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RunningHead: INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES IN TEACHING KINDERGARTEN 1
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES IN TEACHING KINDERGARTEN 12
Here are my comments on your paper. I think you will need to Do more work before submitting it. I have also attached YOUR FRIEND draft for that class so you can see how SHE handled all the sections. The draft doesn’t have assessments nor has it been formatted.
I think you can keep what you have with a little rearranging. And then add more.
Instructional Strategies in Teaching Kindergarten
7/25/2013
YOUR NAME
THE CLASS
INSTRUCTOR
Table of Contents
4
Purpose of the training manual
Team work instructional strategies
5
5
Advantages of team work in teaching kindergarten children
5
Disadvantages of team work in teaching kindergarten children
5
Use of visual and audio aids in teaching
6
Advantages of using audio and visual aids in teaching kindergarten children
Disadvantages of using audio and visual aids in teaching kindergarten children
6
7
Learner instructor participation strategy
8
Advantages of applying participation in teaching kindergarten learners
Disadvantages of applying participation in teaching kindergarten learners
8
Assignment strategy
8
10
Advantages of using assignments in teaching kindergarten learners
10
Disadvantages of using assignments in teaching kindergarten learners
10
Cooperative Learning Strategy
12
Advantages of using cooperative learning strategy in teaching kindergarten pupils
12
Disadvantages of using cooperative learning strategy in teaching kindergarten pupils
Use of Carousal Questions
12
Advantages of Carousal Questions
13
Disadvantages of Carousal Questions
14
Use of Assignments that Require the Choice of the Child
14
Advantages of Use of Assignments that Require the Choice of the Child
15
Disadvantages of Use of Assignments that Require the Choice of the Child
15
16
Conclusion
17
References
Introduction
Learning is a continuous process in the human development. Learning involves both the practical and cognitive aspect. In order for effective learning to be accomplished, these two aspects should be well coordinated. Instructional strategies are a very essential application in the learning process. This method is highly recommendable for small children especially children in kindergarten. The creatively use instructional techniques to ensure all the students get the concept being taught. In order to achieve this, instructors should be enlighten on how to effectively apply instructional learning techniques in their classrooms (Driscoll, 2004). This training manual will vividly describe how instructors should use different forms of teaching in order to achieve the set goal. Every instructor’s goal or dream is the success of his or her students. On that note, using instructional method is one of the significant ant ways of achieving this.
According to Siemens and Driscoll, cognitivism, constructivism and behaviourism are the three main traditional learning theories. Siemens and Driscoll theories basically support the theoretical aspect of learning. Contrary to this, Mayer advocates for practical learning as the recommended method for instilling knowledge in students. Motivational and case based theories are more of practical than practical. Even though different instructors have their own preferences, instructional strategies deal with both Mayer’s and Driscoll learning theories (Mayer, 2002). This paper is deals with educating instructors on the importance of using instructional teaching methods. Apart from that, the paper also highlights various advantages and disadvantages of this method.
Purpose of the training manual
The main objective of this training manual is to educate instructors on how to make the learning process more interesting and lively by applying instructional learning strategies. Secondly, this manual also aims at enhancing the level of understanding of kindergarten students by application of instructional techniques (Mayer, 1996
). The target audience are kindergarten instructors
who can also be referred to as teachers. Various instructional methods and strategies which are essential in teaching kindergarten students shall be discussed in this paper.
Objectives
Chapter 1 Team work instructional Strategies
Team work instructional strategies
Learners have different levels of understanding. Some learners are quick learners while others are slow learners. Instructors should therefore apply team work
especially in teaching kindergarten students. This is because most of these students are illiterate and have a very short concentration span. Using team work will ensure that the students maintain their focus for the concept being taught. Instructors can apply different techniques in using this method. One important aspect is the use of reasonable groups. Instructors should divide the students into reasonable groups (Driscoll, 2004). The groups should consist of a minimum of three students and a maximum of five students. This number will ensure that the student understand more
. According to the cognitive theory by Driscoll
, children have a shorter concentration span than adults. This means that the instructor should give the students work which requires a short period. Instructor should also make the team work session to be interesting and living
. Kindergarten children should be allowed
to mess around as they indulge in the learning process. In order to ensure the efficiency of the groups, the instructor should keep an eye on all the students. Educational psychologists prefer placing the students in a round table for easy monitoring
. This arrangement also makes it easy for the instructor to observe the behaviour of his or her students in class.
Advantages of team work in teaching kindergarten children
–Helps the instructor to effectively observe a child’s cognitive and behavioural development.
-Assists in the physical development of the child especially the fine motor skills.
-Makes the learning lesson lively and interesting.
-Avoids boredom in class (Driscoll, 2004).
-Ensures that all students participate in the learning process.
Disadvantages of team work in teaching kindergarten children
-It is tiresome and involving as kindergarten children are very difficult to handle and control.
