Discussion Question

What would be the price for the discussion question attached?

EDU 525 Perspective on Adult Education

Week 2 Discussion

“Non-traditional Learners and Providers of Adult Education, Training, and Lifelong Learning” Please respond to ONE of the following:

Based on the readings and / or your own professional experience, identify one (1) post-secondary institution that professes to meet the needs of adult learners in your local area. Next, research the institution’s mission statement, vision, core competencies, and publications. Examine the extent to which each institution focuses on nontraditional older students, and then give your opinion on how effective you believe any accommodations are that the institution makes to assist their nontraditional older students balance family, work, life and school.

· OR

· Based on the readings and / or your own professional experience, identify one (1) organization in your community that provides training and / or lifelong learning opportunities to adult learners. Your selected organization should include a representative from one (1) of the following categories: a corporation or for-profit business; a local community service organization; a national non-profit organization; or a local, state, or federal governmental agency. Next, review the selected organization’s mission, vision, and strategic goals. Then, analyze the extent to which the training or lifelong learning activities support the organization’s mission, vision, and strategic goals. Provide a rationale for your response. Include the web link to the organizations you chose.

RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

Community College Education
Higher Education > Community College Education

Abstract

This article provides an overview of community colleges in the
United States. Community colleges largely originated from pri-
vate two-year junior colleges (Diener, 1986). They have served
to expand access to higher education for previously underserved
segments of the American population, such as nontraditional

students (Boggs, 2004; Cohen & Brawer, 2003; Gleazer, 1980;
Spellman, 2007). Community colleges fulfill many curricular
functions including preparation for transfer to four-year institu-
tions, vocational training, continuing education, developmental
or remedial education, and community service (Cohen & Brawer,
2003; Witt et al., 1994).

Overview

Importance of Community Colleges

Gleazer (1980) writes that “Community colleges and their pro-
genitors, public junior colleges, were established to extend
educational opportunity” (p. 7). Because of their role in expanding
access to higher education for a diverse population of students,
community colleges are often referred to as “people’s colleges” or
“democracy’s colleges” (Boggs, 2004). Cohen and Brawer (2003)
noted that “community colleges have led to notable changes in
American education, especially by expanding access” (p. 26).
Diener (1986) aptly summarized some of the changes as follows:

The community college and its faculty serve the widest range
of student ages, abilities, and interests of any institution in
American higher education. It represents the American-built
opportunity for a greater variety of individuals to develop and
cultivate their talents and skills more fully than any other educa-
tional institution (Diener, 1986, p. 16).

Historical Development of Community
Colleges

The Junior College

The modern American community college has its roots in the
junior college (Diener, 1986). Junior colleges were largely pri-
vate two-year colleges that had a main mission of providing the
first two years of general collegiate study (Diener, 1986). Thus,
they essentially fulfilled a transfer function and were a stepping
stone along the way to a four-year liberal arts degree. At the same
time, they retained vestiges of the elitism of the English model of
higher education after which the earlier American colleges were
modeled (Diener, 1986). Researchers have asserted that junior
colleges were extensions of the elite system of higher education,
though only in the sense that the colleges were created to please

Abstract
Overview
Importance of Community Colleges

Historical Development of Community
Colleges

The Junior College

Expansion to Community Colleges

Further Insights

Community College Students

Community College Curriculum & Instruction

Serving the Community

Dual Enrollment

Issues

Vocational Technical Programs

Remedial Education

Bachelor’s Degrees

Financial Concerns

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

Community College Education

“university elitists” and preserve those institutions by providing
some advanced educational training to a growing population of
high school graduates (Witt, Wattenbarger, Gollattscheck, &
Suppiger, 1994).

