead of to
ideas are inappropriate in scientific writing. Avoid heavy alliteration, rhyming, poetic
expressions, and clichés. Use metaphors sparingly; although they can help simplify
complicated ideas, metaphors can be distracting. Avoid mixed metaphors (e.g., a the-
ory representing one branch of a growing body of evidence) and words with surplus
or unintended meaning (e.g., cop for police officer), which may distract if not actual-
ly mislead the reader. Use figurative expressions with restraint and colorful expressions
with care; these expressions can sound strained or forced.
3.11 Strategies to Improve Writing Style
Reducing Bias in Language
Authors use various strategies in putting their thoughts on paper. The fit between author
and strategy is more important than the particular strategy used. Three approaches
to achieving professional and effective communication are (a) writing from an out-
line; (b) putting aside the first draft, then rereading it later; and (c) asking a colleague
to review and critique the draft for you.
Writing from an outline helps preserve the logic of the research itself. An outline
identifies main ideas, defines subordinate ideas, helps you discipline your writing and
avoid tangential excursions, and helps you notice omissions. In an outline, you can
also identify the subheadings that will be used in the article itself.
Rereading your own copy after setting it aside for a few days permits a fresh
approach. Reading the paper aloud enables you not only to see faults that you overlooked
on the previous reading but also to hear them. When these problems are corrected, give a
polished copy to a colleague—preferably a person who has published in a related field but
who is not familiar with your own work—for a critical review. Even better, get critiques
from two colleagues, and you will have a trial run of a journal’s review process.
These strategies, particularly the latter, may require you to invest more time in a
manuscript than you had anticipated. The results of these strategies, however, may be
greater accuracy and thoroughness and clearer communication.
Scientific writing must be free of implied or irrelevant evaluation of the group or
groups being studied. As an organization, APA is committed both to science and to the
fair treatment of individuals and groups, and this policy requires that authors who
write for APA publications avoid perpetuating demeaning attitudes and biased
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
assumptions about people in their writing. Constructions that might imply bias against
persons on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic group, disability, or
age are unacceptable.
Long-standing cultural practice can exert a powerful influence over even the most
conscientious author. Just as you have learned to check what you write for spelling,
grammar, and wordiness, practice rereading your work for bias. Another suggestion is
to ask people from targeted groups to read and comment on your material.
What follows is a set of guidelines and discussions of specific issues that affect par-
ticular groups. These are not rigid rules. You may find that some attempts to follow the
guidelines result in wordiness or clumsy prose. As always, good judgment is required.
If your writing reflects respect for your participants and your readers and if you write
to with appropriate specificity and precision, you will be contributing to the goal of accu-
tic rate, unbiased communication. Specific examples for each guideline are given in
the Guidelines for Unbiased Language, which can be found on the APA Style website
(www.apastyle.org).
us
General Guidelines for Reducing Bias
Guideline 1: Describe at the Appropriate Level of Specificity
Precision is essential in scientific writing; when you refer to a person or persons, choose
words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias. The appropriate degree of specifici-
ty depends on the research question and the present state of knowledge in the field of
study. When in doubt, be more specific rather than less, because it is easier to aggre-
gate published data than to disaggregate them. For example, using man to refer to all
human beings is simply not as accurate as the phrase women and men. To describe age
groups, give a specific age range (“ages 65—83 years”) instead of a broad category
(“over 65 years”; see Schaie, 1993). When describing racial and ethnic groups, be
appropriately specific and sensitive to issues of labeling. For example, instead of
describing participants as Asian American or Hispanic American, it may be helpful to
describe them by their nation or region of origin (e.g., Chinese Americans, Mexican
Americans). If you are discussing sexual orientation, realize that some people interpret
gay as referring to men and women, whereas others interpret the term as referring only
to men (the terms gay men and lesbians currently are preferred).
Broad clinical terms such as borderline and at risk are loaded with innuendo unless
properly explained. Specify the diagnosis that is borderline (e.g., “people with border-
line personality disorder”). Identify the risk and the people it involves (e.g., “children
at risk for early school dropout”).
Gender is cultural and is the term to use when referring to women and men as social
groups. Sex is biological; use it when the biological distinction is predominant. Note
that the word sex can be confused with sexual behavior. Gender helps keep meaning
unambiguous, as in the following example: “In accounting for attitudes toward the bill,
sexual orientation rather than gender accounted for most of the variance. Most gay men
and lesbians were for the proposal; most heterosexual men and women were against it.”
Part of writing without bias is recognizing that differences should be mentioned
only when relevant. Marital status, sexual orientation, racial and ethnic identity, or the
fact that a person has a disability should not be mentioned gratuitously.
GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING BIAS
Guideline 2: Be Sensitive to Labels
Respect people’s preferences; call people what they prefer to be called. Accept that
preferences change with time and that individuals within groups often disagree about
the designations they prefer. Make an effort to determine what is appropriate for your
situation; you may need to ask your participants which designations they prefer, par-
ticularly when preferred designations are being debated within groups.
Avoid labeling people when possible. A common occurrence in scientific writing is
that participants in a study tend to lose their individuality; they are broadly categorized as
objects (noun forms such as the gays and the elderly) or, particularly in descriptions of
people with disabilities, are equated with their conditions—the amnesiacs, the depressives,
the schizophrenics, the LDs, for example. One solution is to use adjectival forms
(e.g., “gay men,” “older adults,” “amnesic patients”). Another is to “put the person first,”
followed by a descriptive phrase (e.g., “people diagnosed with schizophrenia”). Note that
F the latter solution currently is preferred when describing people with disabilities.
When you need to mention several groups in a sentence or paragraph, such as
when reporting results, do your best to balance sensitivity, clarity, and parsimony. For
example, it may be cumbersome to repeat phrases such as “person with
_______.”
IfF
you provide operational definitions of groups early in your paper (e.g., “Participants
scoring a minimum of X on the X scale constituted the high verbal group, and those
scoring below X constituted the low verbal group”), it is scientifically informative and
concise to describe participants thereafter in terms of the measures used to classify
them (e.g., “. . . the contrast for the high verbal group was statistically significant, p =
.043”), provided the terms are inoffensive. A label should not be used in any form that
is perceived as pejorative, if such a perception is possible, you need to find more neu
F
tral terms. Fot example, the demented is not repaired by changing it to demented
grbup, but dementia group would be acceptable. Abbreviations or series labels for
groups usually sacrifice clarity and may offend: LDs or LD group to describe people
with specific learning difficulties is offensive; HVAs for “high verbal ability group” is
difficult td decipher. Group A is not offensive, but it is not descriptive either.
Recognize the difference case, which is an occurrence of a disorder or ill-
ness, and patient, which is a person affected by the disorder or illness and receiving a
docto?s care. “Manic—depressive cases were treated” is problematic; revise to “The
patients with bipolar disorders were treated.”
Bias may be promoted when the writer uses one group (often the writer’s own
group) as the standard against which others are judged, for example, citizens of the
United States. In some contexts, the term culturally deprived may imply that one cul-
ture the universally accepted standard. The unparallel nouns in the phrase man and:
wife mdy inappropriately prompt the reader to evaluate the roles of the individuals
(ke., the woman is defined only in terms of her relationship to the man) and the
motives of the author. By contrast, the phrases husband and wife and man and woman
are parallel. Usage of normal may prompt the reader to make the comparison with:
H abnormal, thus stigmatizing individuals with differences. For example, contrasting les-
bians with “the general public” or with “normal women” portrays lesbians as margin-
F
al to society. More appropriate comparison groups might be heterosexual women, het-.
H erosexual women and men, or gay men.
Also be aware of how order of presentation of social groups can imply that the
first-mentioned group is the norm or standard and that later mentioned groups are-
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
deviant. Thus the phrases men and women and White Americans and racial minorities
•hat
subtly reflect the perceived dominance of men and Whites over other groups. Similarly,
out when presenting group data, consider how placing socially dominant groups such as
our
men and Whites on the left side of graphs and/or top of tables may also imply that
ar-
these groups are the universal standard (Hegarty & Buechel, 2006). Avoid a consistent
pattern of presenting information about socially dominant groups first.
is
las Guideline 3: Acknowledge Participation
Write about the people in your study in a way that acknowledges their participation but
is also consistent with the traditions of the field in which you are working. Thus,
although descriptive terms such as college students, children, or respondents provide
precise information about the individuals taking part in a research project, the more
general terms participants and subjects are also in common usage. Indeed, for more than
as
100 years the term subjects has been used within experimental psychology as a general
or starting point for describing a sample, and its use is appropriate. Subjects and sample
If
are customary when discussing certain established statistical terms (e.g., within-subject
its and between-subjects design). Further, the passive voice suggests individuals are acted
on instead of being actors (“the students completed the survey” is preferable to “the stu-
nd dents were given the survey” or “the survey was administered to the students”). “The
subjects completed the trial” or “we collected data from the participants” is preferable
= to “the participants were run.” Consider avoiding terms such as patient management
tat and patient placement when appropriate. In most cases, it is the treatment, not patients,
u- that is managed; some alternatives are coordination of care, supportive services, and
ed assistance. Also avoid the term failed, as in “eight participants failed to complete the
or Rorschach and the MMPI,” because it can imply a personal shortcoming instead of a
ile research result; did not is a more neutral choice (Knatterud, 1991).
is As you read the rest of this chapter, consult www.apastyle.org for specific exam-
ples of problematic and preferred language in the Guidelines for Unbiased Language
as well as further resources and information about nondiscriminatory language.
Reducing Bias by Topic
3.12 Gender
Remember that gender refers to role, not biological sex, and is cultural. Avoid ambi-
I guity in sex identity or gender role by choosing nouns, pronouns, and adjectives that
specifically describe your participants. Sexist bias can occur when pronouns are used
carelessly, as when the masculine pronoun he is used to refer to both sexes or when the
masculine or feminine pronoun is used exclusively to define roles by sex (e.g., “the
nurse . . . she”). The use of man as a generic noun or as an ending for an occupation-
al title (e.g., policeman instead of police officer) can be ambiguous and may imply
incorrectly that all persons in the group are male. Be clear about whether you mean
one sex or both sexes.
There are many alternatives to the generic he (see the Guidelines for Unbiased
Language at www.apastyle.org), including rephrasing (e.g., from “When an individual
Conducts this kind of self appraisal, he is a much stronger person” to “When an individ-
____
REDUCiNG BIAS BY TOPIC
ual conducts this kind of self-appraisal, that person is much stronger” or “This kind of
self-appraisal makes an individual much stronger”), using plural nouns or plural pro-
nouns (e.g., from “A therapist who is too much like his client can lose his objectivity”
to “Therapists who are too much like their clients can lose their objectivity”), replacing
the pronoun with an article (e.g., from “A researcher must apply for his grant by
September 1” to “A researcher must apply for the grant by September 1”), and drop-
ping the pronoun (e.g., from “The researcher must avoid letting his own biases and
expectations influence the interpretation of the results” to “The researcher must avoid
letting biases and expectations influence the interpretation of the results”). Replacing he
with he or she or she or he should be done sparingly because the repetition can become
tiresome. Combination forms such as he/she or (s)he are awkward and distracting.
Alternating between he and she also may be distracting and is not ideal; doing so implies
that he or she can in fact be generic, which is not the case. Use of either pronoun
unavoidably suggests that specific gender to the reader. Avoid referring to one sex as the
opposite sex: an appropriate wording is the other sex. The term opposite sex implies
strong differences between the two sexes; however, in fact, there are more similarities
than differences between the two sexes (e.g., Hyde, 2005).
The adjective transgender refers to persons whose gender identity or gender expres-
sion differs from their sex at birth; trans gender should not be used as a noun (National
Lesbian & Gay Journalists Association, 2005). The word transsexual refers to transgen.
der persons who live or desire to live full time as members of the sex other than their sex
at birth, many of whom wish to make their bodies as congruent as possible with their
preferred sex through surgery and hormonal treatment (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000; Meyer et al., 2001). Transsexual can be used as a noun or as an adjec-
tive. The terms female-to-male transgender person, male-to-female transgender person,
female-to-male transsexual, and male-to-female transsexual represent accepted usage
(Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation, 2007). Transsexuals undergo sex reassign-
ment, a term that is preferable to sex change. Cross-dresser is preferable to transvestite.
Refer to a transgender person using words (proper nouns, pronouns, etc.) appro-
priate to the person’s gender identity or gender expression, regardless of birth sex. For
example, use the pronouns he, him, or his in reference to a female-to-male transgen-
der person. If gender identity or gender expression is ambiguous or variable, it may be
best to avoid pronouns, as discussed earlier in this section (for more detailed informa-
tion, see www.apastyle.org).
3.13 Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of attraction, behavior, emotion, identi-
and social contacts. The term sexual orientation should be used rather than sexual
preference. For a person having a bisexual orientation, the orientation is not chosen even
though the sex of the partner may be a choice. For more information, see Guidelines for
Psychotherapy With Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients (APA Committee on Lesbian,
Gay, and Bisexual Concerns Joint Task Force on Guidelines for Psychotherapy With
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients, 2000; see also www.apastyle.org).
The terms lesbians, gay men, bisexual men, and bisexual women are preferable to
homosexual when one is referring to people who identify this way. Lesbian, gay,
and to and communities that have devel-
among people who share those identities. As such, the terms lesbians, gay men,
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
.d of and bisexual individuals are more accurate than homosexual. Furthermore, the term
pro- homosexuality has been and continues to be associated with negative stereotypes,
ity” pathology, and the reduction of people’s identities to their sexual behavior. Gay can be
cing interpreted broadly, to include men and women, or more narrowly, to include only men:
by
3.14 Racial and Ethnic Identity
mid preferences for terms referring to racial and ethnic groups change often. One reason for
he this is simply personal preference; preferred designations are as varied as the people they
me name. Another reason is that over time, designations can become dated and sometimes
ing. negative. Authors are reminded of the two basic guidelines of specificity and sensitivity.
lies In keeping with Guideline 2, use commonly accepted designations (e.g., Census cate-
)un gories) while being sensitive to participants’ preferred designation. For example, some
the North American people of African ancestry prefer Black and others prefer African
lies American; both terms currently are acceptable. On the other hand, Negro and Afro-
ties American have become dated; therefore, usage of these terms generally is inappropriate.
In keeping with Guideline 1, precision is important in the description of your sample
(see section 2.06); in general, use the more specific rather than the less specific term.
nal Language that essentializes or reifies race is strongly discouraged and is generally con-
en- sidered inappropriate. For example, phrases such as the Black race and the White race are
;ex essentialist in nature, portray human groups monolithically, and often serve to perpetuate
Leir stereotypes. Authors sometimes use the word minority as a proxy for non-white racial
•ric and ethnic groups. This usage may be viewed pejoratively because minority is usually
cc- equated with being less than, oppressed, and deficient in comparison with the majority
(i.e., Whites). Use a modifier (such as ethnic or racial) when using the word minority.
When possible, use the actual name of the group or groups to which you are referring.
‘ii- Racial and ethnic groups are designated by proper nouns and are capitalized.
Therefore, use Black and White instead of black and white (the use of colors to refer to
other human groups currently is considered pejorative and should not be used).
or
Unparallel designations (e.g., African Americans and Whites; Asian Americans and Black
Americans) should be avoided because one group is described by color while the other
group is described by cultural heritage. For modifiers, do not use hyphens in multiword
names, even if the names act as unit modifiers (e.g., Asian American participants).
Designations for some ethnic groups are described next. These groups frequently
are included in studies published in APA journals. These examples are far from exhaus-
tive but illustrate some of the complexities of naming (see the Guidelines for Unbiased
Language at www.apastyle.org). Depending on where a person is from, individuals may
prefer to be called Hispanic, Latino, Chicano, or some other designation; Hispanic is
not necessarily an all-encompassing term, and authors should consult with their partic-
ipants. In general, naming a nation or region of origin is helpful (e.g., Cuban,
Salvadoran, or Guatemalan is more specific than Central American or Hispanic).
American Indian, Native American, and Native North American are all accepted
terms for referring to indigenous peoples of North America. When referring to groups
Including Hawaiians and Samoans, you may use the broader designation Native
Americans. The indigenous peoples of Canada may be referred to as First Nations or
limit people. There are close to 450 Native North American groups, and authors are
encouraged to name the participants’ specific groups, recognizing that some groups
prefer the name for their group in their native language (e.g., Dine instead of Navajo,
Tohono O’odham instead of Papago).
REDUCING BIAS BY TOPIC
The term Asian or Asian American is preferred to the older term Oriental. It is gen-
erally useful to specify the name of the Asian subgroup: Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean,
Pakistani, and so on. People of Middle Eastern descent may also be identified by nation
of origin: Iraqi, Lebanese, and so forth.
3.15 Disabilities
The overall principle for “nonhandicapping” language is to maintain the integrity
(worth) of all individuals as human beings. Avoid language that objectifies a person by
her or his condition (e.g., autistic, neurotic), that uses pictorial metaphors (e.g., wheel-
chair bound or confined to a wheelchair), that uses excessive and negative labels (e.g.,
AIDS victim, brain damaged), or that can be regarded as a slur (e.g., cripple, invalid).
Use people-first language, and do not focus on the individual’s disabling or chronic
condition (e.g., person with paraplegia, youth with autism). Also use people-first lan-
guage to describe groups of people with disabilities. For instance, say people with intel-
lectual disabilities in contrast to the retarded (University of Kansas, Research and
Training Center on Independent Living, 2008).
Avoid euphemisms that are condescending when describing individuals with disabil-
ities (e.g., special, physically challenged, handi-capable). Some people with disabilities
consider these terms patronizing and offensive. When writing about populations with
disabilities or participants, emphasize both capabilities and concerns to avoid reducing
them to a “bundle of deficiencies” (Rappaport, 1977). Do not refer to individuals with
disabilities as patients or cases unless the context is within a hospital or clinical setting.
3.16 Age
Age should be reported as part of the description of participants in the Method section.
Be specific in providing age ranges; avoid open-ended definitions such as “under 18
years” or “over 65 years.” Girl and boy are correct terms for referring to individuals
under the age of 12 years. Young man and young woman and female adolescent and
male adolescent may be used for individuals aged 13 to 17 years. For persons 18 years
and older, use women and men. The terms elderly and senior are not acceptable as nouns;
some may consider their use as adjectives pejorative. Generational descriptors such as
boomer or baby boomer should not be used unless they are related to a study on this
topic. The term older adults is preferred. Age groups may also be described with adjec-
tives. Gerontologists may prefer to use combination terms for older age groups (young-
old, old-old, very old, oldest old, and centenarians); provide the specific ages of these
groups and use them only as adjectives. Use dementia instead of senility; specify the type
of dementia when known (e.g., dementia of the Alzheimer’s type). For more references
relating to age, see Guidelines for the Evaluation of Dementia and Age-Related Cognitive
Decline (APA Presidential Task Force on the Assessment of Age-Consistent Memory
Decline and Dementia, 1998) and “Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Older
Adults” (APA, 2004; see also www.apastyle.org).
317 Historical and Interpretive Inaccuracies
Authors are encouraged to avoid perpetuating demeaning attitudes and biased assump-
tions about people in their writing. At the same time, authors need to avoid historical
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
and interpretive inaccuracies. Historians
and scholars writing literature reviews must
be careful not to misrepresent ideas of the past in an effort to avoid language bias.
Changes in nouns and pronouns may result in serious misrepresentation of the origi-
nal author’s ideas and give a false interpretation of that author’s beliefs and intentions:
In such writing, it is best to retain the original language
and to comment on it in the
discussion. Quotations should not be changed to accommodate current sensibilities
(see sections 4.08 and 6.06).
Contemporary authors may indicate a historical author’s original term by
ing it with an asterisk the first time it appears and by providing historical context
directly following the quotation. Below is an example of historically
appropriate use
of a term that is considered biased by today’s standards.
In forming the elite scientific society called the ExperimentaliSts. 1]tchener
“wanted above all to have free, informal interchange between older and
younger men* in the area of experimental psychology, with the goal of socializ-
ing the next generation into the profession” (Furumoto, 1988, p. 105).
*In this example, the term men seems to convey Titchener’s intention to exclude
women from the society. Substituting a more gender-neutral or
inclusive term may be
historically inaccurate.
Grammar and Usage
Incorrect grammar and careless construction of sentences distract the
reader, introduce
ambiguity, and generally obstruct communication. The examples in this section repre-
sent problems of grammar and usage that occur frequently in
manuscripts received by
journal editors.
3.18 Verbs
Verbs are vigorous, direct communicators. Use the active rather
than the passive voice,
and select tense or mood carefully.
Prefer the active voice.
Preferred:
We conducted the survey in a controlled setting.
Non preferred:
The survey was conducted in a controlled setting.
The passive voice is acceptable in expository writing and when you want to
focus
on the object or recipient of the action rather than on the actor. For example, “The
speakers were attached to either side of the chair” emphasizes the placement of speak-
ers, not who placed them—the more appropriate focus in the Method section. “The
President was shot” emphasizes the importance of the person shot
1.
8
Es
d
.5
Is
is
y
GRAMMAR AND USAGE
Select tense carefully. Use the past tense to express an action or a condition that
occurred at a specific, definite time in the past, as when discussing another researcher’s
work and when reporting your results.
Correct:
Sanchez (2000) presented similar results.
Incorrect:
Sanchez (2000) presents similar results.
Use the present perfect tense to express a past action or condition that did not
occur at a specific, definite time or to describe an action beginning in the past and con-
tinuing to the present.
Correct:
Since that time, several investigators have used this method.
Incorrect:
Since that time, several investigators used this method.
Select the appropriate mood. Use the subjunctive only to describe conditions that are
contrary to fact or improbable; do not use the subjunctive to describe simple condi-
tions or contingencies.
If the experiment were not designed this way, the results could not be inter-
preted properly.
Incorrect:
If the experiment was not designed this way, the results could not be inter-
preted properly.
Use would with care. Would can correctly be used to mean habitually, as “The
child would walk about the classroom,” or to express a conditional action, as “We
would sign the letter if we could.” Do not use would to hedge; for example, change it
would appear that to it appears that.
3.19 Agreement of Subject and Verb
A verb must agree in number (i.e., singular or plural) with its subject, regardless of
intervening phrases that begin with such words as together with, including, plus, and
as well as.
The percentage of correct responses as well as the speed of the responses
increases with practice.
Correct:
Correct:
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
Incorrect:
The percentage of correct responses as well as the speed of the responses
increase with practice.
The plural form of some nouns of foreign origin, particularly those that end in the
letter a, may appear to be singular and can cause authors to select a verb that does not
agree in number with the noun.
Correct:
The data indicate that Terrence was correct.
lot —
Incorrect:
The data indicates that Terrence was correct.
Correct:
The phenomena occur every 100 years.
Incorrect:
The phenomena occurs every 100 years.
Consult a dictionary (APA prefers Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2005)
when in doubt about the plural form of nouns of foreign origin. For examples of
agreement of subject and verb with collective nouns, see the APA Style website
(www.apastyle.org).
3.20 Pronouns
Pronouns replace nouns. Each pronoun should refer clearly to its antecedent and
should agree with the antecedent in number and gender.
A pronoun must agree in number (i.e., singular or plural) with the noun it replaces.
Correct:
Neither the highest scorer nor the lowest scorer in the group had any doubt
about his or her competence.
Incorrect:
Neither the highest scorer nor the lowest scorer in the group had any doubt
about their competence.
pronoun must agree in gender (i.e., masculine, feminine, or neuter) with the
noun it replaces. This rule extends to relative pronouns (pronouns that link subordi-
nate clauses to nouns). Use who for human beings; use that or which for nonhuman
animals and for things.
Correct:
The students who completed the task successfully were rewarded.
Correct:
The instructions that were included n the experiment were complex.
GRAMMAR AND USAGE
Incorrect:
The students that completed the task successfully were rewarded.
Use neuter pronouns to refer to animals (e.g., “the dog . . . it”) unless the animals
have been named:
The chimps were tested daily. . . . Sheba was tested unrestrained in an open
testing area, which was her usual context for training and testing.
Pronouns can be subjects or objects of verbs or prepositions. Use who as the subject of
a verb and whom as the object of a verb or a preposition. You can determine whether
a relative pronoun is the subject or object of a verb by turning the subordinate clause
around and substituting a personal pronoun. If you can substitute he or she, who is
correct; if you can substitute him or her, whom is correct.
Correct:
Name the participant who you found achieved scores above the median. [You
found he or she achieved scores above the median.]
Incorrect:
Name the participant whom you found achieved scores above the median. [You
found him or her achieved scores above the median.]
Correct:
The participant whom I identified as the youngest dropped out. [I identified him
or her as the youngest.]
The participent who I identified as the youngest dropped out. [I identified he or
she as
In a phrase consisting of a pronoun or noun plus a present participle (e.g., running,
flying) that is used as an object of a preposition, the participle can be either a noun or
a modifier of a noun, depending on the intended meaning. When you use a participle
as a noun, make the other pronoun or noun possessive.
We had nothing to do with their being the winners.
Incorrect:
We had qothing to do with them being the winners.
Correct:
The result is questionable because of one participant’s performing at very high
speed. [The result is questionable because of the performance, not because of
the participant.]
Incorrect:
The rpsult is questionable because of one participant performing at very high
F
Incorrect:
Correct:
I
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
3.21 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers and Use of Adverbs
An adjective or an adverb, whether a single word or a phrase, must clearly refer to the
word it modifies.
Misplaced modifiers. Because of their placement in a sentence, misplaced modifiers
ambiguously or illogically modify a word. You can eliminate misplaced modifiers by
placing an adjective or an adverb as close as possible to the word it modifies.
Correct:
Using this procedure, the investigator tested the participants.
me Correct:
is The investigator tested the participants who were using the procedure.
Incorrect:
The investigator tested the participants using this procedure. [The sentence
is unclear about whether the investigator or the participants used this
procedure.]
Correct:
On the basis of this assumption, we developed a model.
Correct:
Based on this assumption, the model.
Incorrect:
Based on this assumption, we developed a model. . . . [This construction says,
“we are based on an assumption.”]
Many writers have trouble with the word only. Place only next to the word or
phrase it modifies.
Correct:
These data provide only a partial answer.
Incorrect:
These data only provide a partial answer.
Dangling modifiers. Dangling modifiers have no referent in the sentence. Many of these
result from the use of the passive voice. By writing in the active voice, you can avoid
many dangling modifiers.
Correct:
Using this procedure, I tested the participants. [I, not the participants, used the
procedure.]
Incorrect:
The participants were tested using this procedure.
GRAMMAR AND USAGE
Correct:
Mulholland and Williams (2000) found that this group performed better, a result
that is congruent with those of other studies [The result, not Mulholland and
Williams, is congruent.J
Incorrect:
Congruent with other studies, Mulholland and Williams (2000) found that this
H
group performed better.
Adverbs. Adverbs can be used as introductory or transitional words. Adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs and express manner or quality. Some adverbs,
however—such as fortunately, similarly, certainly, consequently, conversely, and regret-
tably—can also be used as introductory or transitional words as long as the sense is
confined to, for example, “it is fortunate that” or “in a similar manner.” Use adverbs
judiciously as introductory or transitional words. Ask yourself whether the introduc.
tion or transition is needed and whether the adverb is being used correctly.
Some of the more common introductory adverbial phrases are importantly, more
importantly, interestingly, and firstly. Although importantly is used widely, whether its
adverbial usage is proper is debatable. Both importantly and interestingly can often be
recast to enhance the message of a sentence or simply be omitted without a loss of
meaning.
Correct: A
More important, the total amount of available long1erm memory activation,
tland not the rate of spreading activation, drives the rate and probability of
retrieval.
Correct:
Expressive behavior and autonomic nervous system activity also have figured
importantly.
Incorrect:
More importantly, the total amount of available long-term memory activation,
and not the rate of spreading activation, drives the rate and probability of
retrieval.
Correct:
We were surprised to learn that the total. .
We find it interesting that the total. ,
An interesting finding was that. .
Incorrect:
interestingly,the total amount of available long—term memory activation, and not
the rate of spreading activation, drives the rate and probability of retrieval.
Correct:
First, we hypothesized that the quality of the therapeutic alliance would be ratedi
higher. .
S
I
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY L 831
Incorrect:
Firstly, we hypothesized that the quality of the therapeutic alliance would be
rated higher.
Another adverb often misused as an introductory or transitional word is hopefully.
Hopefully means “in a hopeful manner” or “full of hope”; hopefully should not be
used to mean “I hope” or “it is hoped.”
Correct:
I hope this is not the case.
Incorrect:
Hopefully, this is not the case.
322 Relative Pronouns and Subordinate Conjunctions
Relative pronouns (who, whom, that, which) and subordinate conjunctions (e.g., since,
while, although) introduce an element that is subordinate to the main clause of the sen-
tence and reflect the relationship of the subordinate element to the main clause.
Therefore, select these pronouns and conjunctions with care; interchanging them may
reduce the precision of your meaning.
Relative pronouns.
That versus which. That clauses (called restrictive) are essential to the meaning of
the sentence:
The materials that worked well in the first experiment were used in the second
experiment.
Which clauses can merely add further information (nonrestrictive) or can be essen-
tial to the meaning (restrictive) of the sentence. APA prefers to reserve which for non-
restrictive clauses and use that in restrictive clauses.
Restrictive:
The cards that worked well in the first experiment were not useful in the sec-
ond experiment. [Only those cards that worked well in the first experiment
were not useful in the second; prefer that.]
Nonrestrictive:
The cards, which worked well in the first experiment, were not useful in the sec-
ond experiment. [The second experiment was not appropriate for the cards.]
Consistent use of that for restrictive clauses and which for nonrestrictive clauses,
which are set off with commas, will help make your writing clear and precise.
Subordinate conjunctions.
While and since. Some style authorities accept the use of while and since when they
do not refer strictly to time; however, words like these, with more than one meaning,
can cause confusion. Because precision and clarity are the standards in scientific writ-
GRAMMAR AND USAGE
ing, restricting your use of while and since to their temporal meanings is helpful. The
following examples illustrate the temporal meanings of these terms:
Bragg (1965) found that participants performed well while listening to music
Several versions of the test have been developed since the test was first introduced.
While versus although, and, or hut. Use while to link events occurring simultaneous-
ly; otherwise, use although, and, or but in place of while.
Precise:
Although these findings are unusual, they are not unique.
Imprecise:
While these findings are unusual, they are not unique.
• Precise:
The argument is purely philosophical, but the conclusion can also yield an empir-
ical hypothesis, amenable to empirical investigation.
•
••
Imprecise:
While the argument is purely philosophical, the conclusion can also yield an
empirical hypothesis, amenable to empirical investigation.
Since versus because. Since is more precise when it is used to refer only to time (to
mean “after that”); otherwise, replace it with because.
Precise:
Data for two participants were incomplete because these participants did not
report for follow-up testing.
Imprecise:
Data for two participants were incomplete since these participants did not
report for follow-up testing.
•
3.23 Parallel Construction
To enhance the reader’s understanding, present parallel ideas in parallel or coordinate
form. Make certain that all elements of the parallelism are present before and after the
coordinating conjunction (i.e., and, but, or, nor).
Correct:
The results show that such changes could be made without affecting error rate
and that latencies continued to decrease over time.
• Incorrect:
The results show that such changes could be made without affecting error rate
and latencies continued to decrease over time.
WRITING CLEARLY AND CONCISELY
With coordinating conjunctions used in pairs (between. . and, both . . . and, neither
nor, either. . or, not only . . but also), place the first conjunction immediately
before the first part of the parallelism.
Between and and.
Correct:
We recorded the difference between the performance of subjects who complet-
ed the first task and the performance of those who completed the second task.
[The difference is between the subjects’ performances, not between the per-
formance and the task.]
Incorrect;
We recorded the difference between the performance of subjects who com-
pleted the first task and the second task.
Correct:
between 2.5 and 4.0 years of age
Incorrect:
between 2.5—4.0 years of age
Both and and.
Correct;
The names were difficult both to pronounce and to spell.
Incorrect:
The names were both difficult to pronounce and spell.
Never use both with as well as: The resulting construction is redundant.
Correct:
The names were difficult to pronounce as well as to spell.
Incorrect:
The names were difficult both to pronounce as well as to spell.
Neither and nor; either and or.
Correct;
Neither the responses to the auditory stimuli nor the responses to the tactile
stimuli were repeated.
Incorrect
Neither the responses to the auditory stimuli nor to the tactile stimuli were
repeated
AND USAGE
Correct:
The respondents either gave theworst answer or gave the best answer.
or
The respondents gave either the worst answer or the best answer.
Incorrect:
The respondents either gave the worst answer or the best answer.
Not only and but also.
Correct:
It is surprising not only that pencil-and-paper scores predicted this resuit but
also that all other predictors were less accurate.
Incorrect:
It is not only surprising that pencil-and-paper scores predicted this result but
aiso that all other predictors were less accurate.
Elements in a series should also be parallel in form.
Correct:
The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instruc-
tions, and to ask about anything they did not understand.
Incorrect:
The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instruc-
tions, and that they should ask about anything they did not understand.
Take care to use parallel structure in lists and in table stubs (see sections 3.04
and 5.13)
The Mechanics of Style
W
hen editors refer to style, they mean the rules or guidelines a publisher observes
to ensure clear, consistent presentation in scholarly articles. Authors writing for
a publication must follow the style rules established by the publisher to avoid
inconsistencies among journal articles or book chapters. For example, without rules of
style, three different manuscripts might use sub-test, subtest, and Subtest in one issue of a
journal or in one book. Although the meaning of the word is the same and the choice of
one style over the other may seem arbitrary (in this case, subtest is APA Style), such vari-
ations in style may distract or confuse the reader.
This chapter describes the style for APA journals regarding the most basic tools for
conveying meaning—punctuation, spelling, capitalization, italics, abbreviations, num-
bers, metrication, and statistics. It omits general rules explained in widely available
style manuals and examples of usage with little relevance to APA journals. Style man-
uals agree more often than they disagree; where they disagree, the Publication Manual
takes precedence for APA publications.
Punctuation
Punctuation establishes the cadence of a sentence, telling the reader where to pause
(comma, semicolon, and colon), stop (period and question mark), or take a detour
(dash, parentheses, and brackets). Punctuation of a sentence usually denotes a pause in
thought; different kinds of punctuation indicate different kinds and lengths of pauses.
4.01 Spacing After Punctuation Marks
Insert one space after
• commas, colons, and semicolons;
* periods that separate parts of a reference citation; and
_\ I
PUNCTUATION
a periods of the initials in personal names (e.g., J. R. Zhang)
Exception: Do not insert a space after internal periods in abbreviations (e.g., am., i.e.,
U.S.), including identity-concealing labels for study participants (ElM.), or around
colons in ratios. Space twice after punctuation marks at the end of a sentence.
4.02 Period
Use a period to end a complete sentence. Periods are used with abbreviations as follows:
Use periods with
• initials of names (J. FR. Smith).
• abbreviation for United States when it is used as an adjective (U.S. Navy).
• identity-concealing labels for study participants (ElM.). (See section 4.01 on spacing.)
• Latin abbreviations (am., cf., i.e., vs.).
• reference abbreviations (Vol. 1, 2nd ed., p. 6, F Supp.).
Do not use periods with
• abbreviations of state names (NY; OH; Washington, DC) in reference list entries or in
vendor locations (e.g., for drugs and apparatus described in the Method section).
• capital letter abbreviations and acronyms (APA, NDA, NIMH, 10).
• abbreviations for routes of administration (icy, im, p. iv, sc).
• web addresses in text or in the reference list (http://www.apa.org), In text, include
these in parentheses when possible or revise the sentence to avoid ending a sentence
with a URL and no punctuation.
• metric and nonmetric measurement abbreviations (Cd, cm, ft, hr, kg, Ib, mm, ml, s).
Exception: The abbreviation for inch (in.) takes a period because without the period it
could be misread.
4.03 Comma
Use a comma
• between elements (including before and and or) in a series of three or more items.
Correct:
the height, width, or depth
in a study by Stacy, Newcomb, and Bentler (1991)
Incorrect:
in a study by Stacy, Newcomb and Bentler (1991)
• to set off a nonessential or nonrestrictive clause, that is, a clause that embellishes
sentence but if removed would leave the grammatical structure and meaning of
sentence intact,
Switch A, which was on a panel, controlled the recording device.
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
Statistically significant differences were found for both ratings of controllability
i e
by self, F(3, 132) = 19.58, p c .001, est 112 = .31, 95% Cl [.17, .43), and ratings
of controllability by others, F(3, 96) = 3.21, p = .026, est 12 = .09, [.00, .201.
• to separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunction.
Cedar shavings covered the floor, and paper was available for shredding and
nest building.
ws:
• to set off the year in exact dates.
April 18, 1992, was the correct date.
but
April 1992 was the correct month.
• to set off the year in parenthetical reference citations.
(Patrick, 1 993)
in (Kelsey, 1993, discovered .
.
• to separate groups of three digits in most numbers of 1,000 or more (see section 4.37
for exceptions).
ide Do not use a comma
ice
• before an essential or restrictive clause, that is, a clause that limits or defines the
material it modifies. Removal of such a clause from the sentence would alter the
intended meaning.
I’.
The switch that stops the recording device also controls the light.
• between the two parts of a compound predicate.
Correct:
All subjects completed the first phase of the experiment and returned the fol-
lowing week for Phase 2.
Incorrect:
All subjects completed the first phase of the experiment, and returned the fol-
lowing week for Phase 2.
• to separate parts of measurement.
8 years 2 months 3 mm 40 s
4.04 Semicolon
j: Use a semicolon
to separate two independent clauses that are not joined by a conjunction.
I
PUNCTUATION
The participants in the first study were paid; those in the second were unpaid.
• to separate elements in a series that already contain commas. (See section 3.04 for
the use of semicolons in numbered or lettered series.)
The color order was red, yellow, blue; blue, yellow, red; or yellow, red, blue.
(Davis & Hueter, 1994; Pettigrew, 1993)
age, M= 34.5 years, 95% Cl [29.4, 39.6]; years of education, M= 10.4 [8.7,
12.1]; and weekly income, M=612 [522, 7021;
4.05 Colon
Use a colon
• between a grammatically complete introductory clause (one that could stand as a
sentence) and a final phrase or clause that illustrates, extends, or amplifies the pre-
ceding thought. If the clause following the colon is a complete sentence, it begins
with a capital letter.
For example, Freud (1 930/1 961) wrote of two urges: an urge toward union with
others and an egoistic urge toward happiness.
They have agreed on the outcome: Informed participants perform better than do
uninformed participants.
• in ratios and proportions.
The proportion (saltwater) was 1:8.
• in references between place of publication and publisher.
New York: Wiley St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
H Do not use a colon
• after an introduction that is not an independent clause or complete sentence.
The formula is rj=a;+ a
The instructions for the task were
Your groups task is to rank the 15 items in terms of their importance for the
crew’s survival.
4.06 Dash
Use a dash to indicate only a sudden interruption in the continuity of a sentence. Over-
use weakens the flow of material. (See also section 4.15 for capitalization following
dashes in titles.)
These two participants—one from the first group and one from the second—
were tested separately.
4.07 Quotation Marks
Observe the following guidelines for uses of double quotation marks other than in
material quoted directly from a source.
Use double quotation marks
• to introduce a word or phrase used as an ironic comment, as slang, or as an invented
or coined expression. Use quotation marks the first time the word or phrase is used;
thereafter, do not use quotation marks.
Correct:
considered “normal” behavior
the “good-outcome” variable … the good-outcome variable [no quotation
marks after the initial usage]
Incorrect:
considered ‘normal’ behavior
the “good-outcome” variable … the “good-outcome” variable
• to set off the title of an article or chapter in a periodical or book when the title is
mentioned in text.
Alger’s (1992) article, “Epistemological Debates, Feminist Voices: Science,
Social Vatues, and the Study of Women”
• to reproduce material from a test item or verbatim instructions to participants.
The first fill-in item was “could be expected to
_______
If instructions are long, set them off from text in a block format without quotation
marks. (See sections 4.08 and 6.03 for discussion of block format.)
Do not use double quotation marks
• to identify the anchors of a scale. Instead, italicize them.
We ranked the items on a scale ranging from 1 (a//of the time) to
S (never).
• to cite a letteç word, phrase, or sentence as a linguistic example. Instead, italicize the
term.
He clarified the distinction between farther and further.
introduce a technical or key term. Instead, italicize the term.
The term zero-base budgeting appeared frequently in the speech.
She compared it with meta-aria/ysis, which is described in the next section.
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
I. •to
PUNCTUATION
U to hedge. Do not use any punctuation with such expressions. 4
UCorrect:
The teacher rewarded the class with tokens.
Incorrect:
The teacher “rewarded” the class with tokens.
4.08 Double or Single Quotation Marks
In text. Use double quotation marks to enclose quotations in text. Use single quotation
marks within double quotation marks to set off material that in the original source was
enclosed in double quotation marks.
Correct:
Miele (1993) found that ‘the ‘placebo effect,’ which had been verified in previ-
ous studies, disappeared when [only the first group’s] behaviors were studied in
this manner” (p. 276).
Incorrect:
Miele (1993) found that “the “placebo effect,” which had been verified in previ-
ous studies, disappeared when [only the first group’s] behaviors were studied in
this manner” (p. 276).
In block quotations (any quotations of 40 or more words). Do not use quotation marks
to enclose block quotations. Do use double quotation marks to enclose any quoted
material within a block quotation.
Correct:
Miele (1993) found the following:
The “placebo effect1” which had been verified in previous studies,
disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner.
Furthermore, the behaviors were never exhibited again (emphasis
added], even when reel [sic] drugs were administered. Earlier studies
(e.g., Abdullah, 1984; Fox1 1979) were clearly premature in attributing
the results to a placebo effect. (p. 276)
In correct:
Miele (1993) found the following:
“The ‘placebo effect,’ which had been verified in previous studies,
disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner.
Furthermore, the behaviors were never exhibited again [emphasis
added], even when reel [sic] drugs were administered. Earlier studies
(e.g., Abdullah, 1984; Fox, 1979) were clearly premature in attributing
the results to a placebo effect (p. 276).”
With other punctuation. Place periods and commas within closing single or double
tation marks. Place other punctuation marks inside quotation marks only when th<
are part of the quoted material
U
U
U
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE 1; 93
4.09 Parentheses
Use parentheses
• to set off structurally independent elements.
The patterns were statistically significant (see Figure 5).
(When a complete sentence is enclosed in parentheses, place punctuation in
the sentence inside the parentheses, like this.) If only part of a sentence is
enclosed in parentheses (like this), place punctuation outside the parentheses
(like this).
• to set off reference citations in text (see sections 6.09—6.19 and Appendix 7.1 for fur-
ther discussion of reference citations in text).
Dumas and Dore (1991) reported
is fully described elsewhere (Hong & O'Neil, 1992) in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.; DSM—lV—TR; American
Psychiatric Association, 2000)
• to introduce an abbreviation.
effect on the galvanic skin response (GSA)
• to set off letters that identify items in a series within a sentence or paragraph (see
also section 3.04 on seriation).
The subject areas included (a) synonyms associated with cultural interactions,
(bY descriptors for ethnic group membership, and (c) psychological symptoms
and outcomes associated with bicultural adaptation.
U to group mathematical expressions (see also sections 4.10 and 4.47).
(k—1)/(g—2)
• to enclose the citation or page number of a direct quotation (see also section 6.03).
The author stated, "The effect disappeared within minutes" (Lopez, 1993, p.
311), but she did not say which effect.
Lopez (1993) found that "the effect disappeared within minutes" (p. 311). but
she did not say which effect.
• to enclose numbers that identify displayed formulas and equations.
(1)
• to enclose statistical values.
was statistically significant (p = .031)
— PUNCTUATION
H • to enclose degrees of freedom.
t(75)= 2.19
F(2, 116H3.71
Do not use parentheses
• to enclose material within other parentheses
(the Beck Depression Inventory EBDI]) [Use brackets to avoid nested parentheses.]
were statistically different, 94, 132) = 13.62, p c .001. [Use a comma before the
statistics to avoid nested parentheses.]
• back to back.
Correct:
(e.g., defensive pessimism; Norem & Cantor, 1986)
Incorrect:
(e.g., defensive pessimism) (Norem & Cantor, 1986)
4.10 Brackets
F Use brackets
• to enclose the values that are the limits of a confidence interval
F
95% CIs [—7.2, 4.3], [9.2, 12.4], and [—1.2, -0.5]
I • to enclose material inserted in a quotation by some person other than the original
H !
writer.
"when [his own and others'] behaviors were studied" (Hanisch, 1992, p. 24)
F
U to enclose parenthetical material that is already within parentheses
(The results for the control group [n = 8] are also presented in Figure 2.)
F
Exception I Do not use brackets if the material can be set off easily with commas
without confounding meaning.
'F
F
(as lmai, 1990, later concluded)
not
(as lmai [1990] later concluded)
F Exception 2: In mathematical material, the placement of brackets and parentheses isj
reversed; that is, parentheses appear within brackets. (See section 4.47 for further
cussion of brackets in equations.)
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
Do not use brackets
• to set off statistics that already include parentheses.
Correct:
was statistically significant, F(l, 32) = 4.37, p = .045.
Incorrect:
was statistically significant (FR, 32] = 4.37, p = .045).
Incorrect:
was statistically significant EF(I, 32) = 4.37, p = .045].
4,11 Slash
Use a slash (also called a virgule, solidus, or shill)
_________
• to clarify a relationship in which a hyphenated compound is used.
_____
the classification/similarity-judgment condition
______
hits/false-alarms comparison
• to separate numerator from denominator.
WY
• to indicate per to separate units of measurement accompanied by a numerical value
(see section 4.27).
0.5 deg/s 7.4 mg/kg
but
luminance is measured in candelas per square meter
• to set off English phonemes.
/0/
• to cite a republished work in text.
Freud (1923/1 961)
Do not use a slash
• when a phrase would be clearer.
Each child handed the ball to her mother or guardian.
not
Each child handed the ball to her mother/guardian.
SPELLING
• for simple comparisons. Use a hyphen or short dash (en dash) instead. E
test—retest reliability
ft
not
test/retest reliability
C
• more than once to express compound units. Use centered dots and parentheses as a
needed to prevent ambiguity. ti
f(
nmol • hr-1 • mg-1
nmol/hr/mg
Spelling
4.12 Preferred Spelling ti
Spelling should conform to standard American English as exemplified in Merriam- U
Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (2005), the standard spelling reference for APA journals e:
and books; spelling of psychological terms should conform to the APA Dictionary of
Psychology (VandenBos, 2007). If a word is not in Webster's Collegiate, consult the
more comprehensive Webster's Third New International Dictionary (2002). If the die- it
tionary gives a choice, use the first spelling listed; for example, use aging and canceled
rather than ageing and cancelled. if
Plural forms of some words of Latin or Greek origin can be troublesome; a list of if
preferred spellings of some of the more common ones follows. Authors are reminded
that plural nouns take plural verbs. a
4
Singular Plural
appendix appendices U
cannula cannulas
datum data
phenomenon phenomena
In general, the possessive of a singular name is formed by adding an apostrophe and
an s, even when a name ends in 5; the possessive of a plural name is formed by adding
an apostrophe. A list of examples follows as well as some exceptions.
Singular Plural
Freud's the Freuds'
James's the Jameses'
Watson's the Watsons'
Skinner's the Skinners'
I
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
Exceptions: Use an apostrophe only with the singular form of names ending in unpro-
noudced $ (e.g., Descartes'). It is preferable to include of when referring to the plural
form of names ending in unpronounced s (e.g., the home of the Descartes).
4.13 Hyphenation
Compound words take many forms; that is, two words may be written as (a) two sep-
arate words; (b) a hyphenated word; or (c) one unbroken, "solid" word. Choosing
the proper form is sometimes frustrating. For example, is follow up, follow-up, or
followup the form to be used? The dictionary is an excellent guide for such decisions,
especially for nonscientific words (the term is follow-up when functioning as a noun
or adjective but follow up when functioning as a verb). When a compound can be
found in the dictionary, its usage is established and it is known as a permanent corn-
pound (e.g., high school, caregiver, and self-esteem). Dictionaries do not always agree
on the way a compound should be written (open, solid, or hyphenated); APA follows
Webster's Collegiate in most cases. Compound terms are often introduced into the lan-
guage as separate or hyphenated words, and as they become more commonplace, they
tend to fuse into a solid word. For example, the hyphen was dropped from life-style in
the 11th edition of Webster's Collegiate, and data base is now database.
There is another kind of compound—the temporary compound—which is made
up of two or more words that occur together, perhaps only in a particular paper, to
express a thought. Because language is constantly expanding, especially in science,
temporary compounds develop that are not yet listed in the dictionary. If a temporary
compound modifies another word, it may or may not be hyphenated, depending on (a)
its position in the sentence and (b) whether the pairing of a compound with another
word can cause the reader to misinterpret meaning. The main rule to remember is that
if a temporary compound precedes what it modifies, it may need to be hyphenated, and
if it follows what it modifies, it usually does not. If a compound is not in the diction-
ary, follow the general principles of hyphenation given here and in Table 4.1. If you
are still in doubt, use hyphens for clarity rather than omitting them. (See also Tables
4.2 and 4.3 for treatment of prefixes and suffixes.)