-The children might loss interest and concentration if the lesson is prolonged.
-It is not that effective as kindergarten children are mostly illiterate.
-This method is suitable for specific lessons like physical education lessons.
Description of Strategy
This you already have, although I would try to bring in more Driscoll and relate a strategy to a theory.
When to select and use it
You could use what you already have for advantages and disadvantages, but make it a narrative
Why it is effective?
You need to do outside research to show that this strategy is valuable. You need evidence of why this is a good strategy for instructors to use
How it is best utilized
Here you would talk about
Related research
You should find other articles for people to read on the subject
Assessment
You should build in some way for the person reading this manual to assess their knowledge of the strategy.
Use of visual and audio aids in teaching
In order to enhance the understanding of kindergarten children, instructor should use visual and audio aids. This is advisable as children tend to grasp and remember what is taught visibly than theoretical. Instructors should use drawing of various things like animals and shapes in teaching. This will assist the learners to remember the name and the identity of that object. In addition, instructors can also use songs in teaching (Mayer, 1996). Songs are a source of entertainment by using this; the instructor will have made the process of learning very interesting. Songs are also significant as the children can sing while at home or even in their play time. Children will also be able to relate the knowledge that they have achieved in class to the existing reality of the world. This is strongly supported by the constructivist
theory of Driscoll.
In the course of the training period
, instructors will be taught how to compose song in relation to the subject to be taught. The instructors will also be advised on the most preferred song length and the appropriate wording to be used. Kindergarten songs
should be in simple English and of a good rhythm. The song should also have some aspects of repetition for easier memorisation of the song by the children (Driscoll, 2004). Instructors can also incorporate digital devices in the teaching process. These devices will make the learners to concentrate more than using the theoretical aspect only. Apart from this, audio aids are also important in teaching kindergarten children. Kindergarten children can be directed by their instructor to listen to an audio conversation and then repeat what is being said. This method can be effectively applied by instructors while teaching alphabets and simple numbers. The instructors will be taught during this manual how to handle students and to ensure than their level of concentration is not disrupted while using audio aids. In addition, instructors will also be instilled with the knowledge of how to prepare kindergarten students for a visual and an audio class session.
Advantages of using audio and visual aids in teaching kindergarten children
-The learners tend to understand more.
-Learners are able to relate what is being taught in class with the real world.
-The concentration level of learners is maintained (Mayer, 1996).
-Audio aids and visual aids make the lesson to be interesting.
-Learner’s memory ability is enhanced.
Disadvantages of using audio and visual aids in teaching kindergarten children
-Some learners might concentrate more on the entertainment part and forget the learning process.
-Audio visual aid can lead to laziness of some learners.
-Audio visual aids are limiting to some learners who are either hearing or visually impaired.
Learner instructor participation strategy
This strategy is highly recommended for learners at all level especially in kindergarten. Participation involves the sharing of ideas by both the students and learners. Application of motivational theory by Mayer can be essential in this strategy (Mayer, 2002). The instructor can apply the reward technique
in ensuring the effectiveness of this technique. The most active student can be rewarded or appreciated by the instructor. In order to ensure the effectiveness of this strategy, the instructor should reward the students publicly. This will motivate other learners to participate more in class with the soul purpose of being appreciated or rewarded like their fellow students.
Participation method is also good as it helps in improving the learners’ performance. Learners who previously had a hard time in understanding the concepts being taught in class by the instructor can improve due to this strategy. The learners will be encouraged to participate in class like his or her fellow learners. This step will help the instructor to identify the strengths and weaknesses of that particular child and the most appropriate way of handling them. The learners will also enjoy the aspect of being appreciated by the instructor as majority of learners look up to their teachers as their role models (Driscoll, 2004). Being rewarded by the instructor is on that note a great achievement to kindergarten students. Instructors are trained not to be biased in their reward and appreciation strategy. The deserving learner should be appreciated appropriately. In addition to this, the teacher should also encourage the participation of all learners. This can be done through rotational; participation in class. The instructor can choose the children according to the rows or columns.
Advantages of applying participation in teaching kindergarten learners
-The instructor is able to identify a learner’s areas of strengths and weaknesses.
-It is appropriate in building the self esteem of the learners.
-Through the reward system, learners feel appreciated for their efforts.
-Students will participate due to the rewards being given.
-Makes the process of learning more lively and entertaining as it involves the whole class.
-It is important for maintaining the learners’ concentration in class. This is because the learners are fully involved in the learning process.
Disadvantages of applying participation in teaching kindergarten learners
-Some kindergarten learners can be bright but very shy in participating in class activities.
-Learners can be participating with the intention of being rewarded and not understanding the concept being taught.
-This kind of strategy is time consuming and tiresome to the instructor (Mayer, 1996). This is because the instructor has to ensure that all the learners have participated or grasped the concept being taught.
