For courseworkhero.co.uk Only 700-1,050 Word Paper

Resources: Chapter 4 of our text and the “Verbal and Nonverbal Communication” video located in this week’s Electronic Reserve Readings

Write a700- to 1,050-word paper that includes the following:

Describe the principles of verbal and nonverbal communication.

· Explain which three principles you think are critical for effective communication.

· Include at least one personal experience with a difficult verbal or nonverbal communication.

· Explain how you could use these principles to promote communication in a health care workplace.

· Explain how technology influences the communication process.

Includeat least two references.

Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines.

Chapter 4
Language

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you
should be able to meet the
following objectives:

1. Define language in your
own words and describe
four key components of
language.

2. Discuss five key principles
related to verbal
communication and share
the implications of these
principles.

3. List and explain the five
key principles related to
nonverbal communication.

4. Identify and provide an
example of each of the
seven types of nonverbal
communication:
chronemics, proxemics,
oculesics, kinesics, haptics,
vocalics, and personal style.

5. Employ key guidelines
related to effective verbal
and nonverbal
communication.

6. Illustrate the impact of
gender and culture on your
verbal and nonverbal
communication.

“We should have a great fewer disputes
in the world if words were taken for
what they are, the signs of our ideas
only, and not for things themselves.”

John Locke

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Language Is Important
Hector Verdugo was a man on the verge of life in prison. Born to parents who
were both drug addicts, he too became involved in drug dealing at an early
age. By the age of eighteen, he was arrested and sent to prison for two years.
Vowing to change his life, he accepted low-skilled jobs but also enrolled in a
local community college in his East Los Angeles neighborhood.

Freddy Jacinto was just ten years old and living with his single mother,
who did her best to steer him toward healthy decisions. However, Freddy
ended up getting into “tagging”—a form of graffiti using spray paint—and
became involved in gang life. In the gang, Freddy found the “family” that he
felt was missing in his life. After Freddy was arrested for tagging one night,
the police warned his mom that her son was headed for a life in crime.

As reported by Los Angeles Times correspondent Erika Hayasaki (2007),
both Hector and Freddy met novelist Leslie Schwartz. As part of Homeboy
Industries, an antigang program, Schwartz sought to help those in the pro-
gram to understand the power of words to hurt and to heal. Schwartz stated,
“There are people all over the world in prison because of the things they’ve
said and the things they’ve written. Poetry has put people in prison. Why is
that? Because words are way more powerful than a gun or a bomb or a knife
will ever be” (p. 1). Indeed, American poet Ezra Pound was imprisoned for
his antiwar poetry during World War II. Death threats to writer Salman
Rushdie and the murder of songwriter Victor Jara in Chile are two more ex-
amples that demonstrate the power of words.

Both Hector and Freddy entered the antigang program with skepticism. Lit-
tle by little, both began to open up. They used language to share their experi-
ences, emotions, and perceptions with Schwartz. Seeing Schwartz’s passion for
language, Hector came to see the power in words and that he had a story to
share. He is currently fiction editor for Homeboy Press. While Freddy contin-
ued to struggle in and out of school, he did eventually leave his gang members
behind. To Schwartz’s dismay, he also disappeared from the antigang program.

Language is powerful indeed. Imprisonment, threats of death, and the ac-
tual murder of poets, writers, and songwriters resulted from individuals’ use
of language. In contrast, language can also change a person’s life from one of
desperation to one of hope, as was true for Hector Verdugo. With these ex-
amples as a backdrop, you might begin thinking about the importance of lan-
guage in your own life.

What would your life be like without language or nonverbal actions to
communicate? As you can imagine, it would be most difficult to get any-
thing accomplished. You would not be able to communicate thoughts,
ideas, hopes, feelings, and reactions. It would be difficult to attain the
shared understanding that was described as the goal of communication in
Chapter 1.

Fortunately, an inability to communicate is a challenge that only a few
people experience. However, many individuals face limitations that make
communication difficult. Consider those with hearing, speaking, or sight

Chapter 4

Language 79

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80 Chapter 4 Language

Language Has Been Used
to Help Gang Members

disabilities; a child with autism or a senior citizen with Alzheimer’s. Although
the inability to communicate verbally or nonverbally is a serious problem, a
more common concern rests with how much of the language you use lacks
clarity and purposefulness.

History provides two significant examples. With respect to clarity, ex-
amine how the multiple meanings of words can lead to misunderstanding
and, in this example, the loss of thousands of lives. Close to the end of World
War II, Allied forces sent a message to the Japanese: Surrender or be crushed.
For their part, the Japanese issued a response with the word “mokusatsu,”
which means both “ignore” and “withhold comment.” According to the
Japanese, they were seeking more time to consider the ultimatum and, there-
fore, were seeking to “withhold comment” for right now. The Allied forces,
however, interpreted the response as “ignore.” As you probably know, several
days later, the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki resulting in the loss of thousands of lives.

With respect to purposefulness, people often act in ways that demon-
strate carelessness in their language choice; a person can use different words
to describe the same event but with different effects. During World War II, an
order from the president, Executive Order 9066, led to the forced relocation
of 120,000 people of Japanese American ancestry. Some called the locations
where these American citizens of Japanese heritage were sent “country clubs.”
To others, they were popularly known as “internment camps.” To many of
the Japanese who resided there under harsh conditions, these “camps” could
have been better described as “prisons.” In reality, these words were used to
describe the same place but were used for much different reasons. The words
minimized the event in the “county club” case and highlighted the traumatic

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experience in the “prison” case. Being purposeful in
your language choice requires you to think deeply
about the kind of impact you want to make with
your language—and then to be purposeful in its use.

With respect to nonverbal communication, you
also need to be clear and purposeful in your use of
gestures, posture, vocal inflections, and eye contact.
Regarding clarity, some gestures, for example, have
different meanings especially as you move across cul-
tural lines. The “A-OK” gesture—thumb and index
finger form a circle while the other fingers are held
straight—is not “A-OK” in many Latin American
countries. With respect to purposefulness, even mi-
nor variations in your vocal inflection can actually
change the meaning of your message. Note how
meaning changes based on word emphasis in the
following statements:

“Of course, I want you to do this job.”