Hyphens, dashes, and minus signs are each typed differently.
• hyphen: Use no space before or after (e.g., trial-by-trial analysis).
• em dash: An em dash is longer than a hyphen or an en dash and is used to set off an
element added to amplify or to digress from the main clause (e.g., Studies—published
and unpublished—are included). Use no space before or after an em dash. If an em
dash is not available on your keyboard, use two hyphens with no space before or
after.
• en dash: An en dash is longer and thinner than a hyphen yet shorter than an em dash
and is used between words of equal weight in a compound adjective (e.g., Chicago—
London flight). Type as an en dash or, if the en dash is not available on your keyboard,
as a single hyphen. In either case, use no space before or after.
• minus sign: A typeset minus sign is the same length as an en dash, but it is
slightly thicker and slightly higher. If a minus sign is not available in your word-
processing program, use a hyphen with a space on both sides (e.g., a - b). For a
negative value, use a hyphen rather than a minus sign, with a space before but no
space after (e.g., -5.25).
Guide to Hyphenating Terms
I
Rule Example
Hyphenate
1. A compound with a participle when • role-playing technique
it precedes the term it modifies • anxiety-arousing condition
• water-deprived animals
2. A phrase used as an adjective when • trial-by-trial analysis
it precedes the term it modifies • to-be-recalled items
• all-or-none questionnaire
3. An adjective-and-noun compound • high-anxiety group
when it precedes the term it • middle-class families
modifies • low-frequency words
4. A compound with a number as the a two-way analysis of variance
first element when the compound • six-trial problem
precedes the term it modifies • 12th-grade students
• 16-s interval
5. A fraction used as an adjective • two-thirds majority
Do not hyphenate
1. A compound including an adverb U widely used text
ending in ly • relatively homogeneous sample
• randomly assigned participants
2. A compound including a comparative a better written paper
or superlative adjective • less informed interviewers
• higher scoring students
• higher order learning
3. Chemical terms • sodium chloride solution
• amino acid compound
4. Foreign phrases used as adjectives Ma posteriori test
or adverbs • post hoc comparisons
• fed ad lib [but hyphenate the adjectival form:
ad-lib feeding; see Webster's Collegiate]
5. A modifier including a letter or • Group B participants
numeral as the second element • Type II error
• Trial 1 performance
6. Common fractions used as nouns • one third of the participants
General Principle 1
If a compound adjective can be misread, use a hyphen.
General Principle 2
In a temporary compound that is used as an adjective before a noun, use a hyphen if the
term can be misread or if the term expresses a single thought (i.e., all words
SPELLING
r
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
Exceptions: Use a hyphen in meta-ena/ysis and quasi-experimenta'.
modify the noun). For example, are different word lists (a) word lists that are different
from other word lists (if so, different modifies word lists; thus, write different word lists)
or (b) lists that present different words (if so, the first word modifies the second, and
together they modify lists, thus, different-word lists). Likewise, "the adolescents resided
in two parent homes" means that two homes served as residences, whereas if the adoles-
cents resided in "two-parent homes," they each would live in a household headed by two
parents. A properly placed hyphen helps the reader understand the intended meaning.
General Principle 3
Most compound adjective rules are applicable only when the compound adjective pre-
cedes the term it modifies. If a compound adjective follows the term, do not use a
hyphen, because relationships are sufficiently clear without one. The following exam-
ples are all correctly hyphenated:
client-centered counseling
Prefix or suffix Example
Prefixes and Suffixes That Do Not Require Hyphens
Prefix or suffix Example
retrievable
aftereffect
antisocial
bilingual
intercede
coworker
counterbalance
equimax
extracurricular
cardiogram
able
after
anti
bi
cede
Co
counter
equi
extra
gram
infra
inter
intra
like
macro
mega
meta
meter
micro
mid
mini
multi
non
over
phobia
post
pre
pro
pseudo
quasi
re
semi
5OCiO
sub
super
supra
ultra
un
under
minisession
multiphase
nonsignificant
overaggressive
agoraphobia
posttest
preexperimental
prowar
pseudoscience
quasiperiodic
underdeveloped
reevaluate
semidarkness
infrared
interstimulus
intraspecific
wavelike
macrocosm
megawatt
metacog n itive
micrometer
microcosm
midterm
socioeconomic U
subtest
superordinate
supraliminal
ultrahigh
unbiased
SPELLING
Prefixed Words That Require Hyphens
Occurrence Example
1. Compounds in which the base
word is capitalized • pro-Freudian
a number • post-1970
an abbreviation • pre-UCS trial
more than one word • non-achievement-oriented students
2. All self- compounds, whether • self-report technique
they are adjectives or nounsa • the test was self-paced
• self-esteem
3. Words that could be • re-pair [pair again]
misunderstood • re-form [form again]
• un-ionized
4. Words in which the prefix ends • meta-analysis
and the base word begins with U anti-intellectual
the same vowelb U co-occur
aBut self psychology.
and re compounds are usually set solid to base words beginning with e.
but
the counseling was client centered
t-test results
but
results from t tests
same-sex children
but
children of the same sex
General Principle 4
Write most words formed with prefixes as one word (see Table 4.2). Table 4.3 contains
some exceptions. t
General Principle 5
When two or more compound modifiers have a common base, that base is sometimes
omitted in all except the last modifier, but the hyphens are retained.
long- and short-term memory
2-, 3-, and 1 0-mm trials
THE MECHANICS OP STYLE I!Jfl
Capitalization
Use an uppercase letter for the first letter of a word according to the guidelines in the
following sections.
4.14 Words Beginning a Sentence
Capitalize
• the first word in a complete sentence.
Note: If a name that begins with a lowercase letter begins a sentence, then it should be
capitalized. Do not begin a sentence with a statistical term (e.g., t test or p value; see
section 4.30 for abbreviations beginning a sentence).
Correct:
De Waal (1994) concluded the following
Incorrect:
de Waal (1994) concluded the following
• the first word after a colon that begins a complete sentence.
The author made one main point: No explanation that has been suggested so
far answers all questions.
4.15 Major Words in Titles and Headings
Capitalize
• major words in titles of books and articles within the body of the paper. Conjunctions,
articles, and short prepositions are not considered major words; however, capitalize all
words of four letters or more. Capitalize all verbs (including linking verbs), nouns, adjec-
fives, adverbs, and pronouns. When a capitalized word is a hyphenated compound, cap-
italize both words. Also, capitalize the first word after a colon or a dash in a title.
In her book, H/stop,' of Pathology
The criticism of the article, "Attitudes Toward Mental Health Workers"
"Ultrasonic Vocalizations Are Elicited From Hat Pups"
'Memory in Hearing-Impaired Children: Implications for Vocabulary Development"
Exception: In titles of books and articles in reference lists, capitalize only the first word,
the first word after a colon or em dash, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the second
word of a hyphenated compound. (See Chapter 6 for further discussion of reference style.)
Liu, D., Weliman, H. M., TardiL T., & Sabbagh, M. A. (2008). Theory of mind de-
velopment in Chinese children: A meta-analysis of false-belief understanding
across cultures and languages. Developmental Psychology, 44, 523—531.
doi:1 0.1037/0012-1649.44.2.523
Cantor, A. 8. (1996). Sample-size calculations for Cohen's kappa. Psychological
Methods, 1, 150—153. doi:1 0.1037/1 082-989X. 1.2.150
CAPITALIZATION
• major words in article headings and subheadings.
Exception: In indented paragraph (Levels 3, 4, and 5) headings,
capitalize only the first
word and proper nouns (see section 3.03).
a major words in table titles and figure legends. In table
headings and figure captions,
capitalize only the first word and proper nouns (see sections
5.13 for table headings
and 5.23 for figure captions).
• references to titles of sections within the same article.
as explained in the Method section
which is discussed in the Data Analyses subsection
4.16 Proper Nouns and Trade Names
Capitalize
• proper nouns and adjectives and words used as proper nouns.
Proper adjectives that
have acquired a common meaning are not capitalized;
consult Merriam-Webster's
Collegiate Dictionary (2005) for guidance.
Freudian slip
Wilks's lambda
Greco-Latin square
but
eustachian tube
cesarean section
• names of university departments if they refer to a specific department within a specific
university and complete names of academic courses if they refer to a
specific course.
Department of Sociology, University of Washington
Psychology 101
Developmental Psychopathology
but
a sociology department
an introductory psychology course
• trade and brand names of drugs, equipment, and food.
Elavil [but amitriptyline hydrochloridel
Hunter Kiockounter
Plexiglas
Purina Monkey Chow
Xerox
Do not capitalize names of laws, theories, models,
statistical procedures, or hypotheses.
r
Ii
THE M ECHAN ICS OF STYLE
the empirical law of effect
parallel distributed processing model
associative learning model
a two-group ttest
but
Gregory's theory of illusions [Retain uppercase in personal names.]
Fisher's rto Ztransformation
4.17 Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters
Capitalize nouns followed by numerals or letters that denote a specific place in a num-
bered series.
On Day 2 of Experiment 4
during Trial 5, the no-delay group performed
as shown in Table 2, Figure 3B, and Chapter 4
Grant AG02726 from the National Institute on Aging
Exception: Do not capitalize nouns that denote common parts of books or tables fol-
lowed by numerals or letters.
page iv
row 3
column 5
Do not capitalize nouns that precede a variable.
trial n and item x
but
Trial 3 and Item b [The number and letter are not variables.]
4.18 Titles of Tests
Capitalize exact, complete titles of published and unpublished tests. Words such as test
or scale are not capitalized if they refer to subscales of tests.
Advanced Vocabulary Test
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Stroop Color—Word Interference Test
the authors' Mood Adjective Checklist
but
MMPI Depression scale
Do not capitalize shortened, inexact, or generic titles of tests.
a vocabulary test Stroop color test
a
ITALICS
4.19 Names of Conditions or Groups in an Experiment
Do not capitalize names of conditions or groups in an experiment.
experimental and control groups
participants were assigned to information and no-information conditions
but
Conditions A and B [See section 4.17.]
4.20 Names of Factors, Variables, and Effects
Capitalize names of derived variables within a factor or principal components analy-
sis. The words factor and component are not capitalized unless followed by a number
(see section 4.17).
Mealtime Behavior (Factor 4)
Factors 6 and 7
Component 1
Big Five personality factors
Do not capitalize effects or variables unless they appear with multiplication signs.
(Take care that you do not use the term factor when you mean effect or variable, for
example, in an interaction or analysis of variance.)
a small age effect
the sex, age, and weight variables
but
the Sex x Age x Weight interaction
a 3 x 3 x 2 (Groups x Trials x Responses) design
a 2 (methods) x 2 (item types) U
Italics
4.21 Use of Italics
For specific use of italics in APA journals, see the guidelines listed below. In general,
use italics infrequently.
Use italics for
U
• titles of books, periodicals, films, videos, TV shows, and microfilm publications.
The Elements of Style E
Amer/can Psychologist •
Exception: Words within the title of a book in text that would normally be italicized
should be set in Roman type (this is referred to as reverse italicization).
-J
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
A Stereotaxic Atlas of the Monkey Bra/n (Macaca Mulatta)
Dreaming by the Book: Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams and the History of
the Psychoanalytic Movement
• genera, species, and varieties.
Macace mu/atta
• introduction of a new, technical, or key term or label (after a term has been used
once, do not italicize it).
The term backward masking
box labeled empty
• a letter, word, or phrase cited as a linguistic example.
words such as big and little
the letter a
the meaning of to fit tightly together
a row of Xs
• words that could be misread.
the small group [meaning a designation, not group size]
• letters used as statistical symbols or algebraic variables.
Cohen's d= 0.084
a/b = c/d
SEM
• some test scores and scales.
Rorschach scores: Fi-%, 7
MMPI scales: I-Is, Pd
• periodical volume numbers in reference lists.
American Psychologist, 26, 46—67
• anchors of a scale.
health ratings ranged from 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent)
Do not use italics for
• foreign phrases and abbreviations common in English (i.e., phrases found as main
entries in Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 2005).
a posteriori et al.
1
ABBREVIATIONS
a priori per se
ad lib vis-à-vis
• chemical terms.
NaCI, LSD
• trigonometric terms.
sin, tan, log
• nonstatistical subscripts to statistical symbols or mathematical expressions.
Emax
SA ÷ 58
• Greek letters.
• mere emphasis. (Italics are acceptable if emphasis might otherwise be lost; in general,
however, use syntax to provide emphasis.)
Incorrect:
it is important to bear in mind that this process is not proposed as a stage theory
of developments.
• letters used as abbreviations.
intertrial interval (ITI)
Abbreviations
422 Use of Abbreviations
To maximize clarity, use abbreviations sparingly. Although abbreviations are sometimes
useful for long, technical terms in scientific writing, communication is usually garbled
rather than clarified if, for example, an abbreviation is unfamiliar to the reader.
Overuse. Consider whether the space saved by abbreviations in the following sentence
justifies the time necessary to master the meaning:
The advantage of the LH was clear from the RT data, which reflected high FP
and FN rates for the RH.
Without abbreviations the passage reads as follows:
The advantage of the left hand was clear from the reaction time data, which
reflected high false-positive and false-negative rates for the right hand.
1 r
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
linderuse. Abbreviations introduced on first mention of a term and used fewer than three
tinies thereafter, particularly in a long paper, may be difficult for a reader to remember, and
you probably serve the reader best if you write them out each time. In the following exam-
ple, however, a standard abbreviation for a long, familiar term eases the reader's task:
Patients at seven hospitals completed the MMPI—2.
Deciding whether to abbreviate. In all circumstances other than in the reference list (see
section 6.22) and in the abstract, you must decide whether (a) to spell out a given
expression every time it is used in an article or (b) to spell it out initially and abbrevi-
ate it thereafter. For example, the abbreviations L for large and S for small in a paper
discussing different sequences of reward (LLSS or LSLS) would be an effective and
readily understood shortcut. In another paper, however, writing about the L reward
and the S reward would be both unnecessary and confusing. In most instances, abbre-
viating experimental group names is ineffective because the abbreviations are not ade-
quately informative or easily recognizable and may even be more cumbersome than the
full name. In general, use an abbreviation only (a) if it is conventional and if the reader
is more familiar with the abbreviation than with the complete form or (b) if consider-
able space can be saved and cumbersome repetition avoided. In short, use only those
abbreviations that will help you communicate with your readers. Remember, they have
not had the same experience with your abbreviations as you have.
423 Explanation of Abbreviations
Because the abbreviations that psychologists use in their daily writing may not be famil-
iar to students or to readers in other disciplines or other countries, a term to be abbrevi-
ated must, on its first appearance, be written out completely and followed immediately by
its abbreviation in parentheses. Thereafteç use the abbreviation in text without further
explanation (do not switch between the abbreviated and written-out forms of a term).
The results of studies of simple reaction time (RT) to a visual target have shown
a strong negative relation between RT and luminance.
Explain abbreviations that appear in a figure in the caption or legend. Explain
those that appear in a table either in the table title (if it includes words that are abbre-
viated in the table body; see section 5.12) or in the table note (see section 5.16).
Explain an abbreviation that is used in several figures or tables in each figure or table
in which the abbreviation is used. Avoid introducing abbreviations into figure captions
or table notes if they do not appear in the figure or table. Standard abbreviations for
units of measurement do not need to be written out on first use (see section 4.27).
4.24 Abbreviations Accepted as Words
APA Style permits the use of abbreviations that appear as word entries (i.e., that are
not labeled abbr) in Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (2005). Such abbrevia-
tions do not need explanation in text.
10 REM ESP AIDS HIV NADP ACTH
ABBREVIATIONS
425 Abbreviations Used Often in APA Journals
Some abbreviations may not be in
the dictionary but appear frequently in the journal
for which you are writing. Although probably svell
understood by many readers, these
abbreviations should still be explained when first used.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI)
conditional stimulus (CS)
intertrial interval (ITI)
consonant—vowe V-consonant (CVC)
short-term memory (STM)
reaction time (AT)
Do not use the abbreviations S, E, or 0 for
subject, experimenter, and observer.
4.26 Latin Abbreviations
Use the following standard
Latin abbreviations only in parenthetical material; in non-
parenthetical material, use the English translation of the Latin terms;
in both cases,
include the correct punctuation that accompanies the term:
cf. compare i.e., that is,
e.g., for example, viz., namely,
etc. , and so forth vs. versus, against
Exception: Use the abbreviation v. (for versus) in references
and text citations to court
cases, whether pareiithetical or not (see
Appendix 7.1, section A7.03, Examples 1—8).
Exception: In the reference list and in text, use the
Latin abbreviation a a!., which
means and others, in nonparenthetical as well as parenthetical
material.
4.27 Scientifiq Abbreviations
Units of measurement. Use abbreviations and
symbols for metric and nonmetric units
of measurement that are accompanied by numeric values (e.g.,
4 cm, 30 s, 12 mm,
18 hr. 45°). (See Table 4.4 for a list of some common abbreviations
used for units of
measurement.)
Do not repeat units of measure when
expressing multiple amounts:
16—30 kHz 0.3, 1.5, and 3.0 mg/dI
Write out abbreviations for units that are not
accompanied by numeric values (e.g.,
measured in centimcters, several kilograms).
Units of time. To prevent misreading,
do not abbreviate the following units of time,
even when they are accompanied by numeric values:
day week month year
H
r
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
Common Abbreviations for Units of Measurement
Abbreviation Unit of measurement Abbreviation Unit of measurement
A ampere m meter
A angstrom micrometer
AC alternating current mA milliampere
a.m. ante meridiem mEq milliequivalent
degree Celsius meV million electron volts
Ci curie mg milligram
cm centimeter ml milliliter
cps cycles per second mm
dB decibel (specify scale) mM millimolar
DC direct current mmHg millimeters of mercury
deg/s degrees per second mmol millimole
dl deciliter mol wt molecular weight
degree Fahrenheit mph miles per hour (include
g gram metric equivalent in
parentheses)
g gravity
MU megohm
Hz hertz
• . N newton
in. inch (include metric
equivalent in p.m. post meridiem
parentheses) ppm parts per million
10 intelligence quotient psi pounds per square
IU international unit inch (include metric
equivalent inkg kilogram
parentheses)
km kilometer
rpm revolutions per minute
kph kilometers per hour
s Siemens
kW kilowatt
V volt
L liter w watt
Abbreviate the following units of time:
hr, hour
mm, minute
ms, millisecond
ns, nanosecond
5, second
ABBREVIATIONS
Chemical compounds. Chemical compounds may be expressed by common name or
by
chemical name. If you prefer to use the common name, provide the
chemical name in
parentheses on first mention in the Method section. Avoid expressing
compounds with
chemical formulas, as these are usually less informative to the
reader and have a high
likelihood of being typed or typeset incorrectly (e.g., aspirin or salicylic
acid, not
C9H804). If names of compounds include Greek
letters, retain the letters as symbols and
do not write them out (e.g., 3 carotene, not beta carotene).
Long names of organic compounds are often abbreviated;
if the abbreviation is
listed as a word entry in Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
(2005; e.g., NADP
for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), you may use it
freely, without writ-
ing it out on first use.
Concentrations. If you express a solution as a percentage
concentration instead of as a
molar concentration, be sure to specify the percentage as a
weight-per-volume ratio
(wt/vol), a volume ratio (vol/vol), or a weight ratio
(wt/wt) of solute to solvent. The
higher the concentration is, the more ambiguous the expression as a percentage.
Specifying the ratio is especially necessary for concentrations of alcohol,
glucose, and
sucrose. Specifying the salt form is also essential for
precise reporting: a-amphetamine
HCI or d-amphetamine SO4 (note that expression of chemical name
in combination
with a formula is acceptable in this case).
12% (vol/vol) ethyl alcohol solution
1 % (wtjvol) saccharin solution
Routes of administration. You may abbreviate a route of
administration when it is paired
with a number-and-unit combination. Preferred style for APA is no periods: icy =
intra-
cerebral ventricular, im = intramuscular, ip = intraperitoneal, iv = intravenous,
sc = sub- 4
cutaneous, and so on.
anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital (90 mg/kg ip)
but
the first of two subcutaneous injections (not sc injections)
4.28 Other Abbreviations
Use abbreviations for statistics as described in section 4.45. For information on
the I
International System of Units (SI), go to the APA Style website
(www.apastyle.org).
4
4.29 Plurals of Abbreviations
To form the plural of most abbreviations
and statistical symbols, add s alone, but not
italicized and without an apostrophe. I d
los Eds. vols. Ms ps ns
Exception: Do not add an s to make abbreviations of units of measurement
plural (e.g.,
12 cm; see section 4.40).
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
Exception: To form the plural of the reference abbreviation p. (page), write pp.; do not
add an s.
4.30 Abbreviations Beginning a Sentence
Never begin a sentence with a lowercase abbreviation (e.g., Ib) or a symbol that stands
alone (e.g., a). Begin a sentence with a capitalized abbreviation or acronym (e.g., U.S.
or APA) or with a symbol connected to a word (e.g., 3-Endorphins) only when neces-
sary to avoid indirect and awkward writing. In the case of chemical compounds, cap-
italize the first letter of the word to which the symbol is connected; keep the locant,
descriptor, or positional prefix (i.e., Greek, small capital, and italic letters and numer-
als) intact.
In running text: At beginning of sentence:
L-methionine L-Methionine
N,N'-dimethylurea N,N-Dimethylurea
acid y-Hydroxy-13-aminobutyric acid
Numbers
The general rule governing APA Style on the use of numbers is to use numerals to
express numbars 10 and above and words to express numbers below 10. Sections
4.31—4.34 expand on this rule and state exceptions and special usages.
4.31 Numbers Expressed in Numerals
Use numerals to express
a. numbers 10 and above. (Exceptions: See sections 4.33—4.34.)
12cm wide the 15th trial
the remaining 10% 13 lists
25 years old 105 stimulus words
10th-grade students
b. numbers in the abstract of a paper or in a graphical display within a paper.
c. numbers that immediately precede a unit of measurement.
a 5-mg dose
with 10.54cm of
d. numbers that represent statistical or mathematical functions, fractional or decimal
quantities, percentages, ratios, and percentiles and quartiles.
multiplied by 5
3 times as many [proportion}
ER S
0.33 of the
more than 5% of the sample
a ratio of 16:1
the 5th percentile
e. numbers that represent time,
dates, ages, scores and points on a scale, exact sums
of money, and numerals as numerals.
1 hr 34 mm
at 12:30 am.
2-yea r-olds
scored 4 on a 7-point scale
Exception: Use words for
approximations of numbers of days, months, and years
(e.g., about three months ago).
f. numbers that denote a
specific place in a numbered series, parts of books and
tables, and each number in a list of four or more
numbers.
Grade 8 [but the eighth grade; see section 4.341
Table 3
H
rowS
4.32 Numbers Expressed in Words
Use words to express
ii
a. any number that begins a sentence,
title, or text heading. (Whenever possible,
reword the sentence to avoid beginning with a number.)
Forty-eight percent of the sample showed an increase;
2% showed no change.
Twelve
students improved, and 12 students did not improve.
b. common fractions.
one fifth of the class
two-thirds majority
c. universally accepted usage.
the Twelve Apostles
Five Pillars of Islam
433 Combining Numerals and Words to Express Numbers
Use a combination of numerals and
words to express back-to-back modifiers.
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
2 two-way interactions
ten 7-point scales
A combination of numerals and words in these situations increases the clarity and
readability of the construction. In some situations, however, readability may suffer; in
such a case, spell out both numbers.
Correct:
first two items
Incorrect:
1st two items
first 2 items
4.34 Ordinal Numbers
Treat ordinal numbers as you would cardinal numbers (see sections 4.31—4.33).
Ordinal Cardinal base
second-order factor two orders
the fourth graders four grades
the first item of the 75th trial one item, 75 trials
the first and third groups one group, three groups
4.35 Decimal Fractions
Use a zero before the decimal point with numbers that are less than I when the statis-
tic can exceed 1.
0.23cm
Cohen's d=0.70
0.48 5
• Do not use a zero before a decimal fraction when the statistic cannot be greater than
1 (e.g., correlations, proportions, and levels of statistical significance).
r(24) = —.43, p = .028
The number of decimal places to use in reporting the results of experiments and
data analytic manipulations of the data should be governed by the following general
principle: Round as much as possible while keeping prospective use and statistical pre-
cision in mind. As a general rule, fewer decimal digits are easier to comprehend than
more digits; therefore, in general, it is better to round to two decimal places or to
rescale the measurement (in which case effect sizes should be presented in the same
metric). For instance, a difference in distances that must be carried to four decimals to
be seen when scaled in meters can be more effectively illustrated in millimeters, which
METRICATION
would require only a few decimal digits to illustrate the same difference. As a
rule,
when properly scaled, most data can be effectively presented with two decimal digits
of accuracy. Report correlations, proportions, and inferential statistics such as t,
F, and
to two decimals.
When reporting p values, report exact p values (e.g., p = .031) to two or three dec-
imal places. However, report p values less than .001 as p .c .001. The tradition of
reporting p values in the form p c .10, p < .05, p < .01, and so forth, was appropriate
in a time when only limited tables of critical values were available. However,
in tables
the "p c" notation may be necessary for clarity (see section 5.16).
4
4.36 Roman Numerals
If Roman numerals are part of an established terminology, do not change to
Arabic
numerals; for example, use Type II error. Use Arabic, not Roman, numerals for routine
seriation (e.g., Step 1).
4.37 Commas in Numbers
Use commas between groups of three digits in most figures of 1,000 or more.
Exceptions:
page numbers page 1029
binary digits 00110010
serial numbers 290466960
degrees of temperature 3071 °F
acoustic frequency designations 2000 Hz
degrees of freedom F(24, 1000)
4.38 Plurals of Numbers D
To form the plurals of numbers, whether expressed as figures or as words, add s or es
alone, without an apostrophe.
fours and sixes 1960s lOs and 20s
1
Metrication
4.39 Policy on Metrication
APA uses the metric system in its journals. All references to
physical measurements,
where feasible, should be expressed in metric units. The metric system outlined in
this section is based, with some exceptions, on the International System of Units (SI),
which is an extension and refinement of the traditional metric system and is support-
ed by the national standardizing bodies in many countries, including the
United
States.
In preparing manuscripts, use metric units if possible. If you use instruments that
record measurements in nonmetric units, you may report the nonmetric units but also
I
m
by
tic
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
report the established SI equivalents in parentheses immediately after the nonmetric
units.
The rods were spaced 19 mm apart. [Measurement was made in metric units.]
The rod was 3 ft (0.91 m) long. [Measurement was made in nonmetric units
and converted to the rounded SI equivalent.]
4.40 Style for Metric Units
Abbreviation. Use the metric symbol (see International System [SI] Base and
Supplementary Units and other resources on metrication at wwwspastyle.org) to express
a metric unit when it appears with a numeric value (e.g., 4 m). When a metric unit does
not appear with a numeric value, spell out the unit in text (e.g., measured in meters) and
use the metric symbol in column and headings of tables to conserve space (e.g., lag in ms).
Capitalization. Use lowercase letters when writing out full names of units (e.g., meter,
nanometer), unless the name appears in capitalized material or at the beginning of a
sentence.
For the most part, use lowercase letters for symbols (e.g., cd), even in capitalized
material. Symbols derived from the name of a person usually include uppercase letters
(e.g., Gy), as do symbols for some prefixes that represent powers of 10: exa (E), peta
(P), tera (T), giga (G), and mega (M). (See Table 4.4 for more examples.)
Use the symbol L for liter when it stands alone (e.g., 5 L, 0.3 mg/L) because a low-
ercase 1 may be misread as the numeral one (use lowercase I for fractions of a liter:
5 ml, 9 ng/dl).
Plurals. Make full names of units plural when appropriate.
meters
Do not make symbols or abbreviations of units plural.
3cm, not3 cms
Periods. Do not use a period after a symbol, except at the end of a sentence.
Spacing. Use a space between a symbol and the number to which it refers, except for
measures of angles (e.g., degrees, minutes, and seconds).
4.5 m, 12 °C, but 45° angle
Compound units. Use a centered dot between the symbols of a compound term formed
by the multiplication of units.
Pa • a
Use a space between full names of units of a compound unit formed by the multiplica-
tion of units; do not use a centered dot.
pascal second
I
STATISTICAL AND MATHEMATICAL COPY
Statistical and Mathematical Copy
APA Style for presenting statistical and
mathematical copy reflects (a) standards of con-
tent and form agreed on in the field and (b) the requirements of clear communication.
4.41 Selecting Effective Presentation
Statistical and mathematical copy can be
presented in text, in tables, and in figures.
Detailed discussions of principles for the generation of tables, figures, and graphs can
be found in Chapter 5. In deciding which approach to take, a
general rule that might
prove useful is
• if you need to present three or fewer numbers, first try using a sentence;
• if you need to present four to 20 numbers, first consider using a
well-prepared table;
and
• if you have more than 20 numbers, a graph is often more useful
than a table.
Select the mode of presentation that optimizes understanding of the data by the
reader. Detailed displays that allow fine-grained understanding of a data set may
be
more appropriate to include in online supplemental archives
(see section 2.13) than in
the print version of an article. Tables, figures, charts, and other
graphics should be pre-
pared with the understanding that if the manuscript is accepted, they are to
be pub-
lished at the editor's discretion. In any case, be prepared to submit tables and
figures
of complex statistical and mathematical material if an editor requests
them.
4.42 References for Statistics
Do not give a reference for statistics in common use; this
convention applies to most
statistics in journal articles. Do give a reference when (a) less common
statistics
are used, especially those that have appeared so
recently that they can be found only
in journals; (b) a statistic is used in an unconventional or a
controversial way; or (c)
the statistic itself is the focus of the article.
4.43 Formulas
Do not give a formula for a statistic in common use; do give a
formula when the sta-
tistic or mathematical expression is new, rare, or essential to the manuscript.
Presentation of equations is described in sections 4.47—4.48.
4 44 Statistics in Text
When reporting inferential statistics (e.g., t tests, F tests, tests,
and associated effect
sizes and confidence intervals), include sufficient information to allow
the reader to fully 4
understand the analyses conducted. The data
supplied, preferably in the text but possibly
in an online supplemental archive depending on the magnitude of such
data arrays, should
allow the reader to confirm the basic reported analyses (e.g., cell means,
standard devia PI
tions, sample sizes, and correlations) and should enable the interested reader to construct
some effect-size estimates and confidence intervals beyond those
supplied in the paper per
se. In the case of multilevel data, present summary statistics
for each level of aggregation.
What constitutes sufficient information depends on the analytic approach
reported.
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
For immediate recognition, the omnibus test of the main effect of sentence for-
mat was statistically significant, F(2, 177) = 6.30, p = .002, est w2 = .07. The one-
degree-of-freedom contrast of primary interest (the mean difference between
Conditions 1 and 2) was also statistically significant at the specified .05 level,
t(1 77) = 3.51, pc .001, d= 0.65, 95% Cl [0.35, 0.95].
High-school GPA statistically predicted college mathematics performance, =
.12, F(1, 148)=20.18, pc .001, 95% Cl [.02, .22]. The four-subtest battery
added to this prediction, 82 = .21, tsR2 = .09, F(4, 144) = 3.56, p = .004, 95% Cl
[.10, .32]. Most important, when the two preceding variables were statistically
accounted for, the college mathematics placement examination also explained
unique variance in students' college mathematics performance, 82 = .25, AR2 =
.04, F(1, 143) = 7.63, p= .006, 95% Cl 1.13, .37].
If you present descriptive statistics in a table or figure, you do not need to repeat
them in text, although you should (a) mention the table in which the statistics can be
found and (b) emphasize particular data in the narrative when they help in interpreta-
tion of the findings.
When enumerating a series of similar statistics, be certain that the relation between
the statistics and their referents is cleat Words such as respectively and in order can
clarify this relationship.
Means (with standard deviations in parentheses) for Trials 1 through 4 were
2.43 (0.50). 2.59 (1.21), 2.68 (0.39), and 2.86 (0.12), respectively.
When reporting confidence intervals, use the format 95% Cl ILL, UL], where LL is
the lower limit of the confidence interval and UL is the upper limit.
When a sequence of confidence intervals is repeated in a series or within the same
paragraph and the level of confidence (e.g., 95%) has remained unchanged, and the
meaning is clear, you do not need to repeat the 95% CI. Every report of a confidence
interval must clearly state the level of confidence. A sentence might then read, in part,
95% CIs [5.62, 8.31), [—2.43, 4.31], and [—4.29, —3.11], respectively
When a confidence interval follows reporting of a point estimate, the units of
measurement should not be repeated:
M=30.5 cm, 99% Cl [18.0, 43.0]
4.45 Statistical Symbols
When using a statistical term in the narrative, use the term, not the symbol. For exam-
pie, use
The means were
not
The Ms were
I
STATISTICAL AND MATHEMATICAL COPY
Symbols for population versus sample statistics. Population
parameters are usually rep-
resented by Greek letters. Most estimators are represented by
italicized Latin letters.
For example, the population correlation would be represented as p,
and the estimator
would be represented as r. [Est(p) and are also acceptablel.
Some test statistics are
represented by italicized Latin letters (e.g., tand F), and a few are
represented by Greek
letters (e.g., F).
Symbols for number of subjects. Use an uppercase,
italicized N to designate the num-
ber of members in the total sample (e.g., N = 135) and a lowercase,
italicized n to des-
ignate the number of members in a limited portion
of the total sample (e.g., n = 30).
Symbol for percentage. Use the symbol for percent only
when it is preceded by a
numeral. Use the word percentage when a number is not given.
found that 18% of the rats
determined the percentage of rats
Exception: In table headings and figure
legends, use the symbol % to conserve space.
Standard, boldface, and italic type. Statistical
symbols and mathematical copy in man-
uscripts are prepared with three different typefaces:
standard, boldface, and italic. The
same typeface is used in text, tables, and figures.
Greek letters, subscripts, and superscripts that function as
identifiers (i.e., are not
variables) and abbreviations that are not variables (e.g., log, GLM, WLS) are set
in stan-
dard typeface.
U.
Symbols for vectors and matrices are set in boldface.
v,t
All other statistical symbols are setin italic type.
N, dl, SSE. MSE, t, F
On occasion, an element may serve as both an abbreviation and a
symbol (e.g., SD);
in those cases, use the typeface that reflects the function of
element (see Table 4.5).
Identifying letters and symbols. As with all aspects of manuscript
preparation, take care
to ensure that there are no ambiguities that could lead to errors
in the final production
steps, particularly with mathematical and statistical
symbols, non-English characters, :2
and complex alignments (e.g., subscripts and superscripts).
Avoid misunderstandings 4
and corrections by preparing mathematical copy carefully.
4.46 Spacing, Alignment and Punctuation
Space mathematical copy as you would space
words: a+b=c is as difficult to read as
wordswithouts pacing. Instead, type a + b = c.
Align signs and symbols carefully. Use the subscript and
superscript features in
your word-processing software. In most cases, type
subscripts first and then super-
V
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols
Abbreviation/symbol Definition
English character set
a In item response theory, the slope
parameter
AIC Akaike information criterion
ANCOVA Analysis of covariance
ANOVA Analysis of variance
b, b, In regression and multiple regression analyses, estimated
values of raw (unstandardized) regression coefficients; in
item response theory, the difficulty-severity parameter
b', bT Estimated values of standardized regression coefficients in
regression and multiple regression analyses
BIC Bayesian information criterion
CAT Computerized adaptive testing
CDF Cumulative distribution function
CEA Confirmatory factor analysis
Cl Confidence interval
d Cohen's measure of sample effect size for comparing two
sample means
Discriminability, a measure of sensitivity in signal detection
theory
df Degrees of freedom
DIE Differential item functioning
EEA Exploratory factor analysis
EM Expectation maximization
ES Effect size
f Frequency
Expected frequency
Observed frequency
F Fdistribution, Fisher's F ratio
F(v1, v2) F with v1 and v2 degrees of freedom
Critical value for statistical significance in an Ftest
Fmax Hartley's test of homogeneity of variance
EIML Full information maximum likelihood
g Hedges's measure of effect size
GLM Generalized linear model
STATISTICAL AND MATHEMATICAL COPY
Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols (continued)
Abbreviation/symbol Definition
GLS Generalized least squares
H0 Null hypothesis, hypothesis under test
H1 (or Ha) Alternative hypothesis
HLM Hierarchical linear model(ing)
HSD Tukey's honestly significant difference
IRT Item response theory
k Coefficient of alienation; number of studies in a meta-analysis;
number of levels in an experimental design or individual
study
k2 Coefficient of nondetermination
KR2O Kuder—Richardson reliability index
LGC Latent growth curve
LL Lower limit (as of a Cl)
LR Likelihood ratio
LSD Least significant difference
M (or X) Sample mean, arithmetic average
MANOVA Multivariate analysis of variance
MANCOVA Multivariate analysis of covariance
MCMC Markov chain Monte Carlo
Mdn Median
MLE Maximum likelihood estimator, maximum likelihood estimate
MS Mean square
MSF Mean square error
n Number of cases (generally in a subsample)
N Total number of cases
ns Not statistically significant
OLS Ordinary least squares
OR Odds ratio
p Probability; probability of a success in a binary trial
Prep The probability a replication would give a result with the
same sign as the original result
PDF Probability density function
q Probability of a failure in a binary trial, 1 — p
o Test of homogeneity of effect sizes
Estimate of the Pearson product—moment correlation coefficient
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
Statistical Abbieviations and Symbols (continued)
Abbreviation/symbol Definition
The partial correlation of a and b with the effect of c removed
The part (or semipartial) correlation of a and b with the effect
of c removed from b
r2 Coefficient of determination; measure of strength of relation-
ship; estimate of the Pearson product—moment correlation
squared
Biserial correlation
rPb Point biserial correlation
Spearman rank order correlation
R Multiple correlation
Multiple correlation squared; measure of strength of association
AMSEA Root mean square error approximation
s Sample standard deviation (denominator
S Sample variance—covariance matrix
52
Sample variance (biased estimator) — denominator
82
Sample variance (unbiased) — denominator n — 1
SD Standard deviation
SE Standard error
SEM Standard error of measurement; standard error of the mean
SEM Structural equation modeling
SS Sum of squares
t Student's t distribution; a statistical test based on the
Student t distribution; the sample value of the t-test statistic
Generic effect size estimate
T2 Hotelling's multivariate test for the equality of the mean
vector in two multivariate populations
U The Mann—Whitney test statistic
UL Upper limit (as of a Cl)
V Pillai—Bartlett multivariate trace criterion; Cramer's measure
of association in contingency tables
Fixed effects weights
Wk. Random effects weights
W Kendall's coefficient of concordance and its estimate
WLS Weighted least squares
z A standardized score; the value of a statistic divided by its
standard error
STATISTICAL AND MATHEMATICAL COPY
Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols (continued)
Abbreviation/symbol Definition
Greek character set
In statistical hypothesis testing, the probability of making a
Type I error; Cronbach's index of interpal consistency (a
form of reliability)
In statistical hypothesis testing, the probability of making a
Type II error (1 — denotes statistical power); population
values of regression coefficients (with appropriate sub-
scripts as needed)
Goodman—Kruskal's index of relationship
Population value of Cohen's effect size: noncentrality
parameter in hypothesis testing and noncentral distributions
Measure of strength of relationship in analysis of variance
Increment of change
Measure of strength of relationship (eta squared)
Generic effect size in meta analysis
Roy's multivariate test criterion
Cohen's measure of agreement corrected for chance agreement
Element of a factor loading matrix
Goodman—KruSkal measure of predictability
Wilks's multivariate test criterion
Population mean; expected value
Degrees of freedom
Population product—moment correlation
Population intraclass correlation
Population standard deviation
Population variance
Population variance—covariance matrix
Kendall's rank-order correlation coefficient; Hotelling's multi-
variate trace criterion
Standard normal probability density function
Measure of association in contingency tables; standard
normal cumulative distribution function
The chi-square distribution: a statistical test based on the
chi-square distribution: the sample value of the chi-square
test statistic
In statistical hypothesis testing, a statistical contrast
a
r
o
A
Bk
0
K
A
I-I
V
p
P
a
a2
t
4'
'I'
THE MECHANICS OF STYLE
Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols (continued)
Abbreviation/symbol Definition
Strength of a statistical relationship
Mathematical symbols
lal Absolute value of a
I Summation
Note. Some forms are used as both abbreviations and symbols. Use the abbreviation form when referring to
the concept and the symbol form when specifying a numeric value. As a rule, the symbol torm will be either
a non-English letter or an itahcized version of the Engiish otter form. Most abbreviations can be turned into
symbols (for use when reporting numerical estimates) by simply italicizing the abbreviation. In addition, it is
acceptable to use the form estlo) orO to indicate an estimator or estimate of the parameter 9.
scripts (xi). However, place a superscript such as the symbol for prime right next to
its letter or symbol Because APA prefers to align subscripts and superscripts one
under the other (stacking) for ease of reading instead of setting one to the right of the
other (staggering), that is how they are normally typeset. If subscripts and superscripts
should not be stacked, so indicate in a cover letter or on the manuscript.
Equations
Punctuate all equations, whether they are in the line of text or displayed (i.e., typed on
a new line), to conform to their place in the syntax of the sentence (see the period fol-
lowing Equation 3 in section 4.48). If an equation exceeds the column width of a type-
set page (approximately 55 characters, including spaces, will fit on one line in most
APA journals), the typesetter will break it. For long equations, indicate on the final ver-
sion of the accepted manuscript where breaks would be acceptable.
4.47 Equations in Text
Place short and simple equations, such as a = [(1 + b)/x1112, in the line of text. Equations
in the line of text should not project above or below the line; for example, the equa-
tion above would be difficult to set in the line of text if it were in this form:
/i +b
a = Vx
To present fractions in the line of text, use a slanted line (I) and appropriate paren-
theses, brackets, and braces: Use ( ) first, then [C H, and finally {[( )fl. Use parentheses
and brackets to avoid ambiguity: Does a/b + c mean (a/b) + c or a/tb + c)?
4.48 Displayed Equations
Display simple equations if they must be numbered for later reference. Display all com-
plex equations. Number all displayed equations consecutively, with the number in
parentheses near the right margin of the page:
MXmEOUATIONS Ti
W1 ± ZhxI2ÔWj
When referring to numbered equations, write out the reference; for
example, write
Equation 3 (do not abbreviate as Eq. 3), or write the
third equation.
4.49 Preparing Statistical and Mathematical Copy
If possible, type all signs and symbols in mathematical copy.
Supply as camera-ready
copy any special symbols that cannot be produced by a word-processing program.
Type fences (i.e., parentheses, brackets, and braces), uppercase
and lowercase letters,
punctuation, subscripts and superscripts, and all other elements
exactly as you want
them to appear in the published article. Follow the conventions
for the use of symbols,
equations, and reporting results presented in the earlier sections
of this chapter.
(
L
of
pa
gr
ly
Un
str
gu
Displaying Results
S
ince the last edition of the Publication Manual, few areas have been affected by tech-
nological developments more dramatically than the methods available for the dis-
play of results of experimentation and inquiry—tables, graphs, charts, maps, draw-
ings, and photographs. Almost all displays are now the results of electronic manipulation
of basic data—be it with word-processing programs, spreadsheet programs, statistical
packages, or highly specialized software for creating digital images. These changes have
greatly increased the flexibility that authors have for effectively displaying results.
Tables and figures enable authors to present a large amount of information efficient-
ly and to make their data more comprehensible. Tables usually show numerical values or
textual information (e.g., lists of stimulus words) arranged in an orderly display of
columns and rows. A figure may be a chart, a graph, a photograph, a drawing, or any
other illustration or nontextual depiction. At times the boundary between tables and fig-
ures may be undear; however, tables are almost always characterized by a row—column
structure. Any type of illustration other than a table is referred to as a figure.
In this chapter, we discuss the purposes that data displays can serve and provide
guidance on designing and preparing data displays so that they communicate most
effectively. We provide specific guidance on formatting and constructing tables and fig-
ures, along with a number of illustrative examples.
General Guidance on Tables and Figures
5.01 Purposes of Data Displays
Data displays can serve several purposes:
• exploration: the data contain a message, and you would like to learn what it is
(exploratory data analysis and data mining techniques are examples of displays that
1 V are principally exploratory);
GENERAL GUIDANCE ON TABLES AND FIGURES
• communication: you have discovered the meaning contained in the data and want to
tell others about it (this is the traditional purpose of most data displays in scientific
documents);
• calculation: the display allows you to estimate some statistic or function of the data
(nomographs are the archetype of this);
• storage: you can store data in a display for retrieval later, including the results of a
study for later use in a meta-analysis (historically, this role has been fulfilled by
tables, but figures sometimes serve this purpose more efficiently); and
• decoration: data displays attract attention, and you may choose to use them to make
your manuscript more visually appealing (as in newspapers and other media reports).
In scientific publication, the communication function of graphical displays dominates;
however, other features (e.g., storage) may be useful in a graphical representation.
5.02 Design and Preparation of a Data Display
The first step in preparing a display for submission is to determine the purposes of the
display and the relative importance of those purposes. For example, the detail required
for a storage display may conflict with the clarity required for a communicative one.
Once you have decided on a display's hierarchy of purposes, choose the template best
designed for its primary purpose—the canonical form of a display. Such a display (e.g.,
a scatterplot) has shown itself to be flexible (it works for many kinds of data), robust
(it works reasonably well even when it is not exactly suitable), and adaptive (it shows
a capacity for adaptation to make it suitable). Further, the use of canonical forms sim-
plifies the task of readers trying to make sense of a display because they can rely on
past experience with the form.
The preparation of graphic materials requires careful attention to organization and
content. Graphical elements need to be edited with the same care as the textual ele-
ments of a manuscript. Changes in text often demand changes in graphical elements,
and failure to edit graphical materials and to sharpen the focus of the display is a major
shortcoming in much scientific writing.
Design your graphical display with the reader in mind; that is, remember the com-
municative function of the display.
• Place items that are to be compared next to each other.
• Place labels so that they clearly abut the elements they are labeling.
• Use fonts that are large enough to be read without the use of magnification.
• Include all of the information needed to understand it within the graphical image—
avoid novel abbreviations, use table notes, and label graphical elements.
• Keep graphical displays free of extraneous materials, no matter how decorative
those materials may make the graphic look.
Communication is the primary purpose of the graphic. This does not mean, however,
that well-designed, aesthetically pleasing graphics are not important. An attractive -]
graphical display makes a scientific article a more effective communication device.
5.03 Graphical Versus Textual Presentation
Be selective in choosing how many graphical elements to include in your paper. First,
a reader may have difficulty sorting through a large number of tables and figures and
DISPLAYING
may lose track of your message. Second, a disproportionately large number of tables
and figures compared with a small amount of text can cause problems with the layout
of typeset pages; text that is constantly broken up with tables will be hard for the read-
er to follow. Third, graphical presentations are not always optimal for effective com-
munication. For example, the results of many standard statistical significance tests can
often be effectively presented in text:
The one-way ANOVA, F(1, 136) = 4.86, MSE = 3.97, p = .029, = .03, demon-
strated statistically significant differences between the two groups, as theory
would dictate.
Information that used to be routinely presented in tables (e.g., analysis of variance
[ANOVA} tables) is now routinely presented in text.
5.04 Formatting Tables and Figures
Most manuscripts are now submitted electronically; therefore, all the elements of the
manuscript must be in electronic format. These elements may be produced in many
different file formats (e.g., , , .pps, ), and any publisher may limit the for-
mats it accepts. Most tables are constructed with the tables feature of the word-pro-
cessing program used to generate the manuscript text. However, tables are sometimes
cut and from computer outputs (rarely recommended) or may be PDF images
created from scans of tables prepared in other ways. When tables are prepared with
standard word-processing programs, the text can be converted directly into typo-
graphic files, thereby lowering the probability of typesetting errors. Figures are gen-
erally submitted in a variety of formats, as is necessitated by the multiple ways in
which they are produced. Often, figures such as graphs and charts are initially pro-
duced with presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint. Photographic ele-
ments are generally limited to specific image formats that allow for clear resolution
of the image in its printed application. As a rule, figures are reproduced in the print
version of articles as they are received from the author (following any editorial
changes approved by the editor).
For publishers that offer online supplemental archives, carefully delineate the
materials that will appear with the article from those that will be placed in the online
supplemental archive (see section 2.13). Because of the relatively high cost of color
reproduction, include it only when the color representation adds significantly to the
understanding of the material. If color representation is not crucial for immediate
understanding, you may consider placing it online as supplemental material.
5.05 Table and Figure Numbers
Number all tables and figures with Arabic numerals in the order in which they are first
mentioned in text, regardless of whether a more detailed discussion of the table or fig-
ure occurs later in the paper. Do not use suffix letters to number tables and figures;
that is, label them as Table 5, Table 6, and Table 7 or Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7
instead of 5, Sa, and Sb. If the manuscript includes an appendix with tables or figures,
identify those elements of the appendix with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g.,
Table Al is the first table of Appendix A or of a sole appendix that is not labeled with
a letter; Figure C2 is the second figure of Appendix C).