Assignment strategy
This is also another effective instructional learning technique to be applied by instructors. This method is important as it assists the instructor to gauge a learner’s cognitive ability. However, while using this strategy instructors should be very keen and considerate. Firstly, the kind of assignment given to the learner should be of his or her educational level. Secondly, instructors should give learners the adequate amount of assignment. This means that the instructor should not overload or under load a learner with assignments. The assignments given should be proportion to the Childs
ability and understanding. Thirdly, instructor should give assignments from topics that have been covered in class. Instructors should avoid giving kindergarten learners assignments from topics which have not been covered in class
. This training manual provides effective methods of how instructors should issue assignments to kindergarten learners (Driscoll, 2004). These assignments do not necessarily have to be theoretical. Instructors can diversify the type of assignments that they give their learners in order to gauge all their developmental aspects.
Relying on theoretical assignments only assist the instructor in gauging the cognitive development of the child. On the other hand, giving kindergarten learners assignments in all the areas greatly assists the instructor to gauge the improvement of the learner in all sectors. In addition, it also assists the learner to improve in both the cognitive, behavioural and physical aspects. During the process of this training manual, instructors will be advised on how to diversify the type of assignment they give to their kindergarten learners (Mayer, 2002). Instead of an instructor giving the students assignments which require him or her to use majorly use the cognitive aspect, the instructor can apply different techniques. The instructor can instruct other students to do some painting, draw or even to construct an object. By so doing, the instructor will also have achieved the goal of nurturing the learner’s talent.
By giving assignment, the instructor can also apply the concept of problem based learning. The teaching can give learners problems which are almost similar from the ones taught in class. The teacher can then be able to establish the competence and how motivated the child is. Alternatively, instructors are advised to give learners a question and an example which show how to approach the given problem. This also assists learners in doing their assignments (Mayer, 1996).
Advantages of using assignments in teaching kindergarten learners
-The learners are able to understand the concept while on his or her own.
-The teacher is able to gauge the learner’s level of understanding.
– The instructor can easily know a learner’s area of weakness and strengths.
-Practical assignments like painting enable the instructor to identify a child’s talent (Mayer, 2002).
-Assignments to be done at home are important as they involve the parents in the learning process.
Disadvantages of using assignments in teaching kindergarten learners
-Some parents instead of assisting their kids in dong the assignments do the assignment themselves.
-Some parents are not concerned about their child’s performance.
-Instructors can over rely on assignments and therefore neglecting other teaching techniques.
-This strategy is time consuming as instructors have to be patient and give the learners a humble time to complete the given assignment.
Cooperative Learning Strategy
This learning strategy is similar to the team work strategy. The only difference between these two learning strategies is that cooperative learning strategy focuses mainly on the social aspect of the learners. In this strategy, instructors should focus more on the social interaction of the learners. Instructors can be able to clearly and easily note learners’ social interaction through involving activities. These activities include sports and other related activities. The theory of behaviourism can be suitably applied to this strategy (Jonassen, 2013). Through the application of this strategy, the instructor can be able to observe learners behaviour. Social interaction between learners identifies the true characteristics and identity of a learner. Sporting activities also helps in the development of the learners psychomotor skills. Some sporting activities are essential for aiding in the development of fine motors skills. Such activities include throwing a ball and grasping an object.
On the contrary, some activities like kicking a ball and climbing the staircases are essential for the development of gross motor skills. In all of the instructional learning strategies applied, cooperative learning strategy is the most efficient and flexible. This is because all the other learning strategies can be complemented by these strategies (Mayer, 2002). Instructors can use academic songs during sports activities and hence reminding the students of what they learnt in class. A child’s behavior can also be observed by use of this strategy.
In addition, the aspect of motivation can also be applied in this strategy. Learners can be told to compete in a given sporting activity and the winner can be rewarded. Through this process, the instructor can be able to identify a child’s improvement from the previous performance. Apart from noting improvement, the instructor can also identify his or her learners’ talents. A learner’s good sporting performance can be used by the instructor as a motivational factor for him to perform well (Driscoll, 2004). The instructor can use examples relating to the learner’s favourite sport in order to make understand a certain concept. This training manual emphasises on the need of instructors to use cooperative learning strategies. Instructors should however be careful not to use it inappropriately. This learning strategy has the purpose of incorporating all the other strategies. To add on this, cooperative learning strategy makes the learning process enjoyable and involving. Instructors are advised on that note, to embrace this learning strategy in teaching kindergarten pupils.
Advantages of using cooperative learning strategy in teaching kindergarten pupils
-Cooperative learning strategy makes the learning process enjoyable.
-It can be used as a way of motivating kids to perform better.
-Instructor can be able to identify his or her learners’ talent.
-Knowledge gained in class can also be applied in the field events. A good example is the use of songs by kids while playing.
-Instructors are able to identify both the cognitive and physical development of the child.
