For Smartwriter

InformationStrategy

Assignment Title: Pre-Search Questions and Application

Due 11/30/2013

Develop a list of at least 5 pre-search questions to avoid message bias and identify potential sources about your project topic.

See examples in Ch. 9 of Reaching Audiences under “Developing a Strategy” in the “Getting Started” section.

Find and list 3 or 4 sources for Bullying in school (physical, cyber, laws, or role of schools of parents). .

Write a 250- to 350-word analysis of the sources for their credibility based on the following criteria:

• Accuracy

• Authority

• Currency

• Audience

• Agenda

Develop a list of several follow-up questions you have after reading these sources.

Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines.

Writing begins with an idea. During a trip to the ocean, a writer is fascinated
with the porpoises that periodically surface and roll as they travel offshore.
She wants to write about porpoises. But she needs more than just her observa-
tions to write a factual, accurate, complete, and entertaining article. She must
learn more.

Gathering information is like detective work. As a sleuth, you start with a
clue. Step by step you add pieces until you have enough information to recon-
struct events and solve the case. As a writer, you add to your knowledge until
you can create an accurate and complete summary of the topic.

Writers, like detectives, gather information from research, interviews,
and observations. Also, like detectives, writers gather a broad array of informa-
tion to ensure their searches are objective. Such work is called reporting.
Research—or reporting—allows writers to study what others have already
found out. That information might be in books, magazines, letters, statistical
abstracts, encyclopedias, databases, blogs, or any number of other print or
electronic sources. Writers can access thousands of documents using online
Web search engines or commercial databases. More and more information is
added to the free, easy-to-use Web every day. But it’s important to remember
that much of the best information in databases can’t be found on the Web.
Reporters often team with news librarians who have information-tracking
skills to develop breaking news and long investigative pieces.

Armed with facts retrieved in research, writers can continue reporting by
interviewing expert and relevant sources who add personal comment on the
topic. Personal reflections give context and interest to facts, and interviews can
confirm or verify online or library research. Interviewing, quotes, and attribu-
tion are discussed in Chapter 10.

Research and

Observation

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Reaching Audiences: A Guide to Media Writing, Fifth Edition, by Jan Johnson Yopp, Katherine C. McAdams, and Ryan M. Thornburg. Published by Allyn & Bacon.
Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

220 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

Writers also take time to note their observations as part of their reporting.
Student writers are sometimes reluctant to include their impressions for fear
they will appear too subjective. They must overcome that fear. In the porpoise
story, the writer would be remiss not to describe the rolling action of the sleek,
gray mammals as they break water a hundred yards off the beach. Audiences
want to know what the animals look like and how thrilled the author is at seeing
a school of several dozen porpoises dotting the waves as they surface for air.

In this chapter, you will learn

■ how to develop search strategies that will mine print and online resources,
■ what specific sources to consider,
■ the plusses and minuses in online and other research, and
■ how observation is a part of gathering information.

Getting Started

Writers start out as generalists; they know a little about a lot of subjects. Some
develop specialties or subject areas they prefer. Whether they are newspaper or
electronic media reporters, public relations practitioners, or advertising
copywriters—whether they cover general assignment topics or special beats,
such as business, medicine, sports, or environment—writers need to do research
as the first step in reporting. A medical writer may know medical terminology,
but if he wants to write about autism he must become knowledgeable about the
topic. A government reporter must learn about the newly elected members of
Congress before she goes to the opening session.

Writers need to find information that is accurate, relevant, and up to
date. Time is their greatest enemy. Most writers have deadlines and limited time
to devote to research, particularly if they write for daily publications. So they
need to find information quickly and efficiently.

Librarians can save you time, develop search strategies, and expand source
lists. As the librarian at the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Barbara Semonche developed a
dozen guides for students in the quest to find information. She notes:

You can be certain of two things: either you will find useful information
efficiently or you will not. You will find too much information or too little. Your
success will depend, to a certain extent, upon the quality of your search strategies.
The other part is finding the best reference sources.

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Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 221

For UNC–Chapel Hill students, Semonche wrote a “first steps in basic
research” handout that cautions:

The resources available to students, scholars, journalists, and the general public

are staggering in variety and amount. Nevertheless, not every question has a

simple, direct, fast, comprehensive and/or accurate answer. Further, different

reference books and resources offer differing responses, accounts, and statistics

for the same or similar queries. . . . It is essential that students develop a growing

and diverse repertoire of reference/research sources and information strategies.

She recommends that students build their own personal set of reference mate-
rials. On her list are a dictionary (“the best you can afford”); a thesaurus;
several style and usage manuals; the current year of Statistical Abstract of the
United States; the current year of The World Almanac of Facts; the current year of
The Almanac of American Politics; several books of quotations; a good atlas or
gazetteer; and a good math textbook, “preferably one that does math the ‘old’
way.” Students should also get into what she calls the “browse habit” and seek
new, unfamiliar references.