TABLES
5.06 Permission to Reproduce Data Displays
If you reproduced or adapted a table, figure, questionnaire, or test item from a copy-
righted source, you must obtain written permission for print and electronic reuse
from the copyright holder and give credit in the table or figure caption to the origi-
nal author and copyright holder. A number of commercial instruments—for example,
intelligence tests and projective measures—are highly protected. Permission is
required, and may be denied, to republish even one item from such instruments. Any
reproduced table (or figure) or part thereof must be accompanied by a note at the bot-
tom of the reprinted table (or in the figure caption) giving credit to the original author
and to the copyright holder (see section 2.12 for the correct wording of copyright per-
mission footnotes). For detailed information on copyright and permissions, see sec-
tion 6.10.
Tables
When planning tables for inclusion in a manuscript, determine (a) the data readers will
need to understand the discussion and (b) the data necessary to provide the "sufficient
set of statistics" (see section 4.44) to support the use of the inferential methods used.
5.07 Conciseness in Tables
Limit the content of your tables to essential materials. Tables with surplus elements
are less effective than lean tables. The principle of conciseness is relevant not only for
text tables but also for tables to be placed in online supplemental archives. Although
supplemental tables may be longer and more detailed than text tables, they must be
directly and clearly related to the content of the article (see section 2.13). Tables
should be integral to the text but should be designed so that they can be understood
in isolation.
5.08 Table Layout
The basic components of a prototypical table are shown in Table 5.1, including the
technical term, location, and definition of each element.
Table layout should be logical and easily grasped by the reader. Table entries that
are to be compared should be next to one another. Following this principle, in gener-
al, different indices (e.g., means, standard deviations, sample sizes) should be segregat-
ed into different parts or lines of tables. Position variable and condition labels in close
proximity to the values of the variable to facilitate comparison. Table 5.2 illustrates
these principles. 1;
All tables are meant to show something specific; for example, tables that com-
municate quantitative data are effective only when the data are arranged so that
their meaning is obvious at a glance (Wainer, 1997). Often, the same data can be
arranged in different ways to emphasize different features of the data. In Table 5.3,
the same factor loading data are displayed in two different ways. The first example
emphasizes the factor structure of the two test batteries by keeping the subscales of
the batteries adjacent to each other. The second arrangement of the same data
r
DISPLAYING RESULTS
• Table 5.1. Basic Components of a Table
i Girls
4Grade With Without
that
Wave 1
hoay.ul the tGbleJ
for further
)J4
L5
!hree
elf notbsâ'an'
Mow r'
the table, which
from the'
of the to ble
emphasizes the nature of the factors by grouping the subscales of the test batteries
according to the pattern of the factor loadings. Which arrangement is better
depends on your purpose.
5.09 Standard Forms
Some data tables have certain standard (canonical) forms. The advantage of using the
canonical form is that the reader generally knows where to look in the table for cer-
tain kinds of information. In some situations, one may want to use a format other than
of Children With and Without Proof of
Parental Citizenship
Boys
280 240
297
301
251
260
F .
With Without headiriQthjt
iOntftles the
entrlea jtist
onpoolumn ir
the
281 232 4 'tabli'
290 264
306 221 cell: of
'intersection
between a row'
and e column
Total 878 751 877 717
Wave 2
201 189 210
214 194 236
221 216 239
210
213
199
table body: roWs
of cells containing
primary data of
the table
622k 4..:Total 599 685
Note. General notes to a table appear here, including
definitions of abbreviations (see section 5.16).
°A specific note appears on a separate line below any general
notes; subsequent specific notes are run in (see section 5.16).
*A probability note (p value) appears on a separate line below
any specific notes; subsequent probability notes are run in (see
section 5.16 for more details on content).
TABLES
Table 5.2. Sample of Effective Table Layout
Table X
Proportion of Errors in Younger and Older Groups
Level of difficulty
Younger Older
n M (SD) 95% CI n M (SD) 95% Cl
Low 12 .05(08) [.02, .111 18 .14(15) [.08, .221
Moderate 15 .05 (.07) [.02, .101 12 .17 (.15) [.08, .281
High 16 .11 (.10) [.07, .17! 14 .26 (.21) [.15, .391
Note. CI = confidence interval.
the canonical table form to make a specific point or to stress certain relationships. The
judicious use of nonstandard forms can be effective but must always be motivated by
the special circumstances of the data array. When using nonstandard forms, make cer-
tain that labeling is extremely clear because most readers will assume that the canoni-
cal form is being used. Section 5.18 includes examples of standard tables for present-
ing several types of data.
5.10 Relation of Tables and Text
Discussing tables in text. An informative table supplements—rather than dupli-
cates—the text. In the text, refer to every table and tell the reader what to look for.
Discuss only the table's highlights; if you find yourself discussing every item of the
table in the text, the table is unnecessary. Similarly, if additional tables are to be
included in online supplemental archives, mention their existence only briefly in the
print version of the article. Tables designated as supplemental materials must be
accompanied by enough information to be completely understood on their own (see
section 2.13).
Citing tables. In the text, refer to tables by their number:
as shown in Table 8 the responses were provided by children with pretraining
Do not write "the table above" (or below) or "the table on page 32," because the posi- :t
tion and page number of a table cannot be determined until the pages are typeset.
5.11 Relation Between Tables
Consider combining tables that repeat data. Ordinarily, identical columns or rows of
data should not appear in two or more tables. Be consistent in the presentations of all
tables within a manuscript to facilitate comparisons. Use similar formats, titles, and
headings, and use the same terminology throughout (e.g., response time or reaction
time, not both).
r
DISPLAYING RESULTS
Table 5.3. Sample Factor Loadings Table (With Rotation Method Specified)
The following table is formatted to emphasize the structure of the test batteries.
Table X
Factor Loadings for Exploratory Factor Analysis With Varimax Rotation of Personality
Pathology Scales
Emotional
Scale Introversion Dysregulation Peculiarity
SPO Constricted Affect .77 .33 .21
Excessive Social Anxiety .43 .52 .29
Ideas of Reference —.08 .17 .67
No Friends .84 .19 .13
Odd Beliefs —.03 .13 .50
Odd Behavior .23 .19 .56
Odd Speech .15 .34 .56
Unusual Perceptions .09 .14 .76
DAPP Submissiveness .24 .70 .11
Cognitive Distortion .26 .70 .36
Identity Problems .52 .58 .16
Affective Lability .11 .73 .34
Restricted Expression .69 .31 .02
Passive Oppositionality .25 .70 .12
Intimacy Problems .63 .18 .03
Anxiousness .24 .83 .18
Conduct Problems .27 .10 .24
Suspiciousness .39 .36 .23
Social Avoidance .59 .67 .10
Insecure Attachment .04 .58 .26
Self-Harm .30 .38 .28
Chapman Magical Ideation .12 .17 .72
Social Anhedonia .78 .04 .26
Perceptual Aberrations .12 .25 .49
Physical Anhedonia .61 .05 —.15
Note. Factor loadings > .40 are in boldface. SPO = Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire; DAPP = Dimensional
Assessment of Personality Pathology—Basic Questionnaire.
(continued)
TABLES
S Table 5.3. Sample Factor Loadings Table (continued)
The following table is formatted to emphasize the structure of the factors.
Table X
Factor Loadings for Exploratory Factor Analysis With Varimax Rotation of Personality
Pathology Scales
Emotional
Scale I rttroversion Dysregulation
Peculiarity
SPO No Friends .84 .19
.13
Chapman Social Anhedonia .78 .04
.26
SPQ Constricted Affect .77 .33
.21
DAPP Restricted Expression .69 .31
.02
DAPP Intimacy Problems .63 .18
.03
Chapman Physical Anhedonia .61 .05 —.15
DAPP Social Avoidance .59 .67
.10
DAPP Identity Problems .52 .58
.16
SPQ Excessive Social Anxiety .43 .52 .29
DAPP Anxiousness .24 .83
.18
DAPP Affective Lability .11 .73
.34
DAPP Cognitive Distortion .26 .70
.36
DAPP Passive Oppositionality .25 .70
.12
DAPP Submissiveness .24 .70
.11
DAPP Insecure Attachment .04 .58 .26
Self-Harm .30 .38
.28
SPQ Unusual Perceptions .09 .14
.16
Chapman Magical Ideation .12 .17 .72
SPO Ideas of Reference —.08 .17
.67
SF0 Odd Speech .15 .34
.56
SPQ Odd Behavior .23 .19
.56
SPO Odd Beliefs —.03 .13
.50
Chapman Perceptual
Aberrations .12 .25
DAPP Suspiciousness .39 .36
DAPP Conduct Problems .27 .10
.49
.23
.24
Note. Factor loadings > .40 are in boldface. SPQ = Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire; DAPP =
Dimensional
Assessment of Personality—Basic Questionnaire. Adapted from “A Dimensional Model of Personality
Disorder: Incorporating DSM Cluster A characteristics. by J. L. Tackett, A. L. Silberschmidt. R. F. Krueger,
and S. H. Sponheim, 2008, Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 117, p. 457. Copyright 2008 by the American
Psychological Association.
I
11•
là
I
DISPLAYING
5.12 Table Titles
Give every table a brief but clear and explanatory title. The basic content of the table
should be easily inferred from the title.
Too general:
Table 1
Relation Between College Majors and Performance [It is unclear what data are
presented in the table.]
Too detailed:
Table 1
Mean Performance Scores on Test A, Test B, and Test C of Students With
Psychology, Physics, English, and Engineering Majors [This duplicates informa-
tion in the headings of the table.]
Good title:
Mean Performance Scores of Students With Different College Majors
Abbreviations that appear in the headings or the body of a table sometimes can be
parenthetically explained in the table title.
Hit and False-Alarm (FA) Proportions in Experiment 2
Explain abbreviations that require longer explanations or that do not relate to the
table title in a general note to the table (see section 5.16 and Table 5.2). Do not use a
specific footnote to clarify an element of the title.
5.13 Table Headings
A table classifies related items and enables the reader to compare them. Data form the
body of the table. Headings establish your organization of the data and identify the
columns of data beneath them. Like a table title, a heading should be brief and should
not be many more characters in length than the widest entry.
Poor: Better:
Grade level Grade
3 3
4 4
5 5
You may use standard abbreviations and symbols for nontechnical terms (e.g., no.
L
for number, % for percent) and for statistics (e.g., M, SD, or any other abbrevia-
tion in Table 4.4) in table headings without explanation. Abbreviations of technical
terms, group names, and the like must be explained in the table title or in a note to the
TABLES
table (see section 5.12). Abbreviations may also be explained parenthetically following
entries in the stub column.
Each column of a table must have a heading, including the stub column or stub,
which is the leftmost column of the table (see Table 5.1 for illustration of technical
terms). Subordination within the stub is easier to comprehend if you indent the stub
items rather than create an additional column (e.g., Tables 5.4 and 5.5). The stub usu-
ally lists the major independent or predictor variables. In Table 5.1, for instance, the
stub lists the grades. Number elements only when they appear in a correlation matrix
(see Table 5.6) or if they are referred to by number in text.
All headings identify items below them, not across from them. The headings just
above the body of the table (called column heads and column spanners) identify the
entries in the vertical columns in the body of the table. A column head covers just one
column; a column spanner covers two or more columns, each with its own column
I Stage II Test
Experiment 1
Block A+ AB+
CD+
B vs. D
Unblock intensity A+ AB+
CD+
Unblock number A+ AB++
CD++
Experiment 2 A+
C+
AB+ AD vs. BC
Experiment 3 A+
B+
C÷
D++
AD vs. BC
A,B,C,D
Experiment 4a A+ AB+ AD vs. BC
C+
Experiment 4b A+
C+
AB.s-+ AD vs. BC
Experiment 5 A+
C+
AB+
CD++
AD vs. BC
A, B, C, D
Note. A, B, C, and 0 were four conditioned stimuli: a clicker; tone, light, and flashing light, respectively
(counterbalanced). + denotes a 0.4-mA shock unconditioned stimulus: ++ denotes two 0.4-mA shocks; +
denotes a 0.8-mA unconditioned stimulus. Adapted from “unblocking in Pavlovian Fear Conditioning,” by
L. Bradfield and 0. P. McNally, 2008, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 34,
p. 259. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
S Table 5.4. Sample Table With Detailed Specifications of Complex
Experimental Designs
Table X
Summary of Experimental Designs
DISPLAYING RESULTS
Table 5.5. Sample Table Display of a Sample’s Characteristics
TableX
Individual and Family Characteristics as a Percentage of the Sample (Census Data in
Parentheses)
Mother Father Child
Characteristic (n = 750) In = 466) fri = 750)
Self-identity
Mexican 77.2 71.0 41.0
Mexican American 22.8 29.0 59.0
Nativitys
Mexico 74.2 (38.2) 80.0 (44.2) 29.7
United States 25.8 (61.8) 20.0 (55.8) 70.3
Language preferenceb
English 30.2 (52.7) 23.2 (52.7) 82.5 (70.0)
Spanish 69.8 (48.3) 76.8 (48.3) 17.5 (30.0)
Education level completed’
8th grade or less 29.2 (30.7) 30.2 (33.4)
Some high school 19.5 (20.9) 22.4 (22.6)
12th grade 23.1 (22.5) 20.9 (20.7)
Some college/vocational 22.0 (19.2) 20.2 (17.1)
training
Bachelors or higher 6.2 (6.8) 6.2 (6.2)
Employment statuse
Employed 63.6 (46.6) 96.6 (97.1)
Unemployed ii .2 (3.5) 3.5 (2.9)
Housewife 25.2
Note. Adapted from “Sampling and Recruitment in Studies of Cultural Influences on Adjustment: A case
Study With Mexican Americans,” by M. W. Roosa, F. F Liii, M. Torres, N. A. Gonzales, G. P. Knight, and
0. Saenz, 2008, Journal of Family Psychology 22, p. 300. Copyright 2008 by the American PsychologicalAssociation.
‘Census data are for all women or men and are not limited to parents or adults in our age group. bThe most
comparable census data for mothers and fathers are for all adults 18 and older and for children are for15- to 17-year-oids, CCensus data are for all women, not just mothers, whereas the male data are limited tohusbands.
head. Headings stacked in this way are called decked heads. Often decked heads can
be used to avoid repetition of words in column heads (see Table 5.1). If possible, do
not use more than two levels of decked heads.
Incorrect: Wordy: Correct:
Temporal Left Right Temporal lobe
lobe: Left Right temporal temporal
lobe lobe Left RightL
TABLES
Table 5.6. Sample Table of Correlations in Which the Values for Two
Samples Are Presented
Table X
Summary of Intercorre/ations, Means, and Standard Deviations
BD/, SAFE, and MEIM as a Function of Race
for Scores on the BSS,
Measure 1 2 3 4 M SD
1. BSS 54* .29* 1.31 4.32
2. BDI 54*
34* 8.33 7.76
3. SAFE .19* .30* —.074 47.18 13.24
4.MEIM —.09 —.11 —.08 — 47.19 6.26
M 1.50 9.13 39.07 37.78
SD 3.84 7.25 13.17 7.29
Note. Intercorrelations for African American participants In = 296) are presented above the diagonal, and
intercorrelations for European American participants (n = 163) are presented below the diagonal. Means and
standard deviations for African American students are presented in the vertical columns, and means and
standard deviations for European Americans are presented in the horizontal rows. For all scales, higher
scores are indicative of more extreme responding in the direction of the construct assessed. BSS Beck
Suicide Scale; BOl = Beck Depression Inventory; SAFE = Societal Attitudinal Familial Environmental; MEIM
= Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure. Adapted from ‘An Empirical Investigation of Stress and Ethnic
Identity as Moderators for Depression and Suicidal Ideation in College Students,’ by A. L. Walker, L. S.
Wingate, E. M. Obasi, and T. E. Joiner, 2008, cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 14, p. 78.
Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
.01.
A few tables may require table spanners in the body of the table. These table span-
ners cover the entire width of the body of the table, allowing for further divisions with-
in the table (see Tables 5.1 and 5.15). Also, table spanners can be used to combine two
tables provided they have identical column heads.
Any item within a column should be syntactically as well as conceptually comparable
with the other items in that column, and all items should be described by the column head:
Condition Condition
Functional psychotic Functional psychosis
Drinks to excess Alcoholism
Character disorder Character disorder
Stub heads, column heads, and column spanners should be singular unless they
refer to groups (e.g., Children), but table spanners may be plural. Capitalize only the
first letter of the first word of all headings (column heads, column spanners, stub
,fl
I.
I
Nonparallel: Parallel:
I
DISPLAYING
— Table 52. Sample Table of Results of Fitting Mathematical Models
Table X
F
Estimates [and 95% Confidence Intervals] for the
Conjoint Recognition Model for Experiment 5
Parameters of the Simplified
Parameter
List condition
pTarget-first Target-last Control
a .43
1.30, .571
.28
1.16, .401
.24
1.10, .38]
4.26 .12
b .26
[.19, .32]
.27
[.21, .33]
.19
[.13, .24]
4.68 .10
G1 .29
[.00, .631
.38
[.14, .631
.28
1.03, .53]
0.39 .82
Gr .43
[.19, .671
.70
[.55, .841
.72
[.56, .881
4.86 .09
.89
[.83, .94]
.81
[.75, .87]
.86
1.80, .91]
3.20 .20
yr
[61, .82]
°5b
[.00, .42]
’23b
[.00, .62]
20.89 <.01
Note. Parameter estimates in each row that share subscripts do not differ significantly, a = probability of
guessing "target"; b = probability of guessing that an item is either a target or a related probe; = probabil-
ity of retrieving a target's gist trace given a target probe; C, = probability of retrieving a target's gist trace
given a related probe; = probability of retrieving a target's verbatim trace given a target probe; = proba-
bility of retrieving a target's verbatim trace given a related probe. Adapted from "A Simplified conjoint
Recognition Paradigm for the Measurement of Gist and Verbatim Memory," by C. Stahl and K. C. Klauer,
2008, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and cognition, 34, p. 579. copyright 2008 by
the American Psychological Association.
heads, and table spanners) and word entries. Also, capitalize the first letter of each
word of all proper nouns and the first word following a colon or em dash.
5.14 Table Body
Decimal values. The table body contains the data. Express numerical values to the
number of decimal places that the precision of measurement justifies (see section 4.35),
and if possible, carry all comparable values to the same number of decimal places.
Empty cells. If the point of intersection between a row and a column (called a cell) can-
not be filled because data are not applicable, leave the cell blank. If a cell cannot be
filled because data were not obtained or are not reported, insert a dash in that cell and
explain the use of the dash in the general note to the table. By convention, a dash in
• TABLES
the main diagonal position of a
correlation matrix (see Table 5.6) indicates the corre-
lation of an item with itself, which must be 1.00, and is simply replaced by
the dash.
If you need to explain that an element of a table is
unavailable or inapplicable, use a
specific note rather than a dash (see section 5.16).
Conciseness. Be selective in your presentation.
Do not include columns of data that
can be calculated easily from other columns:
Not concise:
No. responses
First Second
Participant trial trial Total M
1 5 7
12 6
The example could be improved by giving either the number
of responses per trial
or the total number of responses,
whichever is more important to the discussion, and
by not including the column with the mean because its
calculation is simple.
5.15 confidence Intervals in Tables
When a table includes point estimates, for example, means,
correlations, or regression
slopes, it should also, where possible, include confidence
intervals. You may report
confidence intervals in tables either by using brackets, as in text
(see section 4.10) and
in Table 5.8, or by giving lower and upper limits in separate
columns, as in Table 5.9.
In every table that includes confidence intervals, state
the confidence level, for exam-
ple, 95%. It is usually best to use the same confidence level
throughout a paper.
5.16 Table Notes
Tables may have three kinds of notes placed below
the body of the table: general notes,
specific notes, and probability notes.
A general note qualifies, explains, or provides information
relating to the table as
a whole and ends with an explanation of any abbreviations,
symbols, and the like.
Included within general notes would be any acknowledgments
that a table is repro-
duced from another source. General notes are designated by
the word Note (italicized)
followed by a period. (See Tables 5.1 and 5.4, among others.)
Note. Factor loadings greater than .45 are shown in boldface.
M = match process;
N = nonmatch process.
A specific note refers to a
particular column, row, or cell. Specific notes are indi-
cated by superscript lowercase letters (e.g., abc). Within
the headings and table body,
order the superscripts from left to right and from top to
bottom, starting at the top left.
Table notes, general or specific, apply only to that specific
table and not to any other
table. Begin each table's first footnote with a superscript
lowercase a (see Table 5.5).
= 25. bThis participant did not complete the trials.
DISPLAYING RESULTS
Table 5.8. Sample Table Including Confidence Intervals With Brackets
Table X
Weight Status, Body Dissatisfaction, and Weight Control Behaviors at lime 1 and
Suicidal Ideation at lime 2
Adjusted for
demographic
Variable
Unadjusted' variablesb
OR 95% Cl OR 95% Cl
Weight status
Young men 0.97 10.78, 1.21] 0.94 [0.75, 1.191
Young women 1.06 [0.88, 1.26] 1.02 [0.85, 1.23]
Body dissatisfaction
Young men 0.88 10.50, 1.54] 0.99 10.56, 1.75]
Young women 1.06 10.77, 1.46] 1.02 [0.74, 1.421
UWCB
Young men 0.81 [0.54, 1.24] 0.77 10.50, 1.191
Young women 0.89 [0.65, 1.21] 0.93 10.68, 1.27]
EWC B
Young men 1.36 [0.55, 3.36] 1.73 [0.69, 4.37]
Young women 1.98 [1.34, 2.93] 2.00 11.34, 2.99]
Note. OR odds ratio; ci = confidence interval; = unhealthy weight control behaviors; EWCB =
extreme weight control behaviors. Adapted from "Are Body Dissatisfaction, Eating Disturbance, and Body
Mass Index Predictors of Suicidal Behavior in Adolescents? A Longitudinal Study,' by S. crow, M. E.
Eisenberg, M. Stow, and D. Neumark-Sztainer, 2008, Journal of consulting and clinical Psychology, 76,
p. 890. copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
'Four weight-related variables entered simultaneously. bAdjusted for race, socioeconomic status, and age
group.
A probability note indicates how asterisks and other symbols are used in a table to
indicate p values and thus the results of tests of statistical hypothesis testing. For results
of statistical significance testing in text and tables, report the exact probabilities to two
or three decimal places (e.g., p = .023 as opposed to p c .05; see Table 5.7 and section
4.35). When displaying the result in graphical modes (including certain tables such as
tables of correlation matrices), it may be difficult to follow this recommendation with-
out making the graphic unruly. Therefore, when displaying results graphically, revert
to reporting in the "p <" style if using exact probabilities would make it difficult to
comprehend the graphic. When discussing the results in the text, use exact probabili-
ties regardless of the display mode. Include a probability note only when relevant to
specific data within the table.
If the "p c" style is required, asterisks indicate ranges of p values. Assign the same
number of asterisks from table to table within your paper, such as *p < .05, 0p < .01,
and ***p < .001. Do not use any value smaller than ***p < .001.
TABLES
Table 5.9. Sample Table Including Confidence Intervals With Upper
and Lower Limits
Table X
Estimated Distance (cm) for Letter and Digit Stimuli
Condition M (SD)
95% CI
LL UL
Letters 14.5 (28.6) 5.4 23.6
Digits 31.8 (33.2) - 21.2 42.4
Note. Cl confidence interval; LL = lower limit, UL = upper limit.
If you need to distinguish between one-tailed and two-tailed tests in the same table,
use an asterisk for the two-tailed p values and an alternate symbol (e.g., dagger) for
the one-tailed p values.
*p < .05, two-tailed. **p < .01, two-tailed. tp .c .05, one-tailed.
ttp < .01, one-tailed.
C
To indicate statistically significant differences between two or more table entries— e
for example, means that are compared with procedures such as a Tukey test—use low-
ercase subscripts (see Table 5.7). Explain the use of the subscripts in the table note (see
the following sample table notes).
Note. Means sharing a common subscript are not statistically different at a =
.01 according to the Tukey HSD procedure.
Order the notes to a table in the following sequence: general note, specific note,
probability note (see Table 5.1).
Note. The participants . . . responses.
:1
*p<05**p<01
Each type of note begins flush left (i.e., no paragraph indentation) on a new line
below the table. The first specific note begins flush left on a new line under the gener-
al note; subsequent specific notes are run in (lengthy specific notes may be set on sep-
arate lines when typeset). The first probability note begins flush left on a new line; sub-
sequent probability notes are run in.
Notes can be useful for eliminating repetition from the body of a table. Certain I
types of information may be appropriate either in the table or in a note. To determine
the placement of such material, remember that clearly and efficiently organized data
enable the reader to focus on the data. Thus, if probability values or subsample sizes are
numerous, use a column rather than many notes. Conversely, if a row or column con-
tains few entries (or the same entry), eliminate the column by adding a note to the table:,'
Sc
cc
at
m
th
tic
ro
th
elt
fic
cal
Sec
fie
ful
DISPLAYING RESULTS
Poor: Better:
Group n Groupa
Anxious 15 Anxious
Depressed 15 Depressed
Control 15 Control
= 15
5.17 Ruling of Tables
Limit the use of rules (i.e., lines) in a table to those that are necessary for clarity.
Appropriately positioned white space can be an effective substitute for rules; for exam-pie, long, uninterrupted columns of numbers or words are more readable if a horizontal
line of space is inserted after every fourth or fifth entry. In the manuscript, use spacing
between columns and rows and strict alignment to clarify relationships within a table.Tables may be submitted either single- or double-spaced. Consider the readabilityof the table during the review process in making your decision.
5.18 Presenting Data in Specific Types of Tables
Complex experimental designs can be summarized in compact tables, making theentire structure of the experiment clear without the need for lengthy textual descrip-
tions (see Table 5.4).
Important characteristics of a sample can be concisely summarized in a well-organ-ized table. Providing comparable census data can help the reader understand the gen-eralizability of the results (see Table 5.5).
Key psychometric properties of the major variables can be easily summarized in atable (see Table 5.10). Clearly state the index of reliability (or other psychometricproperty) being used and the sample on which the reliability was based (if differentfrom the study sample).
Table 5.11 shows one-degree-offreedom within-subject contrasts within a largerset of effects, including both confidence intervals and effect sizes. In Table 5.6, note the
compact, yet information-packed, form in which the intercorrelations among the vari-ables for two different groups are presented in the same table—one group below the
main diagonal, the other above the main diagonal. Means and standard deviations forthe two groups are similarly positioned, with the Group 1 means and standard devia-tions given in the last two data columns and those for Group 2 in the last two datarows. Construction of a correlation matrix of this type not only is concise in terms ofthe amount of page space used but also makes the visual comparison of correlational
elements much easier.
Clearly label the type of regression (e.g., hierarchical) and type of regression coef-ficients (raw or standardized) being reported (see Tables 5.12 and 5.13). For hierarchi-cal and other sequential regressions, be sure to provide the increments of change (seesection 4.44).
In model-comparison tables, ensure that the competing models are clearly identi-fied and that the comparisons are clearly specified. Comparative fit indices can be use-ful for the reader (see Tables 5.14 and 5.15).
TABLES
Table 5.10. Sample Table Display of Psychometric Properties of Key
Outcome Variables
Table X
—
Variable n M SD a
Range
Potential Actual Skew
Dispositional
affectivity
Positive 560 327 0.77 .91 1—5 1.0—5.0 —0.36
Negative 563 2.26 0,79 .91 1—5 1.0—4.7 0.63
Social support
Mother 160 4.17 1.08 .92 1—5 1.0—5.0 —1.54
Partner 474 4.03 1.19 .94 1—5 1.0—5.0 —1.26
Friend 396 4.37 0.89 .90 1—5 1.0—5.0 —1.94
Social conflict
Mother 159 1.22 0.47 .81 1—5 1.0—3.6 3.07
Partner 471 1.40 0.79 .90 1—5 1.0—5.0 2.63
Friend 381 1.15 0.45 .79 1—5 1.0—5.0 5.27
Postabortion
adjustment
Distress 609 0.59 0.63 .90 0—4 0.0—3.0 1 .56
Well-being 606 4.60 0.69 .85 1—6 2.3—6.0 —0.53
The two illustrative samples in Table 5.3 demonstrate how table formatting can be
varied depending on the emphasis desired. Tables may contain entries other than just
numerals (e.g., text; see Table 5.16) as long as the basic row by column structure is
maintained.
Psychometric Properties of the Major Study Variables
C
E
p
E
C
Note. The variation in sample size is due to the variation in the number of women who told a particular source
about the abortion. Adapted from "Mixed Messages: Implications of Social Conflict and Social Support Within
Close Relationships for Adjustment to a Stressful Life Event," by B. Major, J. M. Zubek, M. L. Cooper.
C. Cozzarelli, and C. Richards, 1997, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, p. 1355. Copyright 1997
by the American Psychological Association.
DISPLAYING RESULTS
t Table 5.11. Sample Table of Statistical
Contrasts
Table X
Contrast of lime I With lime 2 For Exhaustion-only Group That Changed Toward
Burnout
Tirnel Time2 95% Cl
Cohen's
Variable M SD M SD t(34) p LL UL d
Workload 2.79 0.89 2.61 0.66 1.61 .12 —0.06 0.42 0.72
Control 3.60 0.83 3.13 1.18 1.91 .06 —0.05 0.98 0.85
Reward 3.58 0.82 3.26 0.62 1.68 .10 —0.08 0.70 0.75
Community 3.75 0.79 3.21 1.01 2.96 .006 0.16 0.92 1.32
Fairness 2.77 0.65 2.32 0.97 2.33 .03 0.05 0.85 1.04
Values 3.25 0.78 2.65 0.93 3.70 <.001 0.26 0.94 1.65
Exhaustion 3.16 0.96 3.62 0.95 —2.08 .05 —0.92 0.00 —0.93
Cynicism 0.92 0.38 3.30 1.05 —8.71 <.001 —2.95 —1.81 —3.89
Efficacy 4.54 1.08 4.38 1.25 0.51 .61 —0.49 0.80 0.23
Note. Cl = confidence interval; LL lower limit; UL = upper limit. Adapted from "Early Predictors of Job
Burnout and Engagement." by C. Maslach and M. Leiter, 2008, Journal of Applied Psychology; 93, p. 509.Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
L
TABLES
Table 5.12. Sample Regression Table
Table X
Predictors of Self-Reported Moral Behavior
Variable
Self-reported moral behavior
Model 1 B
Model 2
B 95% CI
Constant
3.192** 2.99** [2.37, 3.621
Gender 0.18* 0.17
[—0.00, 0.331
Age —0.06 —0.05
[—0.14, 0.031
Social desirability bias [—0.10, —0.051
Moral identity internalization [—0.26, —0.061
Moral identity symbolization 0.07* 0.06 [—0.01, 0.121
Perceptual moral attentiveness 0.07* [0.00, 0.131
Reflective moral attentiveness —0.01 [—0.08. 0.061
R2 .29
.31
F
19.07**
tsR2
.01
1sF
2.39
Note. N 242. ci confidence interval. Adapted from 'Moral Attentiveness: Who
Pays Attention to the
Moral Aspects of Life?" by S. J. Reynolds, 2008, Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, p. 1035. copyright 2008
by the American Psychological Association.
*p< .05. **p< .01.
1!
DISPLAYING RESULTS
• Table 5.13. Sample Hierarchical Multiple Regression Table
Table X
Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses Predicting Postahortion Positive Well-Being
From Preabortion Social Support and Preabortion Social Conflict With Mother, Partner,
and Friend
Predictor
Source of social support and social conflict
Mother Partner
AR2 J3 ARk
Friend
pAR2
Step 1 .13*
Control variablesa
Step 2 .16*** .19***
Positive affect .31*** .32*** 35***
Negativeaffect
Step3 .02 .05'" .01*
Social support .17* .17*** .081
Social conflict .09 —.08 —.06
Step 4 .01 .00 .00
Social Support x
Social Conflict —.14 —.00 —.07
Total R2 .32*** 33*** 34***
n 153 455 373
Note. Adapted from "Mixed Messages; Implications of Social Conflict and Social Support Within close
Relationships for Adjustment to a Stressful Life Event," by B. Major, J. M. Zubek, M. L. C. Cozzarelli,
and C. Richards, 1997, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72, p. 1359. copyright 1997 by the
American Psychological Association.
aControl variables included age, race, education, marital status, religion, abortion history, depression history,
and prior mental health counseling.
'p< .10. .05. ***p< .001.
TABLES
* Table 5.14. Sample Model Comparison Table
Table X
Fit Indices for Nested Sequence of Cross-Sectional Models
2. Quit & search intentions
Difference between
Model 2 and Model 1
3. Search intentions &
thoughts of quitting
Difference between
Model 3 and Model 1
4. Intentions to quit &
thoughts of quitting
Difference between
Model 4 and Model 1
5. One withdrawal cognition
Difference between
Model Sand Model 1
6. Horn, Griffeth, & Sallaro's
(1984) structural model
Difference between
Model 6 and Model 5
7. Structural null model
Difference between
Model 7 and Model 6
Model NFl
PFI X2diH NFl
1. Mobley's (1977)
measurement model 443.18* .92 .67
529.80* .89 .69
51 975* .90 .69
546.97* .89 .69
616.97* .87 .70
75437* .84 .71
2,74149* .23 .27
I,
_______
86.61* 03
76.57* .02
103.78* .03
173.79* .05
137.39* .03
1,987.13* .61
8. Null model
3,849.07*
Note. NFl = normed fit index; FF1 = parsimonious fit index. Adapted
from "Structural Equations Modeling
Test of a Turnover Theory: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Analyses,' by
P. W. Hom and B. W. Griffeth,
1991. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, p. 356. Copyright 1991 by the American
Psychological Association.
<.05.
-J
DISPLAYING RESULTS
Table 5.15. Sample Multilevel Model Table
Table X
Fixed Effects Estimates (Top) and Variance—Co variance Estimates (Bottom) for Mode/s
of the Predictors of Positive Parenting
Parameter Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Fixed effects
Intercept 12.51 (0.04) 1223(0.07) 12.23 (0.07) 12.23(0.07) 12.64(0.11)
Level 1
(child-specific)
Age (0.02) (0.02) _0.48* (0.02) _O.48* (0.02)
Age2 o.oe* (0.01) 0.06* (0.01) 0.06* (0.01) 0.06* (0.01)
Negative _0.56* (0.08) _0.53* (0.08) _Ø57* (0.09) _0.57* (0.09)
affectivity
Girl o.os (0.05) 0.05 (0.05) 0.04 (0.05) 0.07 (0.05)
Not bio. —034 (0.26) —0.28 (0.26) —0.28 (0.26) —030 (0.28)
mother
Not bio. father _0.34* (0.10) —0.31 * (0.10) _0.30* (0.10) —0.29(015)
Oldest sibhng 0.38* (0.07) 0.37* (0.07) 0.37* (0.07) 0.36* (0.07)
Middle sibling _0.36* (0.06) _0.34* (0.06) (0.06) _0.28* (0.06)
Level 2 (family)
SES 0.18* (0.06)
Marital ..0.43* (0.14)
dissatisfaction
Family size —041 * (0-08)
Single parent 0.09(0.19)
All-girl sibship
—020(0.13)
Mixed-gender _025* (0.10)
sibship
Random parameters
Level 2
Intercepv 513* (017) 487* (0.15) 4.92* (0.15) 4,86* (0.15) 4,79* (0.14)
intercept
Age/age 009* (0.01) 009* (001) 0.09* (0.01)
(continued)
Ag elm te rce Pt
Neg. affect/neg.
affect
Neg. affectl
intercept
age
—0.04 (0.03) —0.05 (0.03) —0.05 (0.03)
1.51 * (0.46) 1 .51 * (0.46)
-0.03 (0.20) —0.02 (0.20)
0.00 (0.05) —0.00 (0.05)
2.74* (0.06) 2.30* (0.07) 2.19* (0.07)
2.18* (0.07)
36,919.6 36,899.8 36,849.4
likelihood
Note. Standard errors are in parentheses. Not bio. mother = not living
with the biological mother; Not bio.
father = not living with the biological father; SES = socioeconomic status;
Neg. affect = negative affectivity.
Adapted from "The Bole of the Shared Family Context in Differential Parenting,"
by J. M. Jenkins,
J. Rasbash, and T. C. O'Connor, 2003, Developmental Psychology,
39, p. 104. copyright 2003 by the
American Psychological Association.
<.05.
F
Neg. affect/
Table 5.15. Sample Multilevel Model Table (continued)
Parameter Model 1 Model 2
Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
3.80* (0.08)
38,369.7
Level 1
lntercepU
intercept
(w0)
_2*log 37,001 .9
S Table 5.16. Sample Word Table
Table X
Inductively Developed Thematic Categories
Family trust Respect OR
and respect trust OR work
OR help
Family unity Family OR unity
01. F-low "should" husbands
wives, and children act?
What is the "right way' to
act? What are certain family
members supposed to do?
The husband is the one who
gives "orders." The wife
never says what she feels.
The children should "obey,"
no matter what.
Always share everything
equally and there should be
respect among everyone!
between couples and children.
Above all, there should be
family unity.
Values Tradition OR If she is a true believer, she
traditions continue OR
important
should always participate in
the traditions.
02. Many "traditional" peo-
ple like Maria believe that life
in a small rural town is better
than life in a big city. Please
tell me some of these
beliefs.
Al Small town Small town OR
life is better everybody knows
each other
Big city op- Live OR believe
portunities OR big cities
OR better
R3 Rural Life OR less stress
tranquility OR rural
It depends It depends OR more
opportunities
OR the city
Note. Adapted from "Traditions and Alcohol Use: A Mixed-Methods Analysis," by F. C. castro and K. Coe,
2007, cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, p. 276. Copyright 2007 by the American
Association.
Thematic Characteristic
Category category Key terms Level 3 responses
Family traditionalism
Fl
F2
F3
Macho
privilege
Man, woman, say,
house OR mother
F4
Rural lifestyle
Because there is so much
violence in the big city. .
You know your town and peo-
ple and you trust each other
like family.
Better to live in a big city
because there are more jobs
and educational opportunities.
I agree that life in a small town
is better because in a small
town life is more peaceful.
There is less gang activity and
overall life is more peaceful.
Sometimes it is true that rural
life is better. However, it's also
true that a big city can help
you or can destroy you; that
depends on you.
FIGURES
5.19 Table Checklist
The following checklist may help ensure that the data in your table are effectively pre-
sented and conform to the style rules presented in this chapter.
Figures
There are many different types of figures; however, certain principles are the same for
all figure types. The first consideration is the information value of the figure in the
text of the paper in which it is to appear. If the figure does not add substantively to the .1
understanding of the paper or duplicates other elements of the paper, it should not be>
5.20 Principles of Figure Use and Construction
Table Checklist
LI Is the table necessary?
LI Does it belong in the print version of the article, or can it go in an online sup-
plemental file?
LI Are all comparable tables in the manuscript consistent in presentation?
LI Is the title brief but explanatory?
LI Does every column have a column head?
LI Are all abbreviations explained, as well as special use of italics, parentheses,
italics, dashes, boldface, and special symbols?
LI Are the notes in the following order: general note, specific note, probability
note?
LI Are all vertical rules eliminated?
LI Are confidence intervals reported for all major point estimates? Is the confi-
dence level—for example, 95%—stated, and is the same level of confidence
used for all tables and throughout the paper?
LI If statistical significance testing is used, are all probability level values correct-
ly identified? Are asterisks attached to the appropriate table entries only
when needed (as opposed to stating exact probabilities)? When used, is a
probability level assigned the same number of asterisks in all tables in the
same paper?
LI If all or part of a copyrighted table is reproduced or adapted, do the table
notes give full credit to the copyright owner? Have you received written per-
mission for reuse (in print and electronic form) from the copyright holder and
sent a copy of that written permission to the journal editor with the ¶nal ver-
sion of your paper?
LI Is the table referred to in text?
a
c
e.
a
F
iz
5l
01
51
(s
at
DISPLAYING RESULTS
inc!uded. A second consideration is whether a figure is the best way to communicate
the information. In some cases (particularly when quantitative information is being
conveyed), a table may offer more precision than, say, a graph. A third consideration
is the degree to which the figure can be produced in a way that captures the essential
information features desired without visually distracting detail. When considering
inclusion of a figure, always remember that the information value of the figure must
dominate other decisions. If you focus on the principle of information value, other
questions—for example, use of color, use of photographic images, or magnitude of
cropping of a picture—should be relatively easy to resolve.
As with other elements of a manuscript, you may wish to consider placing some
figures in online supplemental materials archives when those are available. Figures
placed in online supplemental materials archives are those that would enrich the
understanding of the material presented in the print version of the article but are not
essential to the basic understanding of the material. You might want also to include
materials that cannot be displayed in print format, such as video clips. As with other
online supplemental materials, figures must be able to be understood on their own (see
section 2.13). Therefore label them clearly and use detailed legends.
5.21 Types of Figures
Many types of figures can be used to present data to the reader. Sometimes the choice
of which type to use will be obvious; at other times it will not. The more common types
of figures used are described next.
• Graphs typically display the relationship between two quantitative indices or
between a continuous quantitative variable (usually displayed as the y axis) and
groups of subjects displayed along the x axis.
• Charts generally display nonquantitative information such as the flow of subjects
through a process, for example, flow charts.
• Maps generally display spatial information.
• Drawings show information pictorially.
• Photographs contain direct visual representations of information.
Although these are general prototypes, there are many variations and versions of each,
and the distinctions among many of them are not cleat Computer-generated images
can be made to seem as if they are life-reflecting photographs, and photographs can be
engineered to look more like drawings. Whenever photographic images are changed in
a way that their basic information is modified, you must disclose the manipulation (see
section 5.29).
Figures can be effectively used to illustrate complex theoretical formulations (see
Figure 5.1) or to represent a theory graphically through a set of path models (see
Figure 5.2). They can also show the sampling and flow of subjects through a random-
ized clinical trial or other experiment (see Figure 5.3) or the flow of participants in a
survey study (see Figure 5.4). Figures can be used to illustrate the results of a one-way
design with error bars representing precision of the resulting estimates (see Figure 5.5)
or empirical results from a complex multivariate model (see Figure 5.6). They can also
show details concerning the kinds of responses being gathered and scoring methods
(see Figure 5.7) as well as details of an experimental laboratory set-up (see Figure 5.8)
and an experimental procedure (see Figure 5.9).
FIGURES
Figure 5.1. Complex Theoretical Formulations
1-ti
5.22 Standards for Figures
• augments rather than duplicates the text,
• conveys only essential facts,
• omits visually distracting detail,
I
‘Target’
“Target
‘Related”
‘Target”
“Related”
“New”
“Related”
“Target”
“Related”
“Target”
“Related”
“New”
Figure X. Processing tree model for the simplified conjoint recognition paradigm.
Rectangles on the left denote probe type, rectangles on the right denote responses.
They are connected by branches of the processing tree that represent the combina-
tion of cognitive processes postulated by the model. = probability of retrieving a
targets verbatim trace given a target probe = probability of retrieving a targets
verbatim trace given a related probe = probability of retrieving a targets gist trace
given a target probe; G, = probability of retrieving a target’s gist trace given a related
probe b = probability of guessing that an item is either a target or a related probe a
= probability of guessing “target.” Adapted from “A Simplified Conjoint Recognition
Paradigm for the Measurement of Gist and Verbatim Memory,” by C. Stahl and K. C.
Klauer, 2008, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
34, p. 573. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
The standards for good figures are simplicity, clarity, continuity, and (of course) infor-
mation value.
A good figure
U
.
U
U;
UI
• is easy to read—its elements (type, lines, labels, symbols, etc.) are large enough to
read with ease,
Ee
WI
7 DISPLAYING RESULTS
b) Indirect or Mediated Pathway
Figure X. Generic mediation model being tested (on the basis of Baron & Kenny,
1986). Adapted from Preschool Home Literacy Practices and Children’s Literacy
Development: A Longitudinal Analysis,” by M. Hood, F. Conlon, and C. Andrews,
2008, Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, p. 259. Copyright 2008 by the
American Psychological Association.
• is easy to understand—its purpose is readily apparent,
• is consistent with and in the same style as similar figures in the same article, and
• is carefully planned and prepared.
Be certain in figures of all types that
• lines are smooth and sharp,
• typeface is simple (sans serif) and legible,
• units of measure are provided,
• axes are clearly labeled, and
elements within the figure are labeled or explained.
Be certain, for instance, to distinguish between error bars and confidence intervals.When using confidence intervals, clearly specify the size of the interval (e.g., 95%);
S Figure 5.2. Theory Through a Set of Path Models
c
a) Direct Pathway
a
b
Mediators (Phonological
Awareness, Preschool Letter
Jdentification, Vocabulary)
FIGURES
Figure 5.3. Sampling and Flow of Subjects Through a Randomized
Clinical Trial or Other Experiment
Assessed for eligibility
In 96 couples)
for not meeting
inclusion criteria
In = 6)
Allocated to
parent-only group
In = 24 couplesl
Received lreatment
(n= 24)
Lost to follow-up:
Did not return to
posttest In = 2),
6-month In =
& 1-year In = 31
follow-up
Multilevel
modeling
analyzed In = 24)
Excluded from
analyses;
deleted Iistwise
for ANCOVA at
posttest In = 2),
6-month In = 3),
& 1-year In = 3)
follow-up
Randomized In = 90 couples)
Ilocated to parent
child group
In = 33 couples)
Received treatmen
In = 33)
Lost to follow-up:
Did not return to
posttest In = 4),
6-month In = 3),
& 1-year In = 4)
follow-up
Multilevel
modeling
analyzed In = 33)
Excluded from
analyses;
deleted listwise
for ANCOVA at
posttest In = 4),
6-month In = 3),
& 1-year In = 4)
follow-up
Allocated to self-
study group
In = 33 couples)
Received treatment
(n=33)
Lost to follow-up:
Did not return to
posttestln= 12),
6-month In= 3),
& 1-year In = 2)
follow-up
Multilevel
modeling
analyzed In = 33)
Excluded from
analyses;
deleted listwise
for ANC0VA at
posttestln= 12),
6-month In = 3),
& 1-year In = 2)
follow-up
[Allocation]
[ Analysis ]
Figure X. Participant flow chart following Consolidated Standards of Reporting
Trials guidelines. ANCOVA = analysis of covariance. Adapted from “Evaluating a
Brief Prevention Program for Improving Marital Conflict in Community Families,”
by E. M. Cummings, W. B. Faircloth, P. M. Mitchell, J. S. Cummings, and A. C.
the American Psychological Association.
Schermerhorn, 2008, Journal of Family Psychology, 22, p. 196. Copyright 2008 by
DiSPLAYING RESULTS
FIGURES
• symbols are easy to differentiate, and
V
Figure 5.5. Results of One-Way Design Using Error Bars to
Represent Precision of the Resulting Estimates
100
90
80
70
t60
o 50
0Io 40
30
20
10
I
Test 1, Day 1 Test 2, Day 1
Test
Figure X. Accuracy in Experiment 1 for each type of feedback and for each test.
Error bars represent standard errors. Points are offset horizontally so that error
bars are visible. Adapted from “When Does Feedback Facilitate Learning of
Words?” by H. Pashler, N. J. Cepeda, J. T. Wixted, and D. Rohrer, 2005, Journal
of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, p. 5.
Copyright 2005 by the American Psychological Association.
– – 0 s blank screen
– -t – 5 s blank screen
— Correcllincorrect
• Correct answer
• Nottestedoni or2
Final test,
1 week later
when using error bars, provide the label for the error (e.g., standard error of the
In addition, be sure in all figures that
• sufficient information is given in the legend to make the figure understandable on its ownf?
• the graphic is large enough for its elements to be discernible. I
In general, high-quality graphics software handles the technical aspects of coni
structing figures. However, do examine the resulting images to ensure that
guidelines have been followed and make any adjustments that might be needed.
DISPLAYING RESULTS
Figure 5.6. Empirical Results From a Complex Multivariate Model
.045
Figure X. Multitrait_multimethod
confirmatory factor analysis model of two corre-lated traits and two correlated methods across two measurement waves.Completely standardized robust maximum likelihood parameter estimates. Theresidual variance components (error variances) indicate the amount of unex-plained variance Thus, for each observed variable, = — error variance). GPA
= grade point average; IRT = item response theory; L2 = English. Adapted from”Native Language Proficiency, English Literacy, Academic Achievement, andOccupational Attainment in
Students: A Latent GrowthModeling Perspective,” by R. S. Guglielmi, 2008, Journal of Educational Psychology,100, p. 329. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.*p< .05. **p< ***p<
.001.
FIGURES
Figure 5.7. Kinds of Responses Being Gathered and Scoring Methods
Figure X. Drawing copy task with elephant by smaller deletion cases (Cases 1, 2,
and 3) and age and 10-matched full deletion William syndrome cases. Adapted
from Williams Syndrome Deficits in Visual Spatial Processing Linked to
GTF2IRD1 and GTF2I on Chromosome 7q1 1.23," by H. Hirota, R. Matsuoka,
X.-N. Chen, L. S. Salandanan, A. Lincoln, F E. Rose, . . . J. ft Korenberg, 2003,
Genetics in Medicine, 5, p. 318. Copyright 2003 by American College of Medical
Genetics. Reprinted with permission.
5.23 Figure Legends and Captions
A legend explains the symbols used in the figure; it is placed within the figure. A
tion is a concise explanation of the figure that is placed directly below the figure
serves as the title of the figure.