Disadvantages of using cooperative learning strategy in teaching kindergarten pupils
-Cooperative learning strategy requires a lot of concentration from the instructor (Mayer, 1996).
-This learning technique is time consuming and demanding on the part of the instructor.
-Some children are not good in practical activities and therefore they cannot be motivated through this instructional learning technique.
Use of Carousal Questions
Carousal questions refer to the strategy which engages the interest of the learners by utilizing cooperative skills, as well as, allowing movement. In addition, it encourages the learners to practice HOTS which is the acronym for “higher order thinking skills”. This strategy is actually classified as part of the cooperative learning strategies (Mayer, 1996). The utilization of the carousal questions within the classroom setting leads to carousal brainstorming. Carousal brainstorming is also termed as the rotating review. Carousal brainstorming offers scaffolding
for novel information which is to be learned or even existing information that is waiting to be reviewed by making use of movement, conversation in addition to reflection. Basically, Carousal brainstorming is actually the cooperative learning activity which can be utilized to not only discover but also discuss background information before studying new topics. Nevertheless, it can also be utilized in the reviewing of the content which has already being learned within the previous lessons (Mayer, 2002). While applying the carousal questions technique, the learners first indulge in small group discussions which are later followed by a reflection which is made by the whole class.
While in the process of carrying out the carousal brainstorming, the learners rotate within the classroom while they are subdivide into small groups, stopping within certain “stations” for a set time period (which is mostly one to two minutes). At every station, learners improve their initial knowledge concerning a certain concept or topic. Moreover, they also share their ideas while attempting to come up with the best answers to the given carousal questions while conducting discussions within the small groups. Every group posts its ideas within every station so that the other groups can be able to read.
Prior to the commencement of the strategy, it is of great essence to give clear instructions to the learners on how to complete the questions presented to them. Generally the carousal strategy offers knowledge, attitude, as well as, interest assessments. It also allows the exploration of a certain topic in diverse perspectives, encouraging not only conversation but also the exchange of ideas (Mayer, 1996). This strategy can be applied within various topic areas, for instance reading and mathematics. The brainstorming encourages the learners to express their opinions freely, as well as, work with others.
Advantages of Carousal Questions
There are several advantages which are associated with the utilization of the carousal questions as a learning strategy. The advantages are such as:
-Carousal sharing is considered to promote conversation
.
-The utilization of the carousal questions encourages idea generation.
-It allows the students to express their individual thoughts within the structured learning situation.
-Within the classroom setting, it fosters decision making along with creativity.
-It offers learners the opportunity to make reflections on a certain topic (Driscoll, 2004).
Disadvantages of Carousal Questions
-It usually leads to the consumption of many learning hours.
-Some learners simply camouflage within the groups and thus do not make any contributions.
-The instructor cannot evaluate each learner’s understanding of a certain topic as everything is done in group work.
Use of Assignments that Require the Choice of the Child
There are certain reasons which make giving young learners the opportunity to make choices quite beneficial. Allowing the children to undertake assignments of their choice is crucial to their development. Offering choices to the young learners is a high-quality fundamental aspect of early childhood curriculum (Driscoll, 2004). So as to offer the learners a wide range of choices; the instructor should comprehend the essence of choices. In addition, the instructor should be willing and in the position of allowing an array of activities, as well as, behaviours within the classroom. Basically, this learning approach is not teacher centred but child centred.
This strategy is considered to play a significant role in the cognitive development of the children. Making choices is actually one of the components of problem solving. Once given choices, young learners stretch their minds thereby creating novel, as well as, unique ideas along with materials combinations. Nevertheless, prior to being able to make choices which are wise, the young learners should learn the convergent thinking skills, which involves identifying the correct answer along with divergent thinking that involves seeing numerous possible answers. In the event that they are presented with the opportunity to make choices, the young learners get the necessary skills which will assist them in making meaningful choices within their later life (Driscoll, 2004).
Moreover, allowing the young learners to make choices makes a significant contribution to their moral development. Within the classroom setting whose basis is on the renowned Piaget’s constructivist principles, each one has a share within the decision making responsibility. By presenting the young learners with the opportunity to make choices, the instructors promote their self-regulation. Once the children are accorded the opportunity to make their individual choices, they feel powerful daily and shy away from breaking the rules once their teachers are absent. When the young learners’ desires are respected, they in turn respect the wishes of other persons. This strategy enables the learners to comprehend how to make decisions. It also assists them on comprehending the importance of considering other parties’ needs while making choices (Mayer, 1996).
Advantages of Use of Assignments that Require the Choice of the Child
This strategy is associated with several advantages such as:
-Facilitating the development of confidence amongst the young learners.
– It also makes the children have a feeling of independency as they control themselves.
-Young learners are more committed in the activities which they have individually chosen.
-Making choices assists the young learners in learning persistence, as well as, task completion.