Developing a Strategy

To be successful in research, you need a strategy to find information. Once you
have defined your topic, you must make a list of questions, identify obvious
sources, conduct searches for additional sources, review those sources for
additional leads, refine your questions, and then interview.

Let’s say you are a medical reporter and want to write a story on child-
hood immunizations. You first must make a list of the information you need to
know, such as the following questions:

Initial Question List for Story on Childhood Immunizations

Who has to be immunized?
What are the state laws?
What shots do children have to have?
At what ages do children get which shots?
Are there any reactions to the shots?
How much do the shots cost at a doctor’s office?
Can children get shots at public health clinics? How much do they cost?

222 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

Where are the clinics here? What are the hours for immunizations?
How many local children register for school and aren’t immunized?
Is this a problem locally?
Have any other diseases surfaced locally?
Why are children not immunized?

Additional Questions after Research

What are the risks to children who aren’t immunized?
Do children ever die from immunizations?
What are the reactions parents can expect after a child gets a shot?
How many children in the state aren’t immunized properly when they
start school?
How many immunizations are given each year in the state? In our county?
What childhood diseases are appearing again?
How much of the cost of immunizations does the government pay?
Do we consider some diseases eradicated?
Fifty years ago, children suffered from mumps, measles, and even polio.
Now children can be protected against even chicken pox. Are we too
complacent about a resurgence of diseases?
Are there any diseases left that children need to be protected from?
If a certain number of children are immunized, does that protect other
children, as in the herd effect?
What factors prevent parents from having children immunized at the
proper time?
What immunizations do college students need?

The obvious sources for answers to these questions would be newspaper
and journal indexes, articles and information at online health sites, pediatricians,
and local health department and school officials. You would also interview
experts and agency officials.

Eventually your source list grows to include state health officials, state
statutes that stipulate which immunizations children must have to enter school,
officials at the Centers for Disease Control, legislators who allocate funds for
immunizations, parents, and even children. You refine your list of questions for
each source and prepare to interview your sources.

Your search strategy is similar if you are writing a story for your alumni
magazine on a graduate whose first novel has been published. She is an

Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 223

assistant professor at a college in another state. Before the interview, you need
to find information on the author. Most students and writers today go to the
Internet first and use a search engine to find information. Such a search might
reveal biographical information on her publisher’s Web site. Check your
library for Contemporary Authors, a biographical guide to current writers in
fiction, journalism, film, television, and other fields.

If you can find no accessible biographical history, you will have to rely on a
strategy that includes interviewing former professors, roommates, colleagues,
friends, and family members. You might have to call the English department
where she teaches and have someone fax her curriculum vitae. You might have to
consult newspaper indexes in public libraries in her home state to find specific
articles about her. If one source indicates an organization to which she belongs,
you might need to look for references with that organization. Articles about the
organization could include material about your up-and-coming author.

Basic

References

As you search for information, your journey might include online searching as
well as a trip to a special collections library to pore through historical docu-
ments. Many basic print sources are available online. You can find out which
ones by exploring virtual libraries, such as the Librarians’ Internet Index at
http://lii.org. Librarian Barbara Semonche’s basic reference list mentioned
earlier in this chapter is an excellent starting point. Writers should always
remember basic sources such as telephone books, city directories, and collec-
tions of people by occupation, political affiliation, or other activities. From
there, more specialized references can tell you the meaning of certain
acronyms, such as MASH for Mobile Army Surgical Hospital, or even real
estate terms, such as escrow.

Today’s researchers and writers use hundreds of sources and always must
be sure sources are credible and updated. Listed here are some types of publi-
cations that writers traditionally have relied on for information. Remember:
Most publications have Web sites.

Biographical Sources. Biographical references contain information about
well-known people. Some are specific, such as Who’s Who in American Politics.
The information will include date of birth, parents’ names, education, career,
awards and achievements, and family data. Among other biographical sources
are Who’s Who, Webster’s Biographical Dictionary, Current Biography, Who’s Who

224 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

among African Americans, and Who’s Who among Hispanic Americans. More
than 100 biographical dictionaries exist, each focusing on a special group or
profession.

Statistical Information. Statistical Abstract of the United States is one of the
most widely used reference books and is online. It provides information from
the number of police officers in Albuquerque, New Mexico, to the number
of houses with indoor plumbing in Lincoln, Nebraska. Data are based on in-
formation collected by the federal government and other sources. The Census
of Population of the United States is published every 10 years. Census informa-
tion is available on the Internet at www.census.gov. Editor and Publisher
Market Guide contains data on cities, such as a city’s shopping malls and
whether its water is fluoridated. Most states compile statistical books, partic-
ularly those dealing with vital statistics: births, deaths, marriages, and
divorces. Writers can find information on states, counties, cities, and even
sections within cities that is especially helpful if they are looking for the local
angle on a story. For international information, writers can consult the
United Nations Demographic Yearbook.

