Encounters

cond

Democrates ( 1 5 4 7 )

The man rules over the w o m a n , the adult over
the child, the father over his children. That is t o
say, the most powerful and most perfect rule
over the weakest and most imperfect. This same
relationship exists a m o n g m e n , there being some
w h o by nature are masters and others w h o by
nature are slaves. Those w h o surpass the rest in
prudence and intelligence, a l t h o u g h n o t in

4

physical
the oth(
mentalh
strong e
by natui
way. W€
itself, fo
w h o is s
is w i t h t
Indians)
toms. It
natural I
more cu
Thanks t
of their I
and edu
humane
such rule
of arms,
ural law.

A n d )
of the C!
peaceful
t h a t the
they m a i
and fierc
no m e a n

m o n s t r o
enemies
t i m i d the
presence
u p o n the
w o m e n I
a m o u n t e

I n t h i s e x t r e m e f o r m o f E u r o p e a n b e l i e f , the
n a t i v e s d i d n o t even possess a h u m a n s o u l a n d
w e r e n e i t h e r c a p a b l e o f c o n v e r t i n g t o C h r i s t i a n –
i t y n o r w o r t h y o f h u m a n r i g h t s .

A s e c o n d a n s w e r t o w h y t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e
N e w W o r l d w e r e so d i f f e r e n t s p r u n g f r o m a
b e l i e f t h a t t h e n a t i v e s w e r e c o m p l e t e i n n o –
c e n t s . T h e n a t i v e p e o p l e s l i v e d i n a k i n d o f
e a r t h l y P a r a d i s e , u n s p o i l e d by t h e c o r r u p t i o n

o f E u r o p e a n s o c i e t y . Some o f t h e e a r l y E n g l i s h
e x p l o r e r s o f V i r g i n i a f o u n d t h e n a t i v e s ” m o s t
g e n t l e , l o v i n g a n d f a i t h f u l , v o i d o f a n y g u i l e o r
t r e a s o n , ” a n d one m i s s i o n a r y f o u n d t h e m ” a l l
t h e m o r e c h i l d r e n o f G o d o w i n g t o t h e i r v e r y
l a c k o f c a p a c i t y a n d s k i l l . A t i n y n u m b e r o f
u n c o n v e n t i o n a l t h e o l o g i c a l t h i n k e r s h y p o t h e –
sized t h a t t h e n a t i v e A m e r i c a n s h a d been
c r e a t e d b e f o r e t h e H e b r e w s as r e p o r t e d i n t h e

B i b l e , a n d ,
t h e F a l l o f
P a r a d i s e .

T h e m(
s i x t e e n t h ci
cence was
r i g h t s B a r t
T h r o u g h o u
a r g u e d agai

iO The Beginnings of the Global System 423

I and understand-
th and t o being
I has invested
I this regard than
! they begin t o
Jecome so keen
:raments, and t o
es w h o instruct

exceptional
/er the years I
1 laymen w h o
al goodness that
they frequently

vould be the
nly they were
iristianity.”

count of the Destruc-
Nigel Griffin, copy-
y Anthony Pagden
ropyright © 1992
1992 by Anthony
guin Books Ltd.

cond

le adult over
en. That is to
lerfect rule
;ct. This same
‘Je being some
lers w h o by
ss the rest in
h n o t in

physical strength, are by nature t h e masters. O n
the other hand, those w h o are d i m – w i t t e d and
mentally lazy, a l t h o u g h they may be physically
strong e n o u g h t o fulfill all the necessary tasks, are
by nature slaves. It is just and useful t h a t it be this
way. We even see it sanctioned in divine law
itself, for it is w r i t t e n in the Book of Proverbs: “He
w h o is stupid will serve the wise m a n . ” And so it
is w i t h the barbarous and inhumane peoples (the
Indians) w h o have no civil life and peaceful cus-
t o m s . It will always be just and in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h
natural law t h a t such people submit t o the rule of
more cultured and humane princes and nations.
Thanks to their virtues and the practical w i s d o m
of their laws, the latter can destroy barbarism
and educate these (inferior) people to a more
humane and virtuous life. And if the latter reject
such rule, it can be imposed u p o n t h e m by force
of arms. Such a war will be just according t o nat-
ural law

A n d y o u must realize t h a t prior t o the arrival
of t h e Christians, they d i d n o t live in t h a t
peaceful k i n g d o m of Saturn (the Golden Age)
t h a t the poets i m a g i n e , b u t o n t h e c o n t r a r y
they made war against one another c o n t i n u a l l y
and fiercely, w i t h such f u r y t h a t v i c t o r y was of
no m e a n i n g if they d i d n o t satiate their
monstrous h u n g e r w i t h the flesh of their
enemies These Indians are so c o w a r d l y a n d
t i m i d t h a t they c o u l d scarcely resist the mere
presence of our soldiers. M a n y times thousands
u p o n thousands of t h e m scattered, fleeing like
w o m e n before a very f e w Spaniards, w h o
a m o u n t e d t o fewer t h a n a h u n d r e d

Until n o w w e have n o t m e n t i o n e d their i m p i –
ous religion and their abominable sacrifices, in
w h i c h they worship the Devil as God, t o w h o m .
they t h o u g h t of offering no better t r i b u t e than

h u m a n hearts Interpreting their religion in an
i g n o r a n t and barbarous manner, they sacrificed
h u m a n victims by removing the hearts f r o m the
chests. They placed these hearts o n their a b o m –
inable altars. W i t h this ritual they believed t h a t
they had appeased t h e i r gods. They also ate the
flesh of the sacrificed m e n

War against these barbarians can be justified
n o t o n l y o n t h e basis of their paganism b u t
even m o r e so because of t h e i r a b o m i n a b l e
licentiousness, t h e i r p r o d i g i o u s sacrifice of
h u m a n victims, the extreme h a r m t h a t t h e y
i n f l i c t e d o n i n n o c e n t persons, their h o r r i b l e
banquets of h u m a n flesh, and the impious cult
of t h e i r idols.

Source: From Pike, Frederick B. Latin American History: Select
Problems, 1 /e. Copyright © 1969 Wadsworth, a part of
Cengage Learning, inc. Reproduced by permission.
vvww.cengage.com/permissions.

For Discussion

1 . H o w d i d las Casas and Sepulveda differ in
their u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e basic nature of
the Indians? H o w d i d these d i f f e r i n g under-
standings shape their o p p o s i n g arguments?

2. How reliable are these accounts of the native
peoples of the Americas?

3. What was at stake for the definition of the
West in these debates?

l e e a r l y E n g l i s h
; n a t i v e s ” m o s t
o f a n y g u i l e o r

o u n d t h e m ” a l l
ig t o t h e i r v e r y
t i n y n u m b e r o f
i k e r s h y p o t h e –
ans h a d been
•eported i n t h e

B i b l e , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , h a d n o t been s u b j e c t t o
t h e F a l l o f M a n a n d s t i l l l i v e d i n t h e e a r t h l y
P a r a d i s e .

T h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l s p o k e s m a n d u r i n g the
s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r t h i s idea o f n a t i v e i n n o –
cence w a s the p o w e r f u l a d v o c a t e o f h u m a n
r i g h t s B a r t o l o m e de Las Casas ( 1 4 7 4 – 1 5 6 6 ) .
T h r o u g h o u t h i s career. L a s Casas f o r c e f u l l y
a r g u e d against t h e e n s l a v e m e n t a n d i l l t r e a t m e n t

o f the n a t i v e A m e r i c a n s , w h i c h he c h r o n i c l e d i n
his m o s t i m p o r t a n t p u b l i s h e d w o r k , A Short
Account of the Destruction of the Indies ( 1 5 4 2 ) .
H e s a w the natives as i n n o c e n t s w h o needed t o
be g u i d e d r a t h e r t h a n f o r c e d t o accept C h r i s t i a n –
i t y a n d s h o u l d n o t be enslaved. (See Different
Voices i n t h i s chapter.)