Disadvantages of Use of Assignments that Require the Choice of the Child
-In some cases the learners can make the wrong choices.
-It can make the learners rely on misleading information especially after making the wrong choices (Mayer, 2002).
-Some of the learners may never comprehend the essence of choosing a certain choice at the expense of the others.
-Making of choices is sometimes a complex task foe the young learners.
Conclusion
Instructional learning is an effective method of ensuring the proper understanding of concepts by the student. This system is very advantageous as it involves the participation of the learners and the students. By using this method, instructors are able to attain more positive results as compared to using only one teaching technique. Instructional learning strategies are also effective as they comprise both the learning theories of Driscoll and Mayer. The above training manual has illustrated how various instructional learning strategies can yield positive results while teaching kindergarten pupils. Positive results can however be achieved if the strategies are used appropriately and effectively (Driscoll, 2004). This approach has various advantages which can apply in the learning process by instructors. On the other hand, these strategies can also be disadvantageous due to some factors. The above training manual outlines all the advantages and disadvantages of using various learning techniques by instructors. Effective ways of using these strategies by the instructors are also provided (Jonassen, 2013).
References
Driscoll, P. (2004). Psychology of Learning for instruction. USA: Publisher Ally and Bacon:3rd ed
Jonassen, D. & Driscoll, M. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (Vol. 2). Routledge.
Mayer, R. E. (1998). Cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational aspects of problem solving. Instructional science, 26(1-2), 49-63.
Mayer, R. E. (2002). Multimedia learning. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 41, 85-139.
�Don’t limit the audience. This should be for any instructor designer
�Make these into chapters 1 chapter for each strategy
�Why are you citing this?
�The audience should be instructional designers. It doesn’t need to be for a specific grade level of teacher.
�You need to list the objectives for this manual. After reading this manual students will be able to …
�Make each strategy a chapter
�Which theory does team work belong to?
�How?
�This is confusing. Driscoll didn’t come up with cognitive theory. I would take out Driscoll, and instead cite her at the end of the sentence.
However, bringing in cognative theory is very good.
�Word choice
�Why? Back this up with evidence
�Can you cite this from somewhere?
�This needs to be added to every chapter
�This needs to be added to every chapter
�This needs to be added to every chapter
�This needs to be added to every chapter
�In what way. Also remember that Driscoll did not come up with this theory.
�You aren’t training them on creating songs. You will need to reword this.
�
�Where do you do this?
�Relate this to behaviorism
�Remove childs. Use learner or student instead
�Why?
�Move this up to be behind team work strategy
�Explain scaffolding
�Cite this
Introduction
It is the purpose of this manual to teach instructional designers how to properly utilize the selected learning strategies when creating learning materials. The strategies discussed in this manual are: positive reinforcement, chunking, mnemonics, signaling, and scaffolding. Techniques were selected to range the most common theories of how students learn. Also these strategies are among the most recognizable of learning techniques. After reading this manual, designers will be well informed on the basics of strategies of learning and how to implement them in instruction. Each section is structured in the following manner:
· A short example of the strategy
·
Vocab
ulary and definitions for the section
· A discussion of the how the strategy is fits into learning theory
· What types of instruction or learning fits best with the strategy
· A short review of the literature on the subject
· Tips for implementing the strategy
· Further reading on topics discussed in the chapter
Objectives
For each of the strategies the instructional designer will:
1. know how the strategy is based in specific learning theory
2. be able to think critically on when to select and use the strategy
3. familiarize themselves with research on the topic
4. be able to utilize the discussed aspects of the strategy to create instruction
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Objectives 1
Table of Contents 2
Positive Reinforcement
3
What it is
What it is
What it is
3
When to select and use it
When to select and use it
When to select and use it
3
Why it should be selected
Why it should be selected
Why it should be selected
4
How it is best utilized
How it is best utilized
How it is best utilized
4
Related research
Related research
Related research
5
Chunking
6
What it is 6
When to select and use it 6
Why it should be selected 6
How it is best utilized 7
Related research 7
Mnemonic
s 8
What it is 8
When to select and use it 8
Why it should be selected 8
How it is best utilized 9
Related research 9
Signaling
10
What it is 10
When to select and use it 10
Why it should be selected 10
How it is best utilized 11
Related research 11
Scaffolding
12
What it is 12
When to select and use it 12
Why it should be selected 12
How it is best utilized 12
Related research 12
References
13
Positive Reinforcement
Example
A student, seen sharing his toys with another student, is told “That was very nice of you, Sam.”
What it is
Behaviorism forms the background of positive reinforcement. Popularized by B.F. Skinner, behaviorism is the theory that learning occurs because the student is conditioned to react in a certain way to stimuli. Learning strategies for this theory seek to change the probability that an event will happen by presenting the learner with consequences for performing an action. This consequence, whether good or bad, reinforces a desired outcome. Skinner believes that it is only the consequence that affects the probability of an action reoccurring, the thought process of the subject is not important (Driscoll 2005, p. 32-36).