Political and Government Information. The U.S. Government Manual con-
tains information on departments and agencies in the executive branch.
Congressional Quarterly publishes a weekly report that catalogues the voting
records of Congress and major political speeches. States annually publish man-
uals that contain information about branches of government and legislatures,
summaries of the state history, the state constitution, and biographies of major
state officials. Information on foreign governments and leaders can be found
in reference books, such as The Statesman’s Yearbook 2008: Politics, Cultures and
Economies of the World and other publications that focus on world leaders.
Remember to check for online sites, too.

Geographic Data. Writers might need to check on the locations of cities,
towns, and countries. They can refer to local maps or the Times Atlas of the
World and Rand McNally Commercial Atlas and Marketing Guide. Online sites,
such as mapquest.com, will guide writers to locations and even provide maps
and directions to get there. Writers can find up-to-date maps of continents
and regions at sites such as World Sites Atlas at www.sitesatlas.com or
National Geographic at www.nationalgeographic.com.

Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 225

Business Information. Writers might need data on a company or an industry,
and students might need information on a potential employer. Today’s competi-
tive companies usually have extensive and interactive Web sites. Research on
companies could also be found in annual reports, on file in many libraries.

Information on thousands of companies can be found at the Securities
Exchange Commission Web site at www.sec.gov. Incorporation records must list
officers, addresses, and company descriptions, and these documents are filed with
states’ secretary of state offices. Many businesses fall under the purview of state
regulatory agencies, such as the state insurance commissioner. Information on
companies can also be found in reference books, such as Standard & Poor’s Index.
Also, for company information that can lead reporters to sources, check out the
American Press Institute’s site for business writers at www.businessjournalism.org.

Professional Sources. In any search for information sources, writers should
consider professional organizations such as societies, guilds, and associations.
These sources often have links or references to other depositories of informa-
tion and can provide updates on media issues, contact names, and historical
background and serve as a means to verify facts. Before writing about trends in
real estate, reporters will want to look at NationalAssociationOfRealtors.com
and at related sites for local and regional Realtors. Similar sites are available on
thousands of organizations that serve particular interests such as medicine, law,
construction, government workers, architects, and others.

For background on professional issues in journalism and mass communica-
tion, some sites worth checking are the Poynter Institute at www.poynter.org; the
American Society of Newspaper Editors at www.asne.org; the Inter American
Press Association at www.sipiapa.org; Nieman Reports at www.nieman.harvard.
edu; Public Relations Society of America at www.prsa.org; American Advertising
Federation at www.aaf.org; Association of Electronic Journalists at www.rtnda.org;
Investigative Reporters and Editors at www.ire.org; and Society of Professional
Journalists at www.spj.org. Journalism organizations and issues also are a focus of
UNITY: Journalists of Color at www.unityjournalists.org.

Pitfalls in Research

The hunt for information can be complex. Librarian Barbara Semonche warns
that not all information comes in a compact, convenient form. At the start of a
search, students may discover people who share the same names as celebrities,

226 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

such as basketball star Michael Jordan, television personality David Letterman,
or even McDonald’s mascot Ronald McDonald. Researchers must check to be
sure that the person named on records or documents is in fact the same person
they seek.

Information may be dated or incomplete. For example, early biogra-
phies of actor Brad Pitt would fail to include the correct number and names
of his children. Students and other researchers must remember that not
every reference includes every individual, and those that do may not have all
the facts. Researchers must look at many sources, both print and online, to
find complete information. Searching for information is rarely one-stop
shopping. Using many sources helps uncover discrepancies and inconsisten-
cies about information and ensure that information is as accurate as
possible.

Writers should look continually for additional and alternative sources.
The research game is a detective hunt. Names or sources mentioned in an
article or in references can lead to nuggets of information elsewhere. The only
constraints will be time and deadline pressure.

Government Sources

Local, state, and federal governments produce millions of pages of docu-
ments every year, ranging from official findings, such as federal Food and
Drug Administration studies, to county tax records and the disposition of
local traffic cases. Most government documents are open and accessible to
the public. Many are free by mail on request, and others are available at the
city hall, the county courthouse, a regional federal repository, online, or the
Library of Congress. They provide a wealth of information for writers and
curious citizens.

Government officials and others have taken advantage of the information
age to put reams of material online. Agencies maintain their own Web sites
that provide history, facts about elected officials, agendas and minutes of meet-
ings, and other relevant data. For information on legislation, try THOMAS, a
congressional online system; Congressional Record; congressional legislation
digests; and directories of congressional members’ e-mail addresses. Even the
White House has its own Web site featuring news releases of the day, speech
transcripts, and access to federal agencies. ISB

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Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 227

Public Records

Routine government documents are considered public. The documents have
been created by the government, which is supported by taxpayers’ money.
Researchers, writers, and anyone who wants the documents can request to see
them or to have copies made. All states have laws that pertain to what is and
what is not a public record. The general rule most journalists follow is that any
document is considered a public record unless the agency or individual who
has the document can cite the section of state or federal law that prevents its
disclosure. If the agency cannot, it must relinquish the information.