“Of course, I want you to do this job.”
“Of course, I want you to do this job.”
“Of course, I want you to do this job.”
“Of course, I want you to do this job.”
“Of course, I want you to do this job.”

As one final example of the importance of language, let’s examine the
political discussion around “official” languages. Some would like to make
English the official language of the United States. For others, doing so would
violate the human and democratic rights of U.S. society. Realize that lan-
guage is connected to culture and a person’s very identity. Knowing this might
help you to understand why this topic is so emotionally charged. Whatever
side you are on in this political debate, you have probably seen how heated
the discussion can quickly become.

In summary, language is important. Central to its importance is a strong
need to assure that your language and nonverbal communication are both
clear and purposeful.

The focus of this chapter will examine the principles of language and
guidelines for effective verbal communication. The chapter will then turn
attention to nonverbal communication. It will include principles of nonver-
bal communication, types of nonverbal communication, and guidelines for
effective nonverbal communication. You will note that there will be many
cross-cultural examples to extend what you have learned from reading
Chapter 3. As well as being interesting, these cross-cultural examples will
provide a more vivid demonstration of the importance of language and
nonverbal communication.

Adolescent Youth Are
Pictured at Heart
Mountain Internment
Camp, Wyoming, Where
More Than 10,000
Japanese Americans
Lived from August 12,
1942, to November 10,
1943

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82 Chapter 4 Language

FIGURE 4.1 ■ Components
of Language

Language Defined
You might be thinking: What is language?

One

definition of language is that it is “the use of vo-
calized sounds, or written symbols representing
these sounds or ideas, in patterns organized by
grammatical rules in order to express thoughts
and feelings” (Rogers & Steinfatt, 1999, p. 126).

More specifically, it is helpful to understand some of the various compo-
nents of language: phonemes, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics (figure 4.1).
Phonemes represent the sound system of a language and often the smallest
level at which language is understood. Linguists have identified 200 vowel
sounds and 600 consonant sounds used around the world. However, most
languages make use of between only fifteen and eighty-five different sounds.
In English, for example, people use about forty-five sounds, depending upon
the dialect. Note that most languages of the world are “tonal,” which means
that changes in pitch change the meaning of a word. Although English is not
a tonal language, you can get some sense of this concept by considering the
change in meaning via pronunciation for these two words:

How does he do that?

Those does (several female deer) near the building sure are friendly.

She tied the documents together in a bow.

The Japanese often bow as their form of greeting.

In addition, for each language, certain letters or sounds are just not used to-
gether. For example, in English, you would not know how to pronounce a word
that starts with “ng” or “ts.” However, those same letters can be used together
if they appear at the end of a word such as in “moving” or “cats.” In Spanish,
words do not begin with “sp,” but words often begin with “es.” Consequently,
you will often hear a Spanish-speaker pronounce “speech” as “espeech.”

A second component of language is syntax. Syntax focuses on the pattern
or structure of a language and the rules for that structure. The definition of
language you read earlier emphasizes syntax. Speakers of English usually put
the subject first, the verb second, and the object third. “Marcela hit the ball”
is an example of this structure. However, the most common pattern for lan-
guages across the world is subject-object-verb: “Marcela the ball hit.” As one
other example, the rules of syntax in English dictate that you place descrip-
tive words close to the words that they modify. Not doing so results in “dan-
gling modifiers,” and, in some cases, embarrassment. Here are two examples:

For those of you who have children and don’t know it, there’s a nursery
downstairs. (Implies you don’t know that you have children.)

New choir robes are needed due to the addition of new members to the
choir and the deterioration of the old ones. (Implies that some members
of the choir, not their robes, have deteriorated.)

Phonemes — The sounds of the language

Syntax — The grammatical structure of the language

Semantics — The meanings of words

Pragmatics — The appropriateness of your language
for the places and people with whom you interact

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A third element of language is semantics. Semantics focuses on the mean-
ing of words. The meanings of words are shaped by what the words stand
for, your experiences, and your purpose for communication. Essentially, four
classes of meaning have been identified:

■ Denotative. People might focus on the object(s) to which the word refers.
The word chair refers to the wood, plastic, or metal structure you sit on
but also to a leadership role a person plays within a business or school
such as a chair of a committee or department. Keep in mind that the most
common 500 words have 10,000 different definitions, an average of
20 meanings each for the 500 most common words.

■ Connotative. Sometimes people focus on the emotional meanings of words.
Being bony, skinny, or thin may be used to describe the same person’s body
shape but will garner different emotional responses—especially from the
person being described.

■ Contextual Meaning. Word meanings are shaped by the places where they
are spoken and by the people speaking them. You can imagine that the
meaning of the statement, “Please take off your clothes” changes if spoken
in a doctor’s office versus in a hotel room. Do the words change when spo-
ken by a doctor versus by your spouse? You should assume that they do.

■ Figurative Language. The beauty of the spoken word lies in the use of fig-
urative language. You might give the shirt off your back to a person you
care about, fall head over heels in love, and then feel like you’re walking
on cloud nine. Sometimes, however, it could be raining cats and dogs, and
you’re tired of your boss pulling your leg when it comes to a favored
work assignment, so you just want to leave work like a bat out of hell.
Imagine how those who speak English as a foreign language and interpret
these phrases literally might misunderstand what you mean.