T h e t h i r d r e s p o n s e t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f how-
t o e x p l a i n t h e N e w W o r l d p e o p l e s n e i t h e r

4 2 4 CHAPTER 13 The West and the World: The Significance of Global Encounters, 1450-1650

M U T I L A T I O N O F NATIVE A M E R I C A N S

In this illustration for one of Bartholomew de Las Casas’s books condemning
Spanish policy in America, a conquistador is shown terrorizing the natives with
vicious dogs, a frequently employed technique. The conquistador dangles two
infants while the dogs bite them. To the left a priest baptizes a young child
whose mother has been hanged.

d e h u m a n i z e d t h e m n o r a s s u m e d t h e m i n n o c e n t
h u t s i m p l y r e c o g n i z e d t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s as the
n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f h u m a n d i v e r s i t y . A d v o –
cates o f t h i s p o s i t i o n p r o p o s e d t o l e r a t i o n .
D e c i d i n g w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r p e o p l e w e r e b a d
o r g o o d r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e c r i t e r i a f o r
m a k i n g s u c h j u d g m e n t s , a n d these q u e s t i o n s
i n t r o d u c e d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m .
C u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m r e c o g n i z e d t h a t m a n y ( b u t
n o t necessarily a l l ) s t a n d a r d s o f j u d g m e n t are
s p e c i f i c t o p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e s r a t h e r t h a n f i x e d
t r u t h s e s t a b l i s h e d b y n a t u r a l o r d i v i n e l a w .
C u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s t s a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y
o t h e r p e o p l e t h i n k a n d act t h e w a y t h e y d o .
S u c h a n a p p r o a c h c a n be t r a c e d t o a s m a l l
g r o u p o f s i x t e e n t h – c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n t h i n k e r s

w h o t r i e d t o i n a k e sense o f
the n e w d i s c o v e r i e s . Per-
p l e x e d by t h e c u l t u r a l
d i v e r s i t y he h a d o b s e r v e d i n
the N e w W o r l d , Peter M a r –
t y r D ‘ A n g h i e r a ( 1 4 5 7 – 1 5 2 6 ) ,
a p i o u s p r i e s t a n d astute
h i s t o r i a n o f Spanish e x p l o –
r a t i o n s , n o t e d t h a t d i f f e r e n t
peoples m a d e j u d g m e n t s o n
t h e basis o f d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a :
” T h e E t h i o p i a n t h i n k s the
b l a c k c o l o r t o be f a i r e r t h a n
t h e w h i t e , a n d t h e w h i t e
m a n t h i n k s o t h e r w i s e . T h e
bearded m a n supposes he is
m o r e c o m e l y t h a n he t h a t
w a n t s a b e a r d . As a p p e t i t e
t h e r e f o r e m o v e s , n o t as rea-
son persuades, m e n r u n i n t o
these v a n i t i e s , a n d every
p r o v i n c e is r u l e d b y its o w n
s e n s e . . . . W h a t o t h e r s
t h o u g h t f u n d a m e n t a l m o r a l
t r u t h s . M a r t y r c o n s i d e r e d
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s u p e r f i c i a l
c u l t u r a l differences. T h e d i s –
c o v e r y i n the N e w W o r l d
t h a t n o n – C h r i s t i a n s c o u l d

lead m o r a l l i v e s , l o v e t h e i r f a m i l i e s , p r a c t i c e
h u m i l i t y a n d c h a r i t y , a n d b e n e f i t f r o m h i g h l y
d e v e l o p e d r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s s h o o k the c o m –
p l a c e n t sense o f E u r o p e a n s u p e r i o r i t y .

CONCLUSION

T h e S i g n i f i c a n c e of
t h e G l o b a l E n c o u n t e r s
T h e w o r l d was f o r e v e r c h a n g e d by the E u r o p e a n
voyages f r o m a b o u t 1 4 5 0 t o 1 6 5 0 . T h e s i g n i f i –
cance o f these e n c o u n t e r s lay n o t so m u c h i n the
E u r o p e a n s ‘ g e o g r a p h i c a l discoveries as i n the
scale o f p e r m a n e n t c o n t a c t these voyages m a d e
possible a m o n g p r e v i o u s l y i s o l a t e d peoples o f

t h e w o r l d . ‘
a n d sixteen
tali.st systen

A s a rt
prises o n t l
m i l l i o n s o f
i n c h a i n s to
s u b h u m a n
t h e y g r e w
E u r o p e a n
o f t e n used t
w h i c h becaj
w e l l i n t o t l
c o f f e e , ever;
a n d every a
the s w e a t oi

M a n y (
l i v e s , t h e i r 1
o f E u r o p e a r
p e o p l e s s u l
W o r l d m i c r (
s i o n o f O l d
o f t h e Aztec
t h e m o s t d r
pies struggle
beings f r o m

A s i a w£
E u r o p e a n s ,
quest i n A s i
the least p o p
E u r o p e a n ci
p e r i p h e r y o f
l u x u r y g o o d
the e x p a n d i r
o f the f i r s t fr

C o m i n g
c u l t u r e s bee
p r o b l e m i n
peans retains
o r i t y o f their
w o r l d began
a n d e c o n o m :
W e s t e r n civi.

The Reformations
of Religion

H Causes o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n S T h e L u t h e r a n R e f o r m a t i o n
a T h e D i v e r s i t y o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m s T h e C a t h o H c R e f o r m a t i o n

ACCORDING TO A POWERFULLY EVOCATIVE STORY THAT MAY

OR MAY NOT BE TRUE, THE REFORMATION BEGAN ON HAL-

LOWEEN, OCTOBER 3 1 , 1517. An obscure m o n k – t u r n e d –

university-professor nailed to the door of the
cathedral in W i t t e n b e r g , Germany, an announce-
m e n t c o n t a i n i n g 95 theses or d e b a t i n g propositions.
M a r t i n Luther had no h i n t of the ramifications of this
simple act—as c o m m o n then as posting an
a n n o u n c e m e n t for a lecture or concert on a univer-
sity bulletin board now. But Luther’s seemingly
harmless deed sparked a r e v o l u t i o n . Whether or not
he ever posted the theses on the cathedral door, he
certainly d i d have copies p r i n t e d . W i t h i n weeks, all
Germany was ablaze over Luther’s daring attack on
the pope. W i t h i n a few short years W i t t e n b e r g
became the European center for a m o v e m e n t to
reform the Church. As the pope and high church-
men resisted M a r t i n Luther’s call for reform, m u c h of
Germany and eventually most of n o r t h e r n Europe
and Britain broke away f r o m the Catholic Church.
The P r o t e s t a n t R e f o r m a t i o n d o m i n a t e d Euro-
pean affairs f r o m 1517 until 1560.

M a r t i n Luther succeeded because he expressed
in p r i n t w h a t many felt in their h e a r t s — t h a t the
Church was failing in its most f u n d a m e n t a l o b l i g a –
t i o n t o help Christians achieve salvation. In c o n –
trast, many Catholics considered the Protestants
dangerous heretics whose errors made salvation

impossible. Moreover, for the many Catholics w h o
had l o n g recognized the need for reforms in the
Church and been d i l i g e n t l y w o r k i n g to achieve
t h e m , the i n t e m p e r a t e M a r t i n Luther only m a d e
matters worse.

The division b e t w e e n Protestants and Catholics
split the West i n t o t w o distinctive religious cultures.
The result was t h a t the h a r d – w o n u n i t y of the West,
w h i c h had been achieved d u r i n g the M i d d l e Ages
t h r o u g h the expansion of Christianity to the most
distant corners of the European c o n t i n e n t and
t h r o u g h the leadership of the papacy, was lost.
Catholics and Protestants c o n t i n u e d t o share a
great deal of the Christian t r a d i t i o n , b u t fateful
issues d i v i d e d t h e m : their u n d e r s t a n d i n g of salva-
t i o n , the f u n c t i o n of t h e sacraments in p r o m o t i n g
pious behavior, the celebration of the liturgy in
Latin, and obedience to the p o p e .

The f u n d a m e n t a l conflict d u r i n g the Reforma-
t i o n was a b o u t religion, b u t religion can never be
entirely separated f r o m politics or society. The c o m –
p e t i t i o n a m o n g the kingdoms and the social t e n –
sions w i t h i n the cities of central and n o r t h e r n
Europe magnified religious controversies. The Refor-
m a t i o n raised this question: H o w d i d encounters
between Catholics and Protestants p e r m a n e n t l y
transform religious unity i n t o religious division in
the West?

T H E m
O F CHI
In Albre(
self-port
literally;
tating C
The initi
nently d
upper le
They sta
Dijrer, b
anno do,
our Lore

Source: Al
Portrait”.
26 1/4″ X
Alte Pinaki
Art Resour

CAUi

• Whj
b e g £
s p r e

T h e Pr
t i o n o f

4 2 6

ny Catholics w h o
or reforms in the
rking to achieve
uther only made

ints and Catholics
religious cultures,
u n i t y of the West,
the M i d d l e Ages

3nity to the most
1 c o n t i n e n t and
)apacy, was lost,
l u e d to share a
i t i o n , b u t fateful
l a n d i n g of salva-
nts in p r o m o t i n g
of the l i t u r g y in

ing the Reforma-
on can never be
society. The c o m –
d the social t e n –
al and n o r t h e r n
ersies. The Refor-
‘ d i d encounters
Its p e r m a n e n t l y
gious division in

THE I M I T A T I O N
OF CHRIST

In Albrecht Durer’s
self-portrait at age 28, he
literally shows himself imi-
tating Christ’s appearance.
The initials AD are promi-
nently displayed in the
upper left-hand corner.
They stand for Albrecht
DiJrer, but also for
anno domini, “the year of
our Lord.”

Source: Albrecht Duerer, “Self-
Portrait”. 1500. Oil on Panel.
26 1/4″ X 19 1/4″ (66.7 X 49 cm).
Alte Pinakothek, Munich. SCALA/
Art Resource, NY

CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION

• W h a t caused the religious rebellion that
began i n German-speaking lands and
spread to m u c h of n o r t h e r n Europe?