Media writers should know the open records laws for their particular state.
State press associations can provide the law and its exceptions. Publications such
as The News Media and the Law, published by the Reporters Committee for
Freedom of the Press, can be consulted. The Electronic Frontier Foundation is
a valuable resource and can be accessed via the Internet.

Agencies can charge a reasonable fee for photocopying documents. Most
states have regulations pertaining to computer storage of public documents
and reasonable charges for making copies or providing access to electronic
information.

Freedom of Information Act

In 1966, the U.S. Congress passed the federal Freedom of Information Act
(FOIA). The act became law in 1967 and has been amended five times. The law
is much like state laws regarding public records. Anyone is allowed to make a
written request for information from any federal agency, but not all informa-
tion is available. The act provides broad exemptions, such as information relat-
ing to national defense or foreign policy, internal personnel rules and practices
of an agency, personnel and medical files that would constitute an invasion of
privacy, information compiled for law enforcement purposes, and geophysical
information such as that related to oil well locations.

In 1996 the Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments
required federal agencies to release electronic files of certain types of records
created after November 1, 1996. Because of the time needed to respond to
requests for electronic data, the amendments extended the agencies’ required
response time from 10 to 20 days. In 2002 amendments to the FOIA affected
requests from foreign governments or any requester acting on behalf of a

228 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

foreign government to any agency considered part of the government’s intelli-
gence community. Changes under the “Open Government Act of 2007”
further clarified government agencies’ duties in regard to FOIA requests.

The media have worked continually to reduce the number of exemptions
to FOIA. Michael Gartner, former president of the American Society of
Newspaper Editors, once lamented in a speech on national Freedom of
Information Day that the name “Freedom of Information” implies the govern-
ment is holding information hostage. He objected to many of the restrictions,
particularly those that prevent publication of what the United States broad-
casts to developing countries over the Voice of America. Homeland security
concerns have added to difficulties in accessing information in some settings.
To help with access, George Washington University houses the National
Security Archive, a repository of government documents and declassified
material at www.nsarchive.org. Its Web site notes that it “is also a leading advo-
cate and user of the Freedom of Information Act.”

FOIA sets out the procedure for requesting information, the time
required for an agency to respond, appeals procedures, and fees. Individuals
must pay the cost of photocopying the information but can request a waiver of
that cost if the release of the information is in the public interest. Writers or
individuals seeking information under the act might be frustrated—delays can
occur even when procedures are followed. The request must be specific and
must be sent to the proper agency. When the information is uncovered, a
reporter may receive a desired document, but with sections or entire pages
inked out to protect exempted information. The reporter pays the cost of
photocopying all pages—even the blackened ones.

FOIA searches can be time consuming and costly, but many journalists
and researchers have used them to find information for fact-filled articles.
For example, a student in an advanced reporting class filed an FOIA request
with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to find out what
kinds of complaints and how many had been lodged with the agency after
singer Janet Jackson’s breast was exposed during the Super Bowl 2004 half-
time performance. The student’s request was broad and asked for copies of
the complaints. An FCC representative responded, asking for clarification
and letting the student know that to provide copies of all the complaints—
500,000 plus—would cost more than $125,000. Needless to say, the student
amended the request and asked for a sampling of the complaints, a request
that cost her $100.

Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 229

Investigative Reporters and Editors presents awards each year to media that
produce stories using public record searches and requests. Background on the
award and award-winning stories are available at www.ire.org/foi/.

Online Research

Technology has changed the way writers collect, transmit, and share informa-
tion. Distance from sources has become irrelevant. A public relations practi-
tioner in Detroit can search online for background information on the success
of drugs to treat acid reflux disease and e-mail it to a company official in
Switzerland. Photographs and other color visuals can be e-mailed anywhere.
Using a laptop, a reporter can write a breaking-news story and transmit it in a
matter of seconds to the city desk 30 miles away.

A major change in recent years is how information is stored. People who
began writing careers in the mid-1980s and earlier have seen phenomenal
changes in the ways they seek information. In the “old days” before 1985, most
searches for information centered on treks to libraries at a newspaper, city or
county, university—wherever resource books were housed. People had to
handle paper to get information.

Computers have allowed anyone who produces information to store it
online so others can access it. When people get online, they search for infor-
mation; download data, photos, or text to their computers; send e-mail, blog,
or IM; or chat. Writers can call up information in a matter of seconds while
sitting at computers in the office, at home, in the dorm, or in the library.
Newspapers, books, magazines, library holdings, company profiles, and even
job banks are online. Electronic indexes and databases offer citations,
abstracts, and even full text records, and the number of databases available
online grows daily in diversity and ease of access.