The last component of language is pragmatics. Pragmatics focuses on identify-
ing the appropriate use of language for the setting and the relationship between

“Chair” Can Have
Different Meanings

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84 Chapter 4 Language

the two speakers. Shirley Brice Heath
(1983) argued that knowing how and when
to use a language is as important as know-
ing the language itself. Pragmatics often
guides what can be talked about, when it
can be discussed, and by whom it can be
communicated. As some examples, consider
that in the United States, people often think
it inappropriate to ask about a person’s age,
income level, or sexual orientation unless
the relationship is a close one. As another
example, people in the United States have
an unspoken rule about taking turns when
it comes to talking. That is, most communi-
cators will talk until they are finished, and

then it is the other person’s turn to talk. What would you make, then, of your
Hawaiian co-worker who consistently violates the clear turn-taking rule to
which you have become accustomed? Instead, this person consistently talks
while you are talking in what has been termed “talk-story” in Hawaiian culture.
You might also get frustrated when requesting advice from your elderly Native
American neighbor who responds by telling a story that, at first glance, is com-
pletely irrelevant to the topic. Both are examples of the importance of attending
to pragmatics when you are thinking about language in communication.

Principles of Verbal
Communication
In addition to understanding how language can be defined, you will find it
helpful to review some principles of verbal communication.

The first principle is to recognize that all languages have value. No lan-
guage is better than any other in complexity, logic, or ability to convey
thought. All languages are important because they are connected to people
whose very cultural identity is tied to that language. Gloria Anzaldúa (1987)
wrote about this connection:

So if you want to really hurt me, talk badly about my language. Ethnic iden-
tity is twin skin to linguistic identity—I am my language. Until I can take
pride in my language, I cannot take pride in myself (p. 207).

A second principle is to understand that everyone speaks a dialect. Dialects
are regional variations of language with unique pronunciation, vocabulary,
and grammar. The United States has several distinct dialect regions including
the western, midwestern, eastern, and southern. Some dialects are specific
within certain regions such as New England on the East Coast, Appalachian
folk talk within the South, or Valley girl talk on the West Coast. The key is to

“Plain English” Group
Source: www.CartoonStock
.com.

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Chapter 4 Language 85

recognize that even with these dialect differences, you can still understand
what is being said. It is also important to stop yourself from being negatively
influenced by those stereotypes that often are attached to people who speak
a particular dialect. More positively, dialects offer a unique richness to any
language.

A third principle is to understand that words do not mean the same thing
to all people. Sometimes the word is simply misunderstood. A teacher men-
tioned to students that “foul” language was not allowed in class. A concerned
student from Turkey came to the office to ask why students could not talk
about chickens and birds (“fowl”) in class. At other times, the same word can
have different meanings, especially as you cross cultural borders. In England,
asking for a wake-up call in a small, family-owned residence is sometimes re-
ferred to as being “knocked up,” a phrase which has very different meanings
in the United States.

In addition, you would also be wise to a stay away from jargon, the spe-
cialized language of an occupation, unless you are certain the receiver is fa-
miliar with the jargon. This is especially true of acronyms, letters put together
to make up a phrase. Don’t be surprised if you are not understood when
telling a new person in your work department to “Complete the DRF for the
new CNC PDQ but after finishing the CWA for the last project” (translation:
Complete the Department Request for Funds form for the new computer nu-
merical control, pretty darn quick but after finishing the Completion of

Work

Assignment form for the last project). When using language that might be
misunderstood, consider the following statement: “We describe it as . . . ; how
would you say this?”

A fourth principle is to recognize variations in how spoken language is
used across cultures. In the United States, for instance, people generally value
the power of the spoken word. The numerous talk shows on radio and tele-
vision, the popularity of motivational speakers, and the acclaim that is given
to performing celebrities are just a few examples. The emphasis placed on the
spoken message is so powerful that many speakers of English often feel un-
comfortable in silence and quickly talk to fill the voids. A recent study by
James Pennebaker, reported in U.S. News & World Report (Shute, 2007),
found that both women and men speak about 16,000 words per day. One
person in the study spoke only 700 words for the low, whereas another person
spoke 47,000 words for the high. Although the quantity of language was
about the same for both sexes, Pennebaker found that women spoke about
“people” more often than men, and men spoke about “things” more often.

In contrast, other cultures are skeptical of language. They believe language
can never reveal the truth, and so “chitchat” is to be avoided. Consequently,
individuals from these cultures are more comfortable with silence. Raymond
Tong in Language of the Buddha (1975), for example, says that “. . . the Bud-
dha values restraint of words, knowing that silence is often more expressive
than the finished poem” (p. 75).

Examine this extended example. A salesperson from the United States is
pitching a new computer program for customers at a trade show in Japan.
After the salesperson highlights the features of the new computer, the Japanese

Statue of Buddha, in
Hawaii, Is a Reminder
That Silence Can Be an
Important Part of
Communication

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86 Chapter 4 Language

customers are silent. Assuming that this silence signals that the customers are
unimpressed, the salesperson offers to include free packing and shipping.
When the Japanese buyers still are quiet, the salesperson adds a complete
maintenance and upgrade of the computer at the computer company’s ex-
pense in the third year. Thus, when the Japanese buyers finally agree, the
profit for the company is significantly reduced because the salesperson didn’t
understand the meaning of the customers’ silence.

The final principle is to follow suggestions for effective verbal commu-
nication as one way to move closer to “shared understanding.” In turn, these
suggestions can assist you in garnering advancement on the job as well as
helping you to build stronger relationships. If you wish to be rated positively
by managers, certain kinds of communication should be avoided. These in-
clude using “teen speak,” cursing, using strong dialects, halting or hesitat-
ing while talking, and speaking in ways that are grammatically incorrect
(Lublin, 2004). Lublin reports that some companies even hire speech
coaches to assist promising employees to sharpen their communication as
part of a professional skill. At minimum, asking for feedback about your
communication skills from employers during employee evaluation discus-
sions would be worthwhile (Lublin, 2004). With respect to the kinds of com-
munication that promote stronger relationships, Psychology Today (1999)
reports that expressing what you want and need more directly and giving
feedback were two verbal communication skills associated with more posi-
tive relationships.

In addition to these suggestions, you will learn two important guidelines
for effective verbal communication in the section that follows. These include
being willing to share and using specific language.

Guidelines for Effective
Verbal Communication
BE WILLING TO SHARE
In order for communication to be successful, both a sender and a receiver are
required. When it is your turn to be the sender, you can encourage open lines
of communication by adopting a willing attitude to let others know what you
think, feel, want, and need.