I
-À
L
V
C
ti
d
1!
DISPLAYING RESULTS
Figure 5.8. Details of an Experimental Laboratory Set-Up
Figure X Schematic drawings of a bird's eye view of the table (a) and the test phase
of the choice task (b). Numbers represent the dimensions in centimeters. Adapted
from "Visual Experience Enhances Infants' Use of Task-Relevant Information in an
Action Task," by S-h. Wang and L. Kohne, 2007, Developmental Psychology, 43,
p. 1515. Copyright 2003 by the American Psychological Association.
Legends. The legend is an integral part of the figure; therefore, it should have the same
kind and proportion of lettering that appear in the rest of the figure. Capitalize major
words in the legend.
Captions. The caption serves both as an explanation of the figure and as a figure title;
therefore, the figure itself should not include a title. The caption should be a brief but
descriptive phrase. Compare the following captions.
Too brief
Figure 3. Fixation duration
b.
FIGURES
Sufficiently descriptive:
Figure 3. Fixation duration as a function of the delay between the beginning of
eye fixation and the onset of the stimulus in Experiment 1.
After the descriptive phrase, add any information needed to clarify the figure: A
reader should not have to refer to the text to decipher the figure's message. Always
explain units of measurement, symbols, and abbreviations that are not included in the
legend. If your graph includes error bars, explain whether they represent standard
deviations, standard errors, confidence limits, or ranges; it is also helpful to display
sample sizes. If statistically significant values are marked in the figure, explain the
probability in the caption (follow the same system used for table notes; see section
5.16). Include within the caption any acknowledgment that a figure is reproduced
from another source (see section 2.12).
Make certain that the symbols, abbreviations, and terminology in the caption and
legend agree with the symbols, abbreviations, and terminology in the figure, in other
figures in the article, and in the text.
— Figure 5.9. Details of Experimental Procedure
Study Phase Picture Test
"no,,
"yes"
"no',
time
Figure X. Schematic of the criterial recollection task. At study, each black word was
followed by the same word in red letters (depicted in italics) or by a colored picture.
Black words were used at test as retrieval cues, under various retrieval instructions
(picture test shown, with correct responses in quotes). Adapted from "Retrieval
Monitoring and Anosognosia in Alzheirner's Disease," by D. A. Gallo, J. M. Chen,
A. L. Wiseman, D. L. Schacter, and A. E. Budson, 2007, Neuropsycho/ogy, 21,
p. 560. Copyright 2007 by the American Psychological Association.
I
11
DISPLAYING RESULTS
5.24 Planning Figures
When planning a figure, consider the following guidelines:
• Parallel figures or figures of equal importance should be of equal size and scale.
• Like figures should be combined to facilitate comparisons between them. For exam-
ple, two figures can be placed one above the other and treated as one figure. Two line
graphs with identical axes might be combined horizontally and treated as one figure.
• A figure legend should be positioned within the borders of the figure (see Figure 5.5).
Place labels for parts of a figure as close as possible to the components being identified.
5.25 Preparation of Figures
Figures intended for publication in scholarly journals should be computer generated
using professional-level graphic software. Always check the file type requirements of
the publisher to which you intend to submit your paper. Figures should be prepared at
a resolution sufficient to produce high-quality images; appropriate resolution depends
on figure type. Photographs (see section 5.29), for example, can be reproduced clear-
ly at lower resolution than that needed for line art.
Image dimensions should be such that files can be easily transferred electronically.
Avoid the use of three-dimensional and other effects (including color), except in rare
instances in which they demonstrably enhance the presentation of your data.
Individual publishers have stated policies with regard to color printing.
Size and proportion of elements. Each element must be large enough and sharp enough
to be legible. Use a simple typeface (such as Anal, Futura, or Helvetica) with enough
space between letters to avoid crowding. Letters should be clear, sharp, and uniformly
dark and should be sized consistently throughout the figure. Type style affects legibili-
ty. For example, boldface type tends to thicken and become less readable. The size of
lettering should be no smaller than 8 points and no larger than 14 points. As a general
guideline, plot symbols should be about the size of a lowercase letter of an average label
within the figure. Also consider the weight (i.e., size, density) of each element in a fig-
ure in relation to that of every other element, making the most important elements the
most prominent. For example, curves on line graphs and outlines of bars on bar graphs
should be bolder than axis labels, which should be bolder than the axes and tick marks.
Shading. Limit the number of different shadings used in a single graphic. If different
shadings are used to distinguish bars or segments of a graph, choose shadings that are
distinct (e.g., the best option to distinguish two sets of bars is no shading [openJ and
black fsolidj). If more than three shadings are required, a table may be a better pres-
entation of the data. Use computer-generated art in such a way as to maximize the clar-
ity of the resulting graphic. And as always, keep it simple and clean looking.
Presenting Electrophysiological, Radiological, and
Other Biological Data
The presentation of electrophysiological and radiological data presents special chal-
lenges because of both the complexity of the data and the lack of existence of a
PRESENTING OTHER BIOLOGICAL DATA
single convention for presentation of these types of data. The lack of a single, well-
established standard for presentation requires that labeling of all aspects of the
presentation be done clearly and completely (readers are referred to Devlin &
Poldrack, 2007; Mildenberger, Eichenberg, & Martin, 2002; Picton et al., 2000; see
also http://www.fmrimethods.org). Do not assume that readers will know the conven-
tion that you are following. In addition, most graphical and image-based representa-
tions of the basic data are highly processed, edited, and enhanced. The high level of
processing of these forms of data makes it essential that the processing methods are
clearly identified and that enhanced data (and the ensuing representation of such
enhanced data) are clearly and openly identified.
In selecting data elements to present in the print version of the document, focus
first on principles of clarity of representation, necessity for understanding, and coher-
ence among representations. With the availability of online supplemental archives,
carefully consider the readability of the text when deciding whether to include com-
plex graphs and images in the text proper. When materials are better viewed in non-
print media or when images and graphics contain more information than can easily be
comprehended in the usual print formats—for example, those that are greatly
enhanced through the use of color or instances in which numerous images are needed
to communicate the essential features of the study—consider the use of online supple-
mental archives for the presentation of the bulk of this information.
Many procedures used for the display of biologically related data use color,
motion, or other display features not best rendered in black-and-white printing. In par-
ticular, fMRI images are typically coded in color, where color differences indicate acti-
vation differences. In the genetics area, gene staining results are often presented in
color. Dynamical spread of brain activation can be displayed through color video clips.
In the material that follows, we present print examples that are appropriate for black-
and-white printing but also point to a number of examples (particularly those using
color) that are included on the APA Style website (www.apastyle.org).
5.26 Electrophysiological Data
When presenting electrophysiological data, clear labeling is essential; for example, in
the presentation of event-related brain potential data, it is essential that the direction
of negativity (i.e., negative up or down) be indicated as well as the scale of the
response. Information that is necessary for proper interpretation of the graphic, such
as number or placement of electrodes, should accompany the graphic display. The
graphic image and the points made in the text should be closely allied. Eliminate extra-
neous materials from graphic presentation (see Figure 5.10).
5.27 Radiological (Imaging) Data
When presenting brain images, clearly label each image. When axial or coronal sec-
tions are being displayed, clearly label which hemisphere is the left and which the right.
When saggital slices are displayed, clearly indicate whether each slice is of the right or
the left hemisphere. When slices are shown, show also an image that indicates where
the slices were taken to help orient the reader. Specify the coordinate space in which]
the images have been normalized (e.g., Talairach, MNI).
I
DISPLAYING RESULTS fl I
Figure 5.10. Event-Related Brain Potential Data
CP3
CP4
V
18
-100
ms 900
HS LS
Alcohol cue
Nonalcohol
_______
Neutral
Figure K Event-related brain potential waveforms elicited by alcoholic and nonal-coholic beverage cues as a function of sensitivity
group. Waveforms elicited by
frequent neutral (nontarget) images are presented for midline locations to illustratethe oddball effect in these data. Stimulus onset occurred at 0 ms. Electrodes arearrayed from most anterior (top) to most posterior (bottom) and from left to rightas they were positioned on the scalp. HS = high alcohol sensitivity group; LS = lowalcohol sensitivity group. Adapted from "Effects of Alcohol Sensitivity on P3Event-Related Potential Reactivity to Alcohol Cues," by B. D. Bartholow,
E. A. Henry, and S. A. Lust 2007, Psychology of Addict We Behaviors, 21, p. 560.Copyright 2007 by the American Psychological Association.
PRESENTING OTHER BIOLOGICAL DATA
V
Figure 5.11. Neuroimaging Data With
Information
Details of Processing
:4
2
Figure X. Lesion maps for the two right hemisphere patients plotted onto a normal
template brain using MRlcro software (Rorden & Brett, 2000). Affected regions
(translucent white) are plotted onto axial slices, with numbers above each slice
indicating Zcoordinates in Talairach space. Adapted from 'Central Perceptual Load
Does Not Reduce Ipsilesional Flanker Interference in Parietal Extinction," by J. C.
Snow and J. B. Mattingley, 2008, Neuropsychology, 22, p. 375. Copyright 2008 by
the American Psychological Association.
di
tE
UI
w
at
to
re
DISPLAYING RESULTS
Cutaway views of the brain that show activations interior to it can be useful if the
cutaways clearly depict the tissue that has been excised. When activations are super-imposed on a surface-rendered image of a brain, include a clear explanation of whatactivations are being shown, particularly with regard to the depth of the activationthat has been brought to the surface; the use of flattened surface images may helpmake the data clearer. When using color, use it consistently in all representations
within the document and clearly specify the color—scale mapping (see example atwww.apastyle.org).
Neuroimaging data almost always require extensive postacquisition processing.Details of the processing methods should accompany their display (see Figure 5.11).Photomicrographs are often used in cell-staining and other types of imaging stud-ies. When preparing photomicrographs, include a scale bar and staining materialsinformation in the figure caption.
5.28 Genetic Data
As with other displays of biological material, clear labeling enhances the display ofgenetic information such as deletion patterns—be they of the physical map variety(see Figure 5.12) or the photographic stain variety (see example at www.apastyle.org).
Present information concerning locations, distances, markers, and identification
methods with the figure. Genetic data displays often contain much information; care-ful editing of the image, and of its legend, can improve the communicative value ofthe figure.
5.29 Photographs
Photographic images are almost always submitted as digital files embedded in orattached to the electronic version of the manuscript. It is essential that these images besubmitted at appropriate levels of resolution.
Because reproduction softens contrast and detail in photographs, starting with richcontrast and sharp prints will improve the final print version of the image. The cam-era view and the lighting should highlight the subject and provide high contrast; a lightor dark background can provide even more contrast.
Photographs must be of professional quality and should be presented as black-and-white images, unless they include color-specific information relevant to the study (e.g.,differently colored stimuli). Submit the image as a file type appropriate to the needs ofthe publication to which you are submitting. Do not submit color image files for fig-ures intended for black-and-white printing; the transition from color to black andwhite for reproduction is unpredictable and can result in misleading images. It is theauthor's responsibility to ensure that the final representation is accurate. If color pho-
to authors for guidelinesk regarding color images.
Photographs usually benefit from cropping (i.e., eliminating what is not to be
just as careful editing of words can produce a more comprehensible text.Cropping recomposes the photo, eliminates extraneous detail, and centers the image.Before cropping, ensure that the image is straight (e.g., that vertical lines are truly ver-tical); use your software application to align the image if necessary. When used appro-Priately, these alterations can enhance and clarify the image and make it more useful
II
PRESENTING OTHER BIOLOGICAL DATA
as a means of scientific communication; they also help to protect the identity of indi-
viduals. However, the same technology can be used to deceive. Ethical principles of
publication forbid any intentional misrepresentation of images in exactly the same way
that fraudulent data manipulation is forbidden. When an image that might reasonably
be thought to be a photographic image (as opposed to an image that is clearly a con-
structed image—a table, chart, cartoon, etc.) has been altered in a manner beyond sim-
ple cropping, clearly indicate in a note that accompanies the image that it has been
altered.
If you photograph a person, obtain a signed release from that person to use the
photograph. If you use a photograph from another source, try to obtain the original
photograph because photographs of photographs do not print clearly. Obtain written I
permission for reuse (in both print and electronic form) from the copyright holder, and
acknowledge the author and the copyright holder in the figure caption (see section
5.06; see also section 2.12). You may need to obtain permission from the photogra-
pher as well because professional photographs do not meet all the criteria of work for
hire and are usually the property of the photographer.
Figure 5.12. Display of Genetic Material—Physical Map
I
I n. ! d' 'a
'I
tel —
tSSW a'a — P.'.
I,,— — —— — eIP,wIP
Typical William
Casel
Case2
* case 3
PiPACClSnn
FigureX. Physical map of the common Williams syndrome deletion. Genes map-
ping in this region are represented by black boxes (names reading vertically).
Bacterial artificial chromosomes, P1-derived artificial chromosomes, and cosmid
clones spanning this region are indicated below the genes and are described in
the Method section. The black horizontal lines depict the approximate size and
extent of deletions in the three cases with atypical deletions and in typical sub-
jects with Williams syndrome. Adapted from "Williams Syndrome Deficits in
Visual Spatial Processing Linked to GTF2IRD1 and GTF2I on Chromosome
7q1 1.23," by H. Hirota, R. Matsuoka, X.-N. Chen, L. S. Salandanan, A. Lincoln, F. F.
Rose, . . . J. R. Korenberg, 2003, Genetics in Medicine, 5, p. 315. Copyright 2003
by American College of Medical Genetics. Reprinted with permission.
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5.30 Figure Checklist
The following checklist may be helpful in ensuring that your figure communicates
most effectively and conforms to APA Style and formatting conventions.
Figure Checklist
Li Is the figure necessary?
Li Is the figure simple, clear, and free of extraneous detail?
LI Is the figure title descriptive of the content of the figure?
Li Are all elements of the figure clearly labeled?
Li Are the magnitude, scale, and direction of grid elements clearly labeled?
Li Are figures of equally important concepts prepared according to the same
scale?
Li Are all figures numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals?
Li Are all figures mentioned in the text?
Li Has written permission for print and electronic reuse been obtained? Is prop-
er credit given in the figure caption?
Li Have all substantive modifications to photographic images been disclosed?
Li Are the figures being submitted in a file format acceptable to the publisher?
Li Have the files been produced at a sufficiently high resolution to allow for
accurate reproduction?
L
Crediting Sources
S
cientific knowledge represents the accomplishments of many researchers over
time. A critical part of the writing process is helping readers place your contribu-
tion in context by citing the researchers who influenced you. In this chapter, we
provide the ground rules for acknowledging how others contributed to your work. We
begin by describing the appropriate level of citation and offer a brief review of plagia-
rism and self-plagiarism. Next, we offer guidelines on formatting quoted material in
text and information on seeking permission to reprint or adapt previously published
material. This is followed by instruction on citing sources in text and a description of
key elements of the reference list.
When to Cite
Cite the work of those individuals whose ideas, theories, or research have directly
influenced your work. They may provide key background information, support or dis-
pute your thesis, or offer critical definitions and data. Citation of an article implies that
you have personally read the cited work. In addition to crediting the ideas of others
that you used to build your thesis, provide documentation for all facts and figures that
are not common knowledge. Figure 6.1 provides an example of the appropriate level
of citation, adapted from an article in an APA journal.
The number of sources you cite in your work will vary by the intent of the article.
For most articles, aim to cite one or two of the most representative sources for each
key point. However, because the intent of a review article is to acquaint readers with
all that has been written on a topic, authors of literature reviews typically include a
more exhaustive list of citations.
6.01 Plagiarism
As stated in Chapter 1, "Authors do not present the work of another as if it were their
own work" (p. 16). Whether paraphrasing, quoting an author directly, or describing
an idea that influenced your work, you must credit the source. To avoid charges of pla-
giarism, take careful notes as you research to keep track of your sources and cite those
sources according to the guidelines presented in this chapter (see also section 1.10).
6.02 Self-Plagiarism
Whereas plagiarism refers to the practice of claiming credit for the words, ideas, and con-
cepts of others, self-plagiarism refers to the practice of presenting one's own previously
published work as though it were new. As noted in Chapter 1, "The core of the new doc-
ument must constitute an original contribution to knowledge, and only the amount of
previously published material necessary to understand that contribution should be
included, primarily in the discussion of theory and methodology" (p 16) Avoid charges
of self-plagiarism by familiarizing yourself with the ethical standards regarding duplicate
publication and the legal standards of fair use (see also section 1.10).
Quoting and Paraphrasing
6.03 Direct Quotation of Sources
Reproduce word for word material directly quoted from another author's work or
from your own previously published work, material replicated from a test item, and
verbatim instructions to participants. When quoting, always provide the author, yea;
and specific page citation or paragraph number for nonpaginated material (see sec-
tion 6.05) in the text and include a complete reference in the reference list (see Citing
References in Text, p. 174, for exceptions to this rule).
If the quotation comprises fewer than 40 words, incorporate it into text and
enclose the quotation with double quotation marks. If the quotation appears in mid-
QUOTING AND PARAPHRASING
Example of Appropriate Citation Level
Left-handers make up 8% to 13% of most human populations, with left-handedness more
common in men than in women (Gilbert & Wysocki, 1992; McManus, 1991). Secondary
school and university students engaged in "interactive" sports such as tennis and basket-
ball are significantly more likely to be left-handed than those engaged in "noninteractive"
sports such as swimming or rowing, or than those in the general population (Grouios,
Tsorbatzoudis, Alexandris, & Barkoukis, 2000; Raymond et al., 1996). One possible
explanation for this handedness bias is that left-handers are better than right-handers at
some visuomotor tasks, as has been invoked to explain the left-handed bias among elite
tennis players (Holtzen, 2000).
Note. Adapted from "Frequency-Dependent Performance and Handedness in Professional
Baseball Players (Homo sapiens)," by [. D. Clotfelter, 2008, Journal of Comparative
Psychology, 122, p. 68. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
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sentence, end the passage with quotation marks, cite the source in parentheses imme-diately after the quotation marks, and continue the sentence. Use no other punctuationunless the meaning of the sentence requires such punctuation.
Interpreting these results, Robbins et al. (2003) suggested that the "therapistsin dropout cases may have inadvertently validated parental negativity about the
adolescent without adequately responding to the adolescent's needs or con-cerns" (p. 541), contributing to an overall climate of negativity.
If the quotation appears at the end of a sentence, close the quoted passage with quo-tation marks, cite the source in parentheses immediately after the quotation marks,and end with a period or other punctuation outside the final parenthesis.
Confusing this issue is the overlapping nature of roles in palliative care, whereby"medical needs are met by those in the medical disciplines; nonmedical needsmay be addressed by anyone on the team" (Csikai & Chaitin, 2006, p. 112).
If the quotation comprises 40 or more words, display it in a freestanding block of textand omit the quotation marks. Start such a block quotation on a new line and indentthe block about a half inch from the left margin (in the same position as a new para-graph). If there are additional paragraphs within the quotation, indent the first line ofeach an additional half inch. Double-space the entire quotation. At the end of a blockquotation, cite the quoted source and the page or paragraph number in parenthesesafter the final punctuation mark,
Others have contradicted this view:
Co-presence does not ensure intimate interaction among all group mem-
bers. Consider large-scale social gatherings in which hundreds or thousandsof people gather in a location to perform a ritual or celebrate an event.
In these instances, participants are able to see the visible manifestation
of the group, the physical gathering, yet their ability to make direct, intimateconnections with those around them is limited by the sheer magnitude ofthe assembly. (Purcell, 1997, pp. 111—112)
Alternatively, if the quoted source is cited in the sentence introducing the block quote(e.g., "In 1997, Purcell contradicted this view .."), only the page or paragraph num-ber is needed at the end of the quotation.
6.04 Paraphrasing Material
When paraphrasing or referring to an idea contained in another work, you are encour-aged to provide a page or paragraph number, especially when it would help an inter-ested reader locate the relevant passage in a long or complex text.
6.05 Direct Quotations of Online Material Without Pagination
Credit direct quotations of online material by giving the autho4 and pagenumber in parentheses. Many electronic sources do not provide page numbers. If
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QUOTING AND PARAPHRASING
paragraph numbers are visible, use them in place of page numbers. Use the abbre-
viation para.
Basu and Jones (2007) went so far as to suggest the need for a new "intellectual
framework in which to consider the nature and form of regulation in cyberspace"
(para. 4).
If the document includes headings and neither paragraph nor page numbers are
visible, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph following it to direct the
reader to the location of the quoted material.
In their study, Verbunt, Pernot, and Smeets (2008) found that "the level of perceived
disability in patients with fibromyalgia seemed best explained by their mental health
condition and less by their physical condition" (Discussion section, para. 1).
In some cases in which no page or paragraph numbers are visible, headings may be too
unwieldy to cite in full. Instead, use a short title enclosed in quotation marks for the
parenthetical citation:
"Empirical studies have found mixed results on the efficacy of labels in educat-
ing consumers and changing consumption behavior" (Golan, Kuchler, & Krissof,
2007, "Mandatory Labeling Has Targeted," para. 4).
(The heading was "Mandatory Labeling Has Targeted Information Gaps and Social
Objectives.")
6.06 Accuracy of Quotations (
Direct quotations must be accurate, Except as noted here and in sections 6.07 and
6.08, the quotation must follow the wording, spelling, and interior punctuation of the
original source, even if the source is incorrect.
If any incorrect spelling, punctuation, or grammar in the source might confuse read-
ers, insert the word sic, italicized and bracketed, immediately after the error in the quo' r
tation. (See sections 4.08 and 4.10 regarding the use of brackets in quotations.) Always
check the manuscript copy against the source to ensure that there are no discrepancies.
6.07 Changes From the Source Requiring No Explanation
The first letter of the first word in a quotation may be changed to an uppercase or a
lowercase letter. The punctuation mark at the end of a sentence may be changed to fit t
the syntax. Single quotation marks may be changed to double quotation marks and
vice versa. Any other changes (e.g., italicizing words for emphasis or omitting
see section 6.08) must be explicitly indicated.
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Omitting material. Use three spaced ellipsis points (. . .) within a sentence to indicate ii
that you have omitted material from the original source. Use four points to
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6.08 Changes From the Source Requiring Explanation
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CREDITING SOURCES
any omission between two sentences. The first point indicates the period at the end of
the first sentence quoted, and the three spaced ellipsis points follow. Do not use ellip-
sis points at the beginning or end of any quotation unless, to prevent misinterpretation,,
you need to emphasize that the quotation begins or ends in midsentence.
Inserting material. Use brackets, not parentheses, to enclose material such as an addi-
tion or explanation inserted in a quotation by some person other than the original
author (see also the second example in section 4.10).
"They are studying, from an evolutionary perspective, to what extent [children's]
play is a luxury that can be dispensed with when there are too many other com-
peting claims on the growing brain (Henig, 2008, p. 40).
Adding emphasis. If you want to emphasize a word or words in a quotation, italicize
the word or words. Immediately after the italicized words, insert within brackets the
words emphasis added, that is, [emphasis added] (see section 4.08, second example).
6.09 Citations Within Quotations
Do not omit citations embedded within the original material you are quoting. The
works cited need not be included in the list of references (unless you happen to cite
them as primary sources elsewhere in your paper).
"In the United States, the American Cancer Society (2007) estimated that about
1 million cases of NMSC and 59,940 cases of melanoma would be diagnosed in
2007, with melanoma resulting in 8,110 deaths" (Miller et al., 2009, p. 209).
6.10 Permission to Quote, Reprint, or Adapt
• You may need written permission from the owner of copyrighted work if you include
lengthy quotations or if you include reprinted or adapted tables or figures. Reprinting
indicates that the material is reproduced exactly as it appeared originally, without mod-
ifications, in the way in which it was intended Adaptation refers to the modification of
material so that it is suitable for a new purpose (e g, paraphrasing or presenting an
original theory or idea discussed in a long passage in a published article in a new way
that suits your study; using part of a table or figure in a new table or figure in your man-
uscript) Requirements for obtaining permission to quote copyrighted material vary
from one copyright owner to another; for example, APA policy permits authors to use,
with some exceptions, a maximum of three figures or tables from a journal article or
book chapter, single text extracts of fewer than 400 words, or a series of text extracts
•
that total fewer than 800 words without requesting formal permission from APA. It is
important to check with the publisher or copyright owner regarding specific require-
ments for permission to quote from or adapt copyrighted material.
It is the author's responsibility to find out whether permission is required from the
copyright owner and to obtain it for both print and electronic reuse. APA cannot pub-
lish previously copyrighted material that exceeds the copyright holder's determination
of "fair use" without permission.
If you must obtain written permission from the copyright owner, append a foot-
note to the quoted material with a superscript number, and in the footnote acknowl-
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CITING REFERENCES IN TEXT
edge permission from the owner of the copyright. Format the footnote as shown in
Chapter 2, section 2.12.
Citing References in Text
References in APA publications are cited in text with an author—date citation system
and are listed alphabetically in the reference list. This style of citation briefly identifies
the source for readers and enables them to locate the source of information in the
alphabetical reference list at the end of the article. Each reference cited in text must
appear in the reference list, and each entry in the reference list must be cited in text.
Make certain that each source referenced appears in both places and that the text cita-
tion and reference list entry are identical in spelling of author names and year.
However, two kinds of material are cited only in the text: references to classical
works such as the Bible and the Qur'an, whose sections are standardized across edi-
tions, and references to personal communications (see sections 6.18 and 6.20).
References in a meta-analysis are not cited in text unless they are also mentioned in the
text (see section 6.26)
6.11 One Work by One Author
The author—date method of citation requires that the surname of the author (do not
include suffixes such as Jr.) and the year of publication be inserted in the text at the
appropriate point:
Kessler (2003) found that among epidemiological samples
Early onset results in a more persistent and severe course (Kessler. 2003).
If the name of the author appears as part of the narrative, as in the first example,
cite only the year of publication in parentheses. Otherwise, place both the name and
the year, separated by a comma, in parentheses (as in the second example). Even if the
reference includes month and year, include only the year in the text citation. In the rare
case in which both the year and the author are given as part of the textual discussion,
do not add parenthetical information:
In 2003, Kessler's study of epidemiological samples showed that
Within a paragraph, when the name of the author is part of the narrative (as in the
first example above), you need not include the year in subsequent nonparenthetical ref-
erences to a study as long as the study cannot be confused with other studies cited in
the article. Do include the year in all parenthetical citations:
Among epidemiological samples, Kessler (2003) found that early onset social
anxiety disorder results in a more potent and severe course. Kessler also
found. . . . The study also showed that there was a high rate of comorbidity
with alcohol abuse or dependence and major depression (Kessler, 2003).
However, when both the name and the year are in parentheses (as in the second:
example above), include the year in subsequent citations within the paragraph:
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Early onset results in a more persistent and severe course (Kessler, 2003).
Kessler (2003) also found.
6.12 One Work by Multiple Authors
When a work has two authors, cite both names every time the reference occurs in text.When a work has three, foui or five authors, cite all authors the first time the refer-ence occurs; in subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first author fol-
lowed by at at. (not italicized and with a period after al) and the year if it is the first
citation of the reference within a paragraph.
Kisangau, Lyaruu, Hosea, and Joseph (2007) found [Use as first citation in text.]
Kisangau et ai. (2007) found [Use as subsequent first citation per paragraph
thereafter.]
Kisangau et ai. found [Omit year from subsequent citations after first nonpar-
enthetical citation within a paragraph. Include the year in subsequent citationsif first citation within a paragraph is parenthetical. See section 6.11.]
Exception: If two references of more than three surnames with the same year shortento the same form (e.g., both Ireys, Chernoff, DeVet, & Kim, 2001, and Ireys, Chernoff,Stein, DeVet, & Silver, 2001, shorten to Ireys et al., 2001), cite the surnames of the firstauthors and of as many of the subsequent authors as necessary to distinguish the tworeferences, followed by a comma and at at.
keys, Chernoff, DeVet, et al. (2001) and Ireys, Chernoff, Stein, et al. (2001)
Precede the final name in a multiple-author citation in running text by the wordand. In parenthetical material, in tables and captions, and in the reference list, join thenames by an ampersand (&):
as Kurtines and Szapocznik (2003) demonstrated
as has been shown (Jöreskog & Sorbom, 2007)
When a work has six or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author fol-lowed by at at. (not italicized and with a period after al) and the year for the first andsubsequent citations. (See section 6.27 and Example 2 in Chapter 7 for how to cite workswith more than six authors in the reference list.) If two references with six or moreauthors shorten to the same form, cite the surnames of the first authors and of as manyof the subsequent authors as necessary to distinguish the two references, followed by acomma and at at. For example, suppose you have entries for the following references:
Kosslyn, Koenig, Barrett, Cave, Tang, and Gabrieli (1996)
Kosslyn, Koenig, Gabrieli, Tang, Marsolek, and Daly (1996)
In text you would cite them, respectively, as
Kosslyn, Barrett, et al. (1996) and Kosslyn, Koenig, Gabrieli, et al. (1996)
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Table 6.1 illustrates the basic citation styles. Exceptions and citation styles that do not
work in the tabular format are discussed in text or included as part of the example
references.
6.13 Groups as Authors
The names of groups that serve as authors (e.g., corporations, associations, govern-
ment agencies, and study groups) are usually spelled out each time they appear in a
text citation. The names of some group authors are spelled out in the first citation and
abbreviated thereafter. In deciding whether to abbreviate the name of a group author,
use the general rule that you need to give enough information in the text citation for
the reader to locate the entry in the reference list without difficulty. If the name is long
and cumbersome and if the abbreviation is familiar or readily understandable, you
may abbreviate the name in the second and subsequent citations. If the name is short
or if the abbreviation would not be readily understandable, write out the name each
time it occurs (see examples in Table 6.1).
6.14 Authors With the Same Surname
If a reference list includes publications by two or more primary authors with the same
surname, include the first author's initials in all text citations, even if the year of pub-
lication differs. Initials help the reader to avoid confusion within the text and to locate
the entry in the list of references (see section 6.25 for the order of appearance in the
reference list).
References:
Light, I. (2006). Deflecting immigration: Networks, markets, and regulation in Los
Angeles. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Light, M. A., & Light, I. H. (2008). The geographic expansion of Mexican immigra-
tion in the United States and its implications for local law enforcement. Law
Enforcement Executive Forum Journal, 8, 73—82.
Text Cites:
Among studies, we review M. A. Light and Light (2008) and I. Light (2006).
6.15 Works With No Identified Author or With an Anonymous
Author j
When a work has no identified author, cite in text the first few words of the reference
list entry (usually the title) and the year. Use double quotation marks around the title
of an article, a chapter, or a web page and italicize the title of a periodical, a book, al
brochure, or a report:
on free care ("Study Finds," 2007)
the book College Bound Seniors (2008)
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A
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6.
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Basic CitatiQn Styles H
Parenthetical
Subsequent format, first Parenthetical formatType of First citation citations citation subsequent citationsCitation in text in text in text in text
One work by one Walker (2007) Walker (2007) (Walker, 2007) (Walker, 2007)author
One work by two Walker and Walker and (Walker & (Walker & Alien, 2004)authors Allen (2004) Alien (2004) Allen, 2004)
One work by three Bradley, Bradley et al. (Bradley, (Bradley et al., 1999)authors Ramjrez (1999) Ramirez, &
and Soo
Soo, 1999)
(1999)
One work by four Bradley, Bradley et al. (Bradley, (Bradley et al., 2006)authors Ramirez, (2006) Ramirez,
Soo, and Soo, &
Walsh
Walsh, 2006)
(2006)
One work by five Walker, Alien, Walker et al. (Walker, Allen, (Walker et al., 2008)authors Bradley, (2008) Bradley,
Ramirez,
Ramirez, &
and Soo
Soo, 2008)
(2008)
One work by six or Wasserstein Wasserstein (Wasserstein (Wasserstejn et al.,more authors et al. (2005) et al. (2005) et al., 2005) 2005)
Groups (readily National NIMH (2003) (National (NIMH, 2003)identified through Institute of Institute ofabbreviation) as Mental Mentalauthors Health Health
(NIMH,
[NIMHJ,
2003) 2003)
Groups (no University of University of (University of (University of Pitts-abbreviation) as Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, burgh, 2005)authors (2005) (2005) 2005)
Treat references to legal materials like references to works with no author; that is, intext, cite materials such as court cases, statutes, and legislation by the first few wordsof the reference and the year (see Appendix 7.1 for the format of text citations and ref-erences for legal materials).
When a work's author is designated as "Anonymous," cite in text the wordAnonymous followed by a comma and the date:
(Anonymous, 1998)
In the reference list, an anonymous work is alphabetized by the word Anonymous (seesection 6.25).
6.16 Two or More Works Within the Same Parentheses
Order the citations of or more works within the same parentheses alphabeticallyin the same order in which they appear in the reference list (including citations thatWould otherwise shorten to et at).
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Arrange two or more works by the same authors (in the same order) by year of
publication. Place in-press citations last. Give the authors' surnames once; for each
subsequent work, give only the date.
Training materials are available (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2001, 2003)
Past research (Gogel, 1990, 2006, in press)
Identify works by the same author (or by the same two or more authors in the
same order) with the same publication date by the suffixes a, b, c, and so forth, after
the year; repeat the year. The suffixes are assigned in the reference list, where these
kinds of references are ordered alphabetically by title (of the article, chapter, or com-
plete work).
Several studies (Derryberry & Reed, 2005a, 2005b, in press-a; Rothbart, 2003a,
2003b)
List two or more works by different authors who are cited within the same paren-
theses in alphabetical order by the first author's surname. Separate the citations with
semicolons.
Several studies (Miller, 1999; Shafranske & Mahoney, 1998)
Exception: You may separate a major citation from other citations within parentheses
by inserting a phrase, such as see also, before the first of the remaining citations, which
should be in alphabetical order:
(Minor, 2001; see also Adams, 1999; Storandt, 2007)
6.17 Secondary Sources
Use secondary sources sparingly, for instance, when the original work is out of print,
unavailable through usual sources, or not available in English. Give the secondary
source in the reference list; in text, name the original work and give a citation for the
secondary source. For example, if Aliport's work is cited in Nicholson and you did not
read Allport's work, list the Nicholson reference in the reference list. In the text, use
the following citation:
Allport's diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003).
6.18 Classical Works
When a date of publication is inapplicable, such as for some very old works, cite the
year of the translation you used, preceded by trans., or the year of the version you used,
followed by version. When you know the original date of publication, include it in thej
citation.
(Aristotle, trans. 1931)
James (1 890/1 983)
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Reference list entries are not required for major classical works, such as ancientGreek and Roman works or classical religious works; simply identify in the first cita-
tion in the text the version you used. Parts of classical works (e.g., books, chapters,
verses, lines, cantos) are numbered systematically across all editions, so use these num-bers instead of page numbers when referring to specific parts of your source:
1 Cor. 13:1 (Revised Standard Version)
(Qur'an 5:3—4)
6.19 Citing Specific Parts of a Source
To cite a specific part of a source, indicate the page, chapter, figure, table, or equation
at the appropriate point in text. Always give page numbers for quotations (see section
6.03). Note that page, but not chapter, is abbreviated in such text citations:
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005, p. 10)
(Shimamura, 1989, Chapter 3)
For guidance on citing electronic sources that do not provide page numbers, seesection 6.05.
See section 6.18 for citing parts of classical works.
6.20 Personal Communications
Personal communications may be private letters, memos, some electronic communica-
tions (e.g., e-mail or messages from nonarchived discussion groups or electronic bul-
letin boards), personal interviews, telephone conversations, and the like. Because they
do not provide recoverable data, personal communications are not included in the ref-
erence list. Cite personal communications in text only, Give the initials as well as the
surname of the communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible:
T. K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001)
(V.-G. Nguyen, personal communication, September 28, 1998)
Use your judgment in citing other electronic forms as personal communications; online
networks currently provide a casual forum for communicating, and what you cite
should have scholarly relevance,
Some forms of personal communication are recoverable, and these should be ref-
erenced as archival materials. See section 7.10 for templates, descriptions, and exam-
ples of archival sources in the reference list.
6.21 Citations in Parenthetical Material
In a citation that appears in parenthetical text, use commas, not brackets, to set offthe date:
(see Table 3 of U.S. Department of Labor, 2007, for complete data)
REFERENCE LIST
Reference List
The reference list at the end of a journal article provides the information necessary to
identify and retrieve each source. Choose references judiciously and include only the
sources that you used in the research and preparation of the article. APA journals and
other journals using APA Style generally require reference lists, not bibliographies.1
APA requires that the reference list be double-spaced and that entries have a hanging
indent. Because a reference list includes only references that document the article and
provide recoverable data, do not include in the list personal communications, such as
letters, memoranda, and informal electronic communications. Instead, cite personal
communications only in text (see section 6.20 for format).
6.22 Construction of an Accurate and Complete Reference List
Because one purpose of listing references is to enable readers to retrieve and use the
sources, reference data must be correct and complete. Each entry usually contains the
following elements: author, year of publication, title, and publishing data—all the
information necessary for unique identification and library search. The best way to
ensure that information is accurate and complete is to check each reference carefully
against the original publication. Give special attention to spelling of proper names and
of words in foreign languages, including accents or other special marks, and to com-
pleteness of journal titles, years, volume and issue numbers, page numbers, and elec-
tronic retrieval data. Authors are responsible for all information in their reference lists.
Accurately prepared references help establish your credibility as a careful researcher.
Abbreviations. Acceptable abbreviations in the reference list for parts of books and
other publications include the following:
Abbreviation Book or publication part
ed. edition
Rev. ed. Revised edition
2nd ed. second edition
Ed. (Eds.) Editor (Editors)
Trans. Translator(s)
nd. no date
p. (pp.) page (pages)
Vol. Volume (as in Vol. 4)
Vols. Volumes (as in Vols. 1—4)
No. Number
Pt. Part
Tech. Rep. Technical Report
Suppl. Supplement
Arabic numerals. Although some volume numbers of books and journals are given
Roman numerals, APA journals use Arabic numerals (e.g., Vol. 3, not Vol. III)
they use less space and are easier to comprehend than Roman numerals. A Roman numeil
al that is part of a title should remain Roman (e.g., Attention and Performance XIII). I
'Note that a reference list cites works that specifically support a particular article. In contrast, a bibliography
works for background or for further reading and may include descriptive notes.
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6.23 Consistency
Consistency in reference style is important, especially in light of evolving technologiesin database indexing, such as automatic indexing by database crawlers. These com-puter programs use algorithms to capture data from primary articles as well as fromthe article reference list. If reference elements are out of order or incomplete, the algo-rithm may not recognize them, lowering the likelihood that the reference will be cap-tured for indexing. With this in mind, follow the general formats for placement of dataand use the electronic reference guidelines detailed in this chapter to decide which dataare necessary to allow readers to access the sources you used.
6.24 Using the Archival Copy or Version of Record
When using information and data retrieved online, check to see whether you are citingthe appropriate version of your reference source. In-progress and final versions of thesame work might coexist on the Internet, which can present challenges in determiningwhich version is most current and most authoritative. In most cases, it is best to citethe archival version or version of record, which has been peer-reviewed and may pro-vide additional links to online supplemental material. If the most current version avail-able was an advance release version at the time that you originally cited it, recheck thesource and update its publication status as close as possible to the publication date ofyour work (see section 6.32).
6.25 Order of References in the Reference List
The principles for arranging entries in a reference list are described next. You may alsofind it helpful to look at the reference list in Chapter 2 in the sample manuscript andat reference lists in journals that are published in APA Style.
Alphabetizing names. Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of the firstauthor followed by initials of the author's given name, and use the following rules forspecial cases:
• Alphabetize by the author's surname. This surname/given name formula is com-monly used in Western countries but is less commonly used in many Eastern coun-tries. If you are uncertain about the proper format for a name, check with the authorfor the preferred form or consult the author's previous publication for the common-ly used form (e.g., Chen Zhe may publish under Zhe Chen in the United Staçes).• Alphabetize letter by letter. When alphabetizing surnames, remember that "nothingprecedes something": Brown, J. R., precedes Browning, A. R., even though i pre-cedes fin the alphabet.
Singh, Y., precedes Singh Sjddhu N.
LOpez, M. F., precedes Lopez de Molina, G.
Ibn Abdijlazjz T., precedes lbn Nidal, A. K. M.
Girard, J.-B., precedes Girard-Perregaux A. S.
Villafuerte, S. A., precedes VilIa-Lobos, 3.
Benjamin, A. S., precedes ben Yaakov, D.
• Alphabetize the prefixes M', Mc, and Mac literally, not as if they were all spelled
Mac. Disregard the apostrophe: MacArthur precedes McAllister, and MacNeil pre-
cedes M'Carthy.
• Alphabetize. entries with numerals chronologically (e.g., Macomber, J., II, precedes
Macomber, J., Ill).
Order of several works by the same first author. When ordering several works by the
same first author, give the author's name in the first and all subsequent references, and
use the following rules to arrange the entries:
• One-author entries by the same author are arranged by year of publication, the ear-
liest first:
Upenieks, V. (2003).
Upenieks, V. (2005).
• One-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same sur-
name (even if the multiple-author work was published earlier):
Alleyne, R. L. (2001).
Alleyne, R. L., & Evans, A. J. (1999).
• References with the same first author and different second or
arranged alphabetically by the surname of the second author or, if
is the same, the surname of the third author, and so on:
Boockvar, K. S., & Burack, 0. R. (2007).
Boockvar, K. S., Carison LaCorte, H., Giambanco, V., Friedman,
(2006).
D., Firsching, A., & Brown, J. (1999).
Hayward, D., Firsching, A., & Smigel, J. (1999).
• References with the same authors in the same order are arranged by year of publi-
cation, the earliest first:
Cabading, J. R., & Wright. K. (2000).
Cabading, J. R., & Wright. K. (2001).
• References by the same author (or by the same two or more authors in the same order)
with the same publication date are arranged alphabetically by title (excluding A or The).
Exception: If the references with the same authors published in the same year are iden-
tified as articles in a series (e.g., Part 1 and Part 2), order the references in the series
order, not alphabetically by title.
Place lowercase letters—a, b, c, and so forth—immediately after the year, withitC
the parentheses:
Baheti, J. R. (2001a). Control
Baheti, J. R. (2001b). Roles of
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REFERENCE LIST
third authors are
the second author
B., &Siu,A.
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Order of several works by different first authors with the same surname. Arrange worksby different authors with the same surname alphabetically by first initial:
Mathur, A. L., & Wallston, U. (1999).
Mathur, S. E., & Ahiers, A. J. (1998).
Note: Include initials with the surname of the first author in text citations (see sec-tion 6.14).
Order of works with group authors or with no authors. Occasionally, a work will haveas its author an agency, association,
or institution, or it will have no author at all.Alphabetize group authors, such as associations or government agencies, by thefirst significant word of the name. Full official names should be used (e.g., AmericanPsychological Association, not APA). A parent body precedes a subdivision (e.g.,University of Michigan, Department of Psychology).
If, and only if, the work is signed "Anonymous," begin the entry with the wordAnonymous spelled out, and alphabetize the entry as if Anonymous were a true name.If there is no author, move the title to the author position, and alphabetize theentry by the first significant word of the title.
Treat legal references like references with no author; that is, alphabetize legal ref-erences by the first significant item in the entry (word or abbreviation). SeeAppendix 7.1 for the format of references for legal materials and ways to cite themin the text.
6.26 References Included in a Meta-Analysis
If the number of articles contributing studies to the meta-analysis is relatively small(e.g., about 50 or fewer), they should appear in the reference list with an asteriskincluded to identify them. If the number of articles in the meta-analysis exceeds SO,then the references to the articles should be placed in a list and submitted as an onlinesupplemental archive. In this second case, if an article is mentioned in the text and isincluded in the meta-analysis, it should be cited both in the reference list and in thesupplemental materials.
Add the following statement before the first reference entry: References markedwith an asterisk indicate studies included in the mete-analysis. The in-text citations tostudies selected for meta-analysis are not preceded by asterisks.
Bancjura A. U. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.*Bretschneider J. G., & McCoy, N. L. (1968). Sexual interest and behavior in
healthy 80- to 1 02-year-oids. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 14, 343—350.
Reference Components
In general, a reference should contain the author name, date of publication, title ofthe work, and publication data. The following sections (6.27—6.31) describe theseComponents Detailed notes on style accompany the description of each element, andexample numbers given in parentheses correspond to examples in Chapter 7 in sec-tions 7.1—7.11.
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REFERENCE COMPONENTS
6.27 Author and Editor Information
Authors.
• Invert all authors' names; give surnames and initials for up to and including seven
authors (e.g., Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C.). When authors number
eight or more, include the first six authors' names, then insert three ellipses, and add
the last author's name (see Chapter 7, Example 2). In text, follow the citation guide-
lines in section 6.12.
• If the reference list includes different authors with the same surname and first initial,
the authors' full first names may be given in brackets:
Janet, P. [Paul]. (1876). La notion de Ia personnalité [The notion of personality].
Revue Scientifique, 10, 574—575.
Janet P [Pierrel. (1906). The pathogenesis of some impulsions. Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 1, 1—17.
In text:
(Paul Janet, 1876)
(Pierre Janet, 1906)
• If an author's first name is hyphenated, retain the hyphen and include a period after
each initial (Lamour, J.-B., for Jean-Baptiste Lamour).
• Use commas to separate authors, to separate surnames and initials, and to separate
initials and suffixes (e.g., Jr. and Ill; see Chapter 7, Example 24); with two to seven
authors, use an ampersand (&) before the last author.
• Spell out the full name of a group author (e.g., Royal Institute of Technology; National
Institute of Mental Health; see Chapter 7, Examples 31, 32, 35, 68). In a reference to
a work with a group author (e.g., study group, government agency, association, cor-
poration), a period follows the author element.
• If authors are listed with the word with, include them in the reference in parenthe-
ses: Bulatao, E. (with Winford, C. A.). The text citation, however, refers to the pri-
mary author only.
• In a reference to a work with no author, move the title to the author position, before
the date of publication (see Chapter 7, Examples 9, 30, 71). A period follows the
title.
Editors.
• In a reference to an edited book, place the editors' names in the author position, and
enclose the abbreviation Ed. or Eds. in parentheses after the last editor's name.
period follows the parenthetical abbreviation (Eds.).
• In a reference to a chapter in an edited book, invert the chapter authors' names ad
noted above but do not invert book editors' names.
• The name of the book editor should be preceded by the word In. Provide initials
surnames for all editors (for substantial reference works with a large editorial
naming the lead editor followed by et al. is acceptable).
Author, A. A. (2008). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), litle of book (pp.
Location: Publisher.
• For a book with no editor, simply include the word In before the book title.
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6.28 Publication Date
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• Give in parentheses the year the work was published (for unpublished or informallypublished works, give the year the work was produced).
• For magazines, newsletters, and newspapers, give the year and the exact date of thepublication (month or month and day), separated by a comma and enclosed inparentheses (see Chapter 7, Examples 7—11). If the date is given as a season, give theyear and the season, separated by a comma and enclosed in parentheses.
• For papers and posters presented at meetings, give the year and month of the meet-ing, separated by a comma and enclosed in parentheses.
• Write in press in parentheses for articles that have been accepted for publication butthat have not yet been published (see Chapter 7, Example 6). Do not give a date untilthe article has actually been published. (To reference a paper that is still in progress,under review, or being revised, see Chapter 7, Example 59.)
• If no date is available, write nd. in parentheses.
• For several volumes in a multivolume work or several letters from the same collec-tion, express the date as a range of years from earliest to latest (see Chapter 7,Examples 23 and 65).
• For archival sources, indicate an estimated date that is reasonably certain but notstated on the document by using Ca. (circa) and enclose the information in squarebrackets (see Chapter 7, Example 67).
• Finish the element with a period after the closing parenthesis.
6.29 Title
Article or chapter title. Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, ifany, and any proper nouns; do not italicize the title or place quotation marks aroundit. Finish the element with a period.
Mental and nervous diseases in the Russo-Japanese war: A historical analysis.
Periodical title: Journals, newsletters, magazines. Give the periodical title in full, inuppercase and lowercase letters, Italicize the name of the periodical.
Social Science Quarterly
Nonperiodical title: Books and reports.
I Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, if any, and any propernouns; italicize the title.
• Enclose additional information given on the publication for its identification andretrieval (e.g., edition, report number, volume number) in parentheses immediatelyafter the title. Do not use a period between the title and the parenthetical informa-tion; do not italicize the parenthetical information.
Development of entry-level tests to select FBI special agents (Publication No.FR-PR D-94--06).
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COMPONENTS
• If a volume is part of a larger, separately
titled series or collection, treat the series
and volume titles as a two-part title (see Chapter 7,
Example 24).
• Finish the element with a period.
Nonroutine information in titles. If
nonroutine information is important for identification
and retrieval, provide it in brackets
immediately after the title and any parenthetical
information. Capitalize the first letter of the notation.
Brackets indicate a description
of form, not a title. Here are some of the more
common notations that help identify
works:
Notation
(Letter to the editor]
[Special issue]
[Special section]
(Monograph]
[Abstracfl
[Audio podcast]
[Data file]
[Brochure]
[Motion picturel
[Lecture notes]
[CD]
• Include the journal issue number (if
available) along with the volume number if the
journa[ is paginated separately by issue (see
Chapter 7, Examples 3, 7, 8). Give the
issue number in parentheses immediately
after the volume number; do not italicize
it. Give inclusive page numbers on which the
cited material appears.