T h e P r o t e s t a n t R e f o r m a t i o n w a s the c u l m i n a –
t i o n o f n e a r l y 2 0 0 years o f t u r m o i l w i t h i n the

C h u r c h . D u r i n g the f o u r t e e n t h a n d f i f t e e n t h
centuries the c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n the
C h u r c h ‘ s d i v i n e m i s s i o n a n d its o b l i g a t i o n s i n
t h i s w o r l d h a m p e r e d its m o r a l i n f l u e n c e . O n
the one h a n d , the C h u r c h t a u g h t t h a t its m i s –
s i o n w a s o t h e r w o r l d l y , the source o f s p i r i t u a l
solace a n d the g u i d e t o e t e r n a l s a l v a t i o n . O n
the o t h e r h a n d , the C h u r c h w a s t h o r o u g h l y o f

427

428 CHAPTER 14 The Reformations of Religion

t h i s w o r l d . I t o w n e d vast a m o u n t s o f p r o p e r t y ,
m a f n t a i n e d a f a r – r e a c h i n g j u d i c i a l b u r e a u c r a c y
t o e n f o r c e c a n o n ( C h u r c h ) l a w , a n d was headed
b y the p o p e , w h o w a s also the t e r r i t o r i a l p r i n c e
o f the P a p a l State i n c e n t r a l I t a l y . W h e r e a s f r o m
t h e e l e v e n t h t o the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s the popes
h a d been t h e source o f m o r a l r e f o r m a n d s p i r i –
t u a l r e n e w a l i n the C h u r c h , b y the f i f t e e n t h cen-
t u r y the popes h a d become p a r t o f the p r o b l e m .
T h e p r o b l e m w a s n o t so m u c h t h a t t h e y h a d
become c o r r u p t , b u t t h e y w e r e u n a b l e t o r e s p o n d
e f f e c t i v e l y t o the d e m a n d s o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e
w h o w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i r o w n
s a l v a t i o n a n d the effective g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e i r
c o m m u n i t i e s .

T h r e e d e v e l o p m e n t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , c o n –
t r i b u t e d t o the d e m a n d f o r r e l i g i o u s r e f o r m : the
search f o r t h e f r e e d o m o f p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s
e x p r e s s i o n ; the p r i n t r e v o l u t i o n ; a n d the n o r t h –
e r n Renaissance i n t e r e s t i n the B i b l e a n d o t h e r
sources o f C h r i s t i a n k n o w l e d g e .

T h e Search for Freedom
A s w e s a w i n C h a p t e r 1 1 , a series o f events d u r –
i n g the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y w e a k e n e d t h e a u t h o r –
i t y o f t h e popes a n d led believers t o l o o k
elsewhere f o r spuritual l e a d e r s h i p a n d c o n s o l a –
t i o n . B e t w e e n 1 3 0 5 a n d 1 3 7 8 seven popes i n a
r o w a b a n d o n e d R o m e a n d chose t o reside i n the
r e l a t i v e c a l m o f A v i g n o n , France. T h e p e r i o d
came t o be c a l l e d t h e B a b y l o n i a n C a p t i v i t y o f
the C h u r c h , a p e j o r a t i v e t e r m t h a t r e f l e c t e d
the w i d e s p r e a d o p i n i o n o u t s i d e F r a n c e t h a t the
popes h a d become s u b s e r v i e n t t o the k i n g s o f
France a n d w e r e f i n a n c i a l l y c o r r u p t . D u r i n g the
G r e a t Schism ( 1 3 7 8 – 1 4 1 7 ) , r i v a l I t a l i a n a n d
F r e n c h popes d i v i d e d the C h u r c h a n d e r o d e d
p a p a l a u t h o r i t y even f u r t h e r .

W h i l e the papacy’s m o r a l a u t h o r i t y d e c l i n e d ,
lay C h r i s t i a n s were d r a w n t o n e w f o r m s o f w o r –
s h i p . P a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n r i a l was the M o d e r n
D e v o t i o n , encouraged by the Imitation of Christ
w r i t t e n a b o u t 1 4 4 1 . T h e M o d e r n D e v o t i o n c h a n –
neled believers’ desire t o transcend this w o r l d o f
e v i l a n d p a i n b y e m p h a s i z i n g f r e q u e n t p r i v a t e
p r a y e r a n d m o r a l i n t r o s p e c t i o n . T h e Imitation

p r o v i d e d a k i n d o f s p i r i t u a l m a n u a l t h a t helped
l a y p e o p l e f o l l o w the same p a t h t o w a r d s p i r i t u a l
r e n e w a l t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a d been reserved f o r
m o n k s a n d n u n s . T h e g o a l w a s t o i m i t a t e C h r i s t
so t h o r o u g h l y t h a t C h r i s t entered the believer’s
s o u l . I n a s e l f – p o r t r a i t i n f l u e n c e d by the M o d e r n
D e v o t i o n ( s h o w n o n page 4 2 7 ) , A l b r e c h t D i i r e r
( 1 4 7 1 – 1 5 2 8 ) resembles C h r i s t him se lf .

T h e r e l i g i o u s f e r v o r t h a t d r e w m a n y C h r i s –
tians t o such p r o f o u n d f o r m s o f r e l i g i o u s expres-
sion f u r t h e r alienated m a n y f r o m the papacy.
T h e y began t o see the p o p e as a t h i e v i n g f o r e i g n e r
w h o e x t o r t e d m o n e y t h a t c o u l d be better spent
l o c a l l y . G e r m a n c o m m u n i t i e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
p r o t e s t e d against the f i n a n c i a l d e m a n d s a n d the
q u e s t i o n a b l e practices o f the p o p e a n d h i g h e r
clergy. Some bishops neglected t h e i r duties
r e g a r d i n g the s p i r i t u a l g u i d a n c e o f t h e i r f l o c k .
Some never resided i n t h e i r dioceses (the d i s t r i c t
u n d e r the bishop’s care), k n e w n o t h i n g o f the
p r o b l e m s o f t h e i r p e o p l e , a n d w e r e concerned
o n l y w i t h r e t a i n i n g t h e i r incomes a n d l a v i s h l i v –
i n g s t a n d a r d s . L i v i n g a m i d the pleasures o f
R o m e , these h i g h c l e r g y m e n w e r e i n n o p o s i t i o n
t o d i s c i p l i n e p a r i s h priests, some o f w h o m also
i g n o r e d t h e i r m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s by l i v i n g
o p e n l y w i t h c o n c u b i n e s a n d even se lling the
sacraments. A l t h o u g h i m m o r a l i t y o f t h i s s o r t w a s
p r o b a b l y n o t w i d e s p r e a d , a f e w n o t o r i o u s e x a m –
ples b r e d e n o r m o u s resentment a m o n g the l a i t y .

I n a n e f f o r t t o assert c o n t r o l o v e r the c h u r c h
i n t h e i r o w n c o m m i m i t i e s , c i t y o f f i c i a l s k n o w n as
m agistrate s a t t e m p t e d t o stem the f i n a n c i a l d r a i n
a n d e n d c l e r i c a l abuses. T h e y r e s t r i c t e d the
a m o u n t o f p r o p e r t y ecclesiastical i n s t i t u t i o n s
c o u l d o w n , t r i e d t o t a x t h e clergy, m a d e priests
subject t o the t o w n ‘ s c o u r t s o f l a w , a n d e l i m i –
n a t e d the c h u r c h m e n ‘ s e x e m p t i o n f r o m b u r d e n –
some d u t i e s , s u c h as s e r v i n g i n the t o w n m i l i t i a
o r p r o v i d i n g l a b o r f o r p u b l i c w o r k s . O n the eve
o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n — e s p e c i a l l y i n the cities o f
G e r m a n y a n d the N e t h e r l a n d s — m a g i s t r a t e s h a d
a l r e a d y b e g u n t o assert l o c a l c o n t r o l over the
C h u r c h , a te nd e nc y t h a t p r e p a r e d the w a y f o r
the P r o t e s t a n t s ‘ e f f o r t s . F o r m a n y l a y p e o p l e , t h e
o v e r r i d i n g desire w a s t o o b t a i n greater s p i r i t u a l
a n d f i s c a l f r e e d o m f r o m the C h u r c h h i e r a r c h y .

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I The Lutheran Reformation 435
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C a t h o l i c c l e r g y o v e r the l a i t y . T h e m o s t i n s p i r a –
t i o n a l p a m p h l e t , T o the Christian Nobility of the
German Nation ( 1 5 2 0 ) , c a l l e d u p o n t h e G e r m a n
princes t o r e f o r m t h e C h u r c h a n d t o d e f e n d G e r –
m a n y f r o m e x p l o i t a t i o n b y the c o r r u p t I t a l i a n s
w h o r a n t h e C h u r c h i n R o m e . W h e n Pope L e o
o r d e r e d L u t h e r ‘ s b o o k s b u r n e d a n d d e m a n d e d
L u t h e r r e t r a c t his w r i t i n g s , L u t h e r r e s p o n d e d
w i t h a d e f i a n t d e m o n s t r a t i o n i n w h i c h he a n d his
students b u r n e d the pope’s decree a n d a l l o f the
u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y ‘ s b o o k s o f C h u r c h l a w . T h e die
w a s cast.