Opening yourself to others can be risky, simply because you do not al-
ways know what kind of response you will receive. That is why sharing usu-
ally occurs in stages. Individuals generally begin their relationships by sharing
information that focuses on mutual interests, like sports or hobbies, and then
gradually develop greater confidence in expressing opinions and feelings.

Some of the advantages that result from a willingness to share include
establishing trust, minimizing misunderstandings, and encouraging openness
from the person with whom you are communicating.

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Chapter 4 Language 87

USE SPECIFIC LANGUAGE
One very essential way to ensure un-
derstanding when you communicate
with others is to use specific lan-
guage. Before sending a message,
most of the time you have an idea in
your head that you want to commu-
nicate. However, just because the
idea is clear to you does not mean
that the idea will be clear to the re-
ceiver as well. For example, when the
boss says to a worker, “You are not
being careful enough when you fill out
the shipping order,” what does the
statement imply? Does the boss mean information on the order is missing, in-
correct, or incomplete? The worker can only guess at the intended meaning un-
less the worker questions the boss further. The potential for misunderstanding
increases when communicators use language that is general rather than specific.

Imagine a customer bringing a car into an automotive repair shop, com-
plaining that there is a “strange noise” coming from the front end of the car.
Before completing the job order, the service writer will more than likely ques-
tion the customer further to determine how the noise sounds, how frequently
it occurs, under what conditions it becomes noticeable, and so on. Getting
the customer to be more specific is the first step in identifying the cause of the
problem and finding a way to fix the automobile.

When you interact with others, you must choose from a wide range of
language options. Those options include words that are very broad or general
as well as those words that are very precise or specific. In some instances, being
general may be perfectly suitable. For example, if a classmate tells you, “I am
headed to work after class,” you generally do not question the classmate fur-
ther to find out where the classmate works, how long it takes to get there, and
so on. However, if the classmate asks you to pick him or her up after work
for a bite to eat, you obviously will need to get the name of the company, the
exact address, and an approximate time it takes to get there. Although general
language saves time, specific language promotes understanding.

Take a look at figure 4.2 to get a better idea of the relationship between
general and specific language.

Nonverbal Communication
Defined
Nonverbal communication can be defined as “all types of communication
that don’t involve the exchange of words” (Rogers & Steinfatt, 1999, p. 67).
In many ways, it is like verbal communication in that your nonverbal

food

dairy meat plants

grains fruit

roots pods greens

spinach collards

iceburg

lettuce

buttercrunch
lettuce

romaine
lettuce more specific

more general

lettuce

vegetables

FIGURE 4.2 ■ Abstraction
Ladder

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88 Chapter 4 Language

communications are symbols for thoughts and feelings, they communicate
meaning, they are governed by rules, and they are influenced by context—the
place where communication occurs and the relationship between the speak-
ers. Just as there are cultural differences in verbal language, cultural differ-
ences in nonverbal language also exist (Martin & Nakayama, 2000).

Like words, nonverbal communication can also influence the believabil-
ity of your messages. Consider the statement, “Of course, I’m interested in
the plan you are proposing.” If the person who says this to you is busy an-
swering emails on the computer, never looks up at you, and makes the state-
ment with a sarcastic tone, would you really believe that the person was
interested in your plan? Alternately, Professor Karen Bradley argues that one
of the characteristics behind the popularity of Oprah Winfrey is that she is
“entirely authentic” because her body movement and voice reinforce each
other (Argetsinger & Roberts, 2007, p. D03).

Principles of Nonverbal
Communication
Nonverbal communication is present everywhere and makes up the bulk of the
messages you send. In fact, how would you try not communicating to someone
nonverbally: Turn your back, hide your face in your hands, and stand at the far
end of the room? These behaviors would, indeed, communicate your desire to

not communicate! Albert Mehrabian (Mehrabian
& Weiner, 1967) found that 55 percent of the mean-
ing people send is contained in facial expressions,
38 percent of the meaning is contained in the voice,
and only 7 percent of the meaning is contained in
the actual words. More current estimates put the
nonverbal messages at about 2/3 and verbal mes-
sages at about 1/3 (Burgoon, 1994). Sometimes the
nonverbal message is all you need. For example,
peering into the locker rooms of two teams who
have just finished playing in a championship game
would probably be sufficient for you to know which
team won. The idea that your nonverbal communi-
cation is ever present and substantial cannot be
denied.

A second principle is that people often do very
little to learn and understand about nonverbal com-
munication. As a part of your education, you were
provided lessons in speech and grammar but may

not have had occasion to learn about the nonverbal dimensions of your com-
munication, unless you took a course in interpersonal skills. Consequently,

Facial Expressions and
Body Language Convey
Meaning

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Chapter 4 Language 89

Edward Hall, who did extensive research in the areas of nonverbal behaviors,
described elements of nonverbal communication as the “hidden dimension”
(1990) and the “silent language” (1973). Because these nonverbal messages are
unspoken, their hidden meaning often goes by unnoticed. However, greater
awareness of how to interpret nonverbal messages can help you understand the
silent language that is a major part of human interaction.

A third principle is that nonverbal messages are sent in advance of verbal
messages. Before you even open your mouth, your facial expressions, your
clothes, your walk, your body posture, your skin color, your hairstyle, etc.
are communicating much about you. This is true even if the message sent is
not what you intend to communicate. Consistent with this principle are esti-
mates that job interviewers have a strong sense about whether to hire you or
not within the first 45 seconds of an interview. Jack Griffin (1998) offers the
following suggestions for communicating in powerful ways, including non-
verbally, in advance of your first verbal message in U.S. business settings.
These suggestions follow.

■ Make an effective entrance into a room.

■ Walk tall.

■ Enter the room with a purposeful stride.

■ Give a firm (but not too strong) handshake.

■ Smile.