• Finish the element with a period.
Social Science Quarterly, 84, 508—525.
• Periodical publisher names and locations are
genera[ly not included in references,
accordance with long practice.
I
NonperiodiCats Books and reports
• Give the location (city and state or, if outside of the United States, city
and countr4
where the publisher is located as noted on the
title page for books;
brochures; and other separate, nonperiodica[ publications. 1
[Computer software]
[Video webcast]
[Supplemental material]
Periodicals: Journals, newsletters, magazines.
• Give the volume number after the
periodical title; ita[icize it. Do not use Vol. before
the number.
6.30 Publication Information
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• If the publisher is a university and the name of the state or province is included in
the name of the university, do not repeat the name in the publisher location.
• The names of U.S. states and territories are abbreviated in the reference list and in
the Method section (suppliers' locations); use the official two-letter U.S. Postal
Service abbreviations. To cite locations outside the United States, spell out the city
and the country names. However, if you are publishing outside the United States or
for an international readership, check your institution's or publisher's specific style
guidelines for writing out or abbreviating state, province, territory, and country
names.
• Use a colon after the location.
• Give the name of the publisher in as brief a form as is intelligible. Write out the
names of associations, corporations, and university presses, but omit superfluous
terms, such as Publishers, Co., and Inc., which are not required to identify the pub-
lisher. Retain the words Books and Press.
• If two or more publisher locations are given in the book, give the location listed first
or, if specified, the location of the publisher's home office.
• When the author is also the publisher, use Author to indicate the publisher.
Finish the element with a period.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Washington, DC: Author.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Pretoria, South Africa: Unisa.
6.31 Electronic Sources and Locator Information
Since this manual was last updated, electronic journal publishing has gone from being
the exception to the rule Publishing in the online environment has greatly increased
the efficiency of publication processes and has contributed to a more vibrant and timely
sharing of research results However, the electronic dissemination of information has
also led to a number of new publishing models. Unedited articles can now be dissem-
mated on the Internet in advance of publication. Links to supplementary material such
as long data sets and videos can be embedded in electronic articles and made accessi-
ble with a simple click. Corrections that were formerly noted in a subsequent journal
I. issue can now be made with no fanfare as a simple update to online files. All of these
circumstances have called for new ways of tracking digital information.
In this new environment, some former models for referencing material no longer
apply. It is not always clear how to distinguish the advance online version of an arti-
cle from the final published version or how to determine which is the "version of
record" (see section 6.24). Moreover, readers may be consulting the electronic version
with supplemental material or the print version of the same article without supplemen-
tal material. In the ephemeral world of the web, article links are not always robust.
In general, we recommend that you include the same elements, in the same order,
as you would for a reference to a fixed-media source and add as much electronic
retrieval information as needed for others to locate the sources you cited. We discuss
some key elements of the electronic retrieval process, beginning with some general
information about uniform resource locators (URLs) and digital object identifiers
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REFERENCE COMPONENTS
(DOTs) and ending with formatting guidance for citing publication
data from electron-
ic sources.
Understanding a URL. The URL is used to map digital information on
the Internet. The
components of a URL are as follows:
Protocol Host name Path to document Ill
File name of specific
document
Protocol indicates what method a web browser (or other type of Internet
software)
should use to exchange data with the file server on which the
desired document resides.
The protocols recognized by most browsers are hypertext transfer
protocol (HTTP),
hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS), and file transfer
protocol (FTP). In a
URL, the protocol is followed by a colon and two forward slashes (e.g., http:/I).
Host or domain name identifies the server on which the files
reside. On the web,
it is often the address for an organization's home page (e.g.,
http://www.apa.org is the
address for APA's home page). Although many domain names start
with "www," not
all do (e.g., http://journals.apa.org is the home page for APA's
electronic journals, and
http://members.apa.org is the entry page to the members-only portion of the APA site).
The domain name is not case sensitive; for consistency and ease
of reading, always type
it in lowercase letters.
The domain name extension (in the preceding example, ".org") can
help you deter-
mine the appropriateness of the source for your purpose.
Different extensions are used
depending on what entity hosts the site. For example, the extensions
".edu" and ".org"
are for educational institutions and nonprofit organizations, respectively;
".gov" and
mil" are used for government and military sites, respectively,
and" com" and " biz"
are used for commercial sites Domain name extensions may
also include a country
code (e g, " ca" for Canada or " nz" for New Zealand) The rest
of the address mdi
cates the directory path leading to the desired document.
All content on the Internet is prone to being moved, restructured, or deleted,
resulting in broken hyperlinks and nonworking URLs in the
reference list. In an
attempt to resolve this problem, scholarly publishers have
begun assigning a DO! to
journal articles and other documents.
The DOl system. Developed by a group of international publishers, the DOl
provides a means of persistent identification for managing information on
digital net
works (see http://www.doi.org/). The DOI System is implemented
through registratioiij
agencies such as CrossRef, which provides citation-linking
services for the
publishing sector. According to their mission statement, CrossRef is dedicated
enable easy identification and use of trustworthy electronic content
by promotiiC
the cooperative development and application of a sustainable
(http://www.crossref.Orgfl.
CrossRef's participants have developed a system that provides two critical
tions. First, they assign each article a "unique identifier
and underlying routing
tem" that functions as a clearinghouse to direct readers to content,
regardless of whefl
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CREDiTING SOURCES
the content resides (Kasdorf, 2003, p. 646). Second, they collaborate to use the DOl
as an underlying linking mechanism "embedded" in the reference lists of electronic
articles that allows click-through access to each reference. CrossRef currently has more
than 2,600 participating publishers and scholarly societies.
The 001 as anicle identifiet A DOl is a unique alphanumeric string assigned by a
registration agency (the International DOT Foundation) to identify content and provide
a persistent link to its location on the Tnternet.
The publisher assigns a DO! when your article is published and made available
electronically. All DOT numbers begin with a 10 and contain a prefix and a suffix sep-
arated by a slash. The prefix is a unique number of four or more digits assigned to
organizations; the suffix is assigned by the publisher and was designed to be flexible
with publisher identification standards. We recommend that when DOIs are available,
you include them for both print and electronic sources.
The DO! is typically located on the first page of the electronic journal article, near
the copyright notice (see Figure 6.2). The DO! can also be found on the database land-
ing page for the article (see Figure 6.3).
The linking function of DOls. The DOIs in the reference list function as links to the
content you are referencing. The DO! may be hidden under a button labeled Article,
CrossRef, PubMed, or another full-text vendor name (see Figure 6.4). Readers can
then click on the button to view the actual article or to view an abstract and an oppor-
tunity to purchase a copy of the item. Tf the link is not live or if the DOT is referenced
in a print publication, the reader can simply enter the DOI into the DOI resolver
search field provided by the registration agency CrossRef.org and be directed to the
article or a link to purchase it (see Figure 6.5). Locating the article online with the DOT
will give you electronic access to any online supplemental archives associated with the
article (see section 2.13 regarding supplemental materials).
6.32 Providing Publication Data for Electronic Sources
• For electronic versions based on a print source (as in PDF), give inclusive page num-
bers for the article cited. Use pp. before the page numbers in references to newspa-
pers. See Chapter 7, Examples 1—3.
Location of Digital Object Identifier (DOI) in Journal Article
Ios.s4 of Espnteoessl Psycinisgy.
Cop,oigbs by fit kso4sae Psycsioso5kaJ MeeiatjoemooT.3, Memoq. .ad CosMic.
O�78-739t55f512 34 0051Cet. Ms!. 34. NO.3.439434
How to Say No: Single- and Dual-Process Theories of Short-Term
Recognition Tested on Negative Probes
Klaus Oberauer
University of Bristol
Three experiments with short-tern, reco5nieion tasks are reported. Sn Experiments I and 2, participants
decided whether a probe matched a list scm specified by its spatial location. Items presented at study
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REFERENCE COMPONENTS
Full Record Display
Unique Identifier
2008-08834-010
Title
A taxonomy of behavior change techniques used in interventions.
Publication Year
2008
Language
English
Author
Abraham. Charles ; Michie, Susan
Email
Abraham. Charles: s.c.s.abraham@sussex.ac.uk
Correspondence Address
Charles Abraham, Department of Psychology, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton,
England, BN1 9QG, s.c.s.abraham@sussex.ac.uk
Affiliation
Source
Health Psychology. Vol 27(3). May 2008. 379-387.
ISSN
0278-6133 (Print); 1930-7810 (Electronic)
Publisher
American Psychological Association: US
Other Publishers
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, US
Format Availability
Electronic; Print
Format Covered
Electronic
Publication Type
Journal; Peer Reviewed Journal
Document Type
Journal Article
Digital Object Identifier
10:1071216133.27,3.379
Keywords
behavior change; intervention; content; techniques; taxonomy; CONSORT
Index Terms
'Behavior Change; 'Health Promotion; *Intervention; 'Taxonomies
Classification Codes
3300 Health & Mental Health Treatment & Prevention
Population Group
Human
Methodology
0400 Empirical Study; 1800 Quantitative Study
Auxiliary Materials
Other (Internet Available)
Release Date
20080714
7!
Location of Digital Object Identifier for ArtIcle on Database
Landing Page
Abraham,
Charles
Michie, Susan
Department of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, England
Department of Psychology, University College London, London.
England
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Example of Reference in Electronic Document With Digital
Object Identifier Hidden Behind a Button
fleclges, L. V., & Vevea, L. (1998). Fixed- and random- :
effects models in meta- analysis. Psychological Methods, 3,
—4B6cen>504. P:4trINFUjMicfej
Resources
ever,
U 1Mw to de folio
P We b di Pu it fe.eei
0 ro.wwd &iOrw.bo,.
U Text
– –
Other aed PM,,,,, Gcide*e,
OoxsPor ii o, ndeotrdfl ,teete*i Ioor4ed
by tetietes, ooydeef. f to cot*t
to o)Moioti oxi jojiQyto it,
woet cclecweej. ex atw the GOOd 1$
,eevtmtcn xeot k echMyt, vd
It nneeco .1 nt&ioc bile, tycin,
aiooi a ,oeewdwe to tick on i re0ereqxe oihthn on ate
011e(oth &M 1* to the neAl content tVa
PLtthMyrLhtltem abxc( to UiI
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issue but a retrieval issue.
• Use this format for the DO! in references: doi:xxxxxxx
the content.
• Provide the DOT, if one has been assigned to the content. Publishers who follow best
practices publish the DOT prominently on the first page of an article. Because the
DOT string can be long, it is safest to copy and paste whenever possible. Provide the
alphanumeric string for the DOI exactly as published in the article. This is not a style
• When a DOT is used, no further retrieval information is needed to identify or locate
• If no DOT has been assigned to the content, provide the home page URL of the jour-
nal or of the book or report publisher. Tf you are accessing the article from a private
crossref.orcj
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COMPONENTS
database, you may need to do a quick web search to locate this URL. Transcribe the
URL correctly by copying it directly from the address window in your browser and
pasting it into your working document (make sure the automatic hyphenation fea-
ture of your word processor is turned off).
• Do not insert a hyphen if you need to break a URL across lines; instead, break the
URL before most punctuation (an exception would be http://). Do not add a period
after the URL, to prevent the impression that the period is part of the URL. This is
not a style issue but a retrieval issue.
• Test URLs in your references at each stage prior to the submission and/or publica-
tion of your work. If the document you are citing has moved, update the URL so
that it points to the correct location. If the content is no longer available, substitute
another source (i.e., the final version if you originally cited a draft) or drop it from
the paper altogether.
• In general, it is not necessary to include database information. Journal coverage in a
particular database may change over time; also, if using an aggregator such as
EBSCO, OVID, or ProQuest (each of which contain many discipline-specific data-
bases, such as PsycINFO), it may be unclear exactly which database provided the full
text of an article.
• Some archival documents (e g , discontinued journals, monographs, dissertations, or
papers not formally published) can only be found in electronic databases such as
ERIC or JSTOR When the document is not easily located through its primary pub-
lishing channels, give the home or entry page URL for the online archive.
• Do not include retrieval dates unless the source material may change over time
(e.g., Wikis).
a As with references to material in print or other fixed media, it is preferable to cite
the final version (i.e., archival copy or version of record; see section 6.24).
I
I.
Reference Examples
This chapter contains examples of references in APA Style. The examples aregrouped into the following categories: periodicals; books, reference books, andbook chapters; technical and research reports; meetings and symposia; doctoral
dissertations and master’s theses; reviews and peer commentary; audiovisual media; data
sets, software, measurement instruments, and apparatus; unpublished and informally pub-
lished works; archival documents and collections; and retrievable personal communica-
tions. In most categories, references to electronic or downloadable versions of each source
type are integrated among references to print or other fixed media versions.
The most common kinds of references are illustrated here. Occasionally, however,
you may need to use a reference for a source for which this chapter does not provide
specific guidance. In such a case, choose the example that is most like your source and
follow that format. Additional reference examples may be found on the APA Style
website (www.apastyle.org). When in doubt, provide more information rather than
less. Because one purpose of listing references is to enable readers to retrieve and usethe sources, most entries contain the following elements: author, year of publication,
title, and publishing or retrieval data—all the information necessary for unique identi-
fication and library search.
Following is an index to the reference examples that lists types of work referenced
and variations of each reference element. The numbers after each index entry refer tothe numbered reference examples. Appendix 7.1 at the end of this chapter includes
templates and example references to legal materials.
lypes and Variations
Periodicals
abstract, 16, 17
advance online publication, S
TYPES AND VARIATIONS
Congressional Record (see Appendix 7.1, Example 16)
edited issue of a journal, 12
editorial, 14
Federal Register (see Appendix 7.1, Example 18)
in-press article, preprint archive, 6
issue of a journal, entire, 12
journal article, 1—6
with DOl, 1, 2, 5
without DOT, 3, 4
fetter to the editor, 15
magazine article, 7, 8
manuscript submitted to, 59
monograph, 13
newsletter article, 9
newspaper article, 10, 11
non-English article, 4
paginated by issue, 3
special issue, 12
special section, 12
supplement, monograph, 13
supplemental material, 15
synopsis (see abstract)
translated article, 4
Books, Reference Books, and Book Chapters
book, entire,
electronic version of print, 19
electronic version of republished, 21
electronic-only, 20
limited circulation, 22
print, 18
chapter in an edited book, 24—26
edited book, 22, 23, 27
entry in a reference book, 29, 30
manuscript submitted to, 59
multivolume work, 23
no author, 30
non-English book, 28
reference work, 27—30
reprinted work, 26
republished work, 21
review of, 45
revised or subsequent edition, 28, 30
series, 24
translated chapter in an edited book, 21, 26
I
REFERENCE
Technical and Research Reports
authored report, 33
corporate author, report from, 31, 32
document deposit service, report from, 34
government report, corporate author, 31
institutional archive, report from, 34
issue brief, 35
nongovernmental organization, authored report, 33
force report, 32
Meetings and Symposia
annually published proceedings, 38
conference paper abstract, retrieved online, 37
proceedings published, 38, 39
symposium contribution, 36
Doctoral Dissertations and Master’s Theses
abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International, 43
doctoral dissertation,
from an institutional database, 41
from the web, 42
doctoral thesis, from university outside the United States, 44
master’s thesis, from a commercial database, 40
Reviews and Peer Commentary
article, peer commentary on, 48
book, review of, 45
video, review of, 46
video game, review of, no author, 47
Audiovisual Media
map retrieved online, 53
music recording, 52
podcast, 50
television series, single episode from, Si
video, 49
Data Sets, Software, Measurement Instruments, and
Apparatus
apparatus, 57
data set, 54
I
TYPES AND VARIATIONS
measurement instrument, 55
software, 56
Unpublished and Informally Published Works
informally published or self-archived work, 61
informally published or self-archived work, from ERIC, 62
manuscript in progress or submitted for publication, 59
personal communications (see section 6.20)
unpublished,
manuscript with a university cited, 58
raw data from study, 60
Archival Documents and Collections
archival/historical source, author and/or date known or reasonably certain, not
stated on document, 67
archival source, corporate author, 68
historical publication, limited circulation, 72 *
interview, recorded and available in an archive, 69
lectures, from archive or personal collection, 66
letters,
collection of, from an archive, 65
private collection, from a, 64
repository, from a, 63
newspaper article, historical, in an archive or personal collection, 71
photographs, 73
transcription of a recorded interview, no recording available, 70
unpublished papers, 66
Internet Message Boards, Electronic Mailing Lists, and Other
Online Communities
blog post, 76
message posted on,
an electronic mailing list, 75
a newsgroup, online forum, or discussion group, 74
video blog post, 77
Author Variations
associations, 32
author modified (e.g., as editor), 12, 22, 23, 27 49—51, 53
author as publisher, 28, 32, 35
collaborations (see section 6.27)
corporate author, 28, 31, 32, 35, 49
editors, 21—27, 29
editorial board (see section 6.27),
F
REFERENCE
in place of author, 12, 22, 23, 27
lead (see section 6.27), 22, 27
no editor, 30
number of (see section 6.27)
of proceedings, 39
of special issues, 12
series, 24
volume, 23
government agency or institute, 31
group authors, 28, 31, 32, 35, 49, 53, 54, 68, 72
hyphenated first name (see section 6.27)
initials and surname, order of (see section 6.27)
for the specific work referenced, 1—2
for the book or collection in which the specific work is found, 21, 25—26
Jr. in name, 24
name suffixes (Jr., III), 24 (see section 6.27)
number of authors
none, 9, 14, 30, 47
one, 5, 6, 8, 10, 18, 19, 20, 37, 40—45, 48, 6 1—66, 69, 70
two, 3, 4, 15, 17, 33, 34, 46, 58, 60
three, four, or five, 7, 13, 16, 38, 39, 59
eight or more, 2
private institute, 35
“with” authors (see section 6.27)
Title Variations
non-English title (with translation), 4, 28
proper noun in title, 12, 13, 15, 16, 32, 33, 54, 62, 66, 67, 70
revised or new edition, 28—30
subtitle (see two-part title)
title within a title, 45, 46, 48
translated work, 21, 26
translation of title into English, 4, 28
two-part title, 7, 8, 19, 21—24, 26, 31, 34, 40, 42, 43, 54, 55, 59, 62, 70
untitled work, 47, 60
volume number(s) of a book, 23, 24, 39
volume number appearing with page numbers, 21
Publication Information Variations
author as publisher, 28, 31—35
electronic version of print book, 19
in-press journal article, 5, 6
letter to the editor, 15
manuscript in preparation, 59
manuscript submitted but not yet accepted, 59
monograph, 13, 22
r
EXAMPLES BY TYPE
no date (see section 6.28), 20, 30, 47
pages discontinuous, 10
pagination by issue rather than by volume, 3
publication outside the United States (see section 6.30), 28
publication over period of more than 1 year, 23
publisher name shortened (see section 6.30), 26
reprinted or republished work, 21, 26
undated work (see section 6.28), 20, 30, 47
unpublished work, 58, 60, 66
Examples by Type
7.01 Periodicals
Periodicals include items published on a regular basis such as journals, magazines,
newspapers, and newsletters.
General reference form:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Jitle of Periodical,
xx, pp—pp. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx
• Include the digital object identifier (DOl) in the reference if one is assigned (see sec-
tion 6.31).
• If no DOl is assigned to the content and you retrieved it online, include the home
page URL for the journal, newsletter, or magazine in the reference. Use this format:
Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxxx
• If each issue of a journal begins on page 1, give the issue number in parentheses
immediately after the volume number.
• If you are citing an advance release version of the article, insert Advance online pub-
lication before the retrieval statement.
• Some journals offer supplemental material that is available only online. To reference
this supplemental material, or any other nonroutine information that is important
for identification and retrieval, include a description of the content in brackets fol-
lowing the title: [Letter to the editor], [Map], [Audio podcastl.
1. Journal article with DOl
Herbst-Damm, K. L., & Kuhk, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support marital status, and
the survival times of terminally ill patients. Health Psychology, 24,
2 Journal article with DOl, more than seven authors
Gilbert, D. G., Mcclernon, J. F., Rabinovich, N. F., Sugai, C., Plath, L. C.,
Asgaard, G Botros, N. (2004). Effects of quitting smoking on EEG activa-
tion and attention last for more than 31 days and are more severe with stress,
dependence, DRD2 Al allele, and depressive traits. Nicotine and Tobacco
Research, 6, 249—267. doi:l0.1080/l 462220041 0001 676305
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REFERENCE EXAMPLES
•Use the following in-text citation: (Gilbert et al., 2004).
• When a reference has up to seven authors, spell out all authors’ names in the ref-
erence list.
3. Journal article without DOl (when DOl is not available)
Sillick, T. J., & Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-esteem medi-
ate between perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of
Applied Psychology, 2(2), 38—48. Retrieved from http://ojs.lib.swin,eduau
/index. php/ejap
Light, M. A., & Light, I. H. (2008). The geographic expansion of Mexican immigra-
tion in the United States and its implications for local law enforcement. Law
Enforcement Executive Forum Journal, 8(1), 73—82.
• Include the issue number if the journal is paginated by issue.
• If there is no DOl assigned and the reference was retrieved online, give the URL of
the journal home page.
• No retrieval date is needed.
4. Journal article without DOl, title translated into English, print version
Guimard, P., & Florin, A. (2007). Las evaluations des enseignants en grande sec-
tion de maternelle sont-elles predictives des difficultes de lecture au cours
préparatoire? [Are teacher ratings in kindergarten predictive of reading difficul-
ties in first grade?]. Approche Neuropsychologique des Apprentissages chez
l’Enfant, 19, 5—17.
• If the original version of a non-English article is used as the source, cite the original
version. Give the original title and, in brackets, the English translation.
• If the English translation of a non-English article is used as the source, cite the
English translation. Give the English title without brackets.
5. Journal article with DOI, advance online publication
Von Ledebur, S. C. (2007). Optimizing knowledge transfer by new employees in
companies. Knowledge Management Research & Practice. Advance online
publication. doi: 10.1 057/palgrave.kmrp.85001 41
• This journal publishes four print issues per year but also offers individual articles
online as soon as they are finalized. The content is assigned a DOT before it is
assigned a volume, issue, or page numbers.
• If there is no DOl assigned and you retrieved the article electronically, give the URL
of the journal home page.
• Definitions of advance online publication vary among journal publishers. Generally,
the term refers to peer-reviewed work, but the content may not be copyedited or for-
matted for final production.
• Update your references close to the publication date of your work, and refer to final
versions of your sources, if possible.
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BY TYPE
6. In-press article posted in a preprint archive
Briscoe, R. (in press). Egocentric spatial representation in action and perception.
Philosophy and Phenornenological Research. Retrieved from http://cogprints
.org/5780/l/ECSRARFO7
• The exact URL is used because the article is informally published and not yet
indexed on a journal website. Journal publishers that do not offer advance online
publication may allow authors to post a version of their article online ahead of print
in an outside repository, also called a preprint archive.
• Update your references close to the publication date of your work and refer to the
final version of a work, if possible.
7. Magazine article
Chamberlin, J., Novotney, A., Packard, F., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing
worker well-being: Occupational health psychologists convene to share their
research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology, 39(5), 26—29.
8. Online magazine article
Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the
misuse of research. Monitor on Psychology, 39(6). Retrieved from
http://www.apa.org/monitor/
9. Newsletter article, no author
Six sites meet for comprehensive anti-gang initiative conference. (2006,
November/December). OJJDP News @ a Glance. Retrieved from
http://www. 1 6684/topstory.html
• The exact URL is helpful here because specific newsletter articles are difficult to
locate from the government agency home page.
• Alphabetize works with no author by the first significant word in the title (in this
case, “Six”).
• In text, use a short title (or the full title if it is short) enclosed in quotation marks for
the parenthetical citation: (” Six Sites Meet,” 2006).
10. Newspaper article
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The
Washington Post pp. Al, A4.
• Precede page numbers for newspaper articles with p. or pp.
• If an article appears on discontinuous pages, give all page numbers, and separate the
numbers with a comma (e.g., pp. Bi, B3, BS—B7).
11. Online newspaper article
Brody, J. F. (2007, December 11). Mental reserves keep brain agile. The New York
limes. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
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V
REFERENCE
U Give the URL of the home page when the online version of the article is available by
search to avoid nonworking URLs.
12. Special issue or section in a journal
Haney, C., & Wiener, B. L. (Eds.). (2004). Capital punishment in the United States
[Special issue]. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 10(4).
Greenfield, R, & Yan, Z. (Eds.). (2006). Children1 adolescents, and the Internet
[Special section]. Developmental Psychology, 42, 391—458.
• To cite an entire issue or special section of a journal, give the editors of the issue and
the title of the issue.
• If the issue has no editors, move the issue title to the author position, before the year
of publication, and end the title with a period. Alphabetize the reference entry by the
first significant word in the title. In text, use a shortened title enclosed in quotation
marks for the parenthetical citation: (“Capital Punishment,” 2004).
• Provide the page range for special sections.
• To reference an article within a special issue, simply follow the format shown in
Examples 1—4.
13. Monograph as part of journal issue
Ganster, D. C., Schaubroeck, J., Sime, W. E., & Mayes, B. T. (1991). The nomo-
logical validity of the Type A personality among employed adults [Monograph].
Journal olApplied Psychology 76, 143—168. doi:1 0.1037/0021-9010.76.1.143
• For a monograph with an issue (or whole) number, include the issue number in
parentheses followed by the serial number, for example, 58(1, Serial No. 231).
• For a monograph bound separately as a supplement to a journal, give the issue num-
ber and supplement or part number in parentheses after the volume number, for
example, 80(3, Pt. 2).
14. Editorial without signature
Editorial: “What is a disaster’ and why does this question matter? [Editorial].
(2006). Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 14, 1—2.
15. Online-only supplemental material in a periodical
Marshall-Pescini, S., & Whiten, A. (2008). Social learning of nut-cracking behavior
in East African sanctuary-living chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)
[Supplemental material]. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 122, 186—194.
doi: 10.1037/0735-7036.122.2.186
U The description of supplemental material or other nonroutine information (e.g., a
letter to the editor, podcast, or map) is included in brackets to help the reader iden-
tify and retrieve the material.
• If no author is indicated, move the title and bracketed description to the author
position.
• In text, use the following parenthetical citation (Marshall-Pescini & Whiten, 2008).
EXAMPLES BY TYPE
16. Abstract as original source
Woolf, N. J., Young, S. L., Fanselow, M. S., & Butcher, L. L. (1991). MAP-2 expres-
sion in chohnoceptive pyramidal cells of rodent cortex and hippocampus is
altered by Pavlovian conditioning [Abstract]. Society for Neuroscience
Abstracts, 17, 480.
Lassen, S. R., Steele, M. M., & Sailor, W. (2006). The relationship of school-wide
positive behavior support to academic achievement in an urban middle
school. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 701—712. Abstract retrieved from
http://www.interscience.wiley.com
• Although it is preferable to cite the full text of an article, abstracts can be used as
sources and included in the reference list.
11. Abstract as secondary source
Hare, L. R., & O’Neill, K. (2000). Effectiveness and efficiency in small academic
peer groups. Small Group Research 31, 24—53. Abstract retrieved from
Sociological Abstracts database. (Accession No. 200010185)
• Although it is preferable to cite the full text of an article, abstracts can be used as
sources and included in the reference list.
• Database names and abstract identifier (if applicable) may be given for material of
limited circulation.
7.02 Books, Reference Books, and Book Chapters
This category includes books and reference books such as encyclopedias, dictionaries,
and discipline-specific reference books (e.g., Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders; see example at www.apastyle.org). It also includes books that are
published in electronic form only, reference works and public domain books available
online, and out-of-print books that may be available only in online repositories.
When DOIs are assigned, use them as noted in the examples that follow.
For an entire book, use the following reference formats:
Author, A. A. (1967). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
Author, A. A. (1997). Title of work. Retrieved from http://www,xxxxxxx
Author, A. A. (2006). Title of work. doi:xxxxx
Editor, A. A. (Ed.). (1986). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
For a chapter in a book or entry in a reference book, use the following formats:
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1995). litle of chapter or entry. In A. Editor, B.
Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx—xxx). Location: Publisher.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1993). Title of chapter or entry. In A. Editor & B.
Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx—xxx). Retrieved from
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1995). Title of chapter or entry. In A. Editor, B. Editor,
& C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx—xxx). Location: Publisher. doi:xxxxxxxx
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REFERENCE EXAMPLES
• If there are no page numbers, the chapter or entry title is sufficient.
For an entry in a reference work with no byline, use the following formats:
Title of entry. (1998). In A. Editor (Ed.), lit/c of reference work (xx ed., Vol. xx, pp.
xxx—xxx). Location: Publisher.
Title of entry. (1998). In lit/e of reference work (xx ed., Vol. xx). Retrieved from
http://www.xxxxxxxxx
• When the author and publisher are the same, use the word Author as the name of
the publisher.
• Alphabetize books with no author or editor by the first significant word in the title.
In the text citation, use a few words of the title, or the whole title if it is short, in
place of an author name.
• Place information about editions, volume numbers, and page numbers (such as
revised edition, volume number, or chapter page range) in parentheses following the
title, with the period after the parentheses: (Rev. ed.) or (Vol. xx, pp. xxx—xxx). As with
periodicals, for any nonroutine information that is important for identification and
retrieval, place a description of content in brackets following the title: [Brochure].
• For major reference works with a large editorial board, you may list the name of the
lead editor, followed by et a!.
• For books or chapters available only online, the electronic retrieval statement takes
the place of publisher location and name (see Examples 19—22, 24).
18. Entire book, print version
Shotton, M. A. (1989). Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency
London, England: Taylor & Francis.
19. Electronic version of print hook
Shotton, M. A. (1989). Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency [DX
Reader versionj, Retrieved from http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk
/html/index.asp
Schiraldi, G. R. (2001). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide
to hea/ing, recovery, and growth [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi:10
.1036/0071393722
20. Electronic-only book
O’Keefe, E. (nd.). Egoism & the crisis in Western va/Lies. Retrieved from
35
21. Electronic version of republished hook
Freud, S. (1953). The method of interpreting dreams: An analysis of a specimen
dream. In U. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the comp/ete
psycho/ogica/ works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 4, pp. 96—121). Retrieved from
(Original work published 1900)
EXAMPLES BY TYPE I
• In text, use the following citation: (Freud, 1900/1953).
22. Limited-circulation book or monograph, from electronic database
Thomas, N. (Ed.). (2002). Perspectives on the community college: A journey of
discovery [Monograph]. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/
• Database information may be given for items of limited circulation.
23. Several volumes in a multivolume work
Koch, S. (Ed.). (1959—1 963). Psycho/ogy:A study of science(Vols. 1—6). New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill.
• In text, use the following parenthetical citation: (Koch, 1959—1963).
24. Electronic version of book chapter in a volume in a series
Strong, E. K., Jr., & Uhrbrock, R. S. (1923). Bibliography on job analysis. In L.
Outhwaite (Series Ed.), Personnel Research Series: Vol. 1. Job analysis and
the curriculum (pp. 140—146). doi: 10.1037/10762-000
• If the content has been assigned a DOl, give the DOl in the reference. No URL or
database name is needed.
• In regularly published series with subtitles that change regularly, the series title is
uppercase and the subtitle is lowercase, as in a book title.
25. Book chapter, print version
Haybron, D. M. (2008). Philosophy and the science of subjective well-being. In M.
Eid & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 17—43).
New York, NY: Guilford Press.
26. Book chapter, English translation, reprinted from another source
Piaget, J. (1988). Extracts from Piaget’s theory (G. Gellerier & J. Langer, Trans.). In
K. Richardson & S. Sheldon (Eds.), Cognitive development to adolescence: A
reader(pp. 3—18). Hillsdale, NJ: Eribaum. (Reprinted from Manual of child psy-
chology, pp. 703—732, by P. H. Mussen, Ed., 1970, New York, NY: Wiley)
• If the English translation of a non-English work is used as the source, cite the English
translation. Give the English title without brackets, followed by the translator’s
name in parentheses.
• In text, use the following parenthetical citation: (Piaget, 1970/1988).
21. Reference book
VandenBos, G. H. (Ed.). (2007). APA dictionary of psychology. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
REFERENCE EXAMPLES
28. Non-English reference hook, title translated into English
Real Academia Espanola. (2001). Diccionario deja lengua espanola [Dictionary of
the Spanish language] (22nd ed). Madrid, Spain: Author.
• If a non-English reference work is used as the source, give the title in the original lan-
guage and, in brackets, the English translation.
29. Entry in an online reference work
Graham, G. (2005). Behaviorism. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of
philosophy (FaIl 2007 ed.). Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries
/behaviorism/
30. Entry in an online reference work, no author or editor
Heuristic. (nd.). In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary(1 ith ed). Retrieved from
http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/heuristic
• If the online version refers to a print edition, include the edition number after
the title.
7.03 Technical and Research Reports
Technical and research reports, like journal articles, usually cover original research but
may or may not be peer reviewed. They are part of a body of literature sometimes
referred to as gray literature, which “can serve a valuable supplementary role to for-
mal publication, including additional resources, details, research methods and experi-
mental techniques” (“Gray literature,” 2006). Format references to technical and
research reports as you would a book.
Author, A. A. (1998). litle of work (Report No. xxx). Location: Pubhsher.
• If the issuing organization assigned a number (e.g., report number, contract number,
monograph number) to the report, give that number in parentheses immediately
after the title.
• If you obtained a report from the U.S. Government Printing Office, list the publish-
er location and name as Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
• For reports retrieved online, identify the publisher as part of the retrieval statement
unless the publisher has been identified as the author: Retrieved from Agency name
website: http://www.xxxxxxx
31. Corporate author, government report
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health,
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2003). Managing asthma: A guide
for schools (NIH Publication No. 02-2650). Retrieved from http://www.nhlbi
.nih.gov/health/prof/lung/asthma/asthsch
Edgar
Resaltado
Edgar
Resaltado
EXAMPLES BY TYPE
32. Corporate author, task force report filed online
American Psychological Association, Task Force on the SexuaUzation of Girls.
(2007). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls.
Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/wpo/sexualization.html
33. Authored report, from nongovernmental organization
Kessy, S. S. A., & Urio, F M. (2006). The contribution of microfinance institutions
to poverty reduction in Tanzania (Research Report No. 06.3). Retrieved
from Research on Poverty Alleviation website: http://www.repoa.or.tz
/documents_storage/Publications/Reports/06.3_Kessy_and_Urio.pcif
34. Report from institutional archive
McDaniel, J. E., & Miskel, C. G. (2002). The effect of groups and individuals on
national decisionmaking: Influence and domination in the reading p0/ic ymak-
ing environment (CIERA Report 3-025). Retrieved from University of
Michigan, Center for Improvement of Early Reading Achievement website:
http://www.ciera.org/library/reports/inquiry-3/3-025/3-o25
35. Issue brief
Employee Benefit Research Institute. (1992, February). Sources of health insur-
ance and characteristics of the uninsured (Issue Brief No. 123). Washington,
DC: Author.
U Use this form for issue briefs, working papers, and other corporate documents, with
the appropriate document number for retrieval in parentheses.
7.04 Meetings and Symposia
Proceedings of meetings and symposia can be published in book or periodical form. To
cite published proceedings from a book, use the same format as for a book or book
chapter (see Example 39). To cite proceedings that are published regularly, use the
same format as for a periodical (see Example 38). For contributions to symposia or for
paper or poster presentations that have not been formally published, use the following
templates.
Symposium:
Contributor, A. A., Contributor, B. B., Contributor, C. C., & Contributor, D. 0.
(Year, Month). Title of contribution. In F. E. Chairperson (Chair), Title of
symposium. Symposium conducted at the meeting of Organization Name,
Location.
Paper presentation or poster session:
Presenter, A. A. (Year, Month). Title of paper or poster. Paper or poster session
presented at the meeting of Organization Name, Location.
• For symposium contributions and paper or poster presentations that have not been for-
mally published, give the month and year of the symposium or meeting in the reference.
lj
Edgar
Resaltado
REFERENCE
36. Symposium contribution
Muellbauer, J. (2007, September). Housing, credit, and consumer expenditure. InS.
C. Ludvigson (Chair), Housing and consumer behavior. Symposium conducted
at the meeting of the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Jackson Hole, WY
37. Conference paper abstract retrieved online
Liu, 5. (2005, May). Defending against business crises with the he/p of intelligent
agent based early warning solutions. Paper presented at the Seventh
International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems, Miami, FL.
Abstract retrieved from
2005 htm
38. Proceedings published regularly online
Herculano-Houzel, S., Collins, C. E., Wong, R, Kaas, J. H., & Lent R. (2008). The
basic nonuniformity of the cerebral cortex. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 105, 12593—12598. doi:1 0. 1 073/pnas.Q80541 7105
39. Proceedings published in book form
Katz, I., Gabayan, K., & Aghajan, H. (2007). A multi-touch surface using multiple
cameras. In J. Blanc-Talon, W. Philips, D. Popescu, & P. Scheunders (Eds.),
Lecture Notes in Computer Science: Vol. 4678. Advanced Concepts for
/nte//igent Vision Systems (pp. 97—108). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. doi:
10.1 007/978-3-5407460729
7.05 Doctoral Dissertations and Master’s Theses
Doctoral dissertations and master’s theses can be retrieved from subscription databas-
es, institutional archives, and personal websites. If the work is retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database (whose index and abstracting sources include
Dissertation Abstracts International [DAfl and Master’s Theses International, bothpublished by University Microforms International, and American Doctoral
Dissertations, published by Association of Research Libraries) or another published
source, include this information in the reference.
For a doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis available from a database service, use
the following reference template:
Author, A. A. (2003). 77t/e of doctora/ dissertation or master’s thesis (Doctoral dis-
sertation or master’s thesis). Retrieved from Name of database. (Accession or
Order No.)
For an unpublished dissertation or thesis, use the following template:
Author, A. A. (1978). l7tle of doctora/ dissertation or master’s thesis (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis). Name of Institution, Location.
• Italicize the title of a doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis.
• Identify the work as a doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis in parentheses after the
title.
EXAMPLES BY TYPE
• If the paper is available through a database, give the accession or order number in
parentheses at the end of the reference.
40. Master’s thesis, from a commercial database
McNieI, D. S. (2006). Meaning through narrative: A personal narrative discussing
growing up with an alcoholic mother (Master’s thesis). Available from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 1434728)
41. Doctoral dissertation, from an institutional database
Adams, R. J. (1973). Building a foundation for evaluation of instruction in higher
education and continuing education (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/
42. Doctoral dissertation, from the web
Bruckman, A. (1997). MOOSE Crossing: Construction, community, and learning in
a networked virtual world for kids (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology). Retrieved from http://www-static.cc.gatech.edu
/–asb/thesis/
43. Doctoral dissertation, abstracted in 1141
Appelbaum, L. G. (2005). Three studies of human information processing: Texture
amplification, motion representation, and figure-ground segregation.
Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B. Sciences and Engineering,
65(10), 5428.
44. Doctoral thesis, from a university outside the United States
Carlbom, P (2000). Carbody and passengers in rail vehicle dynamics (Doctoral the-
sis, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden). Retrieved from
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urnurn:nbn:se.kth:diva3029
7.06 Reviews and Peer Commentary
Reviews of books, motion pictures, and other information or entertainment products
are published in a variety of venues, including periodicals, websites, and blogs. Some
publications will print author responses to a reviewer’s criticism or multiple reviews of
the same product.
Reviewer, A. A. (2000). of review [Review of the book 7/tIe of book, by A. A.
Author]. 7/tIe of complete work, xx, xxx—xxx.
• If the review is untitled, use the material in brackets as the title; retain the brackets
to indicate that the material is a description of form and content, not a title.
• Identify the type of medium being reviewed in brackets (book, motion picture, tele-
vision program, etc.).
If the reviewed item is a book, include the author names after the title of the
separated by a comma.
• If the reviewed item is a film, DVD, or other media, include the year of release
the title of the work, separated by a comma.
I
U
.
•
‘1
REFERENCE
45; Review of a book
Schatz, B. Ft (2000, November 17). Learning by text or context? [Review of the
book The social life of information, by J. S. Brown & P. Duguid]. Science, 290,
1304. doi:1 0.11 26/science 290 54951304
46. Review of a video
Axelman, A., & Shapiro J. L. (2007). Does the solution warrant the problem?
[Review of the DVD Brief therapy with adolescents, produced by the
American Psychological Association, 2007]. PsycCR/TIQUES 52(51).
doi:1O.1037/50009036
47. Review of a video game, no author
[Review of the video game BioShock, produced by 2K Games, 2007]. (nd.).
Retrieved from
-360/?fm=3&ob1 &t=0#1 66
48. Peer commentary on an article
Wolf, K. S. (2005). The future for Deaf individuals is not that bleak [Peer commen-
tary on the paper “Decrease of Deaf potential in a mainstreamed environ-
ment” by K. S. Wolf 1. Retrieved from http:/fwww.personalityresearch org
/papers/hall.html#wolf
7.07 Audiovisual Media
Audiovisual media include motion pictures; audio or television broadcasts (includingpodcasts); and static objects such as maps, artwork, or photos.
For a motion picture, use the following format:
Produce,; A. A. (Producer), & Director, B. B. (Director). (Year). litle of motion pic-
ture [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio.
For a music recording, use the following format:
Writer, A. (Copyright year). Title of song [Recorded by B. B. Artist if different from
writer]. On litle of album [Medium of recording: CD, record, cassette, etc.]
Location: Label. (Date of recording if different from song copyright date)
• List the primary contributors in the author position and use parentheses to identifytheir contribution.
• For an episode from a television or radio series, use the same format as for a chap-ter in a book, but list the script writer and director in the author position and the
producer in the editor position.
49. Video
American Psychological Association. (Producer). (2000). Responding therapeuti-
cally to patient expressions of sexual attraction [DVD]. Available from
http://www.apa.org/videos/
EXAMPLES BY TYPE
50. Podcast
Van Nuys, D. (Producer). (2007, December 19). Shrink rap radio [Audio podcastl.
Retrieved from http://www.shrinkrapradio.com/
51. Single episode from a television series
Egan, D. (Writer), & Alexander, J. (Director). (2005). Failure to communicate
[Television series episode]. In D. Shore (Executive producer), House. New
York, NY: Fox Broadcasting.
52. Music recording
lang, k.d. (2008). Shadow and the frame. On Watershed [CD]. New York, NY:
Nonesuch Records.
U In text citations, include side and band or track numbers: “Shadow and the Frame”
(lang, 2008, track 10).
53. Map retrieved online
Lewis County Geographic Information Services. (Cartographer). (2002).
Population density, 2000 U.S. Census [Demographic map]. Retrieved from
http://www.co.lewis.wa.us/publicworks/maps/Demographics/census-pop
-dens_2000
7.08 Data Sets, Software, Measurement Instruments, and
Apparatus
This category includes raw data and tools that aid persons in performing a task such
as data analysis or measurement. Reference entries are not necessary for standard soft-
ware and programming languages, such as Microsoft Word or Excel, Java, Adobe
Photoshop, and even SAS and SPSS. In text, give the proper name of the software,
along with the version number. Do provide reference entries for specialized software
or computer programs with limited distribution.
or
Rightsholder, A. A. (Year). Title of program (Version number) [Description of form].
Location: Name of producer.
Rightsholder, A. A. (Year). Title of program [Description of form]. Retrieved from
http://xxxx
• Do not italicize the names of software, programs, or languages.
• Do italicize the title of a data set.
• If an individual has proprietary rights to the software, name him or her as the
author; otherwise, treat such references as unauthored works.
• In parentheses immediately after the title, identify the version number, if any.
• In brackets immediately after the title or version number, identify the source as a
computer program, language, software, and so forth. Do not use a period between
the title and the bracketed material.
REFERENCE
• Give the location and name of the organization that produced the work, if applica.ble, in the publisher position. If the program can be downloaded or ordered fromthe web, give this information in the publisher position.
• For an apparatus patent, use the legal reference format (see Appendix 7.1).
54. Data set
Pew Hispanic Center. (2004). Changing channels and crisscrossing cultures: Asurvey of Latinos on the news media [Data file and code book]. Retrievedfrom http:llpewhispanic.org/datasets,
55. Measurement instrument
Friediander, M. L., Escudero, V., & Heatherington L. (2002). E-SOFTA: System forobserving family therapy alliances [Software and training videos].Unpublished instrument. Retrieved from http://www.softa.soatif corn,
56. Software
Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Version 2) [Computer software]. Englewood, NJ:Biostat.
57. Apparatus
Eyelink II [Apparatus and software]. (2004). Mississauga, Canada: SRResearch.
7.09 Unpublished and Informally Published Works
Unpublished work includes work that is in progress, has been submitted for publica-tion, or has been completed but not submitted for publication. This category alsoincludes work that has not been formally published but is available on a personal orinstitutional website, an electronic archive such as ERIC, or a preprint archive.
Author, A. A. (Year). fitle of manuscript. Unpubhshed manuscript [or “Manuscript
submitted for publication,” or “Manuscript in preparation”].
• If the work is available on an electronic archive, give this information at the end.• Update your references frequently prior to publication of your work; refer to thefinal published version of sources when possible.
Unpublished manuscript with a university cited
Blackweli, E., & Conrod, P. J. (2003). A five-dimensional measure of drinking
L
motives. Unpubhshed manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
59. Manuscript in progress or submitted for publication
1mg, J. Y., Florsheim P., & Huang, W. (2008). Mental health help-seeking in eth-nic minority populations: A theoretical perspective. Manuscript submitted for
publication.
EXAMPLES BY TYPE
• Do not give the name of the journal or publisher to which the manuscript has been
submitted.
• Treat a manuscript accepted for publication but not yet published as an in-press ref-
erence (see Example 6).
• Use the same format for a draft or work in progress, but substitute the words
Manuscript in preparation for the final sentence. Use the year of the draft you read
(not in preparation) in the text citation.
60. Unpublished raw data from study, untitled work
Bordi, F., & LeDoux, J. E. (1993). [Auditory response latencies in rat auditory cor-
tex]. Unpublished raw data.
61. Informally published or self-archived work
Mitchell, S. D. (2000). The import of uncertainty. Retrieved from http://
philsci-archive.pitt.edularchiVe/000001 62/
This work was later published in a journal and would now be referenced as follows:
Mitchell, S. D. (2007). The import of uncertainty. The Pluralist 2(1), 58—71.
62. Informally published or self-archived work, from ERIC
Kubota, K. (2007). “Soaking” model for learning: Analyzing Japanese
learning/teaching process from a socio-historical perspective. Retrieved from
ERIC database. (ED498566)
7.10 Archival Documents and Collections
Archival sources include letters, unpublished manuscripts, limited-circulation
brochures and pamphlets, in-house institutional and corporate documents, clippings,
and other documents, as well as such nontext materials as photographs and appara-
tus, that are in the personal possession of an author, form part of an institutional col-
lection, or are stored in an archive such as the Archives of the History of American
Psychology at the University of Akron or the APA Archives.
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of material. [Description of materiall. Name
of collection (Call number, Box number, File name or number, etc.). Name and
location of repository.
• This general format may be modified for collections requiring more or less specific
information to locate materials, for different types of collections, or for additional
descriptive information (e.g., a translation of a letter). Authors may choose to list
correspondence from their own personal collections, but correspondence from
other private collections should be listed only with the permission of the collector.
• As with any reference, the purpose is to direct the reader to the source, despite the
fact that only a single copy of the document may be available and the reader may
have some difficulty actually seeing a copy.
REFERENCE
• Include as much information as is needed to help locate the item with reasonable
ease within the repository. For items from collections with detailed finding aids, the
name of the collection may be sufficient; for items from collections without finding
aids, more information (e.g., call number, box number, file name or number) may be
necessary to help locate the item.
• If several letters are cited from the same collection, list the collection as a reference
and provide specific identifying information (author, recipient, and date) for each
letter in the in-text citations.
• Use square brackets to indicate information that does not appear on the document.
Use question marks to indicate uncertainty regarding names and dates; use ca. (circa,
not italicized) to indicate estimated dates (see Example 67).
• For interviews and oral histories, list the interviewee as the author. Include the inter-
viewer’s name in the description.
• If a publication of limited circulation is available in libraries, the reference may be
formatted as usual for published material, without the archival source.
63. Letter from a repository
Frank, L. K. (1935, February 4). [Letter to Robert M. Ogden]. Rockefeller Archive
Center (GEB series 1.3, Box 371, Folder 3877), Tarrytown, NY.
64. Letter from private collection
Zacharius, G. P (1953, August 15). [Letter to Wifliam Rickel (W. Rickel, Trans.)].
Copy in possession of Hendrika Vande Kemp.
65. Collection of letters from an archive
Allport, G. W. (1930—1967). Correspondence. Gordon W. Ailport Papers (HUG
4118.10), Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, MA.
In-text citations of specific letters:
(Allport, G, W., 1930—1 967, AIrport to E. G. Boring, March 1, 1939)
(Allport, G. W., 1930—1 967, E. G. Boring to Allport, December 26, 1937)
• Note that Examples 63 and 65 refer to archival materials that can be recovered and
thus include full reference list details that allow the reader to find them. Private let-
ters and correspondence that are not easily retrievable are considered personal com-
munications and are cited only in text (see section 6.20).