T h e p o p e d e m a n d e d t h a t L u t h e r be arrested,
b u t L u t h e r ‘ s p a t r o n , the Elector F r e d e r i c k ,
answered by d e f e n d i n g the professor. F r e d e r i c k
refused t o m a k e the arrest w i t h o u t f i r s t g i v i n g
L u t h e r a h e a r i n g a t the I m p e r i a l D i e t ( p a r l i a m e n t ) ,
w h i c h w a s set t o meet at the t o w n o f W o r m s i n
1 5 2 1 . Assembled at the D i e t o f W o r m s w e r e
h a u g h t y princes, grave bishops, a n d the resplen-
d e n t y o u n g e m p e r o r Charles V (r. 1 5 1 9 – 1 5 5 8 ) ,
w h o w a s p r e s i d i n g over his f i r s t I m p e r i a l D i e t .
T h e e m p e r o r o r d e r e d L u t h e r t o d i s a v o w his w r i t –
ings, b u t L u t h e r refused t o d o so. F o r several days
the D i e t was i n an u p r o a r , d i v i d e d by f r i e n d s a n d
foes o f L u t h e r ‘ s d o c t r i n e s . Just before he w a s t o be
c o n d e m n e d b y the emperor, L u t h e r d i s a p p e a r e d ,
a n d r u m o r s f l e w t h a t he h a d been assassinated.
F o r days n o one k n e w the t r u t h . T h e t r u t h w a s
t h a t F r e d e r i c k the W i s e h a d k i d n a p p e d L u t h e r f o r
his o w n safety a n d h i d h i m i n the castle at W a r t –
b u r g , w h e r e f o r nearly a year he l a b o r e d i n q u i e t
seclusion t r a n s l a t i n g Erasmus’s v e r s i o n o f the
N e w Testament i n t o G e r m a n (See Justice in
History i n this c h a p t e r ) .

T h e Appeal of Luther’s Message
I n its e a r l y phases the R e f o r m a t i o n s p r e a d m o s t
r a p i d l y a m o n g t h e e d u c a t e d u r b a n classes. D u r –
i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , 5 0 o f the 65 G e r m a n
i m p e r i a l c i t i e s , at one t i m e o r a n o t h e r , o f f i c i a l l y
accepted t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e f o r m a t i o n . M o s t o f
the 2 0 0 s m a l l e r G e r m a n t o w n s w i t h a p o p u l a –
t i o n o f m o r e t h a n 1 , 0 0 0 also e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e
f o r m o f the P r o t e s t a n t m o v e m e n t . D u r i n g t h e
1 5 2 0 a n d 1 5 3 0 s , the m a g i s t r a t e s ( m a y o r s a n d

o t h e r o f f i c e h o l d e r s ) o f these t o w n s t o o k c o m –
m a n d o f the R e f o r m a t i o n m o v e m e n t b y s e i z i n g
c o n t r o l o f t h e l o c a l c h u r c h e s . T h e m a g i s t r a t e s
i m p l e m e n t e d L u t h e r ‘ s r e f o r m o f w o r s h i p , d i s c i –
p l i n e d t h e c l e r g y , a n d s t o p p e d t h e d r a i n o f r e v –
enues t o i r r e s p o n s i b l e b i s h o p s a n d t h e d i s t a n t
p o p e .

T h e G e r m a n p r i n c e s o f the H o l y R o m a n
E m p i r e h a d t h e i r o w n reasons t o resent t h e
p o w e r o f the C h u r c h . T h e y w a n t e d t o a p p o i n t
t h e i r o w n n o m i n e e s t o ecclesiastical o f f i c e s a n d
t o d i m i n i s h the l e g a l p r i v i l e g e s o f t h e c l e r g y .
D e s p i t e his steadfast C a t h o l i c i s m , E m p e r o r
C h a r l e s V w a s i n n o p o s i t i o n t o resist t h e i r
d e m a n d s . D u r i n g m o s t o f his r e i g n , C h a r l e s
faced a t w o – f r o n t w a r — a g a i n s t France a n d
a g a i n s t the O t t o m a n T u r k s . C h a r l e s d e s p e r a t e l y
needed the G e r m a n p r i n c e s ‘ i n i l i t a r y assistance.
A t t h e f i r s t I m p e r i a l D i e t o f Speyer i n 1 5 2 6 ,
C h a r l e s a l l o w e d t h e p r i n c e s t o decide w h e t h e r
t h e y w o u l d e n f o r c e t h e e d i c t o f the D i e t o f
W o r m s against L u t h e r a n d his f o l l o w e r s . T o p r e –
serve the e m p i r e f r o m e x t e r n a l enemies, t h e
e m p e r o r w a s f o r c e d t o a l l o w its i n t e r n a l d i v i s i o n
a l o n g r e l i g i o u s lines.

L u t h e r ‘ s message especially appealed t o
w o m e n . I n the early days o f the m o v e m e n t , m a n y
w o m e n felt t h a t L u t h e r ‘ s d e s c r i p t i o n o f ” t h e
p r i e s t h o o d o f a l l b e l i e v e r s ” i n c l u d e d t h e m .
W o m e n u n d e r s t o o d L u t h e r ‘ s phrase ” t h e f r e e d o m
o f a C h r i s t i a n ” as f r e e i n g t h e i n f r o m t h e r e s t r i c –
t i v e roles t h a t h a d t r a d i t i o n a l l y k e p t t h e m silent
a n d at h o m e . M o r e o v e r , L u t h e r a n d the o t h e r
m a j o r r e f o r m e r s saw p o s i t i v e r e l i g i o u s value i n
the r o l e o f w i f e a n d m o t h e r . A b a n d o n i n g the
C a t h o h c C h u r c h ‘ s v i e w t h a t celibate m o n k s a n d
n u n s w e r e m o r a l l y s u p e r i o r t o m a r r i e d p e o p l e ,
L u t h e r declared m a r r i a g e h o l y a n d set a n e x a m –
ple by t a k i n g a w i f e , the e x – n u n K a t h e r i n a v o n
B o r a . I n countless p o p u l a r images o f t h e m , M a r –
t i n a n d L u t h e r became t h e m o d e l m a r r i e d c o u p l e
as s h o w n o n page 4 3 8 . T h e w i v e s o f the r e f o r m –
ers o f t e n became p a r t n e r s i n the R e f o r m a t i o n ,
t a k i n g p a r t i c u l a r r e s p o n s i b i h t y f o r o r g a n i z i n g
charities a n d m i n i s t e r i n g t o the p o o r .

I n the e a r l y phases o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n ,
w o m e n p r e a c h e d a n d p u b l i s h e d o n r e l i g i o i ; ;

438 CHAPTER 14 The Reformations of Religion

KATHERINA V O N BORA A N D M A R T I N LUTHER

For many pious Lutherans the images of Luther and his
herself a former nun, replaced the images of the Virgin
and the saints favored by the Catholics.

m a t t e r s . These w o m e n d e m a n d e d t o be h e a r d i n
c h u r c h e s a n d d e l i v e r e d i n s p i r i n g s e r m o n s . M a r i e
D e n t i e r e , a f o r m e r abbess o f a F r e n c h c o n v e n t
w h o j o i n e d the R e f o r m a t i o n cause, asked, ” D o
w e have t w o Gospels, one f o r m e n a n d the o t h e r
f o r w o m e n ? . . . F o r we [ w o m e n ] o u g h t n o t , any
m o r e t h a n m e n , h i d e a n d b u r y w i t h i n the e a r t h
t h a t w h i c h G o d h a s . . . revealed t o us w o m e n ? ” ^
M o s t w o m e n w e r e s o o n d i s a p p o i n t e d because
t h e i r p r e a c h i n g a n d w r i t i n g t h r e a t e n e d the m a l e
a u t h o r i t i e s . I n some places l a w s w e r e passed t h a t
p r o h i b i t e d w o m e n f r o m discussing r e l i g i o u s
q u e s t i o n s . I n F n g l a n d , w o m e n w e r e even p r e –
v e n t e d f r o m r e a d i n g the B i b l e a l o u d t o o t h e r s .
T h e f e w w o m e n w h o w e r e able t o speak a n d act
o p e n l y i n p u b l i c w e r e e i t h e r queens o r the w i v e s
o f p r o m i n e n t r e f o r m e r s . M o s t w o m e n c o n f i n e d
t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the R e f o r m a t i o n t o the
d o m e s t i c sphere, w h e r e they i n s t r u c t e d c h i l d r e n ,
q u i e t l y read t h e B i b l e , a n d led p r a y e r circles.

O n e o f t h e a t t r a c t i o n s o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m w a s
t h a t i t a l l o w e d d i v o r c e , w h i c h was p r o h i b i t e d by
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h l a w . F i o w e v e r , the r e f o r m l e a d –
ers w e r e q u i t e r e h i c t a n t t o g r a n t w o m e n the same
r i g h t s as t h e i r husbands i n o b t a i n i n g a d i v o r c e .