Positive reinforcement is possibly the most well-known of behaviorist strategies. Driscoll defines positive reinforcement as “presentation of a reinforcer (satisfying stimulus) contingent up a response that results in the strengthening of that response” (Driscoll 2005, p. 37). To put it another way, positive reinforcement increase the probability of an action by associating the action with satisfying events. This stimulus can take the form of any type of pleasurable item.
When to select and use it
Positive reinforcement is best used to encourage desired behaviors. It’s is found to work well with students who are novice learners, have behavioral issues, or who are disabled (
Moffat, 2011
;
Park, Singer, Gibson, & Koegel, 2005
). This technique is not preferred to teach higher order logical skills.
Why it should be selected
A search for research into positive reinforcement yields a plethora of results. In school-wide effort to create a more positive school climate, the use of praise was a factor in improving the environment (
Caldarella, Shatzer, Gray, Young, & Young, 2011
). It should be noted that praise should be consistent for the best results. Zentall and Morris (
2010
), in an experiment using two different praise types, found that a consistent use of one type was more effective than mixing the two. The effects of positive reinforcement from peers have also been studied. In one study of music students improved their performances (
Silverman, 2009
).
How it is best utilized
When choosing to use positive reinforcement in instructional design there are a few factors to keep in mind. The first is that the reinforcer must be something that the student finds satisfying (Driscoll 2005, p.39). There are three types of reinforcers: primary, where the reward is something that is of biological importance (e.g. food), conditioned, where the reward has been assigned importance (e.g. stickers), or social, where the reward is a positive social action (e.g. praise). A common instance of conditioned reinforcers is the implementation of a token economy where when students display a desired action they are rewarded with a token that can be used to redeem prizes or privileges. Part of the token economy is also the outcome that a token can be taken away; so obviously, this means the strategy is not strictly positive reinforcement.
It should also be noted that the desired behavior may need to be cued for the strategy to be effective. One cannot reward a student for a behavior if it is never displayed. So give learner’s opportunities to perform the behavior and follow through as necessary.
Lastly, the frequency of the reward should be of concern. A variable ratio strategy produces the highest rate of desired response (Driscoll 2005, p. 51). In this strategy students are rewarded at randomized intervals. For example, one can decide to reward randomly during 10 iterations of a positive response. During the first round of 10 iterations, the student could be rewarded the second time. Then during the second round of 10 the reward could be the tenth time.
Related research
Morrison, J. Q., & Jones, K. M. (2007). The Effects of Positive Peer Reporting as a Class-Wide Positive Behavior Support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 16(2), 111-124.
Boerke, K. W., & Reitman, D. (2011). Token economies, In W. W. Fisher, C. C. Piazza, H. S. Roane (Eds.), Handbook of applied behavior analysis (pp. 370-382). New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
Vocab
Primary Reinforcer –
Conditioned reinforce –
Social reinforce –
Positive reinforcement –
Reinforce –
Behaviorism –
Variable Ratio Strategy –
Chunking
Example
ABCD EFG HIJK LMNOP QRS TUV WX YZ
What it is
Cognitive theory, particularly learning strategies based in how the brain processes information, forms the basis of chunking. Human short-term memory is finite, and chunking seeks to break up long strings of information into manageable pieces so that it can be processed and stored in the long-term memory. Having smaller bits to remember reduces cognitive load, making learning easier. Chunking is done organically as learners work with material. Pieces of information are grouped into chunks, then those chunks are grouped into larger ones, and so on (
Jones, 2012
). It is this recoding that transforms chunks, and allows the learner to process more information (
Miller, 1956
). Chunking can also be imparted onto information. The grouping of phone numbers is an example of this.
When to select and use it
Chunking is most effective when there is more information to be processed than can be held in the short term memory. For example, lists of states can be chunked by geographical region. Also when memorizing chunking can help build up to the full content of the data to be memorized.
Why it should be selected
Research into chunking has shown its value. Jones (2012) used computer simulations to show that as the amount and size of chunked information grows, development of linguistic knowledge grew and short term memory capacity increased. In a 2001 study of high school Latin students, students who received a list of 21 vocab words chunked into groups of 7, preformed significantly better on a vocab test than their control group peers (
Carter, Hardy, & Hardy, 2001
). Lastly, it was found that chunks based around a perception theme (color) were more easily remember than other non-themed groups (
Glicksohn & Cohen, 2011
).
How it is best utilized
Using chunking in instruction is straightforward. Break complex information down into smaller, logical sets, then after those sets have been learned combining the small sets into bigger sets. An example of this is memorizing a monologue. Students can start by memorizing the first paragraph, then move on to the second. Then combine those two and add the third; and so on until the whole piece is memorized.