66. Unpublished papers, lectures from an archive or personal collection
Berliner, A. (1959). Notes for a lecture on reminiscences of Wundt and Leipzig.
Anna Berliner Memoirs (Box M50). Archives of the History of American
Psycho’ogy, University of Akron, Akron, OH.
EXAMPLES BY TYPE
67. Archival/historical source for which the author and/or date is known or is reason-
ably certain but not stated on the document
[Aliport, A.?]. Lea. 1937!. Marion Taylor today—by the biographer. Unpublished
manuscript, Marion Taylor Papers. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College,
Cambridge, MA.
68. Archival source with corporate author
Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene Personnel in School Programs. (1949,
November 6—6). Meeting of Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene Personnel in
School Programs. David Shakow Papers (M1360). Archives of the History of
American Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, OH.
69. Interview recorded and available in an archive
Smith, M. B. (1989, August 12). Interview by C. A. Kiesler [Tape recording].
President’s Oral History Project, American Psychological Association. APA
Archives, Washington, DC.
10. Transcription of a recorded interview, no recording available
Sparkman, C. F (1973). An oral history with Dr. Colley F Sparkman/lntentiewer:
Orley B. Caudill. Mississippi Oral History Program (Vol. 289), University of
Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg.
11. Newspaper article, historical, in an archive or personal collection
Psychoanalysis institute to open. (1948, September 18). [Clipping from an uniden-
tified Dayton, Ohio newspaper.l Copy in possession of author.
12. Historical publication of limited circulation
Sci-Art Publishers. (1935). Sci-Art Publications [Brochurel. Cambridge, MA:
Author. A. A. Roback Papers (HUGFP 104.50, Box 2, Folder “Miscellaneous
Psychological Materials”), Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, MA.
13. Photographs
[Photographs of Robert M. Yerkes]. (ca. 1917—1954). Robert Mearns Yerkes
Papers (Box 137, Folder 2292), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University
Library, New Haven, CT.
7.11 Internet Message Boards, Electronic Mailing Usts, and
Other Online Communities
The Internet offers several options for people around the world to sponsor and join j
discussions devoted to particular subjects. These options include blogs,
online forums and discussion groups, and electronic mailing lists. (The last are often [fi
referred to as listservs. However, LISTSERV is a trademarked name for a particular j
software program; electronic mailing list is the appropriate generic term.)
I
REFERENCE EXAMPLES
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of post [Description of form]. Retrieved from
http ://www.xxxx
• If the author’s full name is available, list the last name first followed by initials. If
only a screen name is available, use the screen name.
• Provide the exact date of the posting.
• Follow the date with the subject line of the message (also referred to as the
“thread”); do not italicize it. Provide a description of the message in brackets after
the title.
• Include the information “Retrieved from” followed by the URL where the message
can be retrieved. Include the name of the list to which the message was posted, if this
information is not part of the URL.
• Provide the address for the archived version of the message.
14. Message posted to a newsgroup, online forum, or discussion group
Rampersad, 1. (2005, June 8). Re: Traditional knowledge and traditional
cultural expressions [Online forum comment]. Retrieved from
httP://www.wipo.int/roller/comments/ipisforum,weblog/theme eight how
_ca n_cu lturai#comments
75. Message posted to an electronic mailing list
Smith, S. (2006, January 5). Re: Disputed estimates of 0 [Electronic mailing
list message]. Retrieved from http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group
/ForensicNetwork/message/670
16. Blog post
MiddleKid. (2007, January 22). Re: The unfortunate prerequisites and conse-
quences of partitioning your mind [Web log message). Retrieved from httpj/
/the_unfortunate_prerequisites.php
• In this example a screen name is used for the author name. The author has adopted
a nickname, or screen name, to use when posting messages to this web log.
71. Video blog post
Norton, A. (2006, November 4). How to train a cat to operate a light switch [Video
file]. Retrieved from
APPENDIX 7.1: REFERENCES TO LEGAL MATERIALS
Appendix 7.1: References to Legal Materials
Legal periodicals and APA journals differ in the placement and format of references.
The main difference is that legal periodicals cite references in footnotes, whereas APA
journals locate all references, including references to legal materials, in the reference
list. For most references, use APA format as described in this chapter. References to
legal materials, however, which include court decisions, statutes, other legislative
materials, and various secondary sources, are more useful to the reader if they provide
the information in the conventional format of legal citations. Some examples of refer.
ences and citations to court cases, statutes, and other legislative materials appear in
this appendix along with guidelines for their preparation. For more information on
preparing these and other kinds of legal references, consult the latest edition of The
Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation (Bluebook; 18th ed., 2005), which is the
source for the legal citation style that follows.
Ensure that your legal references are accurate and contain all of the information
necessary to enable a reader to locate the material being referenced. Consult law librar-
ians to verify that your legal references (a) contain the information necessary for
retrieval and (b) reflect the current status of the legal authority cited to avoid the pos-
sibility of relying on a case that has been overturned on appeal or on legislation that
has been significantly amended or repealed.
A7.O1 General Forms
A reference form is provided in each of the following sections. For the most part, each
reference form for statutes and other legislation includes (a) a popular or formal title
or name of the legislation and (b) the citation, either to the published compilation of
legislative materials where the legislation is codified (e.g., a specific numbered section
of a specific volume of the United States Code), including the statutory compilation’s
publication date in parentheses, or the identifying label for the legislation assigned by
the enacting body during the particular legislative session (e.g., a specific section of an
act identified by its public law number).
A typical reference form for court decisions includes (a) the title or name of the
case (usually one party vs. another); (b) the citation, usually to a volume and page of
one of the various sets of books (called reporters, which usually contain decisions of
courts in particular political divisions, or jurisdictions) where published cases can be
found (e.g., the Federal Reporter, Second Series); and finally, (c) the precise jurisdiction
of the court writing the decision (e.g., the New York Court of Appeals), in parenthe-
ses, including the date of the decision.
For both legislation and court decisions, the citation may be followed by certain
additional descriptive information that pertains to the content of the legislation or
court decision, the history of the legislation or court decision (e.g., later appeals of
court decisions or later amendments to legislation), or other sources from which the
legislation or court citation may be retrieved. Authors are encouraged to consult the
Bluebook for the proper format for such additional information. Follow the Bluebook
closely for correct abbreviation style. Some examples of the more common abbrevia-
tions that appear in APA journals are shown here.
Cong. U.S. Congress
HR. House of Representatives
Edgar
Resaltado
S. Senate
Req. Regulation
Res. Resolution
F. Federal Reporter
F. 2d Federal Reporter; Second Series
F.3d Federal Third Series
F Supp. Federal Supplement
U.S.C. United States Code
Cong. Rec. Record
Fed. Reg. Federal Register
A7.02 Text Citations of Legal Materials
Although the reference format for legal materials differs from that of other kinds ofworks cited in APA publications, the text citations are formed in the same way andserve the same purpose. As for works with no identified author (see section 6.15), givethe first few words of the reference list entry and date; that is, give enough informa-tion in the text citation to enable the reader to locate the entry in the reference listquickly and easily. Examples of text citations and reference entries for specific kinds oflegal materials are given in the following sections.
A7.03 Court Decisions (Bluebook Rule 10)
In text, cite the name of the case (italicized) and the year of the decision. If two or moreyears are given, cite those years as well. Court cases often have several years, each ofwhich reflects a specific stage in the case’s history. Giving only one date could give theimpression that only a single point in the case’s history is being cited or might misleada reader as to the timing of the case.
Reference form for cases:
Name v. Name, Volume Source Page (Court Date).
Abbreviate the published source (if any), court, and date as specified in the Bluebook.
I. Sample reference list entry to a case
Lessard v. Schmidt, 349 F. Supp. 1078 (ED. Wis. 1972).
Text citation:
Lessard v Schmidt (1972)
(Lessardv Schmidt ‘1972)
This decision was rendered by the federal district court for the EasternDistrict of Wisconsin in 1972, It appears in volume 349 of the Federal Supplement andstarts on page 1078 of that volume.
APPENDIX 7.1: REFERENCES TO LEGAL MATERIALS
2. Sample reference list entry to an appealed case
Durtlinger v. Artiles, 563 F Supp. 322 CD. Kan. 1981), afI’d, 727 F2d 888 (10th Cir.
1984).
Text citation:
Dudlinger v. Art//es (1981/1984)
Explanation: This decision was rendered by the federal district court for the District of
Kansas in 1981. On appeal, the decision was affirmed by the 10th Circuit Court of
Appeals in 1984. Consult the Bluebook for the proper forms to signal the various
stages in a case’s history.
Unpublished cases:
3. Sample reference to an unreported decision
Gilliard v. Oswald, No. 76-2109 (2d Cir. March 16, 1977).
Explanation: The docket number and the court are provided. The opinion was
announced on March 16, 1977. To cite to a particular page of a slip opinion (opinion
that is not published in a case reporter but is separately printed), use the form slip op.
at [page number].
Alternative: You may cite unreported cases found on electronic databases, such as
LEXIS or Westlaw, instead of citing them to slip opinions. Give the name of the data-
base, a record number if available, and enough information for the reader to find the
case. Precede screen page numbers, if assigned, with an asterisk to distinguish them
from the page number of the slip opinion; paragraph numbers, if assigned, should be
preceded by a paragraph symbol.
With record number:
Doughertyv. Royal Zenith Corp., No. 88-8666, 1991 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 10807, at *2
(ED. Pa. July 31, 1991).
With no record number:
Gustin v. Mathews, No. 76-7-CS CD. Kan. Jan. 31, 1977) (LEXIS, Genfed library,
Dist file).
Note: If the case is not available as a slip opinion or online, consult the Bluebook for
other reference formats.
Court cases at the trial level:
4. Sample reference to a state trial court opinion
Casey v. Pennsylvania-American Water Co., 12 Pa. D. & C.4th 168 (CR
Washington County 1991).
Explanation: This decision was rendered by the Court of Common Pleas in
Washington County, Pennsylvania, in 1991. (The Court of Common Pleas is the name
of most of the trial-level courts in Pennsylvania. In other states, the trial-level courts
REFERENCE EXAMPLES
are called superior courts or supreme courts, which can be confusing because one usu-ally thinks of the supreme court as the highest court in any particular jurisdiction andnot as the lowest. Authors should check the Bluebook for a listing of each jurisdiction’sparticular court structure.) The decision can be located in Pennsylvania District andCounty Reports, Fourth Series, beginning on page 168 of that volume.
5. Sample reference to a federal district court opinion
v. Monsanto Co., 627 F. Supp. 418 (S.D. W.Va. 1986).
Explanation: The opinion was rendered in the federal district court for the SouthernDistrict of West Virginia and was decided in 1986. It appears in volume 627 of theFederal Supplement and starts on page 418 of that volume.
Court cases at the appellate level:
6. Sample reference to a case appealed to a state supreme court
Compton V. Commonwealth, 239 Va. 312, 389 S.E.2d 460 (1990).
Explanation: This opinion was written by the Virginia Supreme Court in 1990. It canbe found in volume 239 of the Virginia Reports, which publishes the state’s supremecourt decisions, starting on page 312. There is a parallel citation to volume 389 of theSouth Eastern Reporter, Second Series, starting on page 460. A reporter prints cases;the South Eastern Reporter is a regional reporter containing cases from several statesin the southeastern section of the country.
7. Sample reference to a case appealed to a state court of appeals
Texas v. Morales, 826 S.W.2d 201 (Tex. Ct. App. 1992).
Explanation: This opinion was rendered by the Texas Court of Appeals in 1992 andcan be found in volume 826 of the South Western Reporter, Second Series, starting onpage 201.
8. Sample references to cases decided by the U.S. Supreme Court
Brown V. Board of Educ., 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
Maryland V. Craig, 110 S. Ct. 3160 (1990).
Explanation: Each of these cases was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. The firstcitation is to the United States Reports. Such a citation is given when the appropriatevolume of the United States Reports is available. The second citation is to the SupremeCourt Reportet Use this source when the volume of the United States Reports in whichthe case will appear has not yet been published.
A7.04 Statutes (Bluebook Rule 12)
In text, give the popular or official name of the act (if any) and the year of the act. Inthe reference list entry, include the source and section number of the statute, and inparentheses, give the publication date of the statutory compilation, which may be dif-ferent from the year in the name of the act.
Ii
APPENDIX 7.1: REFERENCES TO LEGAL MATERIALS
Reference form for statutes:
Name of Act, Volume Source § section number (year).
Abbreviate the source as specified in the Bluebook. A few states use chapter or article
numbers instead of section numbers; use abbreviations or symbols as shown in the
Bluebook.
9. Sample reference to a statute
Mental Health Systems Act, 42 U.S.C. § 9401 (1988).
Text citation:
Mental Health Systems Act (1988)
Mental Health Systems Act of 1988
10. Sample reference to a statute in a state code
Mental Care and Treatment Act, 4 Kan. Stat. Ann. 59-2901-2941 (1983 & Supp.
1992).
Explanation: This Kansas act can be found in codified version between sections 2901
and 2941 in Chapter 59 of volume 4 of the 1983 edition of Kansas Statutes Annotated.
Two amendments to the act and additional references are provided in the 1992 supple-
ment for the Kansas Statutes Annotated. If you are discussing a particular provision of
the law, cite the particular section in which the provision appeared (e.g., § 59-2903).
Ann. stands for Annotated, which refers to the version of the Kansas statutory compi-
lation containing summarized cases interpreting particular sections of the statute.
11. Sample reference to a statute in a federal code
Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C.A. § 12101 at seq. (West
1993).
Explanation This act can be located beginning at section 12101 of title 42 of the
United States Code Annotated, which is the unofficial version of the United States
Code (the official statutory compilation of the laws enacted by Congress). Et seq. is a
Latin phrase meaning “and following” and is a shorthand way of showing that the act
covers not just the initial section cited but also others that follow the initial section
The text in parentheses indicates that the United States Code Annotated is published
by West Publishing and that 1993 is the publication date of the volume in which the
cited sections can be found Citing to U S C, U S C A, or U S C S is the preferred
method of citing legislation, because codified legislation is usually easier to work with
and retrieve than is a session law, the form of legislation before it is codified. A session
law citation is constructed as follows:
Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-336, § 2, 104 Stat. 328
(1991).
REFERENCE EXAMPLES
Explanation: The citation is to the version of the act in its uncodified form. The act
was the 336th public law enacted by the lOlst Congress. Section 2 is the particular
section of the act cited 2 happens to correspond to § 12101 of 42 U.S.C.A., which
is where § 2 was ultimately codified). The text of the section cited can also be found
in the official compilation of uncodified session laws, called United States Statutes at
Large (abbreviated Stat.) at volume 104, p. 328. Volume 104 of the United States
Statutes at Large was published in 1991.
A7.05 Legislative Materials (Bluebook Rule 13)
For testimony and hearings, bills and resolutions, and reports and documents, provide
in text the title or number (or other descriptive information) and the date.
Form for testimony at federal hearings and for full hearings:
litle, xxx Cong. (date).
12. Sample reference for federal testimony
RU486: The import ban and its effect on medical research: Hearings before the
Subcommittee on Regulation, Business Opportunities, and Energy, of the
House Committee on Small Business, 101st Cong. 35(1990) (testimony of
Ronald Cheseniore).
Text citation:
RU486: The Import Ban (1990)
(RU486: The Import Ban, 1990)
Explanation: This testimony was given before a subcommittee of the U.S. House of
Representatives during the second session of the lOlst Congress and can be located
beginning on page 35 of the official pamphlet that documents the hearing. In the ref-
erence, always include the entire subject-matter title as it appears on the cover of the
pamphlet, the bill number (if any), the subcommittee name (if any), and the commit-
tee name If you are citing an entire hearing, certain adjustments to the citation should
be made, as in Example 13.
13 Sample reference for a full federal hearing
Urban America’s need for social services to strengthen families: Hearing before
the Subcommittee on Human Resources of the Committee on Ways and
Means, House of Representatives, 1 02d Cong. 1 (1992).
Text citation:
Urban America’s Need (1992)
(Urban America’s Need, 1992)
APPENDIX 7.1: REFERENCES TO LEGAL MATERIALS
Explanation: This hearing was held in 1992 in the U.S. House of Representatives dur-
ing the 102d Congress. The hearing begins on page 1 of the official pamphlet that was
prepared after the hearing.
14. Form for unenacted federal bills and resolutions
litle [if relevant], bill or resolution number, xxx Cong. (year).
The number should be preceded by H.R. (House of Representatives) or S. (Senate),
depending on the source of the unenacted bill or resolution.
Reference list entry:
S. 5936, 102d Cong. § 4(1992).
Text citation:
Senate Bill 5936 (1992)
(5. 5936, 1992)
15. Sample references to unenacted federal bills
Equitable Health Care for Severe Mental Illnesses Act of 1993, HR. 1563, 103d
Cong. (1993).
Equitable Health Care for Severe Mental Illnesses Act of 1993, 5. 671, lO3d
Cong. (1993).
Explanation: The first example is to a bill created in the U.S. House of Representatives
during the 103d Congress; it was assigned the bill number 1563. The second example
is the Senate’s version of the same bill.
16. Form for enacted federal bills and resolutions
xx. Res. xxx, xxx Cong., Volume Source page (year) (enacted).
Reference list entry:
S. Res. 107, 103d Cong., 139 Cong. Rec. 5826 (1993) (enacted).
Text citation:
Senate Resolution 107 (1993)
(S. Res. 107, 1993)
Explanation: This resolution by the Senate is numbered 107 and is reported in volume
139 of the Congressional Record on page 5826. Note that enacted bills and joint res-
olutions are laws and should be cited as statutes. Enacted simple or concurrent resolu-
tions should follow this format.
11. Form for federal reports (Rep.) and documents (Doc.)
xx. Rep. No. xx-xxx (year).
‘ r
I
REFERENCE
As with bills, report numbers should be preceded by H.R. or S. as appropriate. Thereport number is composed of the year of the Congress followed by a hyphen and thenumber of the report, and ending with the calendar year.
Reference list entry:
S. Rep. No. 102-114, at 7(1991).
Text citation:
Senate Report No. 102-114 (1991)
(S. Rep. No. 102-114, 1991)
Explanation: This report was submitted to the Senate by the Senate Committee onLabor and Human Resources concerning the Protection and Advocacy for Mentally IllJndividuals Amendments Act of 1991. The reference is to material that starts on page7 of that document.
A7.O6 Administrative and Executive Materials (Bluebook Rule 14)
For rules and regulations, advisory opinions, and executive orders, provide in text thetitle or number (or other descriptive information) and the date.
18. Form for federal regulation
Title/Number Volume Source § xxx (year).
Reference list entries:
FDA Prescription Drug Advertising Rule, 21 C.FR. § 202.1 (2006).
Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System, 73 Fed, Reg, 82,082
(proposed Jan. 11, 2008) (to be codified at 45 C.F.R. pt. 1355).
Text citations:
FDA Prescription Drug Advertising Rule (2006)
(Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System, 2008)
Explanation: The first rule was codified in 2006 in volume 21 of the Code of FederalRegulations (the official regulatory code) as section 202.1. The second rule was pro-posed and published in the Federal Register before being officially codified; the paren-thetical information is a cross-reference (indicated in the entry in the Register) to thesection of the Code of Federal Regulations where the proposed rule will be codified.
19. Form for executive order
Exec. Order No. xxxxx, 3 C.FR. Page (year).
Reference list entry:
Exec. Order No. 11,609, 3 C.F.R 586 (1971—1975), reprinted as amended in 3
U.S.C. 301 app. at 404-07 (1994).
APPENDIX 7.1: REFERENCES TO LEGAL MATERIALS
Text citation:
Executive Order No. 11,609 (1994)
(Executive Order No.11,609, 1994)
Explanation: Executive orders are reported in Title 3 of the Code of Federal
Regulations; this one appears on page 586. Provide a parallel citation to the United
States Code (U.S.C.) or, if U.S.C. is unavailable, to the United States Code Service
(U.S.C.S.).
A7.07 Patents
In text, give the patent number and the issue date (not application date) of the patent.
In the reference list entry, include the inventor(s) to whom the patent is issued and the
official source from which the patent information can be retrieved.
Reference list entry:
Smith, I. M. (1988). U.S. Patent No. 123,445. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office.
Text citation:
U.S. Patent No. 123,445 (1988)
(U.S. Patent No. 123,445, 1988)
Explanation: This patent was issued in 1988. I. M. Smith is the inventor who holds the
patent right. The patent number is a unique identifying code given to every patent. In
this reference example, the patent number represents a utility patent because there is
no letter prefix. If this were a nonutility patent, such as a design patent (coded with a
D), the patent number in the reference and citation would be D123,445.
j
The Publication Process
T
he author, editor, and publisher share responsibility for the ethical and efficient
handling of a manuscript. This responsibility begins when the editor receives the
manuscript and extends through the life of the published article. In this chapter,
we describe the peer review process, focusing first on how editors evaluate manuscripts.
Next, we delineate the author’s responsibilities in four areas: (a) preparing the manuscript
for submission, (b) attending to administrative and ethical responsibilities, (c) complying
with publisher policy requirements, and (d) working with the publisher during the pro-
duction process.1
Editorial Process
8.01 Peer Review
Scholarly journal articles are original, primary publications. This means that they have
not been previously published, that they contribute to the archive of scientific knowl.
edge, and that they have been reviewed by a panel of peers. The peer-reviewed litera-
ture in a field is built by individual contributions that together represent the accumu-
lated knowledge of a field.
To ensure the quality of each contribution—that the work is original, valid, and
significant—scholars in the subspecialties of a field carefully review submitted man-
uscripts. By submitting a manuscript to a peer-reviewed journal, an author implicitly
consents to the circulation and discussion of the manuscript. During the review
process, the manuscript is considered a confidential and privileged document, but
publishers differ, so check the journal’s instructions to authors (see section 1.14, for
‘This chapter gives instructions to authors of journal articles. Authors and editors of book manuscripts should follow
instructions given by the publisher’s book production department. For information on dissertations and master’s
theses, see ‘Converting the Thesis or Dissertation into an Article” on the APA Style website (www.apastyle.org).
EDITORIAL PROCESS
a discussion of the ethical standards that have been established for manuscript
reviewers).
The editor of each journal is responsible for the quality and content of the journal.
Journal editors look for manuscripts that (a) contribute significantly to the content
area covered by the journal, (b) communicate with clarity and conciseness, and (c) fol-
low style guidelines. Journal editors are often assisted by associate editors, who assume
responsibility for a specific content area of the journal or for a portion of the manu-
scripts submitted to the journal. For some journals, an associate editor may act as edi-
tor at all stages of the consideration of a manuscript (i.e., as an action editor), includ-
ing communication with an author regarding acceptance, rejection, or required revi-
sion of a manuscript. Consulting and advisory editors and ad hoc reviewers review
manuscripts and make recommendations to editors or to associate editors concerning
the disposition of manuscripts. However, the editor has the final editorial authority
and may make a decision other than that recommended by the reviewers.
The editor may accept or reject a manuscript outright, that is, before its review by
an associate editor or by reviewers. More typically, however, the editor sends the man-
uscript to an associate editor or directly to reviewers.
Reviewers. An action editor usually seeks the assistance of several scholars in the con-
tent area of the submitted manuscript in arriving at an editorial decision. An action
editor may solicit reviews from particular scholars for any number of reasons, includ-
ing technical expertise, familiarity with a particular controversy, and balance of per-
spectives. Reviewers provide scholarly input into the editorial decision, but the deci-
sion is the action editor’s alone to make.
Masked review. Journal editors, either routinely or at the author’s request, may use
masked review. In masked review, the identity of the author of a manuscript is con-
cealed from reviewers during the review process. Consult the instructions to authors in
the journals to which you submit your manuscripts to determine whether a journal
routinely uses masked review or offers masked review to authors who request it.
Authors are responsible for concealing their identities in manuscripts that are to
receive masked review; for example, they should take extra care to format their man-
uscripts so their identities as document creators are not easily revealed. It is APA pol-
icy that authors’ names will not be revealed to reviewers after the review process is
complete without the consent of the authors. Further, the APA review process is masked
in both directions; reviewer identities will not be revealed to authors unless the reviewer
chooses to do so.
liming of peer review. The period of review can vary, depending on both the length and
complexity of the manuscript and the number of reviewers asked to evaluate it, but the
review process typically takes approximately two to three months. After that time, the
author can expect to be notified as to the status of the manuscript. It would be appro-
priate for an author to contact the editor if no communication has been received after
more than three months.
8.02 Manuscript Acceptance or Rejection
Reviewers provide the editor with evaluations of a manuscript on the basis of their
assessment of the scholarly quality of the manuscript, the importance of the novel con-
-J
F
THE PUBLICATION PROCESS
tribution that the work might provide, and the appropriateness of the work to the par-
ticular journal. The decision to accept a manuscript, to reject it, or to invite a revision
is the responsibility of the editor; the editor’s decision may differ from the recommen-
dation of any or all of the reviewers. Editors may generally choose one of three
actions:
1. Acceptance. Once a manuscript is accepted, it enters into the production phase of
publication. No further changes may be made by the author to the manuscript other
than those recommended by the copyeditor. The author remains responsible for the
completion of all associated paperwork (e.g., copyright transfers, disclosures, per-
missions). Failure to complete all required paperwork may result in retraction of the
acceptance of a manuscript.
2. Rejection. A manuscript is usually rejected because (a) the work is seen as falling
outside the coverage domain of the journal; (b) it contains such severe flaws of
design, methodology, analysis, or interpretations that the editor questions the valid-
ity of the submission; or (c) it is judged as making a limited novel contribution to
the field. At times, editors reject good manuscripts simply because they lack the
space to publish all of the high-quality manuscripts that are submitted to the jour-
nal. A manuscript that has been rejected by a journal may not be revised and resub-
mitted to that same journal.
If a manuscript is rejected and the author believes a pertinent point was over-
looked or misunderstood by the reviewers, the author may appeal the editor’s deci-
sion by contacting the editor. Those who feel their manuscripts are unfairly rejected
by APA journals may appeal such decisions to the Chief Editorial Advisor.
3. Rejection with invitation to revise and resubmit. This category applies to a range of
manuscripts that are judged to have a high potential for eventual publication in the
journal but that are not yet ready for final acceptance. Manuscripts in this catego-
ry range from those that the editor has judged to need substantial reworking (includ-
ing the possibility that additional empirical data may need to be gathered, that
entirely new experiments may need to be added, or that analyses need to be modi-
fied) to those that need only a small number of specific modifications. Some jour-
nals use a category labeled conditional acceptance for this latter level of revision.
Rejection with invitation to revise and resubmit does not guarantee eventual publi-
cation of the paper by that journal. In many cases, this invitation is time bound; it
does not extend across changes in editors.
Most manuscripts need to be revised, and some manuscripts need to be revised
more than once (revision does not guarantee acceptance). Initial revisions of a man-
uscript may reveal to the author or to the editor and reviewers deficiencies that were
not apparent in the original manuscript, and the editor may request further revision
to correct those deficiencies. During the review process, an editor may ask an author
to supply material that supplements the manuscript (e.g., complex statistical tables,
instructions to participants). As the manuscript moves through the review process,
editors are free to solicit reviews from reviewers who were not among the initial set
of reviewers.
If the editor rejects a manuscript or returns it to the author for revision, the
editor explains why the manuscript is rejected or why the revisions are required.
AUTHOR RESPONSIBILITIES
The editor does not have to provide the reviewers’ comments to the author but
frequently chooses to do so. Editors do not undertake major editorial revision of
manuscripts. Authors are expected to attend to editors’ detailed recommendations
for revision; however, the content and style of the article remain the sole respon-
sibility of the author. Slavish compliance with all recommendations of all review-
ers may result in a manuscript that is difficult to comprehend, which is not the
intent of the review process. When resubmitting a revised manuscript, authors are
encouraged to enclose a cover letter explaining how they have responded to all the
reviewers’ comments (regardless of whether the authors agreed or disagreed with
the comments).
Author Responsibilities
8.03 Preparing the Manuscript for Submission
The specific requirements for submitting a manuscript differ among journals.
Therefore, before submitting a manuscript, refer to the journal’s website. The journal’s
instructions to authors will tell you (a) the journal’s area of coverage, that is, what
kinds of manuscripts are appropriate for that journal; (b) the current editor’s name and
address; and (c) instructions for manuscript preparation and submission specific to
that journal, including whether the journal routinely uses masked review.
Uuality of presentation. The physical appearance of a manuscript can enhance or
detract from it. A well-prepared manuscript encourages editors and reviewers to view
your work as professional. In contrast, mechanical flaws sometimes lead reviewers to
misinterpret content.
In this section, we describe the mechanical details of producing a manuscript that
meets requirements for peer review and publication in a scholarly journal. Publishers
will produce the typeset version of your article directly from your word-processing file,
should your manuscript be accepted for publication. The instructions given in this
chapter lay the groundwork for producing a usable electronic file.
Assistance in scientific writing in English. Scholars who are not experienced in scien-
tific writing in English can be hindered in their publishing efforts by a lack of familiar-
ity with idiomatic language usage. These individuals are urged to correct the problem
by consulting with colleagues who are experienced writers in the English language.
They may also wish to contact copyediting services that can help authors evaluate and
correct their manuscripts. We highly recommend use of these services for those who
consistently face obstacles in getting their work published.
Format. Formatting your manuscript according to the specifications described in this
section enhances clarity and readability and facilitates peer reviews, copyediting, and
typesetting.
Typeface. The use of a uniform typeface and font size enhances readability for the
editor and allows the publisher to estimate the article length. The preferred typeface
for APA publications is Times New Roman, with 12-point font size.
A seriftypeface, “with short light lines projecting from the top or bottom of a main
stroke of a letter” (Chicago Manual of Style, 2003, p. 837), is preferred for text
r
THE PUBLICATION PROCESS
because it improves readability and reduces eye fatigue. (A sans serif type may be used
in figures, however, to provide a clean and simple line that enhances the visual presen-
tation.) Do not use a compressed typeface or any settings in your word-processing soft-
ware that decrease the spacing between letters or words. The default settings are nof-
mally acceptable.
Special characters. Special characters are accented letters and other diacriticals,
Greek letters, math signs, and symbols. Type all special characters that you can, using
the special character functions of your word-processing program.
Line spacing. Double-space between all text lines of the manuscript. Double-space
after every line in the title, headings, footnotes, quotations, references, and figure cap-
tions. Although you may apply triple- or quadruple-spacing in special circumstances,
such as immediately before and after a displayed equation, never use single-spacing or
one-and-a-half spacing except in tables or figures.
Margins. Leave uniform margins of at least 1 in. (2.54 cm) at the top, bottom, left,
and right of every page. Combined with a uniform typeface and font size, uniform
margins enhance readability and provide a consistent gauge for estimating article
length.
Line length and alignment The length of each typed line is a maximum of 6½ in.
(16.51 cm). Do not justify lines; that is, do not use the word-processing feature that
adjusts spacing between words to make all lines the same length (flush with the mar-
gins). Instead, use the flush-left style, and leave the right margin uneven, or ragged. Do
not divide words at the end of a line, and do not use the hyphenation function to break
words at the ends of lines. Let a line run short rather than break a word at the end of
a line.
Paragraphs and indentation. Indent the first line of every paragraph and the first line
of every footnote. For consistency, use the tab key, which should be set at five to seven
spaces, or ½ in. The default settings in most word-processing programs are acceptable.
Type the remaining lines of the manuscript to a uniform left-hand margin. The only
exceptions to these requirements are (a) the abstract, (b) block quotations, (c) titles and
headings, (d) table titles and notes, and (e) figure captions.
Order of manuscript pages. Arrange the pages of the manuscript as follows:
• title page
The title page includes five elements: title, running head, author byline, institution-
al affiliation, and author note. Identify the title page with the page number 1. The
remaining pages should be numbered consecutively, using Arabic numerals (except for
artwork and figures).
The running head is an abbreviated title that is printed at the top of the pages of
a manuscript or published article to identify the article for readers. The running head
should be a maximum of 50 characters, counting letters, punctuation, and spaces
between words. It should appear flush left in all uppercase letters at the top of the title
page and all subsequent pages.
• abstract (start on separate page, numbered page 2)
• text (start on a separate page, numbered page 3)
AUTHOR RESPONSIBILITIES
• references (start on a separate page)
• tables (start each on a separate page)
• figures (start each on a separate page; include caption on page with figure)
• appendices (start each on a separate page)
Page numbers and manuscript page headers. After the manuscript pages are arranged
in the correct order, number them consecutively, beginning with the title page. Pages
occasionally are separated during the editorial process, so identify each manuscript
page with the running head along with the page number. (Do not use your name to
identify each page, because the name will have to be removed if the manuscript receives
masked review.)
Use the automatic functions of your word-processing program to generate headers
and page numbers for your file. (Do not type these manuscript page headers repeatedly
in your word-processing file.)
Spelling check. Most word-processing programs have a function that checks spelling.
Use it. Although an electronic spelling check cannot take the place of proofreading the
article, because words spelled correctly may be used incorrectly, it will lessen the
chance that typographical errors in the manuscript will make their way into print when
your electronic file is used to publish the article.
Supplemental materials. If you are submitting supplemental materials with your man-
uscript (see section 2.13), check the journal’s website to determine the preferred for-
mat. If you are submitting your manuscript to an APA journal, you will need to
• submit a separate file for each supplemental document and specify the format, nam-
ing your files consistently and including the file format in the naming convention;
• provide a title for each document, bearing in mind that the file will be viewed sepa-
rately from the article and will need to be sufficiently identified to be useful for the
reader;
• include a context statement for each file that specifies precisely what the document or
file is intended to communicate (readers should be able to ascertain what they will find
in the file from the statement, whether it contains several sentences or just a few); and
• prepare each document so it is complete—that is, tables and figures intended for sup-
plemental material should include captions in the document just as if they were
appearing in the published article.
Obtain and submit necessary permission to reproduce images (in addition to copy-
righted material, keep in mind that images of human subjects require the subjects’ per-
mission; see http://www.apa.org/journals for more guidance on supplemental material).
Cover letter. Check the journal’s website for the current editor’s name and for specific
instructions on submission. When submitting a manuscript for consideration, enclose
a letter that includes the following elements:
• specific details about the manuscript (title, length, number of tables and figures);
• a request for masked review, if that is an option for the journal and you choose to
use it;
• recommendations for potential reviewers or reviewers to avoid (optional);
• information about any previous presentation of the data (e.g., at a scientific meeting);
THE PUBLICATION PROCESS
• jnformation about the existence of any closely related manuscripts that have been
submitted for simultaneous consideration to the same or to another journal;
• notice of any interests or activities that might be seen as influencing the research
(e.g., financial interests in a test or procedure, funding by pharmaceutical companies
for drug research);
• verification that the treatment of subjects (human or animal) was in accordance with
established ethical standards; and
• a copy of the permission granted to reproduce or adapt any copyrighted material
from another source or a notice that permissions are pending. (The publisher will
need copies of all granted permissions on receipt of your accepted manuscript.)
The corresponding author is responsible for ensuring that all authors are in agree-
ment with the content of the manuscript and with the order of authorship before sub-
mitting an original or revised submission (see section 1.13). The cover letter should
assure the editor that such agreements have been reached and that the corresponding
author will take responsibility for informing coauthors in a timely manner of editorial
decisions, reviews received, changes made in response to editorial review, and the con-
tent of revisions. If the manuscript is accepted, all the authors will need to certify
authorship.
Finally, include your telephone number, fax number, e-mail address, and mailing
address for future correspondence. (See Figure 8.1 for a sample cover letter.)
Interim correspondence. While a manuscript is under consideration, be sure to inform the
editor of any substantive corrections needed, any change in address, and so forth. In all
correspondence, include the complete manuscript title, the authors’ names, and the man-
uscript number (which is assigned by the editor when the manuscript is first received).
8.04 Complying With Ethical, Legal, and Policy Requirements
In Chapter 1, we noted that authors are responsible for demonstrating that they have
complied with the ethical standards that govern scholarly publishing. When you sub-
mit a manuscript to a journal editor for consideration, you may be asked to provide
proof of compliance with these standards. You are also expected to comply with legal
standards of fair use when reprinting or adapting the work of others and to comply
with the publication policies established by the journal publisher.
Ethical conduct of research and conflicts of interest. When you submit your manuscript,
you may be asked to verify that you have complied with ethical standards in the con-
duct of your research. You may also be asked to disclose potential conflicts of interest
and to indicate financial agreements or affiliations with any product or services used or
discussed in your papers well as any potential bias against another product or ser-
vice. The forms used by APA for this purpose are provided in Figures 8.2 and 8.3.
Permission to reprint or adapt the work of others. If your paper includes material bor-
rowed from another source, you must cite the original source in your paper (for more
on including your own previously published work in a paper, see section 1.10 on self-
plagiarism). It is the author’s responsibility to (a) obtain letters of permission from
copyright holders to reproduce copyrighted material and (b) enclose copies of these let-
ters with the accepted manuscript.
____
AUTHOR RESPONSIBILITIES
April 2, 2008
Meredith S. Simpson, PhD
Editor, Journal of Poetry and Psychology
Department of Psychology
University of Xanadu
9 Prentice Hall
Xanadu, NY 10003-1212
Dear Dr. Simpson:
I am enclosing a submission to the Journal of Poetry and Psychology entitled, ‘Poetry and the
Cognitive Psychology of Metrical Constructs.” The manuscript is 40 pages long and includes 4 tables
and I figure. I wish for the manuscript to be given a masked review and request that it not be sent
to my ex-husband [name blocked out] for review. Although he is an expert in the area, I do not
helieve that he would be ahle to provide an unbiased review at this time.
Some of the data from this paper were previously presented at the annual meeting of the Poetry and
Psychology Society in San Diego (May 2006). This is one of a series of papers examining cognition
and creative writing (see references for a listing of those puhlished and in press). There is some
overlap in the content of the introduction sections, which we have noted in the text. We would be
happy to provide copies of the other manuscripts if there should be any concern about duplicate or
fragmented publication. My coauthors and I do not have any interests that might be interpreted as
influencing the research, and APA ethical standards were followed in the conduct of the snidy.
I have enclosed a copy of the permission granted us for the adaptation we made to the figure;
permission is pending from the publisher for the poetry that is reproduced.
I. will be serving as the corresponding author for this manuscript. All of the authors listed in the
byline have agreed to the byline order and to submission of the manuscript in this form. I have
assumed responsibility for keeping my coauthors informed of our progress through the editorial review
process; the content of the reviews, and any revisions made. I understand that, if accepted for
publication, a certification of authorship form will be required that alt coauthors will sign.
Sincerely,
Janet Sestina, PhD, Associate Professor
University of Melville
112 Oceanside Drive
Qile4ueeg, ME 20031-2221
218-555-1212 (voice)
218-555-1213 (fax)
jsestina@melville.edu
The following are some examples of material that require permission:
• Figures and tables: Along with directly reprinted figures and tables, this also includes
figures and tables that have been adapted from or are very similar to previously pub-
lished figures and tables.
• Data: This applies only to data that are directly reproduced from another source;
data that have been reconfigured or reanalyzed to produce different numbers do not
require permission.
Sample Cover Letter
THE PUBLICATION PROCESS
APA Compliance With Ethical Principles Form
CERTIFICATION OF COMPLIANCE WITH APA ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
The APA Publications ond Communications Board has added
to Ike Instruction to Authore for each APA journal the following slot,menl: “Authors will be required to stale its writing thai they have complied with
APA ethical standards in the trealment of their somple,human or onirnol, or to describe the deloiln of Ireolrnenl.’ (A copy of the APA Ethical Principles may be obtolned at irtp://vceew.opo.org/ethicn/ or by writing the APA Ethics Oflice, 750 first Street NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242.)
For your inFormation, the APA Ethical Principles concerning research
and publication are reprinted below. Pleone review the Peinciplenand sign the form provided on the bock of thin eked to indicate thot you ore ire compliance,
Pros, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. (2002). American Paycho/ogig 57, i0oo_i073,
8.01 InstitutIonal Approvel
declining or withdrawing from participation.
(b) When research pnaaicipaliun isncosmc requirrnsenr or enWhen inslitnltunsl epprovsl is rnqnircd, psychologist’ provide opponinn-nily for extra credil, the prospective psnlicipanr is given the
sccrn-rate infonnanion aboun theft research proposals nod ublain approval choice ofeqninahln alnernsrive eclivilics.
prior In conducting the research. They conduct the reiearch in
eccoedance with the approved research protocol,
8.05 Olepenelng With Infarmed Consent for Reeeerch
8.02 Informed Consent to Regesrch
Psychologist’ msy dispense with informed consenn only (I) where
rrsearch would not reasonebly be nssnmed to creane distressor hsuain end
(5) When ohtainlng infonoed cossenr as reqsiccd in Snartdsrd 3.10, involves (5) the study of normal ndncanionst practices, curricula, orInformed Consenr, psychologisri inform pnnuicipastn shout (I) the classroom mnnngrmrnt methods conducted ‘no educational neltings; (b)plo-pose of the research, expected dnmiion, end pooccdnrea; (2) their
only anonymous qucstiontnaires, usnurnilsnic ohsen,ationn, or erchivalright to decline to patlicipate and to withdrsw from the research once research foc which disclosure ofreapouses wonld not place pnnaicipanta ntpaaaicipsrion has begun; the foreseenbleconseqnenrcea ofdcclining or rink of crinninat or civil linhility or damsge their financial standing.
withdrawing; (4) reasonahly foreseeable factors than nsey he expected to employability, or reputation, end c0011denlinliny iu protected; or (0) theinfinence their willingness 10 panlicipane and. as potential rinks, study offnctot, related tojob or organizalson effectiveness conducted in
discomfo,a, oc adverse effects; (5) eny prospective research benef.rs; (6) organizational seltingu for which there in no risk 10 paflicipartts’linnina ofconfidenliatily (7) inceolivca forpaniciparion; end(S) whounlo
employahniliny, end confidcntisiiry is protedled or (2) where otherwise
conrad forqnesuona ebosr the research end research pasaicipanis’ right’. pennitrcd by law or federal orinsiirnmional regulslions.
They provide oppotlunity for the prospective puonicipenis to ask
qucslioaa and receive answers. (See also Standards 8,03, Informed
Cosscnl for Rccordtng Votcea end tmngea in Research; 8.05. Dispensing 8.05 OfferIng lnducsmsntn for Research Perticipnllon
With Informed Consent for Research; end 8.07, Deception in Research.)
(a) Psychologlaus make reasoneble efforts to avoid offering excessive
On) Psychologiuls conducting intcrveorio, research involving the use of or inappruprisre ftnmtctal or other indecemenru for research penlicipaliou
eaperimental urealnarnis clern’fy to pansicipsnrs at the outset of lb e whrn such indecementa are likely to coerce pslaicipalion.
research (I) the experimental natureofthe trcalmenl; (2) the cervices thsi
Be) Wheu offering professional services as an inducement for research
wul or wilt not be avsitat,le to the control groep(n) if appropriate; (3) the
penicipalion, psychologinla clarify the nature of the services, as well enmeans by which assigastunenu In urcalmenl and coslrol groups will be
thr riskn, obligations, end limitalioss. (See else Slandard 6,05, natoer
made; (4) availsble lrcahssent altemalivos ifan individual does not wish With
10 psesicipale in the resesrch or wishes no withdraw once a sludy has
begun; and (5) compensalion for or usunclaey costs of paalicipaling
including, ifeppropriale, whclhcrreimbursetnnenr from the pataicipanl or 8.07 Deception In Resserch
third.pany payor will be soeghn. (See slso Standard 8.02u, Informed
Consent no Research.)
(a) Puychologists do nor cunduceesiudy involving deceplion unless
they have drlcrmiued thst the use of deceptive techniques in jnstifted by
the study ‘u prospective scicntiftc, educational, or applied8.03 Inlorined Consent far Recordtng VoIces and images In value and thai effective nondecepsive alrernanive procedures are useResserch
feasible
(h) Psychologisin do non deceive prospective psusicipanls aboni
Psychologists obtein informed conseul from research parlicipants priorre.search that is reasonably expecled 10 cause physical pain or severein recording their voices or intages for data cotlcctiou unlmu (I) the ereo.tionst distress.
research consist’ solely of naturalistic observalions in puhlir places, and
(c) Psychologist’ explain enydcception thai is aninregral feature ofthe
is non anticipated thai the recording will be used inamanncr thai coald
design and conduct of an experiment to panlicipaatls as early as íacause personal ideolificalion or hann, or (2) Ihe research druign includes
feasible, preferably at the conclusion of their parricipalion, bat no lsIcrdeception, and consent for ih, use of he recording is obisioed during
than at the concluuion of the dnla collection, and pernnsii participants nodebriefing. (See also Standard 8.07, Deception in Roseatcti,)
withdraw their dale. (See also Sianderd 8.08, Debriefing.)
8.04 ClIent/Patient Student end SubordInate 8.08 DebrIefIng
Research ParticIpants
(a) Psychologisin provide a pmmpl opporutanity for paauicipanta no(a) When pnychntogista conduct research with clknis/palicnis, obtain approprisle infousnalion shout the nature, results, asd conclusions
stu.dcnis, or subordinates as patsicipanis, psychologist’ lake sleps 10 ofthe research, and they take reasoneble sleps locousect any uriseoncep.
may have the psyrhologiwrm
This form can be found on the APA Journals web page (http:IMww.apa.ofg/journals)
• Test and scale items, questionnaires, vignettes, and so forth: This applies mainly to
items that are from copyrighted and commercially available tests (e.g., the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale,
and the Stanford—Binet Intelligence Scales).
• Long quotations: Each copyright holder has a definition of what is considered fair
use. It is your responsibility to determine whether the copyright holder requires per-
mission for long quotations.
AUTHOR RESPONSIBILITIES
(b) If acienlifte or humane vuluesjustify delaying or withholding this
inloemalisu, psychologists lake reasonable measures to reduce the risk
of Isanu.
(C) Wlten psychologists become aware that eeuearch procedures have
harmed a paslicipanl, they lake reasonable steps Co minirnniee the harm.
8.09 Humane Care and Use of Anlmala In Reaearch
(a) Psychologiols acquire, care for, use, and dispose of animals in
coss-pliance with entrees federal, slate, and local lawn and regulations,
and with professional standards.
(b) Psychologists trained in research methods and experienced in the
care ofluborutory aniotals supervise all procednnes involving animals and
are responsible foretasting appropriate consideration of their comfori,
health, sod humane treatment.
(0) Psychologists ensure that all irt,iividonls under their supervision who
see using animalu have received instruction in rewanch methods and in the
care, maintenance, and handling of the species being ased, to the extent
appropriate to their role. (See also Standard 2.05, Delegation ofWortc to
Others.)
(d) Iosychologiuls make reasonable effono to miuimize the discomforn,
infection, illneos, and pain ofanimal subjects.
(e) Psychologists use a procedure subjecting animals to paiu. stress, or
privation only when an ullemalive procedure is uusnailable and the goal is
juulifaed by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value.
(I) Psychologists peefoms surgical procedures under appropriate
anca-thesin and follow leclmiqnes to avoid infection and minimize pain
during and after surgery.
r,g) it is appropriate that an animal’s life be lenninsted,
psycholo-gistu proceed rapidly, with an effort to minimire pain and in
accordance with accepted procedures.
8.10 ReportIng Reaearch Reaulls
(a) Psychologists do sot fabricate data. (See also Standard 5.Uls,
Avoid’anm ofFulse orDeceplive Sitlements.)
Ii’) lfpsychologists discover significant canons in their published data,
they take reasonableurepu to correct usda ertons ins correction, refraction,
erratum, or other appropriale publication means.
8.11 Plaglarlam
Psychologists do nor present pensions of soother’s work ordaIn an their
own, the other wont or data soaree it cited occssionally.
JOURNAL
8.12 PublIcation Credit
(a) Psychologists lake respossibility and eredir, including uuthonsitip
credit, only for work they have ucuaully performed or ro which Ihey base
sabstanlially coslribslesJ. (See also Standard 8.12b, Pshliealion Credit.)
Qs) Principal uuthoohip and olherpublicationcredi tsuccarats ly reflect
the relating scientific or professional contributions of the indisidnats
in-volved, regardless of their relutiee slsluo. Mere possmston of an
inslilu-lr’onul posilion, sach so department chair, does not justify
uuthonhip credit. Minor contributions to the research or to the writing
for publics-lions are uckaowledged appropriately, saeh an in foatnotes or
in an inlro’duclony statement,
(c) Excepr under eseepnio’sal circumstances, a student is listed us
princi’psl author on any msltiple-authornl aniiele that is subslsnlinlly
based on the doctoral diuuealatios, Faculty advisom diucnss
publication credit with students as early us feasibte and throughout the
research and publication process as sppropriulr. (Sre alto Stantdurd
8.’ 2h, Pnhlication Credit.)
8.13 DuplIcate Publicalton of Date
Psychologists do not publish, us original data, data that tsnve been
pre’viousiy pahliuhed, This does nol preelnde republishing dsln when
they ann accompanied by proper acknowledgment.