A fourth principle is that most nonverbal mes-
sages are about people’s identities, their emotions,
and their relationships. Trust is also tied to a per-
son’s nonverbal communication. Your style of
dress, hairstyle, and body ornaments such as rings,
tattoos, piercings, and so on, are reflections of a
certain identity you want to portray: aspiring sales
professional or heavy metal rocker. Your nonver-
bal messages also primarily communicate your emo-
tions. How would you nonverbally communicate
your thoughts about the new customer relations
guidelines? It would be difficult. However, you
could express your excitement, your dismay, your
fear, or your anger at that plan with different facial
expressions.

In addition, your nonverbal messages commu-
nicate much about your relationships. The dis-
tance you stand from a group of co-workers, your
body posture when you are with them, and your
eye contact all send messages about how you feel
when interacting with them.

Finally, trust is increased when your verbal and nonverbal messages
complement one another. For example, sharing your feelings openly with

Business Greeting in the
United States

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90 Chapter 4 Language

others while maintaining a relaxed posture, frequent eye contact, and a com-
fortable distance increases your believability. In contrast, nonverbal behaviors
that contradict your spoken messages may create suspicion and distrust.

The last principle is that nonverbal communication, like verbal commu-
nication, is culture-bound. Cultural differences exist in how people greet
each other, what gestures mean, how far or close people stand to each other
when interacting, and so forth. Many people often assume, however, that
nonverbal communication is universal, an assumption you would be wise to
avoid. Because this is such an important principle, the next section of this
chapter will include cross-cultural examples of the various types of nonver-
bal communication.

Types of Nonverbal
Communication
Although language differences are more obvious, effective communicators must
also recognize the great variability that exists in the “hidden dimension” of their
communications: their nonverbal messages (Hall, 1990). This section will
briefly describe seven types of nonverbal variations: chronemics (use of time),
proxemics (use of space), oculesics (eye contact), kinesics (gestures and facial
expression), haptics (touch), vocalics (vocal variations), and personal style.

To begin, variations exist in how people regard time—referred to as
chronemics. Time is a valuable commodity to most Americans as evidenced
in all the ways they talk about time. You are probably very familiar with
phrases like losing time, killing time, and saving time. Time is so important
that you may stop a really valued activity, such as having a good conversa-
tion with a friend, because “time is up.” Time can also be a part of the total
message. When a message is shared, how urgently it is shared, and how much
time it takes to communicate the message all affect the total meaning. Al-
though cultural differences influence your interpretation of time, you also
need to understand that individuals have a personal sense of timing. Some
people seem to be constantly rushed, whereas others exhibit a more laid-back
attitude toward time. Some people focus on one thing at a time, whereas others
pride themselves on doing multiple tasks at the same time.

Proxemics is a second nonverbal element. This nonverbal variation refers
to the distance you stand when talking with others as well as how you regard
territory. Edward Hall (1969) and others have noted different uses of space
for North Americans. Intimate messages are shared from physical contact to
about 18 inches; personal messages are shared from 18 inches to four feet;
social messages are communicated at a distance of 4 to 12 feet; and public
messages are shared beyond 12 feet. Also, messages match the distances. For
instance, you are more likely to share confidential information in the intimate
zone than in the public zone.

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Chapter 4 Language 91

Compared to people in the United States, people from other cultural
groups maintain a shorter distance when communicating with others. For
example, Eastern Europeans generally stand closer to one another when
speaking than do Americans. When someone is standing too close for com-
fort, you may react defensively. You probably have noted how people interact
when forced into a small space such as an elevator. Verbal communication
comes to a halt, and individuals fidget, looking down or at the numbers in-
dicating the floor location of the elevator—but almost certainly avoiding eye
contact.

Territoriality refers to your relationship to fixed space. Your seat in a class-
room, your work area, or your favorite chair at home are all examples of fixed
spaces that you regard as your own for specific periods of time. You mark your
territories in a number of ways, often with personal belongings such as a coat,
purse, or backpack. Interestingly, you may be surprised if not disturbed, when
you see someone has taken over your space. In summary, you need to be aware
of personal space and territory when interacting with others.

Related to territoriality are variations in eye contact—termed oculesics.
Most Americans generally like a “soft” eye contact where people make eye
contact with each other but look away from time to time. In other cultures,
such as in China or Japan, there is very little eye contact made, especially with
people considered superiors. Alternately, in some cultures gaze is more intense.
Combining a short interpersonal distance and in-
tense stare makes most Americans feel very nervous.
However, for Middle Easterners, generally, the “eyes
are the windows to the soul,” and a short personal
space combined with a “looking through” the eyes
helps them to read another person’s true messages.

Kinesics refers to the many behaviors of the body:
postures, gestures, body orientation, and facial ex-
pressions. Hand gestures are by no means universal.
Consider, for example, the gesture for hitchhiking—
thumb up, all other fingers curled into the palm.
This gesture can also signal approval such as
“thumbs up” but also is an equivalent to the social
“middle finger” in South Africa. As one other ex-
ample, although people all smile in the same lan-
guage, the meaning of that smile changes. Unless
you know the person, you would only smile at some-
one in the Middle East if the person were engaging
in some embarrassing behavior.

Touch, also referred to as haptics, is another
powerful form of communication that can share a
range of feelings. A hug or pat on the back, for ex-
ample, evokes different emotions than would a slap
in the face. Although touching behaviors take many
forms, you must also interpret them in light of culture, status, gender, and
personality traits. The boss’s hand on an employee’s forearm may signal,

Our Body Language
Speaks Volumes

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92 Chapter 4 Language

“Pay attention.” A supportive hand to the shoulder may signal, “I’m here,”
whereas similar signals may communicate, “Move over.”

Accidental touching is usually accompanied with an apologetic “Excuse
me.” Likewise, you probably know a few people who are “touchers,” even
when their behavior may make others feel uncomfortable. Guidelines for ap-
propriate touching vary from one culture to another. However, in the work-
place, when touch is a part of communication, it should be purposeful and
clear to both the sender and receiver. It might be wise, then, to avoid any
kind of touching behavior until you understand more fully the culture of the
organization.