D u r i n g the early years o f the R e f o r m a –
t i o n , there w e r e m a n y marriages i n w h i c h
one spouse f o l l o w e d the o l d f a i t h a n d the
o t h e r the new. B u t i f the w o m a n c o n –
v e r t e d a n d her h u s b a n d d i d n o t , t h e
P r o t e s t a n t r e f o r m e r s counseled t h a t she
s h o u l d o b e y her h u s b a n d even i f he
f o r c e d her t o act c o n t r a r y t o God’s w i l l .
She c o u l d p r a y f o r his c o n v e r s i o n b u t
c o u l d n o t leave o r d i v o r c e h i m . M o s t
w o m e n w e r e f o r c e d t o r e m a i n m a r r i e d
regardless o f t h e i r feelings. A f e w excep-
t i o n a l w o m e n left t h e i r husbands a n y w a y
a n d c o n t i n u e d t o p r o c l a i m t h e i r r e l i g i o u s
c o n v i c t i o n s t o the w o r l d . O n e such
w o m a n , A n n e A s k e w f r o m E n g l a n d , w a s
t o r t u r e d a n d executed f o r her beliefs.

wife, JHi. GERMAN PEASANTS’ REVOLT T h e R e f o r –
Mary m a t i o n also appealed t o m a n y peasants

because i t offered t h e m a s i m p l i f i e d r e l i g i o n
a n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t , local c o n t r o l of their

churches. T h e peasants o f Wendelstein, a t y p i c a l
South G e r m a n village, h a d been c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t
the c o n d u c t o f its priests f o r some t i m e . I n 1.523,
they h i r e d a ” C h r i s t i a n teacher” and t o l d h i m i n n o
u n c e r t a i n terms: ” W e w i l l n o t recognize y o u as a
l o r d , b u t o n l y as a servant o f the c o m m u n i t y . We
w i l l c o m m a n d y o u , n o t y o u us, and w e order y o u
t o preach the gospel a n d the w o r d o f G o d purely,
clearly, a n d t r u t h f u l l y — ^ w i t h o u t any h u m a n teach-
i n g s — f a i t h f u l l y a n d conscientiously.”^ These v i l –
lagers u n d e r s t o o d the R e f o r m a t i o n t o mean t h a t
they c o u l d take c o n t r o l o f their local c h u r c h and
d e m a n d responsible c o n d u c t f r o m the m i n i s t e r they
h i r e d . H o w e v e r , other peasants u n d e r s t o o d the
R e f o r m a t i o n i n m o r e r a d i c a l terms as licensing
social r e f o r m s t h a t L u t h e r himself never s u p p o r t e d .

I n June 1 5 2 4 a seemingly m i n o r event
s p a r k e d a r e v o l t o f peasants i n m a n y p a r t s o f
G e r m a n y . W h e n a n a r i s t o c r a t i c l a d y d e m a n d e d
t h a t the peasants i n her v i l l a g e a b a n d o n t h e i r
g r a i n harvest t o gather snails f o r her, they
r e b e l l e d a n d set her castle o n f i r e . O v e r the n e x t
t w o years, the r e b e l l i o n spread as peasants rose
u p a g a i n s t t h e i r f e u d a l l o r d s t o d e m a n d the
a d o p t i o n o f L u t h e r a n r e f o r m s i n the C h u r c h , a

f

r e d u c t i o n c
s e r f d o m , ar
m u n i d e s . T
was the 1;
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p o w e r f u l e f i
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n a t i o n o f a 1
the R e f o r m a

These p< t h o u g h t L u t a b o u t the " f i p r e t e d his w i as r e l i g i o u s m e a n t a n y t h o f the C h r i s i d o m , n o t lib bondage. I n : begun i n his i r e f o r m e r s bac i n u n c o m p r o i a n t armies. L Hordes of Pe o w n fear o f i despite his ac was f u n d a m e w a s c o m m i t t e the peasants b dogs. A n d sc 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 peas t h a n the R o m tians. T o the p t i o n o n soci; b e t r a y a l , b u t i( t o r e t a i n the i essential f o r its

LUTHERAN SUCC

Peasants’ R e v o
a r e n e w e d thre
1 5 3 0 E m p e r o r
L u t h e r a n s t o r
arrest. Enraged
T h e f o l l o w i n g
a m i l i t a r y aUi
against the e m p
a n d the T u r k s i

450 CHAPTER 14 The Reformations of Religion

T h e r e l i g i o u s d i v e r s i t y o f H u n g a r y w a s also
r e m a r k a b l e by the s t a n d a r d s o f the t i m e . B y the
e n d o f the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , m u c h o f H u n g a r y ‘ s
p o p u l a t i o n h a d accepted some f o r m o f Protes-
t a n t i s m . A m o n g t h e G e r m a n – s p e a k i n g c i t y
d w e l l e r s a n d the H u n g a r i a n peasants m w e s t e r n
H u n g a r y , L u t h e r a n i s m p r e v a i l e d , whereas i n
eastern H u n g a r y C a l v i n i s m w a s d o m i n a n t .

N o o t h e r c o u n t r y w a s as t o l e r a n t o f r e l i g i o u s
v a r i e t y as T r a n s y l v a n i a ( n o w i n R o m a n i a ) , largely
because o f the w e a k m o n a r c h y , w h i c h c o u l d n o t
have enforced r e l i g i o u s u n i f o r m i t y even i f the k i n g
h a d w a n t e d t o d o so. I n T r a n s y l v a n i a , U n i t a r i a n –
i s m t o o k h o l d m o r e f i r m l y t h a n a n y w h e r e else. I n
1 5 7 2 the t o l e r a n t r u l e r Prince I s t v a n B a t h o r y (r.
1 5 7 1 – 1 5 8 6 ) g r a n t e d the U n i t a r i a n s c o m p l e t e legal
e q u a l i t y t o establish t h e i r o w n churches a l o n g
w i t h C a t h o l i c s , L u t h e r a n s , a n d C a l v i n i s t s — t h e
o n l y place i n E u r o p e w h e r e e q u a h t y o f religions
w a s achieved. T r a n s y l v a n i a was also h o m e t o sig-
n i f i c a n t c o m m u n i t i e s o f Jews, A r m e n i a n C h r i s –
t i a n s , a n d O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s .

T h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s the g o l d e n age o f
the P o h s h – L i t h u a n i a n C o i T m i o n w e a l t h , the largest
t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t i n E u r o p e . F r o m the L u t h e r a n
cities i n the G e r m a n – s p e a k i n g n o r t h t o the vast
o p e n plains o f G r e a t P o l a n d , r e l i g i o u s lines o f t e n
p a r a l l e l e d e t h n i c o r class d i v i s i o n s : C a l v i n i s m
t o o k h o l d a m o n g the i n d e p e n d e n t – m i n d e d n o b i l –
i t y w h i l e the vast m a j o r i t y o f peasants r e m a i n e d
l o y a l t o O r t h o d o x y o r C a t h o h c i s m . Nevertheless,
the C o m m o n w e a l t h escaped the r e l i g i o u s w a r s
t h a t p l a g u e d the H o l y R o m a n E m p i r e . K i n g Sigis-
m u n d A u g u s t (r. 1 5 4 8 – 1 5 7 2 ) declared t o the
deputies i n the P o h s h p a r l i a m e n t , ” I a m n o t k i n g

o f y o u r consciences,” a n d i n a u g u r a t e d extensive
t o l e r a t i o n o f Protestant churches. Fleeing persecu-
t i o n i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , v a r i o u s A n a b a p t i s t g r o u p s
a n d U n i t a r i a n s f o u n d refuge i n P o l a n d . Jews also
began t o f l o c k t o P o l a n d i n the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y
w h e r e they w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y create the largest
g a t h e r i n g o f Jews i n E u r o p e .

TH

E CATHOLIC REFORMATION

• H o w d i d the Catholic C h u r c h responci to
the unprecedented threat to its dominance
of religious a u t h o r i t y i n the West?

T h e C a t h o l i c R e f o r m a t i o n , also k n o w n as the
C o u n t e r R e f o r m a t i o n , p r o f o u n d l y r e v i t a l i z e d the
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . T h e C a t h o l i c R e f o r m a t i o n w a s
a series o f e f f o r t s t o p u r i f y the C h u r c h . These
w e r e n o t j u s t a r e a c t i o n t o the P r o t e s t a n t R e f o r –
m a t i o n b u t e v o l v e d o u t o f late m e d i e v a l s p i r i t u –
a l i t y , d r i v e n b y m a n y o f t h e same i m p u l s e s t h a t
s t i m u l a t e d the P r o t e s t a n t s .

The Religious Orders in
the Catholic Reformation

T h e n e w C a t h o h c r e l i g i o u s orders o f the s i x t e e n t h
c e n t u r y e x h i b i t e d a rehgious v i t a l i t y t h a t h a d l i t d e
t o d o w i t h the P r o t e s t a n t t h r e a t . I n f a c t , n o n e o f
the n e w orders began near the centers o f Protes-
t a n t i s m , such as G e r m a n y . I t a l y , w h i c h r e m a i n e d
s t r o n g l y C a t h o l i c , p r o d u c e d the largest n u m b e r o f
n e w o r d e r s , f o l l o w e d by Spain a n d France.