8.14 Sharing Research Date for Verification
(a) After reseatch results are published, puychotogists do sot witlthold
the data on which their conelus’tons nan based from other competent
pro-fessionats who seek to verily the usbstantiee claims through
reenatysiu and whointend to use such data only for that purpose,
provided that the confideulinlity of the participants can hr prolected and
unless legal rights conceroiug proprietary dsra precitdr their release.
This does not preclude psychologists from requiting that ouch
individuals or groups he respon-sihle for costs associated with the
provision of such information
(Is) Psychotugiuts who reqnese data from other psychologists to verify
the sahsrantive claims through reanalysis may use shuned data only foe the
declared purpose. Requesting psychologists obtutn prior written
agree’mene for all other uses of the data.
8.15 Revlewera
Psychologists who review msterist submitted for presentation,
pubtica-rion, grsnt, or research proposal review respect the confidential-
TITLE OF MANUSCRIFf_
AUThOR(S)
I certify that I (we) havecomplied with the APA elhicut principles regarding research with hamun participants and/or care and use ofanimalu is the
conduct of the research presented in this rosnuscripi.
(Signature of corresponding author) (date)
1-1)0)
The journal publisher typically owns the copyright on material published in its jour-
nals. Provided that the purpose of the use is scholarly comment, noncommercial
and medical publishers require no written permission or fees for
I rim I APA Compliance With Ethical Principles Form (continued)
research, or educational use and full credit is given to the author and the publisher as
copyright holder through a complete and accurate citation, many scientific, technical,
.1
THE PUBLICATION
APA Disclosure of Interests Form
.—Ps,cHoeOoJc.sL– Mtoavrcm Faill.Dawlraun.rp of Lntpres,tc
This section to he compleled by author(s):
Journal:
__________ __________________________________
Issue:
Asticle title:
Authors:
In psychology, as in other scientific disciplines, professional
comaaunicationn sac presumed to be based on objecliveinletpreraeions ofevidence and unbiased inleapretalions offace. Asa author’s economic and coanonerciat interests in products orservices used or discussed in their papers may color such objectivity. Although such relationships do not necessarily constitute
conflict of interest, the integrity of the field requites disclosure ofthe ponsibilities ofsuch potentially distotting influences
where they may exist. The reader may then judge and, if necesnary. make allowance for tile impact of the bias on theinformation being reported.
In general, the safest and most open coarse of action is to disclose uctivities and relationships that, if known to others, might
be viewed as a conflict of interest, even if you do not believe that any conflict or bias exists.
whether an interest is ‘significant” will depend on individual circumstances and cannot be defined by a dollar amount.Holdings in s company through a mutual flund are not ordinarily sufficient to wat-rani disclosure,
wheeeas salaaies, researchgrants, consulting fees, and pemonal stock holdings would be. Being thecopyright holder ofandtor recipient ofroyallim frompsychological lest might he another example. Panlicipation on a hoard ofdireclors or any otherrelationahip wilh an enlity or
person Ihat is in some way paul of the paper should also be carefitlly conaidered for possible disclosure.
tn addition to disclosure of possible soutces of positive bias, authota should alto curefitlty consider disclosure where
circumslances could suggest bias against a product, nervice, facility, or person. For eaampte, having a copynight or royalty
interest in a competing psychological test or assessment protocol night be seen as a possible source of negative bias againstmolher It-st instrument.
Please check one line only:
I have read the above APA policy on fish disclosure, and I declare that
Neither I nor any member ofmy immediate family have a significant financial anrangement or affiliation with any
prodact or services used ordiacussed in my paper, nor my potential bias agninat another product or service.
I (or an itmnediate fansily member) have a significant imancial interestor affiliation with the following products
or services used ordincussed in my paper:
Name of peodact or service and nature of relalionship with each (e.g., ttock or hond holdings, research granli, employment,
ownership orpattnrmhip, consultant fees or other remanerssion).
Name of Prednct or Service
Rtlatienahlltllnittrese
If an author nnte should be added In your manunceipt in reference to any diuclosure(a) noted above, please check the line
below and anach to thiu form the lext ofthe author note.
Author Note Attached
Author tignststre fAll contribtnejng etttfhorsnttesrsjgn this form ordn,plimsrjon of /hereofl Dare
This form can be found on the APA Journals web page
• a maximum of three figures (including tables) from a journal article or book chap-
ter and a maximum of five figures (including tables) from a whole book or
• single text extracts of fewer than 400 words or series of text extracts totaling fewer
than 800 words.
In addition, permission granted for print formats extends in most cases to electronic
formats, to all second and subsequent editions, and to foreign language editions.
AUTHOR RESPONSIBILITIES
Permissions policies differ from publisher to publisher. Consult your publisher
directly to determine the policies that apply. Requests for permission to reproduce
material should be directed to the publisher’s permissions office (see, e.g., http://
www.apa.org/about/copyright.html).
When permissions are required, you must request permission to reproduce the
material in all formats. Some publishers may also require that you obtain permission
from the author of the original work. Publishers normally grant permission contingent
on the inclusion of a copyright notice on the first page of reproduced material and pay-
ment of a fee per table, figure, or page.
Allow ample time (several weeks) to secure permission. At the time of submission,
identify the copyright holder and request permission to reprint or adapt the material
in both print and electronic form. Determining who holds the copyright can be a chal-
lenge, particularly for older works, because publishers may merge and copyrights may
change hands. The permissions request should specify the source material (title of
work, year of publication, page number, etc.) and the nature of the reuse (e.g., reusing
in a journal). (See Figure 8.4 for the APA form used to request permission.)
Permission can be secured via fax, mail, or e-mail. Many publishers have online
submission forms for requesting permission that can be accessed from their websites
(e.g., see http://www.apa.org/journals and click on Copyright and Permission Information
to request permission to reproduce material published by APA). Most publishers will
not allow your article to enter into production until all print and electronic permissions
are secured for reproduced items and forwarded with your manuscript.
Once permission is granted, the author needs to include a permissions notice in the
manuscript, following the wording and format shown in section 2.12 or the specific
wording at the copyright holder’s request.
8.05 Publisher Policy Requirements
Transfer of copyright. When a manuscript is accepted for publication, the journal edi-
tor sends to the author a legal form regarding copyright and authorship. By transfer-
ring copyright, authors permit publishers to (a) more widely distribute the work, (b)
control reuse by others, and (c) handle the paperwork involved in copyright registra-
tion and administration. The publisher in turn represents the author’s interests and
permits authors to reuse their work in several ways.
The corresponding author (a) transfers the copyright on the article to the publisher
or (b) certifies that the majority of the authors or the primary authors are employees of
the U.S. government and that the work was performed as part of their employment and
is not protected by U.S. copyright law (therefore, it is in the public domain). In the case
of work performed under U.S. government contract, the publisher may retain the copy-
right but grant the U.S. government royalty-free permission to reproduce all or portions
of the article and authorize others to do so for U.S. government purposes. By law, pub-
lishers own the copyright on their journal articles for 95 years from the time of publi-
cation. The copyright transfer includes both print and electronic rights to the article to
allow the publisher to disseminate the work as broadly as possible.
Posting articles on the Internet. Certain rights are linked to copyright ownership,
including the exclusive right to reproduce and distribute the copyrighted work.
Journals are committed to publishing original scholarship and distributing peer-
THE PUBLICATION PROCESS
AMERICAN
American Psychological Association
PSYCHOLOGICAL Copyright Permission Request Form
— ASSOCIATION
If you want to reuse APA journal or book material, please use our new Online Permission Rightslink®
service for fast, convenient permission approval. For instructions, please visit
Please make sure the material you want to use is copyrighted by American Psychological Association
(A PA).
After filling out the information below, email this form to oermissions@ana.om.
Additional contact information:
APA Permissions Office, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC 200024242
Phone: 1-800.374.2722 or 202-336-5650
Fax: 202-336-5633
we,’w.aoa,erolabout/coovrioht. html
For Use of APA Material
Date:
Your contact information:
Name:
Organization name:
Department:
Complete postal address:
Country:
Office phone:
Fax number:
Email:
Your reference code number hf required):
1. The APA material you want to use:
Complete citation (Ex: URL, Title, Source, Author, Publication year, Pagination, etc.l
2. Do you want to use:
O The entire material, unedited?
o Portions of the material?
O Please give APA page number(s)
O A specific section? Please give APA page number(s)
0 Scale or test material? Please give APA page number
0 A photo? Please give APA page number
o Appendix material? Please give APA page number
O Other I Please specify:
This form can be found on the APA Journals web page (http://www.apa.org/journals).
reviewed articles, in both print and electronic formats, that serve as the version of
record. Thus, many publishers have policies delineating the terms under which an arti-
cle may be posted on the Internet by the author.
If a paper is unpublished, the author may distribute it on the Internet or post it on
a website but should label the paper with the date and a statement that the paper has
not (yet) been published.
APA Copyright Permission Request Form
AUTHOR RESPONSIBILITIES
3. What media do you want to use the APA material in?
O Print only
O Electronic I Please give details:
O Both print and electronic I Please give details:
O Other / Please give details:
4. The material will be used in:
O Journal 0 Book
o Directory 0 Newspaper
Publication name:
Publisher:
Estimated publication date:
Estimated print run:
O Presentation or Seminar
Title:
Date:
Number of copies needed:
Is the presenter the author of the APA material?
Is the presentation or seminar continuing education?
Is there a fee for attendees?
O Dissertation or Thesis
O Email distribution 0 Listserv
Please give details:
YES NO
YES NO
YES NO
O Secure Intranet site
Please give URL and other details:
O Classroom use (Print)
Institution name:
Course name:
Course start date:
O 1 semester (6 months)
O 2 semesters (1 2 months)
Instructors name:
Number of students enrolled:
O Online CE course
Organization:
Course name:
Course start date:
O Classroom use (Electronic reserve)
Institution name:
Course name:
Course start date:
0 Other I Please specify:
0 12 months 0 Other / Please specify:
If your school has a PsycARTICLES or PsycROOKS license, your site license policy grants permission
to put the content into password protected electronic (not print) course packs or electronic reserve
for your users. Please see the license policy at www.apa.org/librarians/p olicies/course-packs.html (or
more information, and discuss this use with your librarian.
0 Other / Please give details:
APA Copyright Permisslob Request Form (continued)
0 Newsletter
0 Other / Please specify:
0 Magazine
LI Public Internet site 0 Restricted Internet site
0 6 months
5. Any additional information to tell us:
Example:
Draft version 1.3, 1 /5/99. This paper has not been peer reviewed. Please do not
copy or cite without author’s permission.
Upon submitting the paper for publication, you are obligated to inform the editor
if the paper has been or is posted on a website. Some editors may consider such a web
THE PUBLICATION PROCESS
posting to be prior publication and may not review the paper. Authors of articles pub-
lished in APA journals may post a copy of their final manuscript (e.g., as a word-
processing file) on a personal website or on the author’s employer’s server after it is
accepted for publication. The following conditions prevail:
• The posted manuscript must carry an APA copyright notice and include a link to the
APA journal home page (http://www.apa.org/journals).
• The posted manuscript must include the following statement: “This manuscript may
not exactly replicate the final version published in the APA journal. It is not the copy
of record.”
a APA does not permit archiving with any other non-APA repositories.
• APA does not provide electronic copies of the APA published version for this pur-
pose, and authors are not permitted to scan in the APA published version.
Complying with the National Institutes of Health (NIH) public access policy. The
“Revised Policy on Enhancing Public Access to Archived Publications Resulting from
NIH-Funded Research,” notice number NOT-OD-08-033, took effect April 7, 2008.
Under this policy, NIH-funded investigators (or their publishers) are required to
deposit to PubMed Central an electronic version of their final, peer-reviewed and
accepted manuscript at acceptance to be made publicly available within 12 months of
publishers’ final publication date.
For detailed guidance about this policy, check with your publisher. If you are publish-
ing in an APA journal, consult the APA Journals website (http://www.apa.org/journals).
8.06 Working With the Publisher When the Manuscript Has
Been Accepted
After your manuscript has been accepted for publication, your publisher will contact
you with detailed instructions on working with copyeditors, proofreading the typeset
manuscript, and monitoring the production process.
Preparing the word-processing file for copyediting and typesetting. Most publishers
request that authors provide the electronic word-processing files containing their
manuscript, figures, and other materials to the production office for copyediting and
production. You may be asked to provide the electronic manuscript files by e-mail
or through a submission portal. Consult the instructions to authors for the journal
to which you are submitting your paper for the latest guidance on manuscript file
preparation.
Reviewing the proofs. Both journal editors and copyeditors introduce changes in man-
uscripts to correct errors of form, to achieve consistency of style, or to clarify expres-
sion. The corresponding author needs to review the edited manuscript carefully, being
alert for changes in meaning and being attentive to levels of heading and to markup of
statistics, equations, and tables. It is important to check the proofs word for word
against the manuscript to catch typographical errors.
Limit changes on these proofs to corrections of production errors and to updates
of reference citations or addresses. This is not the time to rewrite the text. Be sure to
check the following:
• Are all queries fully answered?
• Is the hierarchy of headings and subheadings correct?
AUTHOR RESPONSIBILITIES
• Are all numbers and symbols in text, tables, and mathematical and statistical copy
correct?
• Are tables correct? Are table alignment notes, superscripts, and footnotes correct?
• Are figures correct? Are captions and numbers correct? Are all labels properly
spelled? Do symbols in the legends match those in the figure? Are your photographs
reproduced successfully?
If coauthors participate in the review of the copyedited manuscript, the correspon-
ding author is responsible for consolidating necessary changes and forwarding them to
the publisher. It is important to submit your requested changes to the publisher with-
in the established deadline so publication of your article will not be delayed.
Retaining raw data. The tradition in scientific publishing is to retain data, instructions,
coding systems, details of procedure, and analyses so that copies may be made avail-
able in response to inquiries from interested readers (see section 1.08). APA, for exam-
ple, expects you to retain these materials for a minimum of five years after your arti-
cle has been published.
Initial observations may take many forms, including, for example, participant
responses to individual test or survey items, videotapes of participant performances,
interviewer or observer notes, and physiological recordings. They need to be retained
in a form that to the extent possible ensures that the information available to the orig-
inal researcher is also available to the researcher seeking to confirm the original find-
ings. For example, retaining only an electronic data file containing scale scores derived
from a questionnaire is insufficient. A scoring or coding system for the logging or
transformation of data should also be retained. Choose an archival form for retaining
data that ensures that no information is lost; do not simply opt for the most expedient
means of archiving (e.g., using optical scanners to record response sheets may cause
future problems; Sackett, 2000).
Correction notices. From time to time, errors occur in published journal articles. If you
detect an error in your published article and think that a correction notice is warranted,
submit a proposed correction notice to the journal editor. The notice should contain
the following elements: (a) full journal title and year, volume number, issue number
(when appropriate), and inclusive page numbers of the article being corrected; (b) com-
plete article title and names of all authors, exactly as they appear in the published arti-
cle; (c) precise location of the error (e.g., page, column, line); (d) exact quotation of
the error or, in the case of lengthy errors or an error in a table or figure, an accurate
paraphrasing of the error; and (e) concise, unambiguous wording of the correction.
Because it is not the purpose of corrections to place blame for mistakes, correction
notices do not identify the source of the error.
8.07 Checklist for Manuscript Submission
Numbers following entries refer to relevant section numbers in the Publication Manual
(this checklist can also be found online at http://www.apa.org/journals).
THE PUBLICATION PROCESS
Checklist for Manuscript Submission
Format
LI Have you checked the journal’s website for instructions to authors regarding
specific formatting requirements for submission (8.03)?
LI Is the entire manuscript—including quotations, references, author note, con-
tent footnotes, and figure captions—double-spaced (8.03)? Is the manuscript
neatly prepared (8.03)?
LI Are the margins at least 1 in. (2.54 cm; 8.03)?
LI Are the title page, abstract, references, appendixes, author note, content foot-
notes, tables, and figures on separate pages (with only one table or figure per
page)? Are the figure captions on the same page as the figures? Are manu-
script elements ordered in sequence, with the text pages between the
abstract and the references (8.03)?
LI Are all pages numbered in sequence, starting with the title page (8.03)?
Title Page and Abstract
LI Is the title no more than 12 words (2.01)?
LI Does the byline reflect the institution or institutions where the work was con-
ducted (2.02)?
LI Does the title page include the running head, article title, byline, and date, and
author note (8.03)? (Note, however, that some publishers prefer that you
include author identification information only in the cover letter. Check with
your publisher and follow the recommended format.)
LI Does the abstract range between 150 and 250 words (2,04)? (Note, however,
that the abstract word limit changes periodically. Check http://apa.org/journals
for updates to the APA abstract word limit.)
Paragraphs and Headings
LI Is each paragraph longer than a single sentence but not longer than one man-
uscript page (3.08)?
LI Do the levels of headings accurately reflect the organization of the paper
(3.02—3.03)?
LI Do all headings of the same level appear in the same format (3.02—3.03)?
Abbreviations
LI Are unnecessary abbreviations eliminated and necessary ones explained
(4.22—4.23)?
LI Are abbreviations in tables and figures explained in the table notes and figure
captions or legends (4.23)?
AUTHOR RESPONSIBILITIES
Mathematics and Statistics
Li Are Greek letters and all but the most common mathematical symbols identi-
fied in the manuscript (4.45—4.49)?
Li Are all non-Greek letters that are used as statistical symbols for algebraic vari-
ables in italics (4.45)?
Units of Measurement
Li Are metric equivalents for all nonmetric units provided (except measurements
of time, which have no metric equivalents; see 4.39)?
Li Are all metric and nonmetric units with numeric values (except some meas-
urements of time) abbreviated (4.27, 4.40)?
References
Li Are references cited both in text and in the reference list (6.11—6.21)?
Li Do the text citations and reference list entries agree both in spelling and in
date (6.11—6.21)?
Li Are journal titles in the reference list spelled out fully (6.29)?
Li Are the references (both in the parenthetical text citations and in the refer-
ence list) ordered alphabetically by the authors’ surnames (6.16, 6.25)?
Li Are inclusive page numbers for all articles or chapters in books provided in
the reference list (7.01, 7.02)?
Li Are references to studies included in your meta-analysis preceded by an
asterisk (6.26)?
Notes and Footnotes
Li Is the departmental affiliation given for each author in the author note (2.03)?
Li Does the author note include both the author’s current affiliation if it is differ-
ent from the byline affiliation and a current address for correspondence (2.03)?
Li Does the author note disclose special circumstances about the article (por-
tions presented at a meeting, student paper as basis for the article, report of
a longitudinal study, relationship that may be perceived as a conflict of inter-
est; 2.03)?
Li In the text, are all footnotes indicated, and are footnote numbers correctly
located (2.12)?
Tables and Figures
Li Does every table column, including the stub column, have a heading (5.13,
5.19)?
Li Have all vertical table rules been omitted (5.19)?
THE PUBLICATION PROCESS
LI Are all tables referred to in text (5.19)?
Li Are the elements in the figures large enough to remain legible after the figure
has been reduced to the width of a journal column or page (5.22, 5.25)?
Li Is lettering in a figure no smaller than 8 points and no larger than 14 points
(5.25)?
Li Are the figures being submitted in a file format acceptable to the publisher
(5.30)?
LI Has the figure been prepared at a resolution sufficient to produce a high-
quality image (5.25)?
Li Are all figures numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals (5.30)?
LI Are all figures and tables mentioned in the text and numbered in the order in
which they are mentioned (5.05)?
Copyright and Quotations
LI Is written permission to use previously published text, tests or portions of
tests, tables, or figures enclosed with the manuscript (6.10)?
Li Are page or paragraph numbers provided in text for all quotations (6.03,
6.05)?
Submitting the Manuscript
Li Is the journal editor’s contact information current (8.03)?
Li Is a cover letter included with the manuscript? Does the letter
Li include the author’s postal address, e-mail address, telephone number,
and fax number for future correspondence?
Li state that the manuscript is original, not previously published, and not
under concurrent consideration elsewhere?
Li inform the journal editor of the existence of any similar published manu-
scripts written by the author (8.03, Figure 8.1)?
Li mention any supplemental material you are submitting for the online ver-
sion of your article?
4
p
.
-a
APPENDIX
Journal Article Reporting
Standards (JARS), Meta-Analysis
Reporting Standards (MARS), and
Flow of Participants Through Each Stage
of an Experiment or Quasi-Experiment
Journal Article Reporting
Standards (JARS)’
Information Recommended for
Inclusion in Manuscripts That Report
New Data Collections
Regardless of Research Design
lablel
Journal Arhcle Reporting Standards flARS): In formation Recommended for Inclusion in Manuscripts That ReportNew Data Collections Regardless of Research Design
Poper section and topic
Description
Identify variables and theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them
Author note contains acknowledgment of special circumstances:
Use of data olso appearing in previous publications, dissertations, or conference papers
Sources of funding or other support
Relatianships that moy be perceived as conflicts of interest
Problem under investigation
Participants or subjects; specifying pertinent characteristics; in animol research, include genus
and species
Study method, including:
Sample size
Any apparatus used
Outcome measures
Data.9athering procedures
Reseorch design (e.g., experiment, observational study)
Findings, including effect sizes and confidence intervals and/or statistical significance levels
Conclusions and the implications or applications
The importance oF the problem:
Theoretical or practical implications
Review of relevant scholarship:
Relation to previous work
IF other aspects of this study have been reported on previously, how the current repart differs
from these earlier reports
Specific hypotheses and objectives:
Theories or other means used to derive hypotheses
Primary and secondary hypotheses, other planned analyses
How hypotheses and research design relate to one another
Eligibility and exclusion criteria, including any restrictions based on demographic
characteristics
Major demographic characteristics as well as important topic-specific characteristics (e.g.,
achievement level in studies of educational interventions), or in the case of animal
research, genus and species
Procedures For selecting participants, including:
The sampling method if a systematic sampling plan was implemented
Percentage of sample approached that participated
Self-selection (either by individuals or units, such as schools or clinics)
Sellings and locations where data were collected
Agreements and payments made to participants
Institutional review board agreements, ethical standards met, safety monitoring
Title and title page
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Participant characteristics
Sampling procedures
APPENDIX
Table 1 (continued)
Paper section and topic Description
Method (continued)
Sample size, power, and Intended sample size
precision Actual sample size, if different from intended sample size
How sample size was determined:
Power analysis, or methods used to determine precision of parameter estimates
Explanation of any interim analyses and stopping rules
Measures and covariates Definitions of all primary and secondary measures and cavariates:
Include measures collected but nat included in this report
Methads used to collect data
Methods used to enhance the quality of measurements:
Training and reliability of data collectors
Use of multiple observations
Information on validated or ad hoc instruments created for individual studies, For example,
psychometric and biometric properties
Research design Whether conditions were manipulated or naturally observed
Type of research design; provided in Table 3 are modules for:
Randomized experiments (Module Al)
Quasi-experiments (Module A2)
Other designs would have different reporting needs associated with them
Results
Participant flow Total number of participants
Flow of participants through each stage of the study
Recruitment Dates defining the periods of recruitment and repeated measurements or follow-up
Statistics and data Information concerning problems with statistical assumptions and/or data distributions that
analysis could affect the validity of findings
Missing data:
Frequency or percentages of missing data
Empirical evidence and/or theoretical arguments for the causes of data that are missing, for
example, missing completely at random (MCAR), missing at random (MAR), or missing
not at random (MNAR)
Methods for addressing missing data, if used
Re
For each primary and secondary outcome and for each subgroup, a summary of:
Cases deleted from each analysis
Subgroup or cell sample sizes, cell means, standard deviations, or other estimates of
precision, and other descriptive statistics
Effect sizes and confidence intervals
For inferential statistics (null hypothesis significance testing), information about:
The a priori Type I error rate adapted
Direction, magnitude, degrees of freedom? and exact p level, even if no significant effect is
reported
For multivariable analytic systems (e.g., multivariate analyses of variance, regression analyses,
structural equation modeling analyses, and hierarchical linear modeling) also include the
ossociated variance—covariance (or correlation) matrix or matrices
Estimation problems (e.g., failure to converge, bad solution spaces), anomalous data paints
DrStatistical software program, if specialized procedures were used
Report any other analyses performed, including adlusted analyses, indicating those that were
prespecified and those that were exploratory (though not necessarily in level of detail af
primary analyses)
Ancillary analyses Discussion of implications of ancillary analyses for statistical error rates
Discussion Statement of support or nonsupport for all original hypotheses:
Distinguished by primary and secondary hypotheses
Post hoc explanations
Similarities and differences between results and wark of others
Interpretation of the results, taking into account:
Sources of potential bias and other threats to internal validity
Imprecision of measures
The overall number of tests or overlop among tests, and
Other limitations or weaknesses of the study
Generalizability (external validity) of the findings, taking into account:
The target population
Other contextual issues
Discussion of implications for future research, program, or policy
APPENDIX
Table 2
Module A: Reportin9 Standards for Studies With an Experimental Manipulation or Intervention (in Addition toMaterial Presented in Table I)
Pope, section arid topic
Description
Method
Experimental Details of the interventions
or experimental manipulations intended For each study condition,manipulations including control groups, and how and when manipulations or interventions were actuallyor interventions administered, specifically including:
Content of the interventions or specific experimental manipulations
Summary or paraphrasing of instructions, unless they are unusual or compose the experimental
manipulation, in which case they may be presented verbatim
Method of intervention or manipulation delivery
Description of apparatus and materials used and their Function in the experiment
Specialized equipment by model and supplier
Deliverer: who delivered the manipulations or interventions
Level of professional training
kvel of training in specific interventions or manipulations
Number of deliverers and, in the case of interventions, the M, SD, and range of number ofindividuals/units treated by each
Seffing: where the manipulations or interventions occurred
Exposure quantity and duration: how many sessions, episodes, or events were intended to bedelivered, how long they were intended to last
Time span: how long it took to deliver the intervention or manipulation to each unitActivities to increase compliance or adherence (e.g., incentives)
Use of language other than English and the translation methodUnits of delivery Unit of delivery: How participants were grouped during deliveryand analysis Description of the smallest unit that was analyzed (acid in the case of experiments, that wasrandomly assigned to conditions) to assess manipulation or intervention effects (e.g., individuals,work groups, classes)
If the unit of analysis differed from the unit of delivery, description of the analytical method used toaccount for this (e.g., adjusting the standard error estimates by the design effect or using
multilevel analysis)
Results
Participant flow Total number of groups (if intervention
was administered at the group level) and the number of
participants assigned to each group:
Number of participants who did not complete the experiment or crossed over to other conditions,explain why
Number of participants used in primary analyses
Flow of participants through each stage of the study (see Figure 1)Treatment fidelity Evidence on whether the treatment was delivered as intendedBaseline data Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of each groupStatistics and data Whether the analysis was by intent-to.treat, complier average causal effect, other or multiple waysanalysis
Adverse events All important adverse events or side effects in each intervention group
and side effects
Discussion of results taking into account the mechanism by which the manipulation or interventionwas intended to work (causal pathways) or alternative mechanisms
If an intervention is involved, discussion of the success of and barriers to implementing the
intervention, fidelity of implementation
Generalizability (external validity) of the findings, taking into account:
The characteristics of the intervention
How, what outcomes were measured
of follow.up
Incentives
Compliance roles
The “clinical or practical significance” of outcomes and the basis for these interpretations
APPENDIX
Table 3
Reporting Standards for Studies Using Random and Nonrandom Assignment of Participants to Experimental
Groups
Paper sector, and topic
Description
Module Al: Studies using random assignment
Method
Random ossignment method Procedure used to generate the random assignment sequence,
including details
of any restriction (e.g., blocking, stratification)
Random assignment concealment Whether sequence was concealed until interventions were assigned
Random assignment implementation Who generated the assignment sequence
Who enrolled participants
Who assigned participants to groups
Masking
Whether participants, those administering the interventions, and those assessing
the outcomes were unaware of condition assignments
If masking tookplace, statement regarding how it was accomplished and how
the success ol masking was evaluated
Statistical methods Statistical methods used to compare groups on primary outcome(s)
Statistical methods used for additional analyses, such as subgroup analyses and
adlusted analysis
Statistical methads used Far mediation analyses
Module A2: Studies using nonrandom assignment
Method
Assignment method Unit of assignment (the unit being assigned to study conditions, e.g.,
individual,
group, communily)
Method used to assign units to study conditions, including details 0f any
restriction (e.g., blacking, stratification, minimization)
Procedures employed to help minimize potential bias due to nonrandamization
(e.g., matching, propensily scare matching)
Masking Whether participants, those administering the interventions, and
those assessing
the outcomes were unaware of condition assignments
If masking took place, statement regarding how it was accomplished and how
the success of masking was evaluated
Statistical methods Statistical methods used to compare study groups an primary outcome(s),
including complex methods For correlated data
Statistical methads used For additional analyses, such as subgroup analyses and
adjusted analysis (e.g., methods for modeling pretest differences and
adjusting for them)
Statistical methods used for mediation analyses
From “Reporting Standards for Research in Psychology: Why Do We Need Them? What Might
They Be?” by APA Publications
and Communications Board Working Group on Journal Article Reporting Standards, 2008,
American Psychologist, 63,
842—845. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
Meta-Analysis Reporting
Standards (MARS)
Information Recommended for Inclusion in
Manuscripts Reporting Meta -Analyses
Make it clear thai the report describes a research synthesis and include “meto-analysis,” if
applicable
Footnote funding source(s)
The problem or relation(s) under investigation
Study eligibility criteria
Type(s) of participants included in primary studies
Meta-onalysis methads (indicating whether a fixed or random model was used)
Main results (including the more important effect sizes and any important moderators of these
effect sizes)
Conclusions (including limitations)
Implications far theory, policy, and/or practice
Clear statement of the question or relation(s) under investigation:
Historical background
Theoretical, policy, and/or practical issues related to the question or relation(s) of interest
Rationale for the selection and coding of potential moderators and mediators of results
Types of study designs used in the primary research, their strengths and weaknesses
Types of predictor and outcome measures used, their psychometric characteristics
Populations to which the question or relation is relevant
Hypotheses, if any
Operational characteristics of independent (predictor) and dependent (outcome) variable(s)
Eligible participant populations
Eligible research design features (e.g., random assignment only, minimal sample size)
Time period in which studies needed to be conducted
Geographical and/or cultural restrictions
Definition of all coding categories used to test moderators or mediators of the relation(s) of
interest
Reference and citation databases searched
Registries (including prospective registries) searched:
Keywords used to enter databases and registries
Seorch software used and version
Time period in which studies needed to be conducted, if applicable
Other efforts to retrieve all available studies:
Listservs queried
Contacts made with authors (and how authors were chosen)
Reference lists of reports examined
Method of addressing reports in languages other than English
Title
table 4
Meta-Analysis Reporting Standards (MARS):
Meta-Analyses
In formation Recommended for Inclusion in Manuscripts Reporting
Popor section and topic
Doscription
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Inclusion and exclusion
criteria
Moderator and mediator
analyses
Search strategies
APPENDIX
Table 4 (continued)
Process for determining study eligibility:
Aspects of reports were examined (i.e, title, abstract, and/or full text)
Number and qualifications of relevance judges
Indication of agreement
How disagreements were resolved
Treatment of unpublished studies
Number and qualifications of coders (e.g., level of expertise in the area, training)
Intercader reliability or agreement
Whether each report was coded by mare than one coder ond if so, how disagreements were
resolved
Assessment of study quality:
If a quality scale was employed, a description af criteria and the procedures far application
If study design features were coded, what these were
How missing data were handled
Effectsizemetric(s):
Effect sizes calculating formulas (e.g., Ms and SDs, use of univariate F to r transform)
Corrections made to effect sizes (e.g., small sample bias, correction for unequal ns)
Effect size averaging and/ar weighting method(s)
How effect size confidence intervals (or standard errors) were calculated
How effect size credibility intervals were calculated, if used
How studies with more than one effect size were handled
Whether fixed and/ar random effects models were used and the model choice justificatian
How heterogeneity in effect sizes was assessed ar estimated
Ms and SDs for measurement artifacts, if construct-level relationships were the focus
Tests and any adustments far data censaring (e.g., publication bias, selective reporting)
Tests for statistica outliers
Statistical power of the meta-analysis
Statistical programs or software packages used to conduct statistical analyses
Number of citatians examined far relevance
List af citations included in the synthesis
Number of citatians relevant an many but nat all inclusion criteria excluded from the meta-
analysis
Number af exclusions far each exclusion criterion (e.g., effect size could nat be calculated),
with examples
Table giving descriptive information for each included study, including effect size and sample
size
Assessment of study quality, if any
Tables and/ar graphic summaries:
Overall characteristics of the database (e.g., number of studies with different research
designs]
Overall effect size estimates, including measures of uncertainty (e.g., confidence and/ar
credibility intervals)
Results af moderator and mediator analyses (analyses of subsets of studies):
Number of studies and total sample sizes for each maderator analysis
Assessment of interrelations amang variables used for maderatar and mediator analyses
Assessment of bias including possible data censoring
Statement of major findings
Consideration of alternative explanations for observed results:
Impact of data censoring
Generalizability of conclusions:
Relevant papulotions
Treatment variations
Dependent (outcome) variables
Research designs
General limitations (including assessment af the quality of studies included)
Implications and interpretation for theory, policy, or practice
Guidelines far future research
From “Reporting Standards for Research in Psychology: Why Do We Need Them? What Might They Be?” by APA Publicatiohl5
and Communications Board Working Group on Journal Article Reporting Standards, 2008, American Psychologist, 63, pp.
848—849. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
Paper section and topic Description
Search strategies
(con tin
Coding procedures
Statistical methods
Results
Discussion
Flow of Participants Through
Each Stage of an Experiment or
Quasi-Experiment
Figure 1
Flow of Participants Through Each Stage of an Experiment or Quasi-Experiment
Assessed for eligibility to =
Excluded (total it = because
Did nut meet inclusion criteria
(a = )
Refused to patlicipate
(75=
Olher reasons
(n= )
Losi to follow-up
(,t= )
Give reasons
Discontinued participalion
(n= )
Give reasons
Assigned so experimental group
(0= )
Received experimental nisuipulaliou
(ts= )
Did net receive experimental
manipulation
Give masons
Assigned to comparison group
(:t= )
Received comparison manipulation (if
soy)
(0= )
Did not receive comparison manipulation
(0= )
Give reasons
Lost to follow-up
(0= )
Give reasons
Discontinued participation
(n= )
Give reasons
Analyzed (a =
Excluded from analysis (n =
Give reasons
Anslytis
[Analyzed (a = )
Excluded from analysis (It =
Give reasonu
Note. This llowcheri is an adoptotion oF the flowchod offered by the CONSORT Group (Altwan et al., 2001; Moher, Schuls, & Alttnon, 2001). .louenols publishing
the original CONSORT flowchart have woived copyright protection.
Prom “Reporting Standards for Research in Psychology: Why Do We Need Them? What Might They Be?” by APA Publications
and Communications Board Working Group on Journal Article Reporting Standards, 2008, American Psychologist, 63, p. 846.
Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
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Sick, L. (Ed.). (2009). Record structure for APA databases. Retrieved from http://www
.apa.org/databases/training/record-structure
Tuckett, D. (2000). Reporting clinical events in the journal: Towards the construction
of a special case. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 81, 1065—1069.
University of Chicago Press. (2003). The Chicago manual of style (15th ed.). Chicago,
IL: Author.
University of Kansas, Research and Training Center on Independent Living. (2008).
Guidelines for reporting and writing about people with disabilities. Lawrence, KS:
Author.
U.S. Copyright Office. (1981). Circular RI: Copyright basics (Publication No. 341-
279/106). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
VandenBos, G. R. (2001). Disguising case material for publication. (Unpublished man-
uscript, available from the American Psychological Association, Publications
Office, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242)
VandenBos, G. R. (Ed.). (2007). APA dictionary of psychology. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
Wainer, H. (1997). Improving tabular displays: With NAEP tables as examples and
inspirations. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 22, 1—30.
Webster’s third new international dictionary, unabridged. (2002). Springfield, MA:
Merriam-Webster.
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594—604. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.8.594
Numbers in bold refer to section numbers.