Although most people regard touch as appropriate among close friends
and family, it was, until recently, reason for being arrested in China. Con-
versely, in Argentina, as well as in much of Latin America, a hug—called an
“abrazo”—and a kiss is a typical greeting even among strangers.

Vocalics is the study of vocal messages with regard to rate, pitch, quality,
and volume. Consider all the ways you could say something while varying
these vocal elements to influence the overall meaning of the message. How
would the sentence “I’m on fire” change if said quickly, with a high pitch,
and in a loud voice versus if said in a slow, soft, low, and sexy voice? It is also
interesting to note that Americans are often regarded as way too loud in com-
parison to the vocal volume deemed appropriate in other cultures.

Personal style refers to your appearance and includes body hair, body
odor, body decorations such as tattoos, and body shape, as well as clothing
and personal artifacts. People assign meanings to your body type, skin color,
manner of dress, hairstyle, and accessories. Think about the initial stereo-
types you may have when you see someone with a nose ring, a Mohawk hair-
cut, or hundreds of tattoos. Unfortunately, some people do not see past these
obvious aspects of an individual’s personal style to see the traits, character,
and skills of the person.

Guidelines for Effective
Nonverbal Communication
Now that you are more familiar with the principles and variations of nonver-
bal behavior, you may want to examine some guidelines for effective nonver-
bal communication. Perhaps the most important guideline is to realize that
you cannot read people “like a book” given their nonverbal messages alone.
All nonverbal messages must be verified. Sometimes you simply do not know
what a particular nonverbal behavior means.

A helpful verbal strategy for checking understanding is to describe the
nonverbal behaviors you observe. For example, you might say, “I noticed
that all of a sudden you’ve grown quiet and are looking away.” Your obser-
vation can be coupled with an interpretation of what you think the behav-
ior means. Together, your remarks might sound something like this: “When

Unfortunately, Some
Stereotypes Stem from
Personal Style Choices

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Chapter 4 Language 93

I asked you about the closing of the Lee account, you became quiet and
looked away as if you didn’t want to comment.” Recognize that your state-
ment does not mean that the person will respond truthfully, but your re-
marks give the person a chance to explain the nonverbal messages.

A second guideline is to consider the messages you are communicating
nonverbally. Obviously, it is best to assure a match between your verbal and
nonverbal messages. It is also essential to recognize how your emotional state
can be revealed in your nonverbal messages. Sometimes your feelings about
a person or an idea will override any spoken words that you convey. For in-
stance, if you tell a colleague you have time to talk and are simultaneously
glancing at your watch, you will be sending mixed messages. Such conflict-
ing messages can easily create confusion.

A third guideline is to recognize the impact that status and power have
on your nonverbal communication. People who have greater status, and usually
greater power, often communicate their status in subtle but effective ways.
Generally, this status might be evident in the clothes they wear, the posture
they assume, and the office space they occupy. On the other hand, you might
also think about how a person of lower status or power might communicate
nonverbally in the presence of such a person. The person with lower status
might engage in the following behaviors: open the door for the other, allow
the higher status person to lead the conversation, sit in silence for a longer
period of time, dress up a bit more when meeting with the person, and so on.

A fourth guideline is to observe nonverbal communication in clusters.
That is, people rarely send one nonverbal message. People generally send sev-
eral messages at the same time. To accurately understand what is being
shared nonverbally, you need to read as many of these nonverbal messages as
possible. For example, when trying to understand a colleague’s reaction to
suggestions you offered in a meeting, pay attention to the colleague’s tone of
voice, eye contact, and facial expression in addition to what he or she says.

A final guideline is to be cautious when making generalizations about the
meaning of nonverbal cues. Allen and Barbara Pease’s (2006) book, The De-
finitive Book on Body Language, offers practical suggestions for interpreting
nonverbal behavior. The body speaks in many ways, and each message must
be interpreted by considering the uniqueness of the individual, the physical and
social setting, and the cultural context in which the communication occurs.

Language and Technology
As you might imagine, it is important to understand how language is
influenced by technology. On one level, you have to be especially precise and
complete when sending electronic messages. The receiver of electronic
communications is not able to observe other important elements of the
message that often come with face-to-face interactions: tone of voice, facial
expression, and body posture, for example.

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94 Chapter 4 Language

On another level, consider how email, but especially telephone text mes-
saging, has spawned a whole new language. It uses acronyms as substitutes
for whole phrases and passages—which is efficient but possibly confusing
until someone understands these acronyms fully.

Imagine for a moment, that you have just purchased a new cell phone
with text messaging. You call a friend, mention your new phone, and soon

afterward hang up. You get your first text message.
It reads:

Hey bff. How r u? I got a bf! Lol jk G2g ttyl.

What would you make of that message? Would
you know that your friend thinks of you as a “best
friend forever”? Would you know that your friend
wonders, “how are you” and is telling you about her
“boyfriend”? Hopefully you also had to “laugh out
loud” since your friend was “just kidding,” and now
has “got to go,” and will “talk to you later.”

Using these acronyms with those who have little
access to or familiarity with them or texting in a
formal work or school situation would not be
appropriate. However, using such language among

close friends with whom you “txt message” all the time would no doubt be
appropriate and even fun.

In conclusion, the chapter has ended: Got 2 go. Ttyl. Lol.

Cell Phone Text Messag-
ing Has Its Own
Language Usage
Conventions

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Chapter 4 Language 95

Review Questions
5. List three strategies for sharing verbal messages to

help you to achieve shared understanding. Explain
why those strategies would be effective.

6. Explain three principles of nonverbal communica-
tion that you believe are most important. Tell why
these are the most important for you to keep in
mind when communicating.

7. Share an example of a difference in verbal or
nonverbal communication across cultures.

8. Given the list of guidelines for effective nonverbal
communication, what steps will you take in the
future to assure that nonverbal messages are clear
and purposeful?

9. Discuss how you feel about your ability to send
messages, both verbally and nonverbally. What are
your strengths? What areas need improvement?