CHRONOLOGY: THE DIVERSITY OF PRmmmmmm
1 5 2 0

1 5 3 4

1 5 3 4 –

1 5 3 5

1 5 3 5

1 5 5 9 – 1 5 6 3

1 5 6 0

Zwingli declared the People’s Priest in Zurich

Parliament in England passes the Acts of Supremacy and Succession

Anabaptist control of Munster, Germany

Execution of John Fisher and Thomas M o r e ; first edition of John Calv

in’s Institutes

of the Christian Religion

The Elizabethan Settlement of the Anglican Church

Scots Confession

JESUITS: T H E $(

i n 1 5 4 0 , the 5
ola ( 1 4 9 1 – 1 5
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The Catholic Reformation 451

i r a t e d extensive
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in’s Institutes

JESUITS: T H E SOLDIERS OF G O D O f f i c i a l l y o r g a n i z e d
i n 1 5 4 0 , the Society o f Jesus elected I g n a t i u s L o y –
ola ( 1 4 9 1 – 1 5 5 6 ) the f i r s t General o f the Society.
Loyola’s d y n a m i c p e r s o n a l i t y a n d intense s p i r i t u a l –
i t y gave the n e w o r d e r its d i s t i n c t i v e c o n m i i t m e n t
t o m o r a l a c t i o n i n the w o r l d . L o y o l a began his
career as a c o u r t i e r t o K i n g F e r d u i a n d o f A r a g o n
a n d a soldier. T h e Society o f Jesus preserved some
o f the values L o y o l a h a d a c q u i r e d as a c o u r t i e r –
s o l d i e r — s o c i a l r e f i n e m e n t , l o y a l t y t o a u t h o r i t y ,
sense o f d u t y , a n d h i g h – m i n d e d c h i v a l r y .

L o y o l a ‘ s p e r s o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o r e l i g i o u s l i t –
erature was the Spiritual Exercises ( 1 5 4 8 ) , w h i c h
became the f o u n d a t i o n o f Jesuit p r a c t i c e . R e p u b –
hshed i n m o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 e d i t i o n s i n h u n d r e d s o f
languages, the Exercises prescribe a m o n t h – l o n g
retreat d e v o t e d t o a series o f m e d i t a d o n s i n w h i c h
the p a r n c i p a n t m e n t a l l y experiences the s p i r i t u a l
l i f e , p h y s i c a l d e a t h , a n d m i r a c u l o u s r e s u r r e c t i o n
o f C h r i s t . M u c h o f the p o w e r o f the Exercises
derives f r o m the systematic e m p l o y m e n t o f each
o f the five senses t o p r o d u c e a d e f i n e d e m o t i o n a l ,
s p i r i t u a l , a n d even p h y s i c a l response. P a r t i c i p a n t s
i n the Exercises seem t o hear the blasphemous
cries o f the soldiers at Christ’s c r u c i f i x i o n , feel the
t e r r i b l e a g o n y o f his s u f f e r i n g o n the cross, a n d
experience the b h n d i n g i l l u m i n a t i o n o f his resur-
r e c t i o n f r o m the dead. Those w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n
the Exercises considered the experience l i f e –
t r a n s f o r m i n g a n d usually made a steadfast c o m –
m i t m e n t t o serve the C h u r c h . As a result, the Jesuit
o r d e r g r e w r a p i d l y . A t L o y o l a ‘ s death i n 1 5 5 6
there w e r e a b o u t 1,000 Jesuits, b u t by 1 7 0 0 there
w e r e nearly 2 0 , 0 0 0 , a n d m a n y y o u n g m e n w h o
w i s h e d t o j o i n h a d t o be t u r n e d a w a y because
there w e r e i n s u f f i c i e n t funds t o t r a i n t h e m .

T h e Jesuits, l i k e Franciscans a n d D o m i n i c a n s ,
d i s t i n g u i s h e d themselves f r o m o t h e r r e l i g i o u s
orders by m i n i s t e r i n g t o others. T h e y d i d n o t w e a r
c l e r i c a l c l o t h i n g , a n d o n f o r e i g n missions they
d e v o t e d themselves t o l e a r n i n g the language a n d
c u l t u r e o f the peoples t h e y h o p e d t o c o n v e r t .
Jesuits became f a m o u s f o r t h e i r l o y a l t y t o the
p o p e , a n d some t o o k a special f o u r t h v o w ( i n
a d d i t i o n t o the three t r a d i t i o n a l v o w s o f p o v e r t y ,
chastity, a n d obedience) t o go o n a m i s s i o n i f the
p o p e requested i t . M a n y traveled as missionaries

t o d i s t a n t p a r t s o f the g l o b e , such as C h i n a a n d
J a p a n . I n E u r o p e a n d the A m e r i c a s the Jesuits
estabhshed a vast n e t w o r k o f colleges. These c o l –
leges o f f e r e d free t u i t i o n , w h i c h m a d e t h e m o p e n
t o t h e p o o r , a n d c o m b i n e d a t h o r o u g h t r a i n i n g i n
languages, h u m a n i t i e s , a n d sciences w i t h r e l i g i o u s
i n s t r u c t i o n a n d m o r a l g u i d a n c e . T h e y became
especially p o p u l a r because the Jesuit fathers w e r e
m u c h m o r e l i k e l y t o p a y p e r s o n a l a t t e n t i o n t o
their students t h a n professors i n the established
universities. I n E u r o p e the Jesuit college system
t r a n s f o r m e d the c u l t u r e o f the C a t h o l i c elite.
These colleges a t t r a c t e d the sons o f the aristocrats
a n d the w e a l t h y w h o absorbed f r o m the Jesuit
i n s t r u c t o r s the values o f Renaissance h u m a n i s m
a n d the C a t h o l i c R e f o r m a t i o n .

W o i v i E N ‘ s ORDERS: ” A S IF THEY W E R E D E A D ”
C r e a t i n g a m i n i s t r y t h a t w a s active i n the w o r l d
was m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t f o r the female orders t h a n
f o r the Jesuits a n d the o t h e r male orders. W o m e n
w h o sought t o r e i n v i g o r a t e o l d orders o r f o u n d
n e w ones faced h o s t i l i t y f r o m ecclesiastical a n d
civic a u t h o r i t i e s , w h o t h o u g h t w o m e n h a d t o be
p r o t e c t e d by either a h u s b a n d o r the cloister w a l l .
W o m e n i n convents were supposed t o be e n t i r e l y
separated f r o m the w o r l d , “as i f they were d e a d . ”

T h e m o s t f a m o u s m o d e l f o r c o n v e n t r e f o r m
w a s p r o v i d e d b y Teresa o f A v i l a ( 1 5 1 5 – 1 5 8 2 ) ,
w h o w r o t e a s t r i c t n e w r u l e f o r the C a r m e l i t e s .
T h e n e w r u l e r e q u i r e d m o r t i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e flesh
a n d c o m p l e t e w i t h d r a w a l f r o m the w o r l d . Teresa
described her o w n m y s t i c a l experiences i n her
Autobiography ( 1 6 1 1 ) a n d i n the Interior Castle
( 1 5 8 8 ) , a c o m p e l l i n g masterpiece i n the l i t e r a t u r e
o f m y s t i c i s m . Teresa a d v o c a t e d a v e r y c a u t i o u s
b r a n d o f m y s t i c i s m , w h i c h w a s c h e c k e d b y r e g u –
l a r c o n f e s s i o n a n d s k e p t i c i s m a b o u t e x t r e m e acts
o f s e l f – d e p r i v a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , she r e c o g n i z e d
t h a t a n u n w h o f e l l i n t o a n a p p a r e n t r a p t u r e
after extensive f a s t i n g was p r o b a b l y j u s t h a v i n g
h a l l u c i n a t i o n s f r o m the hunger.

M a n y w o m e n w h o w i l l i n g l y chose the r e l i –
g i o u s l i f e t h r i v e d i n a c o m m u n i t y o f w o m e n
w h e r e t h e y w e r e l i b e r a t e d f r o m t h e r i g o r s o f
c h i l d b e a r i n g a n d f r e e d f r o m d i r e c t m a l e s u p e r v i –
s i o n . These w o m e n c o u l d d e v o t e themselves t o

T H E E C S T A S Y O F S T T E R E S A

Teresa of Avila eloquently expressed the intimate con-
nection between physical and spiritual experiences
that was a common feature of Catholic mysticism.
Often afflicted by an intense pain in her side, Teresa
reported a vision of an angel who thrust a lance
tipped with fire into her heart. This “seraphic vision,”
which became the subject of Cianlorenzo Bernini’s
famous sculpture in Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome
(1645-1652), epitomized the Catholic Reformation
sensibility of understanding spiritual states through
physical feelings. In Teresa’s case, her extreme bodily
deprivations, paralysis, and intense pain conditioned
how she experienced the spiritual side of her nature.
Many have seen an erotic character to the vision,
which may be true, but the vision best demonstrates
a profound psychological awareness that bodily and
spiritual sensations cannot be precisely distinguished.

c u l t i v a t i n g m u s i c a l o r l i t e r a r y t a l e n t s t o a degree
t h a t w o u l d have been i m p o s s i b l e i n the o u t s i d e
w o r l d . N u n s c r e a t e d t h e i r o w n d i s t i n c t l y f e m a l e
c u l t u r e , p r o d u c i n g a n u m b e r o f l e a r n e d w o m e n
a n d s o c i a l r e f o r m e r s w h o h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e

w o r k such as n u r s m g .