The ease of using the Internet and the breadth of information found
there can lull novice reporters into a false sense of security in regard to accu-
racy. As much as students and professional writers have come to depend on the
Internet, they must still have some skepticism about what they find there. All
Web sites are not created alike. With the proliferation of information has come
discussion of issues on privacy, legal uses, copyright, and ethics (discussed in
detail in Chapter 12). A helpful publication is Nora Paul’s Computer Assisted
Research, published by the Poynter Institute in St. Petersburg, Florida. Updates
are available online.

230 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

Pitfalls of Online Research

Convenience is one of the advantages of online research, but some important
concerns persist. Online, identities may be cloaked, expertise exaggerated, and
content tweaked in such a way that critical errors go undetected. Because
blogging and social network tools have made it easy for anyone to publish,
writers must realize that not everything they read online is true, just like not
everything they hear on the street is true. Writers must take specific measures
to establish the accuracy and credibility of sources and sites. In Web Search
Savvy: Strategies and Shortcuts for Online Research, author Barbara Friedman
suggests Web-based content be evaluated with the following five criteria:

■ Accuracy. Impossible facts are a giveaway that a Web site is bogus,
although some errors may simply be clerical. Yet if a site is riddled with
spelling or grammar errors, it’s a safe bet the author has been careless
with overall content, and the researcher should be wary of using the
material. The quickest way to spot inaccurate information is to check
Web-based content against traditional or nondigital sources.

■ Authority. What individual or organization claims responsibility for
the site’s content, and does it have the proper credentials to speak
authoritatively on this particular subject? Use a site’s contact informa-
tion or a domain lookup, such as WHOIS or InterNic, to verify who’s
behind a site.

■ Currency. Web sites may linger online long after their authors have
stopped maintaining the content. Check the site for dates that indicate
when the content was posted and last revised.

■ Audience. Determining the intended audience for a Web site will
help you evaluate the usefulness of the information. A site about polit-
ical campaigns designed for an audience of elected officials may be too
complicated if you are writing for elementary school students.

■ Agenda. Whereas journalists are urged to remain impartial, in the
online world everyone has an opinion. Bloggers, for example, publish
views on a range of topics using personalized language that would be
discouraged in traditional journalism. That bias is not intended to
make you doubt a site, but rather understand its purpose. Knowing
whether a Web site’s author is motivated by a personal or professional
agenda helps you find a context for the information.

Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 231

Online research may be the first and most convenient choice for writers,
but it is just one step in the research process. Taking the time to evaluate the
integrity of Web-based content will go a long way in establishing your credibil-
ity as a researcher and writer.

Additional Online Search Strategies

Writers can find information quickly by typing key words into search engines,
the very basis of an online search strategy. But search engines still miss a lot of
information. A 2001 study estimated that 400 to 550 times the amount of
information existed on the “hidden” Web compared to the amount found with
search engines. Some of the information not easily found is on commercial or
fee-based sites or is stored in data formats that Web search engines cannot
easily crawl.

When searching online, reporters should remember that most search
engines have advanced search functions. Google, for example, offers a step-by-
step guide on how to look more precisely for information on a topic by typing
in appropriate search requirements.

Writers should also be aware of the growing number of virtual library
consortia, which offer a state’s residents access to online library catalogues, ref-
erence materials, and commercial online databases. Librarian Barbara
Semonche notes that the consortia “are a rich resource for freelance writers,
reporters, students, and researchers who need free or very low cost access to
extensive, sophisticated information and data.”

For example, NCLIVE, the North Carolina Library link to the world
at www.nclive.org, offers online access to complete articles from more
than 4,000 newspapers, journals, and magazines, as well as indexing for
more than 10,000 periodical titles. Galileo, Georgia’s virtual library at
http://www.galileo.usg.edu/welcome/, provides secured access to licensed
products. Some states’ virtual libraries are open only to educational institu-
tions, including students, faculty, and staff, so writers need to find out the
privileges for their particular states’ digital libraries.

What You Can’t Find Online

Writers today must remember that online information is a recent phenom-
enon. Most history is buried in letters, memos, newspapers, magazines, and
other written material not catalogued in online databases. When writer

232 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

Nadine Cohodas began researching her book, Spinning Blues into Gold: The
Chess Brothers and the Legendary Chess Records, she went hunting. Her research
included visits to the Chicago neighborhoods where brothers Phil and
Leonard Chess had offices and where the great blues singers performed.

Cohodas produced a book that brought information to readers they
would not have gotten on their own. Finding the details required hours and
hours of reading trade journals, such as Billboard and Cash Box, to understand
the evolution of the record company; poring over Chicago newspapers; and
scouring public records, such as old liquor licenses to trace the brothers’ busi-
ness beginnings, city phone books and directories to confirm relevant
addresses, and the Federal Communications Commission archive for details
about their radio stations. “You have to love the hunt,” she said.