1. Describe a time when you experienced a break-
down in communication due to lack of clarity or
purposefulness of your, or someone else’s, verbal
or nonverbal symbols. What did you learn from
this experience?

2. Provide a list of three to five of your favorite
statements that use figurative language. How
might you restate those in a way that they could
not be misunderstood?

3. Give an example of one personal characteristic
(conservative or liberal, for example) that could
be described using several different words de-
pending upon the impact you wish to have on the
listener.

4. Explain how place or context affects your
communication.

Key Terms and Concepts
Chronemics 90

Connotation 83

Contextual Meaning 83

Denotation 83

Dialects 84

Figurative Language 83

Haptics 91

Jargon 85

Kinesics 91

Language 79

Nonverbal Communication 87

Oculesics 91

Personal Style 92

Phonemes 82

Pragmatics 83

Proxemics 90

Semantics 83

Syntax 82

Territoriality 91

Vocalics 92

Web Activities
Visit the following interesting sites to find out more
about nonverbal communications and their related
meanings.

■ http://members.aol.com/nonverbal2/diction1.htm
■ http://nonverbal.ucsc.edu/

To help you understand the meanings of words, check
out this webpage:

■ http://www.prefixsuffix.com/

For fun, search for word games such as the following
and test your skills:

■ http://www.theproblemsite.com/default.asp

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96 Chapter 4 Language

Assignments
ASSIGNMENT 4.1: FIGURATIVE
LANGUAGE
Directions: Figurative language adds a certain flavor to
any communication. However, such language can be a
problem for those who do not understand its meaning.
For each of the following statements, draw a picture of
what the statement means if taken literally. Then try to
explain what the figurative language means so that it
could be more clearly understood by a wide range of
communicators. Space is provided for you to add one
example of figurative language of your own.

Statement: That new worker is opinionated.

Restatement:

Statement: The union is stubborn in
negotiations.

Restatement:

Statement: When it comes to bonuses, our
company is miserly.

Restatement:

Statement: Two words describe my neigh-
bor: ancient and nosy!

Restatement:

Statement: My significant other is pushy
when talking about marriage.

Restatement:

What is the most important lesson(s) you have
learned from this activity?

ASSIGNMENT 4.3: SPECIFIC VERSUS
GENERAL LANGUAGE
Directions: In addition to developing accuracy in your
communication, you must also strive for clarity in your
messages. Following is a series of words that will
enable you to distinguish between general and specific
language. For each pair of words, place an “X” next to
the word that is more specific.

Figurative Language
Literal
Drawing

Alternative
Statement

I’ve hit a brick wall.
She has feet as big as boats.
My boss really blew his top.

My supervisor has a heart
of gold.
Be careful when playing cards
with him. He’s a shark.
Try to avoid splitting hairs.
(Add your example here.)

ASSIGNMENT 4.2: CONNOTATION
IN LANGUAGE
As described in this chapter, connotation refers to the
wider, usually emotional, responses people have to the
words being used. You can choose different words to
describe the same thing, but the words chosen can have
a different impact. In the 1980s, for example, the United
States supported a group of people who attempted to
overthrow the democratically elected government in
Nicaragua. Then President Ronald Reagan, who at the
same time had called a ballistic missile a “peacekeeper,”
called these people “freedom fighters.” To the govern-
ment in Nicaragua, they were “terrorists” or “rebels.”
The choice of words invokes a particular positive or
negative response.

Directions: For this activity, take the words that are in ital-
ics and replace them with more favorable words to invoke
a positive, or at least less negative, response. For example:

Statement: Our sales have hit bottom.
Restatement: Our sales have slowed.

1 Equipment Computer
2 Refrigerator Appliance
3 Apartment Residence
4 Organize File
5 Exercise Walk
6 Pulley

Mechanism

7 Letter Correspondence
8 Vehicle Automobile
9 Fuel Diesel

10 Union

Organization

11 Add Compute
12 Legal document Contract
13 Solar power Energy
14 Luggage Suitcase
15 Business

Store

16 Bank transaction Deposit
17 Phone book Directory
18 Window covering Blinds

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Chapter 4 Language 97

ASSIGNMENT 4.4: ABSTRACTION
LADDERS
Directions: Another way to sharpen your awareness of
the distinction between general and specific language is
to rank the following groups of items from the most
general (#1) to the most specific (#5). Notice how the
meaning changes with the item you rank #5, as it pre-
sents the clearest picture.

Ranking Group 1

Human biology

Knowledge

Biology

Science

Reproductive system

Ranking Group 2

Transportation

Land vehicle

Jeep

Vehicle

Four-wheel drive

Ranking Group 3

Aerobic exercise

Swimming

Physical activity

Exercise

Backstroke

Ranking Group 4

Work

Employment

Computer worker

Programmer

Occupation

Ranking Group 5

Central Campus

School

Education

Business Building

Postsecondary

Ranking Group 6

Equipment

Machine

Brake lathe

Metal cutter

Industrial machine

Ranking Group 7

Business

Organization
Store

J.F.Ward’s

Department store

Ranking Group 8

Carbohydrates

Nourishment

French fries

Potatoes

Food

Ranking Group 9

Cola

Refreshment

Nonalcoholic beverage

Beverage

Soft drink

Ranking Group 10

1/2� Hammer drill

Power drill

Mechanism

Tool

Power tool

ASSIGNMENT 4.5:
NONVERBAL CHARADES
Directions: In a small group of two to four persons,
each member will take turns expressing the list of emo-
tions that follows using just facial expressions. It is best
if your group is mixed in terms of gender, ethnicity,
race, languages spoken, etc. List the order in which you
will attempt to share these emotions with the others in
your group. Then express these emotions in the order

you numbered them. See if the others in your group can
detect the order in which you shared them. Take turns
doing this activity.

Emotions–List the order in which you will share them,
with 1 � first, etc.

Anger Fear

Disgust Surprise

Sadness Happiness

Peer Responses–When finished ex-
pressing these emotions, ask your peers
what emotions you shared. Write
down their guesses here; then reveal
the order in which you expressed the
emotions.