Paul III The First Cathoik
Reformation Pope
D e s p i t e the m a n y earlier a t t e m p t s at r e f o r m a n d
the P r o t e s t a n t t h r e a t , the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h w a s
s l o w t o i n i t i a t e its o w n r e f o r m s because o f resist-
ance a m o n g bishops a n d c a r d i n a l s o f the C h u r c h
h i e r a r c h y . M o r e t h a n 2 0 years after L u t h e r ‘ s d e f i –
a n t s t a n d at the D i e t o f W o r m s i n 1 5 2 1 , Pope
Paul I I I (r. 1 5 3 4 – 1 5 4 9 ) f i n a l l y l a u n c h e d a system-
adc c o u n t e r a t t a c k . As a m e m b e r o f the p o w e r f u l
Farnese f a m i l y , w h o h a d l o n g t r e a t e d c h u r c h
offices as t h e i r p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , Paul seemed an
u n l i k e l y r e f o r m e r . B u t m o r e t h a n any o t h e r p o p e ,
Paul u n d e r s t o o d the necessity t o r e s p o n d t o
P r o t e s t a n t i s m . I t was Pope P a u l , f o r e x a m p l e ,
w h o f o r m a l l y a p p r o v e d the Jesuits a n d began t o
e m p l o y t h e m as m i s s i o n a r y soldiers f o r the
C h u r c h . T o c o u n t e r P r o t e s t a n t i s m , Pope P a u l I I I
also used three o t h e r t o o l s : the R o m a n I n q u i s i –
t i o n , the Index of Forbidden Books, a n d , m o s t
i m p o r t a n t l y , the C o u n c i l o f T r e n t .

I n 1 5 4 2 , o n the advice o f an a r c h c o n s e r v a t i v e
f a c t i o n o f c a r d i n a l s , Paul I I I r e o r g a n i z e d the
R o m a n I n q u i s i t i o n , c a l l e d the H o l y O f f i c e . T h e
f u n c t i o n o f the I n q u i s i t i o n was t o i n q u i r e i n t o
the beliefs o f a l l C a t h o l i c s p r i m a r i l y t o discover
i n d i c a t i o n s o f heresies, such as those o f the
Protestants. Jews, f o r e x a m p l e , w e r e e x e m p t
f r o m its a u t h o r i t y , a l t h o u g h Jews w h o h a d c o n –
verted o r been f o r c e d t o c o n v e r t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y
d i d f a l l u n d e r the j u r i s d i c d o n o f the I n q u i s i t i o n .
T h e r e h a d been o t h e r i n q u i s i t i o n s , b u t m o s t h a d
been l o c a l o r n a t i o n a l . T h e Spanish I n q i u s i t i o n
w a s c o n t r o l l e d b y the Spanish m o n a r c h s , f o r
e x a m p l e . I n c o n t r a s t , the H o l y O f f i c e came u n d e r
the d i r e c t c o n t r o l o f the p o p e a n d c a r d i n a l s a n d
t e r m e d itself the U n i v e r s a l R o m a n I n q u i s i t i o n . Its
effective a u t h o r i t y d i d n o t r e a c h b e y o n d n o r t h e r n
a n d c e n t r a l I t a l y , b u t i t set the t o n e f o r the enure
C a t h o h c R e f o r m a t i o n C h u r c h . T h e I n q u i s i t i o n
subjected defendants t o l e n g t h y i n t e r r o g a t i o n s
a n d s t i f f penalties, i n c l u d i n g p r i s o n sentences a n d
even e x e c u t i o n i n e x c e p t i o n a l cases.

t

t a n t laeas l
f i r s t d r a w n
p u Wish i n g i
banned m a i
d e t r i m e n t a l
C h u r c h . M
books a b o u i
sors also pr(
guidance, su
sics o f l i t e r a l
Decameron.
h i b i t e d t r a n :
languages s
r e q u i r e d a t r
priest t o ini
Church’s pre
p r e t a t i o n cle
the Protestan
Bible reading
heretical thee

T H E I N Q U i :
This painting,
when Christ ii
not mentione
quet, the Inqi
meaning. Ord
painting to de

Source: Paolo Ver
dell’ Accademia,

i o n , a n d c h a r i t a b l e

n p t s at r e f o r m a n d
t h o l i c C h u r c h was
IS because o f resist-
inals o f the C h u r c h
after L u t h e r ‘ s d e f i –

rms i n 1 5 2 1 , Pope
l a u n c h e d a system-
3er o f the p o w e r f u l
n g t r e a t e d c h u r c h
ty, P a u l seemed an
an a n y o t h e r p o p e ,
t y t o r e s p o n d t o
‘ a u l , f o r e x a m p l e ,
:suits a n d began t o

soldiers f o r the
d s m . Pope P a u l H I
bie R o m a n I n q u i s i –
Books, a n d , m o s t

; n t .

n a r c h c o n s e r v a t i v e
1 r e o r g a n i z e d the

H o l y O f f i c e . T h e
as t o i n q u i r e i n t o
m a r i l y t o discover

as those o f the
pie, w e r e e x e m p t
; w s w h o h a d c o n –
e r t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y
o f the I n q u i s i t i o n ,
ons, b u t m o s t h a d
p a n i s h I n q u i s i t i o n
sh monarchs, for
O f f i c e came u n d e r
a n d c a r d i n a l s a n d
l a n I n q u i s i t i o n . Its
h b e y o n d n o r t h e r n
t o n e f o r the e n d r e
L T h e I n q u i s i t i o n
;hy i n t e r r o g a t i o n s
i s o n sentences a n d
ases.

The Catholic Reformation 453

A second e f f o r t t o s t o p the spread o f Protes-
t a n t ideas led t o the btdex of Forbidden Books,
f i r s t d r a w n up i n 1 5 4 9 i n Venice, the c a p i t a l o f the
p u b l i s h i n g i n d u s t r y i n I t a l y . T h e Index censored or
banned m a n y b o o k s t h a t the C h u r c h considered
d e t r i m e n t a l t o the f a i t h a n d the a u t h o r i t y o f the
C h u r c h . M o s t affected by the strictures w e r e
b o o k s a b o u t t h e o l o g y a n d p h i l o s o p h y , b u t the cen-
sors also p r o h i b i t e d or butchered books o f m o r a l
gui dance, such as the w o r k s o f Erasmus, a n d clas-
sics o f h t e r a t u r e , such as G i o v a n n i Boccaccio’s The
Decameron. T h e o f f i c i a l p a p a l Index o f 1 5 5 9 p r o –
h i b i t e d t r a n s l a t i o n s o f the Bible i n t o v e r n a c u l a r
languages such as I t a l i a n because laypeople
r e q u i r e d a t r a i n e d i n t e r m e d i a r y i n the p e r s o n o f a
priest t o i n t e r p r e t a n d e x p l a i n the B i b l e . T h e
C h u r c h ‘ s p r o t e c t i v e a t t i t u d e a b o u t b i b l i c a l inter-
p r e t a t i o n clearly d i s t i n g u i s h e d the C a t h o l i c f r o m
the Protestant a t t i t u d e o f e n c o u r a g i n g w i d e s p r e a d
Bible r e a d i n g . I t r e m a i n e d possible t o b u y certain
heretical t h e o l o g i c a l b o o k s ” u n d e r the c o u n t e r , ”

b u t possessing such b o o k s c o u l d be dangerous i f
agents o f the I n q u i s i t i o n c o n d u c t e d a r a i d .

The Council ov Trent
By f a r the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t o f Pope P a u l I l l ‘ s c o n –
t r i b u t i o n s t o the C a t h o l i c R e f o r m a t i o n w a s his
c a l l f o r a general c o u n c i l o f the C h u r c h , w h i c h
began t o meet i n 1 5 4 5 i n T r e n t o n the b o r d e r
b e t w e e n I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y . T h e C o u n c i l o f
T r e n t established p r i n c i p l e s t h a t g u i d e d t h e
C a t h o h c C h u r c h f o r t h e n e x t 4 0 0 years.

B e t w e e n 1545 a n d 1 5 6 3 the c o u n c i l m e t
u n d e r t h e auspices o f three d i f f e r e n t popes i n
three separate sessions, w i t h l o n g i n t e r v a l s o f as
m u c h as ten years between sessions. T h e o b j e c t i v e
o f these sessions was t o f i n d a w a y t o r e s p o n d t o
the P r o t e s t a n t c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e C h u r c h , t o
reassert the a u t h o r i t y o f the p o p e , a n d t o l a u n c h
r e f o r m s t o g u a r a n t e e a w e l l – e d u c a t e d a n d h o n e s t
clergy.