Every now and then, Cohodas had “eureka” moments when she found
something that provided the telling detail for a piece of the story. For example,
she needed information about the history of the Macomba Lounge, owned by
the Chess brothers. She explains how she found it:

To find out what the Macomba Lounge had been, I photocopied about 30 pages of
the Chicago Yellow Pages in the tavern listings, then read them one by one to
find the same address. Lo and behold, the Congress Buffet showed up at 3905
S. Cottage. I used that name to request the liquor license for that venue so I could
trace the history further.

Meanwhile, I found the only ad anyone knows of for the Macomba Lounge by
going through the now defunct Chicago Bee week by week in the first or second year
Leonard and Phil were in the club and that’s when I saw the ad—a sweet moment.

The result of nearly three years’ work was a fascinating account of two
Polish immigrants who built a company promoting black singers, such as
Muddy Waters, Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, and Etta James. The New York Times
Book Review named it one of the notable nonfiction books of 2000, and the
book won the 2001 Blues Foundation “Keeping the Blues Alive” Award.

Observation

Observation—an old method of research—still is a key tool in gathering infor-
mation. At the same time reporters note what speakers are saying, they should
notice how speakers deliver their remarks, how they move their bodies, what

Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 233

they are wearing, and how the crowd reacts to their comments. Such details are
part of the reporting process.

Many students and inexperienced writers, however, are reluctant to
include too many details. They fear that audiences will doubt their descrip-
tions. They believe using description borders on being subjective when, in fact,
leaving out description might distort an event. For example, a story might
reveal a speaker’s eloquence and pointed remarks on U.S. trade with China, but
the reporter might not mention that only 22 people were seated in an audito-
rium that holds 550 people. Although the speaker might have been eloquent,
the speech’s title failed to attract a sizable audience.

Seeing Isn’t Enough

Many people notice their surroundings or the events happening around them
in one dimension. They see. Rarely do people consciously smell, taste, hear, or
touch their environment. Even using only sight, most people miss much of
what goes on. So do writers. They have not trained themselves to observe
events that happen simultaneously. At the state fair, a reporter might notice the
lines in front of concessions but not see the child wailing for more cotton
candy, the youth loaded with three bright green teddy bears, the overflowing
garbage at a nearby trash can, and the cigarette hanging from the hawker’s lips.
The unobservant writer does not smell the odor of fried dough, taste the
grease in the air near the ferris wheel, hear the ping-ping from the shooting
gallery, or feel the slap of heat from the barbecue cookers.

To be skillful observers, writers must hone all their senses. To be com-
plete and successful writers, they must describe scenes to absent audiences.
Even when viewers see events on television, they still need the reporter’s or
news anchor’s observations. When television covers the annual Thanksgiving
Day parade in New York City, for example, reporters must identify floats and
provide background on performers. Viewers need the information to under-
stand what they are seeing.

General Observation

Many people exist on autopilot. They drive the same route to work, live in the
same house or apartment for years, and work in the same office. They become
less and less observant. What about you?

234 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

Any person or writer can sharpen observation skills. Try this experiment:
Take a piece of paper. Describe what your roommate or friend wore to school or
work today. Note colors and types of fabric, if possible. What did you eat for
breakfast? Can you remember the smell as well as the taste? What about the color
or feel? What sounds do you hear in this room? Can you name more than three?

Keep a notebook in your car, backpack, or pocket. Start recording what
you see and hear in multidimensional ways. Use your cell phone to capture the
visual and even audio. Although most people can note different sounds, it is
harder to catch and record events happening simultaneously. The oft-told
adage is that two people on a street corner would give two different accounts of
an accident both witnessed. Think of ways to compare what you see with
events or items that are common knowledge.

Remember the story on the burlesque queen? Writer Kathleen Hennessey
uses simple language to describe Tempest Storm’s physical attributes from the
color of her hair to her fingernail polish. She notes her fingers “tremble with frus-
tration. They are aged, knotted by arthritis and speckled with purple spots under
paper-thin skin.” Hennessey describes Storm’s apartment, including her exercise
bike and the photos that catalogue her relationships. Readers get a sense of
Storm’s physical surroundings as well as her philosophy of life.

How Observation Changes the Action. The act of reporting, of being an
observer, might have the unintended effect of changing the behavior of an
individual you are observing. Think about a friend who would rush to pick up
living room clutter when you pull out your cell phone and take a picture. Your
presence can change the way events unfold.

The same tendency holds true when reporters attend a meeting or a rally
or when they participate in an online discussion. Their presence affects how
people behave. The town council members sit up straighter and look busy
when the public access television channel is airing the meeting. Rally organiz-
ers look efficient and engaged when reporters approach. Store managers beam
smiles of success on the first day of business.