98 Chapter 4 Language

Peer #1 Peer #2 Peer #3

more than 1,200 people in forty different locales,
mostly in Europe. Respondents were asked to describe
what each gesture meant.

Directions: In figure 4.3, place a check mark by what
you think each of the three gestures communicates.
Compare their responses (in figure 4.4) with your
own.

The Nose Thumb

Mockery

Idiot

Get lost

Buzz off

You’re crazy

Up yours

The Ring

O.K. — Good

Zero

Insult

Orifice

Threat

Thursday

The Thumbs Up

Directional

O.K.

Sexual insult

Hitch-Hike

One

Obscenity

FIGURE 4.3 ■ Three Gestures from Morris Study
Source: Morris, 1980.

Discussion:
After all in the group have completed
this activity, answer the following:
Who was better at communicating
emotions? Why? Who was better at de-
tecting emotions? Why? What affect
did the gender of the participants or
culture of the participants have on
these results? What did you learn about
communicating nonverbally from this
exercise?

ASSIGNMENT 4.6: NONVERBAL
INTERCULTURAL DIFFERENCES
In this interaction, you will discover differences in
nonverbal communication, specifically related to cross-
cultural gestures. In a study by Morris and his col-
leagues (1980), pictures of gestures were shown to

ASSIGNMENT 4.7: NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION ARTICLES REVIEW
Directions: Read three articles about nonverbal com-
munication. Choose three articles with a similar theme
such as gender, gestures and their meaning, the uses of
time, touch, deception, or any aspect of nonverbal
communication. Then use the following review forms to
help you identify key information from the articles. Fi-
nally, be prepared to share a short three- to five-minute
talk with your class about the topic you chose and
what you learned. Use the following outline.

Chapter 4 Language 99

Article Review #1

Title of article:

Author:

Author’s credentials:

Source (name of journal, newspaper, or book—include
dates, page numbers, volume and issue numbers, pub-
lisher, etc.):

3 to 5 Main Ideas:
A.
B.
C.
D.

Most important thing you learned and want to share
with your peers:

Article Review #2

Title of article:
Author:
Author’s credentials:
Source (name of journal, newspaper, or book—include
dates, page numbers, volume and issue numbers, pub-
lisher, etc.):
3 to 5 Main Ideas:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Most important thing you learned and want to share
with your peers:

Article Review #3

ASSIGNMENT 4.8: CASE STUDY:
STANTON’S REPORT
Directions: Imagine you work for a company, Stanton
Corporation, that has been struggling financially the
last couple of years. The company’s profits had been
strong, but in the last two years, the profits dropped,
employees were laid off, and morale decreased. This
year, business has stabilized, but the company is still
losing its share of the market, and the company would
consider breaking even a good year.

Al-Kor, a business from another country, is consid-
ering a major purchase from Stanton, which would
provide a substantial boost as well as help increase
your company’s share of the market. In requesting a
meeting with your company, Al-Kor has stated its con-
cern with the financial health of Stanton, having noted
the past two-year’s downturn.

You have been assigned to be part of a team to dis-
cuss the upcoming meeting with representatives from
Al-Kor. In addition, you have been asked to write an
explanation of Stanton’s recent financial status. You
want to use language that is honest yet puts your com-
pany in the best financial light. Write your explanation,
and answer the questions that follow.

QUESTIONS

1. How did you feel about writing the explanation?
2. What was difficult about your task? What was easy?
3. If this were part of your everyday work—generating

press releases, making public relations statements,
and negotiating on behalf of your company—
what would be your strengths? What skills would
you need to develop?

100 Chapter 4 Language

References
Anzaldúa, G. (1987). Borderlands. San Francisco:

Spinsters/Aunt Lute.
Argetsinger, A., & Roberts, R. (2007). The reliable source.

Washington Post, May 13, 2007, p. D03.
Burgoon, J. K. (1994). Nonverbal signals. In M. L. Knapp and

G. R. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal commu-
nication (pp. 229–285). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Chatterjee, C. (1999). Stopping spats. Psychology Today,
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Griffin, J. (1998). How to say it at work: Putting yourself
across with power words, phrases, body language and
communication secrets. Paramus, NJ: Prentice Hall Press.

Hall, E. T. (1990). The hidden dimension. New York:
Anchor Books.

Hall, E. T. (1973). The silent language. New York: Anchor
Books.

Hall, E. T. (1969). Listening behaviors: Some cultural
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Hayasaki, E. (2007). “Now the giant awakes”; An LA Gang
member and a boy drawn to the streets find refuge in
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Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge,
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Lublin, J. S. (2004). To win advancement, you need to clean
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Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (2000). Intercultural
communication in contexts. Mountain View, CA: Martin.

Mehrabian, A., & Weiner, M. (1967). Decoding
inconsistent communications. Journal of Personality
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Morris, D., Collett, P., Marsh, P., & O’Shaugnessy, M.
(1980). Gestures, their origins and distributions.
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Pease, B., & Pease, A. (2006). The definitive book of body
language. New York: Bantam/Random House.

Rogers, E. M., & Steinfatt, T. M. (1999). Intercultural
communication. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland
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Shute, N. (2007). Chatty Cathy, Chatty Charlie. U.S. News &
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Tong, R. (1975). Language of the Buddha. English
Language Teaching, 30(1), p. 3.

The Nose Thumb Meanings:

1 Mockery
2 others
3 not used
(Based on 1,200 informants
at 40 locations)

1,058
14

128

The Thumbs Up Meanings:

1 O.K.
2 One
3 Sexual insult
4 Hitch-hike
5 Directional
6 others
7 not used
(Based on 1,200 informants
at 40 locations)

738
40
36
30
14
24

318

The Ring Meanings:

1 O.K.—Good
2 Orifice
3 Zero
4 Threat
5 others
6 not used
(Based on 1,200 informants
at 40 locations)

700
128
115

16
27

214

FIGURE 4.4 ■ Results from Morris Study
Source: Morris, 1980.

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