Related research
Bor, D., & Seth, A. K. (2012). Consciousness and the prefrontal parietal network: Insights from attention, working memory and chunking. [Review]. Frontiers in Psychology, 3. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00063
Vocab
Chunking
Cognitive load
Short Term memory
Long-Term Memory
Recoding
Mnemonics Comment by Andrea Boehme:
Example
Figure 1 Knuckle Mnemonic
What it is
Mnemonics are also rooted in the cognitive domain of learning strategies. Mnemonics encode information in the memory by adding meaningful context to the content. This can be done in three ways: dual coding, organization, or association (Mayer
2008
, p. 393).
In dual coding the information is encoded in the mind in two ways giving multiple access points for information. Organization arranges information so that it is not a collection of separate pieces. Lastly, association creates links between information.
When to select and use it
The use of mnemonics is best suited when learners are studying material that may not form direct connections in their minds. For instances, lists, procedures, foreign language vocabulary, and facts can all be encoded by using mnemonics. Mnemonics should have the student actively make cognitive links between information.
Why it should be selected
Compared to rote memorization mnemonic strategy have proven to be more effective for remembering information (
Brahler & Walker, 2008
). Additionally, in an experiment with college accounting students mnemonics were found to improve the rate in which information was learned (
Laing, 2010
). Recall and application of concepts was also seen to improve in Saber and Johnson’s study of mnemonics in teaching marketing framework (2008). However, mnemonics should not be the catch all for instruction. Wang and Thomas (
1996
) found that mnemonics can help provide immediate recall of information, but may not be useful in long term retention (
Wang & Thomas, 1996
). Additionally, the use of mnemonics to represent symbols in mathematics (such as letter in algebraic equations) may hinder student’s comprehension (
McNeil et al., 2010
).
How it is best utilized
When using mnemonics in in instruction, Driscoll (2005, p. 86) mentions that students should be encouraged to create their own mnemonics so that the connection are more meaningful. However, teach supplied mnemonics can be useful if students are trained in their use (Mayer 2008, p. 398). Given the results found in McNeil et al., (2010) and Wang and Thomas (1996), mnemonics should be used with care and should be supplemented with other types of instruction so that information is retained.
Related research
Wolgmuth, J. R., Cobb, R., & Alwell, M. (2008). The effects of mnemonic intervention on academic outcomes for youth with disabilities: a systematic review. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 23(1), 1-10.
Vocab
Mnemonic
Cognitive Theory
Encoding
Signaling Comment by Andrea Boehme:
Example
The first step in making a cake is to gather all of the ingredients.
What it is
Another technique within the cognitive realm of learning theory is signaling. Signaling uses non-content words or standardized cues so that students can organize the information in their mind. There are many types of signals, so many that not all can be named here.
When to select and use it
In its myriad of forms, signaling is used to ease the transmission of large amounts of verbal or textual information. Using signaling can help draw attention to important material. It also helps students who do not have the best reading skills hone their attention on relevant material which helps with comprehension (Mayer 2008, p. 368).
Why it should be selected
Signaling research shows that the practice is a useful one. Lorch, et al (2001) experiment with college students and sixth-eighth graders showed that when given headings, students were more likely to in their summaries of a text. Lorch, et al goes on to say that readers are more likely to rely on signals when given a task to complete. Research also shows that students who are trained to recognize signals remember more information and are better able to recall important information than those who have the same signals but no training (
Meyer & Poon, 2001
). Student’s ability to take notes is also improved when signaling was used in vocal passages (
Rickards, Fajen, Sullivan, & Gillespie, 1997
). In a meta-analysis of writing instruction, Graham, et al (2012) found that teaching student’s text structure improved their writing.
How it is best utilized
Before using this technique, one must be sure that students are aware of how to use it. Uses such as numbered lists may be more easily understood, but standardize headings (such as literature review) may not be obvious to students who have never worked with the material before.
For text documents, formatting can play an important role in creating understanding. Techniques such as bolding vocab words and italicizing definitions can be useful. To help create outlines, formatting can be used by bolding main headings, italicizing supporting headings, and underlining main points within the sections. Obviously, this is not the only method, just an example. In verbal applications, the use of cues (The first topic of discussion…) can help students create connections between material and organize the information in their mind. It is important to keep your formatting, or any other types of signals consistent to avoid confusion.
Signaling can also be used to improve confusing text (Mayer 2008, p.372). You could have students underline the main topic of paragraphs, or create their own outlines of a speech. This serves the purpose of teaching signaling, creating meaning, and building note taking skills all at the same time.