The trick to accurate observing is to observe over time. Most people can
maintain a facade for some time, but they cannot keep it up forever—even
when they know a reporter is in the room. You might have to observe for more
than a few minutes, taking notes or photographs unobtrusively. Two hours into
a meeting, the mayor might forget the unobtrusive camera and rail against the
accusations of an unhappy citizen.

Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 235

With advanced technology, people can be observed and recorded when
they don’t know it. Those images can appear on video or photo-sharing Web
sites, social networking sites, or other Internet venues—much to a person’s
surprise. As a reporter, you must be careful not to invade an individual’s
privacy, discussed in Chapter 12, as you record your observations. When
people are involved in events considered public, such as a rally or a plane crash,
they do lose their right to privacy. But if they are partying in the privacy of
their apartment, then those actions cannot become visuals for a story taken
surreptitiously with your cell phone.

Participant Observation

Social scientists have long used observation as a means of getting information
about groups. They join a group as participants to observe individual behavior
within a group and the individuals’ interactions. Journalists also have adopted
the practice, gaining admission and recording the interactions of the group.
Such intrusion by journalists affects the way people interact. Over time, how-
ever, reporters become accepted, and other members might forget their role.

Because their presence does affect how members relate, some journal-
ists have opted to become members of groups and not to identify themselves
as reporters. In the 1890s, reporter Nellie Bly pretended to be a mental
patient to get a true picture of how the insane were treated at Blackwell’s
Island, New York’s asylum for the mentally ill. Some have joined cults,
followed the Hell’s Angels, or gotten jobs in nursing homes. One reporter in
her mid-20s enrolled in a Philadelphia high school to observe it firsthand—
and was invited to the senior prom. Before resorting to undercover work,
reporters and their editors must determine that a change of identity is the
only way to get the story.

In either case, problems can arise when it is time to write. Reporters
might feel a kinship to the group and have difficulty setting themselves apart.
Journalists who become group members put their impartiality at risk in writing
a story. Writers might become too emotional or too attached to sources and
not be able to distance themselves. They also run the risk of not knowing
completely whether their presence altered the group in any way. They can
double-check their reactions and observations, however, by interviewing a
balanced mix of sources. Reporters might also get complaints from group
members who feel betrayed when the article appears.

236 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

Nonverbal Communication

Although writers get the bulk of their information from sources and from
interviewing, they can add details from nonverbal communication. Such cues
come from the way people move or act when they say something. A politician
might raise her eyebrows at a constituent’s question. A child might shift his
hands behind his back when leaving the kitchen. A teacher might frown while
correcting student essays. Each action implies a thought or behavior to the
observer. The politician might be surprised. The child might be guilty of swip-
ing a cookie. The teacher might be unhappy about a good student’s low grade.

When recording nonverbal cues either in note taking or with a camera,
reporters must be careful. They must think beyond the obvious because the
same cue could carry different meanings for different observers. Furrowed eye-
brows might indicate puzzlement or anger. Waving hands can mean agitation
or enthusiasm. A smile might be sincere or forced. Generally, one action alone
is not sufficient to indicate how an individual is feeling. The gestures must be
catalogued in addition to words and other body movements. A reporter might
have to go so far as to ask an individual what a particular posture meant. For
example, pacing during an interview may not be a result of nervousness; the
interviewee may suffer from restless legs syndrome, but no reporter could tell
that simply by observing.

In addition, nonverbal actions have different meanings across cultures. In
some cultures or ethnic groups, individuals do not make eye contact while
speaking. An ignorant or inexperienced reporter might be suspicious of such
behavior, thereby including a cultural bias. When U.S. business leaders engage
in negotiations with Japanese officials, they have to learn etiquette and proto-
col. For example, the Japanese consider it offensive to write on a business card,
while in the United States, executives and others make notations or add home
telephone numbers to business cards. The good reporter learns about cultural
differences or asks questions to clarify behavior. Such sensitivity and awareness
is essential to accurate reporting.

Dangers in Observation

John Salvi was charged with murdering two people and injuring five others in
shootings at two abortion clinics in Boston. When Salvi was arraigned on
weapons charges in conjunction with the shootings, Gary Tuchman of CNN gave
a live report and description for audiences who were not in the courtroom.

Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 237

Tuchman described Salvi as wearing a blue blazer, white shirt, white socks, loafers,
and nice pants. The description implied that Salvi had dressed conservatively and
neatly. A print news account reported that Salvi was wearing “an ill-fitting blazer.”
The implication here contradicted the neat appearance of Tuchman’s report.
Which account was right? Audiences who heard and read the two accounts might
have noticed the discrepancy and been puzzled. Or maybe it just added to their
belief that you cannot trust the media to be right.