A
Abbreviations, 4.22—4.30, 106—111
accepted as words, 4.24, 107
in APA journals, 4.25, 108
avoidance of, in article title, 2.01, 23
beginning a sentence, 4.30, 111
decision whether to use, 4.22, 107
explanation of, 4.23, 107
internal periods in, 4.01, 88
introducing, 4.09, 93
Latin, 4.02, 4.26, 88, 108
in legal citations, A7.01, 216—217
for measurements, 4.02, 4.40, 88, 115
for names of group authors, 6.13, 176
overuse of, 4.22, 106
plurals of, 4.29, 110—111
reference, 4.02, 6.22, 88, 180
for routes of administration, 4.02, 4.27,
88, 110
scientific, 4.27, 108—110
of state names, 4.02, 6.30, 88, 187
for statistical copy, 119—123 (Table 4.5)
in tables, 5.12, 5.13, 133—134
underuse of, 4.22, 107
for United States, 4.02, 88
used for groups, 72
use of period with, 4.02, 88
Abruptness, avoiding, 3.06, 65
Abstract, 2.04, 8.03, 25—27, 229
format of, 2.04, 27
as original source, 7.01, 202
as secondary source, 7.01, 202
Academic course title, 4.16, 102
Acceptance of manuscript, 8.02, 227—228
Accepted usage, for numbers expressed in
words, 4.32, 112
Accuracy, importance of, in reference list, 6.22,
180
Acknowledgments. See also Credit
in author note, 2.03, 25
of contribution to study, 1.13, 18
of participation, 73
of previously published material, 1.09,
14—15
Acronyms, 4.02, 88. See also Abbreviations
Action editor, 8.01, 226
Active voice, 2.04, 3.18, 26, 77
Adaptation, 6.10, 173
Addition links, as transition device, 3.05, 65
Ad hoc reviewers, 8.01, 226
Administrative and executive materials,
reference form for, A7.06, 223—224
Advance online publication, 7.01, 198, 199,
200
Adverbs, 3.21, 82—83
Adverse events, reported in Results section,
2.07, 35
Advisory editor, 8.01, 226
African American, use of term, 3.14, 75
Age groups, 3.16, 71, 76
Age ranges, 3.16, 76
I
Index
INDEX
Agreement
of noun and pronoun, 3.20, 79
of subject and verb, 3.19, 4.12, 78—79, 96
Alignment
of manuscript page, 8.03, 229
for statistical/mathematical copy, 4.46,
118, 123
Alphabetical order
of multiple citations within same
parentheses, 6.16, 177—178
of names in reference list, 6.25, 181—1 82
Alphabetization, letter by letter, 6.25, 181—182
Alternation, between he and she, 3.12, 74
Ambiguity, eliminating, 3.09, 68—69
American Indian, use of term, 3.14, 75
Ampersand, 6.12, 6.27, 175, 184
Ancillary analyses, reported in Results section,
2.07, 34
Animal subjects, described in Method section,
2.06, 30
Anonymous, use of term, 6.15, 6.25, 177, 183
Anthropomorphism, avoidance of, 3.09, 68—69
APA, commitment to fair treatment, 70—71
APA Archives, 7.10, 212
APA Compliance With Ethical Principles Form,
233—234 (Figure 8.2)
APA Copyright Permission Request Form,
237—238 (Figure 8.4)
APA Disclosure of Interests Form, 235 (Figure
8.3)
APA Ethics Code, 11
APA journals. See also Journals
abbreviations used in, 4.25, 108
and editorial style, 87
expectation of complete reporting of
results, 2.07, 33
and Internet posting, 8.05, 239
levels of headings for, 3.03, 62 (Table 3.1)
metrication policy, 4.39, 114—115
and reference lists, 180
and supplemental materials, 8.03, 230
Appeal, of rejection, 8.02, 227
Appendices, 2.06, 2.13, 8.03, 29, 38-40, 230
formatting of, 2.13, 39
labeling of, 2.13, 39
in methodological articles, 1.04, 11
with tables or figures, 5.05, 127
titling of, 2.13, 39
Arabic numerals
for page numbering, 8.03, 229
in reference list, 6.22, 180
Archival copy, in reference list, 6.24, 6.32,
181, 192
Archival function, of journal articles, 10
Archival sources, 6.28, 185
reference examples, 7.10, 212—214
Archives of the History of American Psychology,
University of Akron, 7.10, 212
Article identifier, DO! as, 6.31, 189
Articles. See Journal articles
Asian, use of term, 3.14, 76
Asian American, use of term, 3.14, 76
Assistance, with scientific writing in English,
8.03, 228
Associate editor, 8.01, 226
Asterisk, 5.16, 139
used to annotate historical author’s
original term, 3.17, 77
used to identify articles in meta-analysis,
6.26, 183
As well as, use of term, 3.23, 85
At risk, use of term, 71
Audiovisual media, reference examples, 7.07,
209—210
Author, as publisher name, 7.02, 203
Author and editor information, as reference
component, 6.27, 184
Author—date citation system, 6.11—6.21,
174—179. See also Citations in text
Author note, 2.03, 24—25
and copyright of unpublished manuscript,
1.15, 19—20
for disclosure of conflict or bias, 1.12, 17
Author responsibilities
in publication process, 8.03—8.07, 228—243
verifying authorship, 1.13, 18—19
Authors
anonymous, 6.15, 6.25, 176—177, 183
compliance with ethical, legal, and policy
requirements, 8.04, 231—236
different authors with same surname,
6.25, 6.27, 183, 184
groups as, 6.13, 6.25, 6.27, 176, 183, 184
and masked review, 8.01, 226
multiple, 1.09, 6.12, 14, 175
postacceptance work with publisher, 8.06,
239—240
and reviewer recommendations, 8.01, 226
unidentified, 6.15, 6.25, 6.27, 176—177,
183, 184
Authorship, 1.13, 18
agreements concerning, 2.03, 25
definition of, 1.13, 18
determining, 1.13, 18
order of, 1.13, 2.02, 19, 24
Author’s name, 2.02, 23—24
format of, 2.02, 23
importance of consistency in, 2.02, 23
use of initials, 6.14, 176
B
Back-translation, 2.06, 32
Baseline data, reported in Results section, 2.07,
35
INDEX
Between/and, 3.23, 85
disclosure of, 1.12, 17
in language, 3.12—3.17, 70—77
Bibliography, 1 80n1. See also Reference list
Biological data, 5.26—5.29, 161—166
Bisexual men/women, use of term, 3.13, 74
Black, use of term, 3.14, 75
Block quotations, 4.08, 6.03, 92, 171
Boldface, for statistical/mathematical copy,
4.45, 118
Book, parts of, 4.17, 103
Book chapters
reference examples, 7.02, 202—205
Book reviews, 1.06, 11
Books
publication information for, 6.30, 186—187
reference examples, 7.02, 202—205
Borderline, use of term, 71
Both/and, 3.23, 85
Boy, use of term, 3.16, 76
Braces, for equations in text, 4.47, 123
Brackets, 4.10, 94—95
for description of form, 6.29, 7.01, 7.02,
186, 198, 203
for equations in text, 4.47, 123
in quotations, 6.06, 6.08, 172, 173
Brain images, 5.27, 162—165
Brand names, capitalization of, 4.16, 102
Breaks
in long equations, 123
in URLs, 6.32, 192
Brevity, of abstract, 2.04, 26
Brief reports, 1.06, 1.09, 11, 13
Bulleted lists, 3.04, 64—65
Byline, 2.02, 23—24, 24 (Table 2.1)
C
Camera-ready copy, 4.49, 124
Capitalization, 4.14—4.20, 101—104
for measurements, 4.40, 115
of names of conditions or groups in
experiment, 4.19, 104
of names of factors, variables, and effects,
4.20, 104
of names of racial/ethnic groups, 3.14, 75
of nouns followed by numerals or letters,
4.17, 103
of proper nouns and trade names, 4.16,
102—103
in titles and headings, 4.15, 4.18, 5.13,
6.29, 101—102, 103, 136—137, 185
of words beginning a sentence, 4.14, 101
Captions, 5.23, 158—160
abbreviations in, 4.23, 107
Cardinal numbers. See Numbers
Case, use of term, 3.15, 72, 76
Case studies, 1.05,9, 11
abstract for, 2.04, 27
confidentiality in, 1.11, 16—17
Cause—effect links, as transition device, 3.05, 65
Certification of standards, 1.11, 16
Charts, 5.04, 5.21, 127, 151. See also Figures
Chemical compounds, abbreviations for, 4.27,
4.30, 110, 111
Chemical terms, 4.21, 106
Chicano, use of term, 3.14, 75
Citations
appropriate level of, 169, 170 (Figure 6.1)
of previously published material, 1.09,
14—15
within quotations, 6.09, 173
Citations in text, 6.11—6.21, 174—179
authors with same surname, 6.14, 176
basic styles, 177 (Table 6.1)
classical works, 6.18, 178—179
groups as authors, 6.13, 176
in-press works, 6.16, 178
one work by multiple authors, 6.12, 175
one work by one author, 6.11, 175—176
parenthetical material, 6.21, 179
personal communications, 6.20, 179
secondary sources, 6.17, 178
specific parts of source, 6.19, 179
two or more works within same
parentheses, 6.16, 177—1 78
use of parentheses, 4.09, 93
works with no identified author or with
anonymous author, 6.15, 176—177
Classical works, citation of, 6.18, 174,
178—179
Clinical terms, 71
Colloquial expressions, 3.09, 68
Colon, 4.05, 4.15, 6.30, 90, 101, 187
Color reproductions, 5.04, 5.25, 5.29, 127,
161, 162, 165
Column heads, in tables, 5.13, 134, 136
Column spanners, in tables, 5.13, 134, 136
Comma, 4.03, 88—89
and brackets, 4.10, 94
in numbers of 1,000 or more, 4.03, 4.37,
89, 114
in references, 6.27, 184
serial, 3.04, 4.03, 64, 88
Comments, on previously published articles,
1.06, 11
Comparisons, 3.09, 68—69
biased, 72—73
simple, 4.11, 96
Compound terms
capitalization of, 4.15, 101
hyphenated, 4.11, 4.13, 95, 97—100
INDEX
Compound units, 4.11, 96
Concentrations, 4.27, 110
Conditional acceptance, 8.01, 227
Confidence intervals, 2.07, 4.10, 4.44, 5.15,
5.22, 34, 94, 117, 138, 153—156
Confidentiality
in case studies, 1.05, 11
of research participants, 1.11, 16
reviewers and, 1.12, 18
in shared data, 1.08, 12
Conflict of interest, 1.12, 1.16, 2.03, 8.03,
17—18, 20, 25, 231. See also Disclosure
CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of
Reporting Trials), 22
Consulting editor, 8.01, 226
Contact person, listed in author note, 2.03, 25
Content footnotes, 2.12, 37—38
Continuity, in presentation of ideas, 3.05, 65
Contrast links, as transition device, 3.05, 65
Coordinating conjunctions, 3.23, 85
Copyediting, 8.06, 239
Copyright. See also Permission
for data displays, 5.06, 128
for previously published material, 1.09, 15
transfer of, 8.05, 236
of unpublished manuscript, 1.15, 19—20
Copyright Act of 1976, 1.15, 19—20
Copyright holder, 8.04, 234—236
and permission to quote, reprint, or adapt,
6.10, 173—174
and permission to use photo, 5.29, 166
Copyright notice, 1.15, 20
Copyright permission footnotes, 2.12, 38
Copyright registration, 1.15, 20
Copyright violation, and duplicate publication,
1.09, 13
Correction notice, 1.07, 8.06, 12, 240
Correspondence, with journal, 8.03, 230—231
Costs, of data sharing, 1.08, 12
Court cases, citing, 4.26, 108
Court decisions, reference form for, A7.01,
A7.03, 216, 217—219
Covariates, described in Method section, 2.06,
31
Cover letter, submitted with manuscript, 8.03,
230—231, 232 (Figure 8.1)
Credit. See also Acknowledgments; Publication
credit
for copyright holders, 5.06, 128
for ideas as well as written words, 1.10,
16
Critique by colleague, 3.11, 70
Cropping, of photographs, 5.29, 165—1 66
Cross-dresser, use of term, 3.12, 74
CrossRef, 6.31, 188—189
Culturally deprived, use of term, 72
D
Dangling modifiers, 3.21, 81—82
Dash, 4.06, 4.13, 90, 97
in empty table cell, 5.14, 137—138
and placement of footnote number, 2.12, 38
in title of work, 4.15, 101
Data. See also Missing data; Raw data
falsifying, 1.07, 12
misrepresented as original, 1.09, 13
reproduced, 8.04, 232
Data analysis, reported in Results section,
2.07, 32—34
Data displays. See also Figures; Tables
canonical forms, 5.02, 126
design and preparation, 5.02, 126
graphical vs. textual presentation, 5.03,
126—127
purposes of, 5.01, 125—126
Data retention, 1.08, 12—13
Data sets, reference examples, 7.08, 210—211
Data sharing, 1.08, 12—13
Dates, numbers for, 4.31, 112. See also
Publication date
Decimal quantities, 4.31, 4.35, 111—112,
113—114
Decimal values, in table, 5.14, 137—138
Decked heads, in table, 5.13, 135
Declarative sentences, 3.08, 68
Degrees, academic, 2.02, 2.03, 23, 24
Degrees of freedom, 4.09, 94
Dementia, use of term, 3.16, 76
Departmental affiliation, in author note, 2.03,
24
Detail, appropriate levels of, 2.06, 29
Dictionary, as reference, 3.19, 79
Differences, relevant, 71
Differences among researchers, neutral
presentation of, 3.07, 66—67
Dimensions, of figures, 5.25, 161
Disabilities, 3.15, 72, 76
Disclosure
of conflict or bias, 1.12, 1.16, 8.04,
17—18, 20, 231
of photo manipulation, 5.21, 5.29, 151,
166
Discussion section, 2.08, 35—36
Displayed equations, 2.13, 4.48, 39, 123—124
Dissemination, of analyses of shared data,
1.08, 13
Distribution, of shared data, 1.08, 13
Doctoral dissertation
and author note, 2.03, 24
reference examples, 7.05, 207—208
and student first authorship, 1.13, 19
DOls (digital object identifiers), 6.31, 6.32,
7.01, 187—189, 189—192, 198
INDEX
hidden behind a button in electronic
document, 191 (Figure 6.4)
location for article on database landing
page, 190 (Figure 6.3)
location In journal article, 189 (Figure 6.2)
provided by Crossref.org, 191 (Figure 6.5)
DOl System, 6.31, 188—189
Domain name, of URL, 6.31, 188
Domain name extension, of URL, 6.31, 188
Drawings, 5.21, 151. See also Figures
Dual affiliation, 2.02, 23
Duplicated words. See Plagiarism; Self-
plagiarism
Duplicate publication, 1.09, 6.02, 13—15, 170
E
Economy of expression, 3.08, 67—68
Ed., Eds., 6.27, 184
Editor, as reference component, 6.27, 184. See
also Journal editor
Editorial we, 3.09, 69—70
Effect size, reported in Results section, 2.07,
34
Either/or, use of, 3.23, 85—86
Electronic file formats, 5.04, 127
Electronic mailing lists, reference examples,
7.11, 214—215
Electronic sources
and locator information, 6.31, 187—189
publication data for, 6.32, 189—192
Electrophysiological data, 5.26—5.29, 161—166
Ellipsis points, 6.08, 172—173
Em dash, 4.13, 97
Emphasis, 4.21, 106
added to words in quotation, 6.08, 173
Emphasis added, 6.08, 173
Empirical studies, 1.01, 9, 10
abstract for, 2.04, 26
Empty cells, in table, 5.14, 137—138
En dash, 4.13, 97
English language, difficulties with, 8.03, 228
Error bars, 5.22, 5.23, 153—156, 160
Errors, published, 1.07, 12
Ft aL, 4.26, 6.12, 6.16, 7.02, 108, 175, 177,
203
Ethical compliance
checklist, 20
planning for, 1.16, 20
Ethical conduct of research, 8.04, 231
Ethical standards, in publishing, 2.13, 8.04,
11,40,231
Ethnic/racial identity, 3.14, 75—76
Euphemisms, avoidance of, 3.15, 76
Experimental manipulations, described in
Method section, 2.06, 31—32
F
Faculty—student collaborations, and authorship
issues, 1.13, 18—19
Failed, use of term, 73
Fair use, 6.02, 6.10, 8.04, 170, 173, 231—236
of author’s own duplicated words, 1.10, 16
Female/male adolescent, use of term, 3.16, 76
Figurative expressions, 3.10, 70
Figures, 5.20—5.30, 8.03, 150—167, 230. See
also Captions; Legends
in appendices, 2.13, 39
checklist for, 5.30, 167
copyright permission for, 2.12, 38
formatting of, 5.04, 127
information value of, 5.20, 150—151
legends and captions, 5.23, 158—160
numbering of, 5.05, 127
permissions for, 8.04, 232
planning, 5.24, 161
preparation of, 5.25, 161
reprinted or adapted, 1.09, 14
standards for, 5.22, 152—156
types of, 5.21, 151
use and construction, 5.20, 150—151
Figures, sample
complex theoretical formulations, 152
(Figure 5.1)
details of experimental laboratory set-up,
159 (Figure 5.8)
details of experimental procedure, 160
(Figure 5.9)
display of genetic material—physical map,
166 (Figure 5.12)
empirical results from complex
multivariate model, 157 (Figure 5.6)
event-related brain potential data, 163
(Figure 5.10)
flow of participants in survey study, 155
(Figure 5.4)
kinds of responses being gathered and
scoring methods, 158 (Figure 5.7)
neuroimaging data with details of
processing information, 164 (Figure
5.11)
results of one-way design using error bars,
156 (Figure 5.5)
sample and flow of subjects through
randomized clinical trial, 154 (Figure 5.3)
theory through set of path models, 153
(Figure 5.2)
First disclosure, 9
First Nations, use of term, 3.14, 75
Footnotes, 2.12, 37—38
to credit copyright holder, 6.10, 173—1 74
numbering of, 2.12, 38
order of, 2.12, 38
placement of, 2.12, 38
FQreign abbreviations, 4.21, 105—106
Fotinatting of manuscript, 8.03, 228—229
Foritiulas, for statistics, 4.43, 116
quantities, numbers for, 4.31, 4.32,
111—112
Fractions, 4.35, 4.47, 113—114, 123
FTP (file transfer protocol), 6.31, 188
G
Gay men, use of term, 3.13, 74
Gender, 3.12, 73—74
Gender, use of term, 71
Gender expression, 3.12, 74
Gender identity, 3.12, 74
Genera, 4.21, 105
General notes, in tables, 5.16, 138—141
Generic he, 3.12, 73—74
Gene staining data, 162
Genetic data, 5.28, 165
Girl, use of term, 3.16, 76
Grammar and usage, 3.18—3.23, 77—86
Graphics software, 5.22, 5.25, 156, 161
Graphs, 4.41, 5.04, 5.21, 116, 127, 151. See
also Figures
Gray literature, 7.03, 205
Greek letters, 4.21, 106
Groups, as authors, 6.13, 6.25, 6.27, 176, 183,
184
Guidelines
for reporting standards, 2.10, 22, 37
for unbiased language, 3.12—3.17, 70—77
Guidelines for Unbiased Language, 71
H
Hanging indent format, used for References
section, 2.11, 37
He, generic, 3.12, 73—74
Headings, 3.02, 62
in appendices, 2.13, 39
beginning with number, 4.32, 112
capitalization of, 4.15, 101—102
format for, 62 (Table 3.1)
levels of, 3.02, 3.03, 62—63, 62 (Table 3.1)
omitted for introduction, 3.03, 63
in tables, 5.13, 133—137
Hedging, 4.07, 92
He/she, (s)he, use of term, 3.12, 74
Hispanic, use of term, 3.14, 75
Homosexuality, use of term, 3.13, 75
Host name, of URL, 6.31, 188
HITP (hypertext transfer protocol), 6.31, 188
HTTPS (hypertext transfer protocol secure),
6.31, 188
Hyphen, 4.13, 97
in names of persons, 6.27, 184
Hyphenation, 3.06, 3.14, 4.13, 66, 75,
97—100
guide to, 98 (Table 4.1)
Image processing, 5.27, 162, 165
Importance of findings, described in Discussion
section, 2.08, 36
Importantly, use of term, 3.21, 82
Inaccuracies, historical and interpretive, 3.17,
76—77
Indentation, paragraph, 8.03, 229
Independent clauses
joined by conjunction, 4.03, 89
separated by semicolon, 4.04, 89
Indexing, automatic, by database crawlers,
6.23, 181
Inferential statistical tests, reported in Results
section, 2.07, 34
Informal publication, 8.05, 236—239
reference exnmples, 7.09, 211—212
In order, use of term, 4.44, 117
In press, 6.28, 7.09, 185, 212
Insertion, of material in quote, 6.08, 173
Institutional affiliation, author’s, 2.02, 23—24
change in, 2.02, 2.03, 23, 24
lack of, 2.02, 23
placement of, 2.02, 24
Instructions
to authors, 8.01, 8.03, 225, 228
to participants, 2.06, 4.07, 31, 91
Intellectual property rights, 1.13—1.16, 11,
18—20
Intent-to-treat, reported in Results section,
2.07, 35
Interestingly, use of term, 3.21, 82
International System of Units (SI), 4.39, 114
Internet, posting articles on, 8.05, 236—239
Internet message boards, reference examples,
7.11, 214—215
Interpretation of results, in Discussion section,
2.08, 35—36
Intervention fidelity, reported in Results
section, 2.07, 35
Interventions, described in Method section,
2.06, 31—32
Introduction, to article, 2.05, 27—28
content of, 2.05, 27—28
format of, 2.05, 28
omission of heading for, 3.03, 63
Inuit, use of term, 3.14, 75
Invented expression, 4.07, 91
Ironic comment, 4.07, 91
INDEX
Issue number, of journal, 6.30, 7.01, 186, 198
Italics, 4.07, 4.21, 91, 104—106
for emphasis, 4.21, 106
for statistical/mathematical copy, 4.45, 118
for titles of works, 6.15, 176—1 77
special issue, 7.01, 201
Legislative materials, reference form for,
A7.05, 221—223
Length
of manuscript, 3.01, 61
of paragraph, 3.08, 68
of sentence, 3.08, 68
Lesbians, use of term, 3.13, 74
Letters
used as abbreviations, 4.21, 106
used as statistical symbols or algebraic
variables, 4.21, 105
Letters to the editor, 1.06, 11
Limitations of research, described in
Discussion section, 2.08, 36
Line length, 8.02, 229
Line spacing, 8.02, 229
Linguistic devices, 3.10, 70
Linguistic examples, italicized,
105
Links
J
Jargon, avoidance of, 3.08, 3.09, 67, 68
Journal articles
and reporting standards, 21—22
revised as book chapters, 1.09, 15
types of, 1.01—1.06, 9—11
Journal editor
omitted from acknowledgments, 2.03, 25
and questions of duplicate publication,
1.09, 15
and questions of piecemeal publication,
1.09, 14—15
and questions of prior publication, 1.09, 13
responsibilities of, 8.01, 226
and reviewer consultation, 1.14, 19
and sharing of data, 1.08, 12
Journal publisher, as copyright holder, 8.04,
234—236
Journals, 9. See also Periodicals
and article length, 3.01, 3.08, 61,67
instructions to authors, 8.01, 8.03, 225,
228
K
Key terms
in abstract, 2.04, 26
italicized, 4.07, 4.21, 91, 105
I
Labeling, 71
for electrophysiological data, 5.26, 162
sensitivity to, 72—73
Labels
italicized, 4.21, 105
omitted from headings, 3.03, 63
for participants, 4.01, 4.02, 88
pejorative, 72
Latin abbreviations, 4.02, 4.26, 88, 108
Latino, use of term, 3.14, 75
Legal materials, referencing, 6.15, 6.25,
A7.01—A7.07, 177, 183, 216—224
Legal periodicals, reference style of, 216
Legal standards, in publishing, 11
Legends, 5.23, 5.24, 158—160, 161
abbreviations in, 4.23, 107
4.07, 4.21, 91,
DOIs as, 6.31, 189
to supplemental archives (online), 2.13, 40
Lists, 3.04, 4.09, 63—65, 93
bulleted, 3.04, 64—65
numbered, 3.04, 63—64
LISTSERV, 7.11, 214
Literature reviews, 1.02, 1.03, 9, 10, 169
abstract for, 2.04, 26—27
Literature search, importance of abstract for,
2.04, 26
Longitudinal study, and piecemeal publication,
1.09, 14—15
M
Mac, Mc, M’, names with, 6.25, 182
Manipulation, of photos, 5.21, 5.29, 151, 166
Manipulation fidelity, reported in Results
section, 2.07, 35
Manuscript in preparation, 7.09, 212
Manuscript submission, checklist for, 8.07,
24 0—24 3
Maps, 5.21, 7.07, 151, 210. See also Figures
Margins, of pages, 8.03, 229
Masked review, 8.01, 226
Master’s theses
and author note, 2.03, 24
reference examples; 7.05, 207—208
Mathematical copy. See Statistical and
mathematical copy
Mathematical equations, 2.13, 4.09,
4.47—4.49, 39, 93, 123—124
displayed, 4.48, 123—1 24
in text, 4.47, 123
Mathematical expressions, use of parentheses
with, 4.09, 93
Mathematical formulas, 4.09, 93
INDEX
Mathematical functions, numbers for, 4.31,
111—112
Measurement instruments, reference examples,
7.08, 210—211
Measures, described in Method section, 2.06,
31. See also Units of measurement
Meetings and symposia, reference examples,
7.04, 206—207
Men, use of term, 3.16, 76
Meta-analyses, 1.02, 10
abstract for, 2.04, 26—27
reference list for, 6.26, 183
reporting, 2.10, 22, 36—37
sample, 57—59 (Figure 2.3)
Metaphors, 3.10, 70
mixed, 3.10, 70
Methodological articles, 1.04,9, 10—11
abstract for, 2.04, 27
Method section, of article, 2.06, 29—32
Metrication, 4.39-4.40, 114—115
Metric units, 4.40, 115
compound units, 4.40, 115
Minority, use of term, 3.14, 75
Minus sign, 4.13, 97
Misplaced modifiers, 3.21, 81
Missing data, reported in Results section, 2.07,
33
Modifiers, misplaced/dangling, 3.21, 81—83
Money sums, numbers for, 4.31, 112
Monographs, 1.06, 11
Mood, 3.18, 78
Motion picture, 7.07, 209
Multidisciplinary projects, and piecemeal
publication, 1.09, 14—15
Multiple authors, and previously published
material, 1.09, 14
Multiple-experiment paper sample, 54—56
(Figure 2.2)
Multiple experiments, reported in single article,
2.09, 36
Multivolume works, 6.28, 185
Music recording, 7.07, 209, 210
N
Names, of authors, 2.02, 6.11, 23—24, 175. See
also Authorship, order of
format of, 2.02, 23
importance of consistency in, 2.02, 23
initials with, 6.14, 6.20, 176, 179
inversion of, in reference list, 6.27, 184
Names of persons
ending in unpronounced s, 4.12, 97
initials with, 4.02, 88
possessives of, 4.12, 96—97
Naming, of racial/ethnic groups, 3.14, 75—76
National Institutes of Health (NIH) public
access policy, 8.05, 239
Native American, use of term, 3.14, 75
Native North American, use of term, 3.14, 75
Nd., 6.28, 185
Neither/nor, use of, 3.23, 85—86
Neuter pronouns, 3.20, 80
NHST (null hypothesis statistical significance
testing), 2.07, 33
Nonrestrictive clause, 4.03, 88
Norm, implicit, 72—73
Normal, use of term, 72
Notes, to tables, 5.16, 138—141. See also
Footnotes
Notice of duplicate publication, 1.09, 15
Not only/but also, use of, 3.23, 86
Noun strings, 3.06, 66
Numbered lists, 3.04, 63—64
Numbering
of displayed equations, 4.48, 123—124
of footnotes, 2.12, 38
of material in appendices, 2.13, 39
of tables and figures, 5.05, 127
Number of pages. See Length, of manuscript
Numbers, 4.31—4.38, 111—114. See also Page
numbers
in abstract, 4.31, 111
expressed in numerals, 4.31, 111—112
expressed in numerals and words
combined, 4.33, 112—113
expressed in words, 4.32, 112
ordinal, 4.34, 113
plurals of, 4.38, 114
Numerals as numerals, 4.31, 112
Numerator and denominator, 4.11, 95
0
Obituaries, 1.06, 11
Older adults, use of term, 3.16, 76
Omission, selective, 2.07, 32
of material within quote, 6.08, 172—173
One-experiment paper, sample, 41—53 (Figure
2.1)
Online archive, URL for, 6.32, 192
Online communities, reference examples, 7.11,
214—215
Online material, direction quotation of, 6.05,
171—1 72
Online networks, as form of personal
communication, 6.20, 179
Only, use of, 3.21, 81
Opposite sex, use of term, 3.12, 74
Ordinal numbers, 4.34, 113
INDEX
Organization, 3.01—3.04, 61—65
of empirical studies, 1.01, 10
of literature reviews, 1.02, 10
of theoretical articles, 1.03, 10
Outline, use of, 3.11, 70
P
Page headers, 8.03, 230
Page numbers, 8.03, 229, 230. See also
Electronic sources, and locator information
for quotations, 6.19, 179
Page order, of manuscript, 8.03, 229—230
Para., 6.05, 172
Paragraph, single-sentence, 3.08, 68
Paragraphing, 8.03, 229
Paragraph length, 3.08, 68
Parallelism
in comparisons, 3.09, 69, 72
of figures, 5.24, 161
of ideas, 3.23, 84—85
in lists and table stubs, 3.23, 86
in racial/ethnic identifications, 3.14, 75
in series, 3.23, 86
Paraphrasing, 1.10, 6.03—6.10, 15—16,
170—1 74
Parentheses, 4.09, 93—94
back to back, 4.09, 94
within brackets, 4.10, 94
brackets within, 4.10, 94
for equations in text, 4.47, 123
nested, 4.09, 94
and placement of footnote number, 2.12,
38
Parenthetical notes, for second and subsequent
references to footnote, 2.12, 38
Participant flow, reported in Results section,
2.07, 34—35
Participants. See Research participants
Participants, use of term, 73
Participation, acknowledgment of, 73
• Participle, used as noun, 3.20, 80
Parts of work
in citations of classical works, 6.18, 179
specific, 6.19, 179
Passive voice
avoidance of, 3.21, 73, 81
uses of, 3.18, 77
Past tense, 3.18, 78
and smoothness of style, 3.06, 65—66
used in abstract, 2.04, 26
Patents, reference form for, A7.07, 224
Patient, use of term, 3.15, 72, 76
Peer review, 8.01, 10, 225—228. See also
Reviewers
for supplemental materials, 2.13, 40
People-first language, 3.15, 72, 76
Per, 4.11, 95
Percentages
numbers for, 4.31, 111—112
symbol for, 4.45, 118
Percentiles, numbers for, 4.31, 111—112
Period, 4.02, 88
not used with URL, 6.32, 192
omitted from metric unit, 4.40, 115
Periodicals
of limited circulation or availability, 1.09,
13
publication information for, 6.30, 186
reference examples, 7.01, 198—202
volume numbers, 4.21, 105
Permission
for previously published material, 1.09, 15
to quote, reprint, or adapt, 6.10, 8.04,
173—174, 231—236
to reproduce data displays, 5.06, 128
for reuse of photo, 5.29, 166
Personal communications, 6.20, 7.10, 174,
179, 213
as archival materials, 6.20, 179
omitted from reference lists, 6.20,
179—180
Phonemes, English, 4.11, 95
Photographs, 5.21, 5.29, 151, 165—166. See
also Figures
manipulation of, 5.29, 166
Photomicrographs, 5.27, 165
Piecemeal publication, 1.09, 3.01, 13—15, 61
Plagiarism, 1.10, 6.01, 15—16, 170
Plot symbols, 5.25, 161
Plurals
of abbreviations, 4.29, 110—111
for metric units, 4.40, 115
of nouns of foreign origin, 3.19, 4.12, 79,
96
of numbers, 4.38, 114
Podcast, 7.07, 210
Points on scale, numbers for, 4.31, 112
Population parameters, symbols for, 4.45, 118
Possessives, 4.12, 96—97
Precision and clarity, 3.09, 68—70, 71
Prefixed words, 100 (Table 4.3)
Prefixes, 99 (Table 4.2), 100
Preparation of manuscript, 8.03, 228—231
Preprint archive, 7.01, 200
Present perfect tense, 3.18, 78
and smoothness of style, 3.06, 65—66
Present tense
and smoothness of style, 3.06, 66
used in abstract, 2.04, 26
Previously published research, and duplicate
publication, 1.09, 13—14
Probability notes, in tables, 5.16, 139—141
INDEX
Pronouns, use of, 3.06, 3.09, 3.20, 66, 68,
79—80
Proofreading, 8.06, 239—240
Proper nouns, capitalization of, 4.16, 102—103
Proportions, 4.05, 90
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database,
7.05, 207
Protocol, of JJRL, 6.31, 188
Publication credit, 1.13, 18—19
Publication data, for electronic sources, 6.32,
189—192
Publication date
original, 6.18, 178
as reference component, 6.28, 185
Publication information, as reference
component, 6.30, 186—187
Publisher name, 6.30, 187
Publisher policy requirements, 8.05, 236—239
Punctuation, 4.01—4.11, 87—96
of direct quotation, 6.07, 172
with equations, 123
for statistical/mathematical copy, 4.46,
118—123
Punctuation marks. See also Entries for
individual punctuation marks
and continuity, 3.05, 65
spacing after, 4.01, 87—88
p values, 4.35, 5.16, 114, 139—140
Q
Quantity, approximations of, 3.09, 68
Quartiles, numbers for, 4.31, 111—112
Quotation, direct, 6.03, 170—171
Quotation marks, 1.10, IS
for article title, 6.15, 176—177
for direct quotation, 6.03, 170—1 71
double, 4.07, 91
with other punctuation, 4.08, 92
single, 4.08, 92
Quotations
accuracy of, 6.06, 172
changes from the source, 6.07—6.08,
172—1 73
inserted material in, 4.10, 94
of online material, 6.05, 171—172
permission for, 2.12, 6.10, 8.03, 38,
173—174, 233
retention of original language, 3.17, 77
in text, 4.08, 4.09, 92, 93
Quoting, 6.03—6.10, 170—174
R
Racial/ethnic identity, 3.14, 75—76
Radiological data, 5.26—5.29, 161—166
Ragged margin, 8.03, 229
Ratios, 4.01,4.05,4.31, 88, 90, 111—112
Raw data, 7.08, 210
provided in Results section, 2.07, 34
retention of, 8.05, 240
in supplemental online archives, 2.07, 32
Reader, ideal, 3.07, 67
Reading aloud, 3.06, 3.11, 65, 70
Reading by colleague, 3.06, 3.11, 65, 70
Reanalysis, of published data, 1.09, 14
Recruitment, reported in Results section, 2.07,
32
Redundancy, 3.08, 3.23, 67, 85
Reference abbreviations, 4.02, 6.22, 88, 180
Reference books, reference examples, 7.02,
202—205
Reference components, 6.27—6.32, 183—192
Reference examples, 193
administrative and executive materials,
A7.06, 223—224
archival documents and collections, 7.10,
212—214
audiovisual media, 7.07, 209
books, reference books, and book
chapters, 7.02, 202—205
court decisions, A7.03, 217—219
data sets, software, measurement
instruments, and apparatus, 7.08,
210—211
doctoral dissertations and master’s theses,
7.05, 207—208
Internet message boards, electronic
mailing lists, and online communities,
7.11, 214—215
legislative materials, A7.05, 221—223
meetings and symposia, 7.04, 206—207
patents, A7.07, 224
periodicals, 7.01, 198—202
reviews and peer commentary, 7.06,
208—209
statutes, A7.04, 219—221
technical and research reports, 7.03,
205 —2 0 6
unpublished and informally published
works, 7.09, 211—212
Reference list, 6.22—6.26, 8.02, 174, 180—183,
230
anonymous works, 6.15, 177
archival copy or version of record, 6.24,
181
capitalization of titles in, 4.15, 101
classical works, 6.18, 179
consistency in, 6.23, 181
construction of, 6.22, 180
locating entries in, 6.14, 176
ii
INDEX
for meta-analyses, 6.26, 183
multiple works by same authors in same
year, 6.16, 178
multiple works by same first author, 6.25,
182
omission of personal communications
from, 6.20, 179
order of references in, 6.25, 18 1—183
for statistics, 4.42, 116
use of colon in, 4.05, 90
References section, 2.11, 37. See also Citations
Rejection, of submitted manuscript, 1.11, 8.02,
16—17, 227—228
as duplicate publication, 1.09,15
Relative pronouns, 3.22, 83
Replies, to previously published articles, 1.06,
11
Reporters, A7.01, 216
Reporting standards, for journal articles,
21—23
Reprinting, 6.10, 173
Republished works, text citation of, 4.11, 95
Rereading, 3.11, 70
Research data. See Data retention; Data sharing
Research design
and reporting standards, 22
specified in Method section, 2.06, 31
Research participant characteristics, described
in Method section, 2.06, 29—30
Research participants
grouping of, 2.06, 32
protection of rights and welfare of,
1.11—1.12, 11, 16—18
Research sponsor, and data sharing, 1.08, 12
Research syntheses, 1.02, 10
Resolution, of figures, 5.25, 161
Respectively, use of term, 4.44, 117
Restrictive clauses, 3.22, 4.03, 83, 89
Resubmission, of rejected manuscript, 8.02,
227—228
Results, modifying, 1.07, 12
Results and Discussion section, 2.08, 35
Results section, 2.07, 32—35
Retraction, publisher’s
of duplicate publication, 1.09, 15
of published article, 1.11, 16
Retrievability
of correction notice, 1.07, 12
and duplicate publication, 1.09, 14
of journal articles, 10
Retrieval dates, for electronic sources, 6.32,
192
Reverse italicization, 4.21, 104
Reviewers, 8.01—8.02, 226—228
and bias, 1.12, 18
and confidentiality, 1.12, 1.14, 18, 19
and conflict of interest, 1.12, 17—18
omitted from acknowledgments, 2.03, 25
Review of proofs, 8.06, 239—240
Reviews and peer commentary, reference
examples, 7.06, 208—209
Revision, of rejected manuscript, 8.02,
227—228
Roman numerals, 4.36, 114
Routes of administration, abbreviations for,
4.02, 4.27, 88, 110
Rules, in tables, 5.17, 141
Running heads, 2.01, 8.03, 23, 229
S
Sample papers, 40—59 (Figures 2.1—2.3)
Sample size, described in Method section, 2.06,
30—31
Sampling procedures, described in Method
section, 2.06, 30
Sans serif type, 8.03, 229
Scale anchors, 4.07, 4.21, 91, 105
Scales, 4.21, 105
Scientific abbreviations, 4.27, 108—110
Scientific knowledge, ensuring accuracy of,
1.07—1.10, 11, 12—16
Scores, numbers for, 4.31, 112
Screen name, use of, 7.11, 215
Secondary analyses, in empirical studies, 1.01,
10
Self-plagiarism, 1.10, 2.06, 6.02, 16, 29, 170
Self-referencing, 1.10, 16
Semicolon, 4.04, 89—90
serial, 3.04, 4.04, 64, 90
used to separate citations in parentheses,
6.16, 178
Sensitivity, 3.14, 72—73, 75
Sentence
beginning with number, 112
initial capitalization of, 4.14, 101
punctuation of, 4.02, 87, 88
for statistical/mathematical copy, 4.41,
116
Seriation, 3.04, 4.03, 4.04, 4.09, 63—65, 88,
90, 93
numbers in, 4.31, 112
parallelism in, 3.23, 86
Series, in reference list, 6.25, 182
Series labels, used for groups, 72
Serif type, 8.03, 228—229
Sex, use of term, 71
Sex reassignment, use of term, 3.12, 74
Sexual behavior, use of term, 71
Sexual orientation, 3.13, 71, 74—75
Sexual orientation, use of term, 3.13, 74
INDEX
Shading, in figures, 5.25, 161
She/he, (s)he, use of, 3.12, 74
Shortening of manuscript, 3.01, 3.08, 61, 67
Short sentences, use of, 3.08, 67
Short words, use of, 3.08, 67
Sic, use of term, 6.06, 172
Signed release, from subject of photo, 5.29,
166
Since, use of term, 3.22, 83—84
Slang, 4.07, 91
Slash (virgule, solidus, shill), 4.11, 95—96
used in URLs, 6.31, 188
Smoothness of expression, 3.06, 65—66
Socially dominant groups, as implied standard,
73
Software, reference examples, 7.08, 210—211
Spacing
after punctuation marks, 4.01, 4.40,
87—88, 115
for statistical/mathematical copy, 4.46,
118—123
Special characters, 8.03, 229
Special circumstances, disclosure of, 2.03, 25
Species names, 4.21, 105
Specificity, 3.14, 71, 75
Specific notes, in tables, 5.16, 138—141
Spelling, 4.12—4.13, 96—100
preferred, 4.12, 96—97
Spelling check, 8.02, 230
Standard typeface, for statistical/mathematical
copy, 4.45, 118
State names, 4.02, 88
abbreviations for, 4.02, 6.30, 88, 187
Statistical and mathematical copy, 4.41—4.46,
116—123
preparation of, 4.49, 124
Statistical functions, numbers for, 4.31,
111—1 12
Statistical methods, described in Results
section, 2.07, 33—34
Statistical power, described in Method section,
2.06, 30—31
Statistical symbols, 4.45, 117—118, 119—123
(Table 4.5)
Statistical values, 4.09, 93
Statistics
abbreviations for, 4.28, 110
formulas for, 4.43, 116
including parentheses, 4.10, 95
references for, 4.42, 116
reported in Results section, 2.07, 32
in text, 4.44, 116—117
Statutes, reference form for, A7.01, A7.04,
216, 219—221
Stigmatization, 72—73
Stub column, in table, 5.13, 134
Stub heads, in table, 5.13, 136
Students, and first authorship, 1.13, 19
Style, editorial, 87. See also Writing style
Style manuals, 87
Subjects, 73
number of, 4.45, 118
Subjunctive mood, 3.18, 78
Subordinate conjunctions, 3.22, 83—84
Subscripts, 4.21, 106
for statistical/mathematical copy, 4.46,
118—123
in tables, 5.16, 140
Subsections
headings for, 3.02, 62
in Method section, 2.06, 29
Suffixes, 99 (Table 4.2)
for multiple citations by same authors in
same year, 6.16, 6.25, 178, 182
to personal name, 2.02, 24
Superscript
for footnote numbers, 2.12, 38
for statistical/mathematical copy, 4.46,
118—123
Supplemental archives (online), 2.06, 2.13,
5.04, 7.01, 22—23, 29, 38—40, 127, 198, 201
and biological data, 162
figures in, 5.20, 151
formats used in, 2.13, 39-40
for meta-analyses, 2.10, 37
raw data in, 2.07, 32
referenced in footnote, 2.12, 38
and report of ancillary analyses, 2.07, 34
tables in, 5.10, 130
Supplemental materials, 2.13, 38—40
in methodological articles, 1.04, 11
submitted with manuscript, 8.03, 230
Synonyms, use of, 3.06, 66
T
Tables, 5.07—5.19, 5.20, 8.03, 128—150, 151,
230
abbreviations in, 4.23, 107
in appendices, 2.13, 39
basic components of, 129 (Table 5.1)
body of, 5.14, 137—138
canonical forms, 5.09, 129—130
checklist for, 150 (Table 5.19)
citing, 5.10, 130
combining, 5.11, 130
conciseness in, 5.07, 5.14, 128, 138
confidence intervals in, 5.15, 138
copyright permission for, 2.12, 38
formatting, 5.04, 127
headings, 5.13, 133—137
layout of, 5.08, 128, 130 (Table 5.2)
notes in, 5.16, 138—141
INDEX
numbering of, 5.05, 127
permissions for, 8.04, 232
relation between, 5.11, 130
relation to text, 5.10, 130
reprinted or adapted, 1.09, 14
ruling of, 5.17, 141
specific types of, 5.18, 141—142
for statistical/mathematical copy, 4.41,
116
titles, 5.12, 133
Tables, parts of, 4.17, 103
Tables, sample
confidence intervals, 139 (Table 5.8), 140
(Table 5.9)
correlations in which the values for two
samples are presented, 136 (Table 5.6)
detailed specifications of complex
experimental designs, 134 (Table 5.4)
display of a sample’s characteristics, 135
(Table 5.5)
display of psychometric properties of key
outcome variables, 142 (Table 5.10)
factor loadings table, 131—132 (Table 5.3)
hierarchical multiple regression table, 145
(Table 5.13)
model comparison table, 146 (Table 5.14)
multilevel model table, 147—148 (Table
5.15)
one-degree-of-freedom statistical contrasts,
143 (Table 5.11)
regression table, 144 (Table 5.12)
results of fitting mathematical models, 137
(Table 5.7)
word table, 149 (Table 5.16)
Table spanners, 5.13, 136
Target precision, described in Method section,
2.06, 30—31
• Technical and research reports, reference
• examples, 7.03, 205—206
Technical terms, italicized, 4.07, 4.21, 91, 105
Television or radio series, 7.07, 209, 210
Temporary compounds, 98—99
• Test items, 4.07, 91
permissions for, 8.04, 233
Test scores, 4.21, 105
Test titles, 4.18, 103
That, which, use of, 3.20, 3.22, 79, 83
Theoretical articles, 1.03, 9, 10
abstract for, 2.04, 27
Third person, replaced with personal pronoun,
3.09, 69
Time, units of, 4.27, 108—109
numbers for, 4.31, 112
Time links, as transition device, 3.05, 65
Timing, of peer review, 8.01, 226
Title
abbreviated, 2.01, 22—23
of appendices, 2.13, 39
beginning with number, 4.32, 112
of book or report, 6.29, 185—186
capitalization of, 4.15, 101—102
choice of, 2.01, 22—23
format of, 2.01, 23
italicized, 4.21, 104—105
length of, 2.01, 23
nonroutine information in, 6.29, 186
of periodical, 6.29, 185
as reference component, 6.29, 185—186
as statement of content, 2.01, 22—23
use of quotation marks for, 4.07, 91
Titles of persons, omitted from byline, 2.02, 23
Titles of tables, 5.12, 133
Tone, of writing, 3.07, 66—67
Trade names, capitalization of, 4.16, 102—103
Trans., 6.18, 178
Transfer of copyright, 8.05, 236
Transgender, use of term, 3.12, 74
Transitional words, and continuity, 3.05, 65
Transition devices
and continuity, 3.05, 65
and smoothness of expression, 3.06, 65
Translation, 6.18, 7.01, 178—179, 199
of instrument, 2.06, 32
Transsexual, use of term, 3.12, 74
TREND (Transparent Reporting of Evaluations
With Nonexperimental Designs), 22
Trigonometric terms, 4.21, 106
Tutorials, literature reviews as, 1.02, 10
Two-experiment paper, sample, 54—56 (Figure
2.2)
Typeface, choice of, 8.03, 228—229
Typesetting, 8.06, 239
U
Unit length, varied, 3.08, 68
Units of measurement, 4.03, 4.11, 89, 95
abbreviations for, 4.02, 4.23, 4.27, 88,
107, 108, 109 (Table 4.4)
metric system, 4.40, 115
numbers with, 4.31, 111
Units of time, 4.27, 108—109
numbers for, 4.31, 112
University department, 4.16, 102
Unpublished manuscript
and author copyright, 1.15, 19—20
reference examples, 7.09, 211—212
URLs (uniform resource locators), 6.31, 6.32,
7.01, 187—188, 191—192, 198
testing of, 6.32, 192
U.S. government contract, 8.05, 236
U.S. Government Printing Office, 7.03, 205
INDEX
V Wordiness, 3.08, 67
Word limit, for abstract, 2.04, 27
Verbs, 3.18, 77—78 Would, use of, 3.18, 78
Verb tenses, 3.18, 78. See also Past tense; Writing style, 3.05—3.11, 65—70
Present perfect tense; Present tense strategies to improve, 3.11, 70
consistent use of, 3.06, 65—66 Written agreement, for data sharing, 1.08,
Version, 6.18, 178 12—13
Version of record, 6.24, 6.31, 6.32, 8.05, 181, Written consent, for publication of case
187, 192, 237 material, 1.11, 17
Video, 7.07, 209
Volume number, of journal, 6.30, 186
Y
w Year
in exact dates, 4.03, 89
We, editorial, 3.09, 69—70 in parenthetical reference citations, 4.03,
Web addresses, 4.02, 88 89
Weight, of elements in figure, 5.25, 161 Year of publication, in author—date citations,
Which/that, use of, 3.20, 79 6.11, 175
While, instead of although, and, but, 3.22, 84 Young man/woman, use of term, 3.16, 76
While/since, use of, 3.22, 83—84
Who, use of, 3.20, 79
Who/whom, use of, 3.20, 80 z
Women, use of term, 3.16, 76
Word choice, 3.09,68 Zero, used with decimal fraction, 4.35, 113
L
Concise Rules
A of APA Style
PSYCHOLOGICAL /
ASSOC,HIION SIXTH EDITION
II
hit/es
This easy-to-use pocket guide, compiled
from the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association®,
Sixth Edition, provides complete guidance
on the rules of style that are critical for clear
communication. It’s not only simple to use,
it’s lightweight and portable making it easy
to carry in your briefcase or backpack.
How does Concise Rules of AIM Style
differ from the Publication Manual? The
Publication Manual remains the best source
for broad background information about
scientific publishing. It provides guidance
on designing research, identifying the
parts of a scholarly article, understanding
the process of journal publication, and
submitting articles for publication. Concise
Rules, by comparison, targets only those
rules writers need for choosing the best
words and format for their articles. It offers
a comprehensive list of essential writing
standards in a convenient, easily retrievable
format. 2010.284 pages. Lay-FIat Spiral Binding.
ISBN 978-1-4338-0560-8.
Pot more in formation a hour this title and
other APA hooks, visit www.apa.org/books.
Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
List of Tables and Figures
Forward
Preface
Editorial Staff
Introduction
Organization of the Sixth Edition
Specific Changes in the Sixth Edition
General Approach
New and Expanded Content
How to Use the Publication Manual
Organizational Aids
Format Aids
Chapter 1: Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences
Types of Articles
1.01 Empirical Studies
1.02 Literature Reviews
1.03 Theoretical Articles
1.04 Methodological Articles
1.05 Case Studies
1.06 Other Types of Articles
Ethical and Legal Standards in Publishing
Ensuring the Accuracy of Scientific Knowledge
1.07 Ethical Reporting of Research Results
1.08 Data Retention and Sharing
1.09 Duplicate and Piecemeal Publication of Data
1.10 Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism
Protecting the Rights and Welfare of Research
Participants
1.11 Rights and Confidentiality of Research Participants
1.12 Conflict of Interest
Protecting Intellectual Property Rights
1.13 Publication Credit
1.14 Reviewers
1.15 Author’s Copyright on an Unpublished Manuscript
1.16 Planning for Ethical Compliance
Chapter 2: Manuscript Structure and Content
Journal Article Reporting Standards
Manuscript Elements
2.01 Title
2.02 Author’s Name (Byline) and Institutional Affiliation
2.03 Author Note
2.04 Abstract
2.05 Introduction
2.06 Method
2.07 Results
2.08 Discussion
2.09 Multiple Experiments
2.10 Meta-Analyses
2.11 References
2.12 Footnotes
2.13 Appendices and Supplemental Materials
Sample Papers
Chapter 3: Writing Clearly and Concisely
Organization
3.01 Length
3.02 Organizing a Manuscript With Headings
3.03 Levels of Heading
3.04 Seriation
Writing Style
3.05 Continuity in Presentation of Ideas
3.06 Smoothness of Expression
3.07 Tone
3.08 Economy of Expression
3.09 Precision and Clarity
3.10 Linguistic Devices
3.11 Strategies to Improve Writing Style
Reducing Bias in Language
General Guidelines for Reducing Bias
Guideline 1: Describe at the Appropriate Level of Specificity
Guideline 2: Be Sensitive to Labels
Guideline 3: Acknowledge Participation
Reducing Bias by Topic
3.12 Gender
3.13 Sexual Orientation
3.14 Racial and Ethnic Identity
3.15 Disabilities
3.16 Age
317 Historical and Interpretive Inaccuracies
Grammar and Usage
3.18 Verbs
3.19 Agreement of Subject and Verb
3.20 Pronouns
3.21 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers and Use of Adverbs
3.22 Relative Pronouns and Subordinate Conjunctions
3.23 Parallel Construction
3.19 Agreement of Subject and Verb
Chapter 4: The Mechanics of Style
Punctuation
4.01 Spacing After Punctuation Marks
4.02 Period
4.03 Comma
4.04 Semicolon
4.05 Colon
4.06 Dash
4.07 Quotation Marks
4.08 Double or Single Quotation Marks
4.09 Parentheses
4.10 Brackets
4.11 Slash
Spelling
4.12 Preferred Spelling
4.13 Hyphenation
General Principle 1
General Principle 2
General Principle 3
General Principle 4
General Principle 5
Capitalization
4.14 Words Beginning a Sentence
4.15 Major Words in Titles and Headings
4.16 Proper Nouns and Trade Names
4.17 Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters
4.18 Titles of Tests
4.19 Names of Conditions or Groups in an Experiment
4.20 Names of Factors, Variables, and Effects
Italics
4.21 Use of Italics
Abbreviations
4.22 Use of Abbreviations
4.23 Explanation of Abbreviations
4.24 Abbreviations Accepted as Words
4.26 Latin Abbreviations
4.27 Scientifiq Abbreviations
4.28 Other Abbreviations
4.29 Plurals of Abbreviations
4.30 Abbreviations Beginning a Sentence
Numbers
4.31 Numbers Expressed in Numerals
4.32 Numbers Expressed in Words
4.33 Combining Numerals and Words to Express Numbers
4.34 Ordinal Numbers
4.35 Decimal Fractions
4.36 Roman Numerals
4.37 Commas in Numbers
4.38 Plurals of Numbers
Metrication
4.39 Policy on Metrication
4.40 Style for Metric Units
Statistical and Mathematical Copy
4.42 References for Statistics
4.43 Formulas
4.44 Statistics in Text
4.45 Statistical Symbols
4.46 Spacing, Alignment and Punctuation
Equations
4.47 Equations in Text
4.48 Displayed Equations
4.49 Preparing Statistical
and Mathematical Copy
Chapter 5: Displaying Results
General Guidance on Tables and Figures
5.01 Purposes of Data Displays
5.02 Design and Preparation of a Data Display
5.03 Graphical Versus Textual Presentation
5.04 Formatting Tables and Figures
5.05 Table and Figure Numbers
5.06 Permission to Reproduce Data Displays
Tables
5.07 Conciseness in Tables
5.08 Table Layout
5.09 Standard Forms
5.10 Relation of Tables and Text
5.11 Relation Between Tables
5.12 Table Titles
5.13 Table Headings
5.14 Table Body
5.15 Confidence Intervals in Tables
5.16 Table Notes
5.17 Ruling of Tables
5.18 Presenting Data in Specific Types of Tables
5.19 Table Checklist
Figures
5.20 Principles of Figure Use and Construction
5.21 Types of Figures
5.22 Standards for Figures
5.23 Figure Legends and Captions
5.24 Planning Figures
5.25 Preparation of Figures
Presenting Electrophysiological, Radiological, and Other Biological Data
5.26 Electrophysiological Data
5.27 Radiological (Imaging) Data
5.28 Genetic Data
5.29 Photographs
5.30 Figure Checklist
Chapter 6: Crediting Sources
When to Cite
6.01 Plagiarism
6.02 Self-Plagiarism
Quoting and Paraphrasing
6.03 Direct Quotation of Sources
6.04 Paraphrasing Material
6.05 Direct Quotations of Online Material
Without Pagination
6.06 Accuracy of Quotations
6.07 Changes From the Source Requiring No Explanation
6.08 Changes From the Source Requiring Explanation
6.09 Citations Within Quotations
6.10 Permission to Quote, Reprint, or Adapt
Citing References in Text
6.11 One Work by One Author
6.12 One Work by Multiple Authors
6.13 Groups as Authors
6.14 Authors With the Same Surname
6.15 Works With No Identified Author or With an Anonymous Autho
6.16 Two or More Works Within the Same Parentheses
6.17 Secondary Sources
6.18 Classical Works
6.19 Citing Specific Parts of a Source
6.20 Personal Communications
6.21 Citations in Parenthetical Material
Reference List
6.22 Construction of an Accurate and Complete Reference List
6.23 Consistency
6.24 Using the Archival
Copy or Version of Record
6.25 Order of References in the Reference List
6.26 References Included in a Meta-Analysis
Reference Components
6.27 Author and Editor Information
6.28 Publication Date
6.29 Title
6.30 Publication Information
6.31 Electronic Sources and Locator Information
6.32 Providing Publication Data for Electronic Sources
Chapter 7: Reference Examples
Types and Variations
Periodicals
Books, Reference Books, and Book Chapters
Technical and Research Reports
Meetings and Symposia
Doctoral Dissertations and Master’s Theses
Reviews and Peer Commentary
Audiovisual Media
Data Sets, Software, Measurement Instruments, and
Apparatus
Unpublished and Informally Published Works
Archival Documents and Collections
Internet Message Boards, Electronic Mailing Lists, and Other
Online Communities
Author Variations
Title Variations
Publication Information Variations
Examples by Type
7.01 Periodicals
1. Journal article with DOl
2. Journal article with DOl, more than seven authors
3. Journal article without DOI(when DOI is not available)
4. Journal article without DOI, title translated into English, print version
5. Journal article with DOI, advance online publication
6. In-press article posted in a preprint archive
7. Magazine article
8. Online magazine article
9. Newsletter article, no author
10. Newspaper article
11. Online newspaper article
12. Special issue or section in a journal
13. Monograph as part of journal issue
14. Editorial without signature
15. Online-only supplemental material in a periodical
16. Abstract as original source
11. Abstract as secondary source
7.02 Books, Reference Books, and Book Chapters
18. Entire book, print version
19. Electronic version of print hook
20. Electronic-only book
21. Electronic version of republished hook
22. Limited-circulation book or monograph, from electronic database
23. Several volumes in a multivolume work
24. Electronic version of book chapter in a volume in a series
25. Book chapter, print version
26. Book chapter, English translation, reprinted from another source
28. Non-English reference hook, title translated into English
29. Entry in an online reference work
30. Entry in an online reference work, no author or editor
7.03 Technical and Research Reports
31. Corporate author, government report
32. Corporate author, task force report filed online
33. Authored report, from nongovernmental organization
34. Report from institutional archive
35. Issue brief
7.04 Meetings and Symposia
36. Symposium contribution
37. Conference paper abstract
retrieved online
38. Proceedings published regularly online
39. Proceedings published in book form
7.05 Doctoral Dissertations and Master’s Theses
40. Master’s thesis, from a commercial database
41. Doctoral dissertation, from an institutional database
42. Doctoral dissertation, from the web
42. Doctoral dissertation, from the web
43. Doctoral dissertation, abstracted in DAI
44. Doctoral thesis, from a university outside the United States
7.06 Reviews and Peer Commentary
45. Review of a book
46. Review of a video
47. Review of a video game, no author
48. Peer commentary on an article
7.07 Audiovisual Media
49. Video
50. Podcast
51. Single episode from a television series
52. Music recording
53. Map retrieved online
7.08 Data Sets, Software, Measurement Instruments, and
Apparatus
54. Data set
55. Measurement instrument
56. Software
57. Apparatus
7.09 Unpublished and Informally Published Works
58. Unpublished manuscript with a university cited
59. Manuscript
in progress or submitted for publication
60. Unpublished raw data from study, untitled work
61. Informally published or self-archived work
62. Informally published or self-archived work, from ERIC
7.10 Archival Documents and Collections
63. Letter from a repository
64. Letter from private collection
65. Collection of letters from an archive
66. Unpublished papers, lectures from an archive or personal collection
67. Archival/historical source for which the author and/or date is known or is reason-
ably certain but not stated on the document
68. Archival source with corporate author
69. Interview recorded and available in an archive
70. Transcription of a recorded interview, no recording available
71. Newspaper article, historical, in an archive or personal collection
72. Historical publication of limited circulation
73. Photographs
7.11 Internet Message Boards, Electronic Mailing Usts, and
Other Online Communities
74. Message posted to a newsgroup, online forum, or discussion group
74. Message posted to a newsgroup, online forum, or discussion group
75. Message posted to an electronic mailing list
76. Blog post
77. Video blog post
Appendix 7.1: References to Legal Materials
A7.O1 General Forms
A7.02 Text Citations of Legal Materials
A7.03 Court Decisions (Bluebook Rule 10)
1. Sample reference list entry to a case
2. Sample reference list entry to an appealed case
3. Sample reference to an unreported decision
4. Sample reference to a state trial court opinion
5. Sample reference to a federal district
court opinion
6. Sample reference to a case appealed to a state supreme court
7. Sample reference to a case appealed to a state court of appeals
8. Sample references to cases decided by the U.S. Supreme Court
A7.04 Statutes (Bluebook Rule 12)
9. Sample reference to a statute
10. Sample reference to a statute in a state code
11. Sample reference to a statute in a federal code
A7.05 Legislative Materials (Bluebook Rule 13)
12. Sample reference for federal testimony
13 Sample reference for a full federal hearing
14. Form for unenacted federal bills and resolutions
15. Sample references to unenacted federal bills
16. Form for enacted federal bills and resolutions
17. Form for federal reports (Rep.) and documents (Doc.)
A7.O6 Administrative and Executive Materials (Bluebook Rule 14)
18. Form for federal regulation
19. Form for executive order
A7.07 Patents
Chapter 8: The Publication Process
Editorial Process
8.01 Peer Review
8.02 Manuscript Acceptance or Rejection
Author Responsibilities
8.03 Preparing the Manuscript for Submission
8.04 Complying With Ethical, Legal, and Policy Requirements
8.05 Publisher Policy Requirements
8.06 Working With the Publisher When the Manuscript Has
Been Accepted
8.07 Checklist for Manuscript Submission
APPENDIX
Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS)
Meta-Analysis Reporting Standards (MARS)
Flow of Participants Through Each Stage of an Experiment or Quasi-Experiment
References
Index
Back Cover