T H E I N Q U I S I T I O N C R I T I C I Z E S A W O R K O F ART

This painting, now called the Supper in tlie House of Levi, originally depicted the Last Supper
when Christ introduced the mass to his apostles. Because there are many figures in it who are
not mentioned in the biblical account and the supper appears as if it were a Renaissance ban-
quet, the Inquisitors asked the artist, Paolo Veronese, to answer questions about his intended
meaning. Ordered to remove the offending figures, Veronese instead changed the name of the
painting to depict the less theologically controversial supper in the house of Levi.

Source: Paolo Verones, “The Feast in the House of Levi”. 1573. Oil on Canvas. 18’2″ x 41′ (5.54 x 12.8 m). Galleria
dell’ Accademia, Venice. SCALA/Art Resource, NY

T H E D E A T H O F T H E V I R G I N

The Council of Trent enjoined artists
to use their art to teach correct doc-
trine and to move believers to true
piety. Religious art had to convey a
message simply, directly, and in
terms that unlettered viewers could
understand. The best Catholic art
employed dramatic theatrical effects
in lighting and the arrangement of
figures to represent deep emotional
and spiritual experiences. The Italian
painter Caravaggio (1573-1 610)
most thoroughly expressed the ideal
of dramatic spirituality envisioned by
the Council. In this image of the
death of Virgin Mary, the overhang-
ing drapery evokes a stage curtain as
do the lighting effects. The gestures
of the apostles and Mary Magdalen
imitate those of actors. However, the
realism of the scene went too far
and got Caravaggio into trouble.
The dead Virgin is dressed in red,
the color of prostitutes, not her
usual blue, and, in fact, Caravaggio
used as his model a dead prostitute
who had drowned in the Tiber River.
In addition, the realism of the corpse
offended many.

T h e decrees o f the C o u n c i l o f T r e n t , w h i c h
h a d the force o f legislation f o r the entire C h u r c h ,
defied the Protestants by r e f u s i n g t o y i e l d any
g r o u n d o n the t r a d i t i o n a l doctrines o f the C h u r c h .
T h e decrees c o n f i r m e d the efficacy o f a l l seven o f
the t r a d i t i o n a l sacraments, the r e a h t y o f P u r g a t o r y ,

a n d the s p i r i t u a l value o f indulgences. I n o r d e r t o
p r o v i d e better s u p e r v i s i o n o f the C h u r c h , bishops
w e r e o r d e r e d t o reside i n their dioceses. T r e n t
decreed t h a t every diocese s h o u l d have a seminary
t o t r a i n priests, p r o v i d i n g a p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n t o
the p r o b l e m o f clerical ignorance.

E CATHOLIC REFORMATION

1 5 3 4 Pontificate of Pope Paul III begins

1 5 4 0 Founding of the Society of jesus

1 5 4 2 Reorganization of the Roman Inquisition or Holy Office

1 5 4 5 Council of Trent opens

1 5 4 8 Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius Loyola

1 5 4 9 Index of Forbidden Books

1 5 6 3 Council of Trent concludes

T h e C o i
reassertion •
b i s h o p s , anc
w h a t s o e v e r
C a t h o l i c f o i l

CONCLU

Competir
T h e R e f o r m
i n t o t w o
P r o t e s t a n t a
t h e W e s t acl
been f r u i t o
by m i s s i o n a
k n i g h t s . T h ;
f l i c t s betwee
m a g i s t r a t e s ,
c o n t r o l t h e i
p o p e s w h o I
c o n c e p t o f
C h r i s t i a n s n
c a t e d t o ser
o t h e r C h r i s t
t a n t s e m p h a

T h e d i f f
h a d l a s t i n g i
s t o o d a n d ac
a n d t h e state
h f e , a n d how
i n d i v i d u a l s a
n i t y . T h e ne
these themes

T h e d i v i
F r o m the lat(
teenth c e n t u i
d i p l o m a t i c a
r e l i g i o u s d i v i
t o p r e v e n t
d u c t e d w a r s ;
p l a n . E v e n ;
ended, Protes
i n g r a i n e d in i

Conclusion 455

T h e C o u n c i l o f T r e n t represented a d r a m a t i c
reassertion o f the a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p a p a c y , t h e
b i s h o p s , a n d t h e p r i e s t h o o d . Yet i t h a d n o effect
w h a t s o e v e r i n l u r i n g P r o t e s t a n t s b a c k i n t o the
C a t h o l i c f o l d .

CONCLUSION

Competing Understandings
T h e R e f o r m a t i o n p e r m a n e n t l y d i v i d e d the W e s t
i n t o t w o d i s c o r d a n t r e l i g i o u s c u l t u r e s o f
P r o t e s t a n t a n d C a t h o l i c . T h e r e l i g i o u s u n i t y o f
t h e W e s t a c h i e v e d d u r i n g the M i d d l e Ages h a d
been f r u i t o f m a n y c e n t u r i e s o f d i l i g e n t e f f o r t
b y m i s s i o n a r i e s , m o n k s , p o p e s , a n d c r u s a d i n g
k n i g h t s . T h a t u n i t y w a s l o s t t h r o u g h t h e c o n –
f l i c t s b e t w e e n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , r e f o r m e r s , c i t y
m a g i s t r a t e s , p r i n c e s , a n d k i n g s w h o w a n t e d t o
c o n t r o l t h e i r o w n a f f a i r s a n d , o n the o t h e r ,
p o p e s w h o c o n t i n u e d t o c l i n g t o t h e m e d i e v a l
c o n c e p t o f t h e p a p a l m o n a r c h y . I n the W e s t ,
C h r i s t i a n s n o l o n g e r s a w themselves as d e d i –
c a t e d t o s e r v i n g G o d i n t h e same w a y as a l l
o t h e r C h r i s t i a n s . I n s t e a d , C a t h o l i c s a n d P r o t e s –
t a n t s e m p h a s i z e d t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n these t w o c u l t u r e s
h a d l a s t i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r h o w p e o p l e u n d e r –
s t o o d a n d accepted t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e C h u r c h
a n d the state, h o w t h e y c o n d u c t e d t h e i r f a m i l y
l i f e , a n d h o w t h e y f o r m e d t h e i r o w n i d e n t i t i e s as
i n d i v i d u a l s a n d as m e m b e r s o f a l a r g e r c o m m u –
n i t y . T h e n e x t C h a p t e r 15 w i l l e x p l o r e a l l o f
these themes.

T h e d i v i s i o n also h a d t r a g i c consequences.
F r o m the late s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o the late seven-
t e e n t h c e n t u r y , E u r o p e a n states t e n d e d t o create
d i p l o m a t i c alliances a l o n g this i d e o l o g i c a l a n d
r e l i g i o u s d i v i d e , a l l o w e d disputes a b o u t d o c t r i n e
t o p r e v e n t p e a c e f u l r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , a n d c o n –
d u c t e d w a r s as i f they w e r e a f u l f i l l m e n t o f God’s
p l a n . E v e n after the era o f r e l i g i o u s w a r f a r e
e n d e d , P r o t e s t a n t a n d C a t h o l i c c u l t u r e s r e m a i n e d
i n g r a i n e d i n a l l aspects o f h f e , i n f l u e n c i n g n o t j u s t

g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y b u t p a i n t i n g , m u s i c , l i t e r a t u r e ,
a n d e d u c a t i o n . T h i s d i v i s i o n reshaped the West
i n t o a place o f intense r e l i g i o u s a n d i d e o l o g i c a l
c o n f l i c t , w h i c h b y the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y d r o v e
m a n y t h o u g h t f u l p e o p l e t o reject t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
f o r m s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a l t o g e t h e r a n d t o advocate
r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n a n d the s e p a r a t i o n o f C h u r c h
a n d state, ideas t h a t w e r e b a r e l y c o n c e i v a b l e i n
the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

KEY TERMS
Protestant Reformation
Christian humanists
northern Renaissance
justification by faith
95 theses
priesthood of all believers
Religious Peace of

Augsburg

Magisterial Reformation
Radical Reformation
predestination
calling
Anabaptism
Spiritualists
Unitarians
Catholic Reformation

CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1 . W h a t caused the religious rebellion that began

German-speaking lands and spread to much of
northern Europe? (page 427)

2. H o w did the Lutheran Reformation create a new
k i n d of religious culture? (page 431)

3. H o w and why did Protestant denominations m u l –
tiply to such an extent in northern Europe and
Britain? (page 439)

4. H o w did the Catholic Church respond to the
unprecedented threat to its dominance of religious
authority in tlie West? (page 450)

TAKSNG IT FURTHER
1 . H o w did the critical and historical approach of

the humanists alter t h i n k i n g about religion?
2. Compare Catholic and Protestant religious cultures

as they were formulated in the sixteenth century.
3. Why did the Protestant Reformation cause so

much opposition and even violence?

V • – ( f j a c t k e on MyHistoryLab