Tuchman also took his reported observation one step further. He noted to
viewers that if they had a stereotype of someone who would be charged with
committing murder, Salvi did not look like that stereotype—that is, Salvi did not
look like someone who would commit murder. Viewers may have wondered:
“What does the stereotypical murderer look like? Why didn’t Tuchman give us a
description of that stereotype?”

Observation plays a major role in writing, but we must be circumspect
about the descriptions we use. As will be discussed in Chapter 11, we as writers
carry our prejudices and biases with us as we collect information and write. We
must be careful. Think about Tuchman’s reference to a stereotypical murderer.
Can you describe one? Of course not. If murderers were readily identifiable,
people who have been killed would have had some warning. But murderers
vary in shape, size, age, gender, skin tone, hair color, and clothing preference.
They do not all have greasy hair and shifty, beady eyes and act furtively or in a
suspicious manner.

The Importance of Accuracy

As noted, Tuchman’s observations might have been distorted by his experiences.
He might have a stereotypical idea of what a murderer looks like. Writers can
bring biases to observation, just as they can to any aspect of reporting.

Just as you double-check facts, you should be circumspect about your
observations. Take emotions into account. If you covered an anti-abortion
rally, you might have found your emotions surging if you are pro-choice.
Despite your role as a journalist, your feelings might not be neutral. Your feel-
ings could influence your description. Be aware.

To ensure accuracy, you should record impressions in your notebook or
on your electronic equipment at the scene and then review to add context as
soon as possible afterward. The longer you wait, the fewer details you will
remember accurately. Memory fades over time.

238 Part Three ■ Gathering Information

Like other kinds of research, observation leads to a more complete mes-
sage. Description that is simple, clear, fair, and complete also will aid accuracy.
Writers should lay out description alongside other facts and allow audiences to
judge for themselves. Audiences invariably will apply their own biases to the
description and form their own opinions, but writers’ choices of words should
not be the deciding factor.

Exercises

1. Condoleezza Rice, former Secretary of State, is coming to campus to
give a lecture. Before the lecture, she will have a news conference,
which you will attend for the campus newspaper. First, you need to
find out more information. Using three biographical sources, answer
the following questions. Cite the reference used. One reference should
be online.

a. When and where was Rice born?
b. Where did she go to college?
c. What jobs did she hold before joining the Bush administration?
d. What has she done since she left the State Department?
e. Has she won any awards? If so, list them.

2. Identify a reporter in your college community or in your hometown by
reading bylines and articles in the respective paper. Call the reporter and
ask what sources he or she uses in researching stories. Note whether the
reporter uses online sources to retrieve information. Find out how the
reporter ensures accuracy in using sources. Share the information with
your class.

3. You are the state desk researcher for the local newspaper. The state
editor wants to do a story on parents charged with killing their children.
Before making the assignment to a reporter, the editor asks you to do an
online search of national newspapers and magazines to find accounts of
such crimes. Your task is to prepare a memo to the state editor that lists
six references to substantial articles on parents charged with killing their
children. The references need to be annotated; that is, they should be
accompanied by explanatory notes as well as enough information to
enable the reporter to find the articles.

Chapter 9 ■ Research and Observation 239

4. You discover that many adult day care facilities exist in your area, and
you want to make a case to your editor that a feature story about these
facilities would be a good one. Search online for information on these
facilities and identify at least three in your area. Compare the complete-
ness and the credibility—as well as the limitations—of the Web pages
you use as you find information on adult day care.

5. Pick a place on campus or attend a town government meeting as an
observer along with another student. Use your senses to take notes on
what transpires outside the actions of passersby or officials. Write a
description of the meeting, using aspects such as the room, the mood, the
speakers’ attitudes, the officials’ attitudes, the tone of the meeting, and
how many people attended. Then compare your account with the other
student’s accounts. See what each of you chose to include and chose to
ignore. Compare the ways you described aspects of the meeting. Then
discuss what made your observations different.

References

Nadine Cohodas, Using documents. Interview via e-mail, October 2001.
Barbara Friedman, Web Search Savvy: Strategies and Shortcuts for Online Research.

Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2004.
Freedom of Information Act, 5 U.S.C. 552, 1966. Amended in 1974, 1976, 1986,

1996, 2002.
“FOIA Legislative History,” National Security Archives, at http://www.gwu.

edu/~nsarchiv/nsa/foialeghistory/legistfoia.htm.
Michael Gartner, Speech in honor of national Freedom of Information Day.

Washington, DC, National Press Club, March 1989.
Mary McGuire, Linda Stilborne, Melinda McAdams, and Laurel Hyatt, The Internet

Handbook for Writers, Researchers, and Journalists. New York: Guilford Press, 1997.
Nora Paul, Computer Assisted Research: A Guide to Tapping Online Information, 4th ed.

St. Petersburg, FL: The Poynter Institute for Media Studies, 2001.
Barbara Semonche, Personal interview. Chapel Hill, NC, School of Journalism and

Mass Communication, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1995, 2005.

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