Related research
Cook, L.K., & Mayer, R.E. (1988). Teaching readers about the structure of scientific text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 448-456. Doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.448
Vocab
Signaling
Cues
Abstracted statements
Summary statements
Pointer words
Scaffolding Comment by Andrea Boehme:
Example
What it is
Scaffolding works within the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (
ZPD
) as developed by Vygotsky. In the ZPD, students are developing their understanding of a topic. Scaffolding works within the zone through more knowledgeable peers, or instructors guiding students through their developing knowledge. This instructor works with the student to co-construct knowledge. Vygotsky’s ideas fit within the learning theory of
Constructivism
where students seek out understanding of their experiences, and actively assess their assumptions until they find one that fits. New experiences that disrupt their assumptions start the process anew. (Driscoll 2005, p. 387).
When to select and use it
Scaffolding is best used to enhance critical thinking skills. Driscoll discusses the use of scaffolding in creating new perspectives (2005, p. 258). As students are learning with and in cooperation with others who have differing viewpoints, they must assess their own views. Additionally, Bockarie (2002) notes in his discussion on scaffolding supporting social cognition in vocational education, that scaffolding allows students to stretch their knowledge by giving precision guidance so that students are neither bored nor seen as incompetent. Both of these require students to expand on what they already know and create their own understanding in a collaborative environment. Comment by Carey:
Why it should be selected
Words words words words
How it is best utilized
· Co-construction of concepts
· Group work Create groups of students with mixed skills and viewpoints
Related research
Van de Pol, J., Volman, M., & Beishuizen, J. (2010). Scaffolding in teacher-student interaction: a decade of research. Educational Psychology Review, 22(3), 271-296. doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9127-6
Vocab
Scaffolding
ZPD
Constructivism
References
Brahler, C. J., & Walker, D. (2008). Learning Scientific and Medical Terminology with a Mnemonic Strategy Using an Illogical Association Technique. Advances in Physiology Education, 32(3), 219-224.
Caldarella, P., Shatzer, R. H., Gray, K. M., Young, K. R., & Young, E. L. (2011). The Effects of School-wide Positive Behavior Support on Middle School Climate and Student Outcomes. [Article]. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 35(4), 1-14.
Carter, T., Hardy, C. A., & Hardy, J. C. (2001). Latin Vocabulary Acquisition: An Experiment using Information-Processing Techniques of Chunking and Imagery. [Article]. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 28(4), 225.
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson Allyn and Bacon.
Glicksohn, A., & Cohen, A. (2011). The role of Gestalt grouping principles in visual statistical learning. Attention, Perception and Psychophysics, 73(3), 708-713. doi: 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00702.x
Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., & Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(4), 879-896. doi: 10.1037/a0029185
Jones, G. (2012). Why chunking should be considered as an explanation for developmental change before short-term memory capacity and processing speed. [Original Research]. Frontiers in Psychology, 3. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00167
Laing, G. K. (2010). An Empirical Test of Mnemonic Devices to Improve Learning in Elementary Accounting. [Article]. Journal of Education for Business, 85(6), 349-358. doi: 10.1080/08832321003604946
Lorch Jr, R. F., Lorch, E. P., Ritchey, K., McGovern, L., & Coleman, D. (2001). Effects of Headings on Text Summarization. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(2), 171-191. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1037
Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and instruction: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
McNeil, N. M., Weinberg, A., Hattikudur, S., Stephens, A. C., Asquith, P., Knuth, E. J., & Alibali, M. W. (2010). A is for apple: Mnemonic symbols hinder the interpretation of algebraic expressions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 625-634. doi: 10.1037/a0019105
Meyer, B. J. F., & Poon, L. W. (2001). Effects of structure strategy training and signaling on recall of text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 141-159. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.141
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81-97. doi: 10.1037/h0043158
Moffat, T. K. (2011). Increasing the Teacher Rate of Behaviour Specific Praise and its Effect on a Child with Aggressive Behaviour Problems. Kairaranga, 12(1), 51-58.
Park, S., Singer, G. H. S., Gibson, M., & Koegel, R. L. (2005). The Functional Effect of Teacher Positive and Neutral Affect on Task Performance of Students With Significant Disabilities. [Article]. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7(4), 237-246.
Rickards, J. P., Fajen, B. R., Sullivan, J. F., & Gillespie, G. (1997). Signaling, notetaking, and field independence–dependence in text comprehension and recall. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 508-517. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.508
Saber, J. L., & Johnson, R. D. (2008). Don’t Throw out the Baby with the Bathwater: Verbal Repetition, Mnemonics, and Active Learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 30(3), 207-216.
Silverman, M. J. (2009). The Effect of Positive Peer Reinforcement on Psychological Measures and Guitar Songleading Performance in University Students. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 28(1), 3-8.
Wang, A. Y., & Thomas, M. H. (1996). Mnemonic instruction and the gifted child. [Article]. Roeper Review, 19(2), 104.
Zentall, S. R., & Morris, B. J. (2010). “Good Job, You’re So Smart”: The Effects of Inconsistency of Praise Type on Young Children’s Motivation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107(2), 155-163.