While some scholars have argued that comprehensive commu-
nity colleges are quite different from the junior colleges from
which they evolved, others have insisted that the two types of
institutions are actually not that different. For instance, Witt et
al. (1994) stated that the “supposed dichotomy is not supported
by fact” (p. 39). For instance, the authors indicated that from
the beginning junior colleges also supported a terminal function
where students could leave with an earned associate’s degree.
They also noted that practical courses in agriculture were taught
at the first junior college in California (Witt et al., 1994). How-
ever, the authors also later indicated that even up to the 1920s
“the most popular junior college curriculum was clearly univer-
sity transfer” (Witt et al., 1994, p. 45). Moreover, nearly half of
all junior colleges at that time offered no terminal degree option
(Witt et al., 1994).

The junior college movement is believed to have originated
at the University of Chicago in the 1890s, where university
president William Rainey Harper divided the upper and lower
divisions of the university and named the lower-division depart-
ments junior colleges (Witt et al., 1994). According to Witt et
al. (1994), “Harper founded the greatest democratic movement
in the history of American higher education” (p. 16). At first the
junior college movement was concentrated in the Midwest (Witt
et al., 1994). Then in the early twentieth century the movement
spread to California. California was more amenable to the spread
of the movement than, for instance, the eastern states, which
already had a rich system of smaller four-year colleges (Witt et
al., 1994). At that time most Californians did not have access to
any form of higher education (Witt et al., 1994).

Expansion to Community Colleges
As junior colleges grew and developed—and became more an
institution of the people—they transformed into community col-
leges. Diener (1986) explains,

The junior college, at first a copy of a portion of the elitist uni-
versity, began to widen its course offerings. It expanded its
types of students served. The inclusion of vocational programs
and daughters as well as sons of blue-collar workers began the
transformation of the junior college to the community college
(Diener, 1986, p. 12).

The transition from mostly private junior colleges to mainly
public community colleges progressed over time. In 1915-16 just
26 percent of all junior (two-year) colleges were public while the
majority (74 percent) was private. By the late 1960s this statistic
had reversed (Cohen & Brawer, 2003).

The time that had the greatest impact on the transformation of the
junior college to the community college was the era after World

War II that was witness to the GI Bill of Rights, the Civil Rights
Movement, and the era of the baby boomers (Diener, 1986; Witt
et al., 1994). It was during this time that the call was made to
ensure access to some form of education for a greater number of
the American people. The community college became America’s
“open door college,” where veterans, women, racial and ethnic
minorities, immigrants, the poor, the disadvantaged, and those
seeking additional or advanced vocational training could all
pursue greater educational opportunity (Diener, 1986). The GI
Bill, which provided a free college education to military veter-
ans, became law in 1944 (Witt et al., 1994). By 1946 more than
40 percent of all students at junior colleges were war veterans.
Overall, enrollments nearly doubled in just three years, growing
from 251,290 in 1944 to half a million during the 1947 academic
year (Witt et al., 1994). According to Witt et al. (1944), by the
1950s the colleges had experienced seven decades of almost
continuous growth. The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
also paved the way for increased enrollment of blacks and other
racial and ethnic minorities at higher education institutions (Bru-
bacher & Rudy, 1997). However, the biggest expansion yet was
to come when the baby boomers descended on the community
colleges in the 1960s and brought with them “the greatest period
of growth in community college history” (Witt et al., 1994,
p. 162). Witt et al. (1944) indicate that during the 1960s what
equated to one community or junior college a week was built
in the United States to accommodate the unprecedented growth.
Enrollments nearly quadrupled, coming to a total of nearly 2.5
million students at the end of the decade (Witt et al., 1994).
Community colleges also moved into urban centers and came
to exist in every state during the 1960s (AACC, 2001; Cohen
& Brawer, 2003). As Gleazer (1980) explains, “For those who
could not leave the community to go to college there was one
within commuting distance” (p. 7).

While there is no clear indication of by whom or when the
name “community college” was first mentioned, an article by
Byron S. Hollinshead in 1936 urged the junior college to be
more responsive to its community and become “a community
college, meeting community needs” (Witt et al., 1994, p. 107).
However, the 1947 Truman Commission report helped cement
the new name into history (Witt et al., 1994). The Truman Com-
mission was a federal commission appointed by U.S. president
Harry S. Truman and was charged with developing a master plan
to expand educational opportunities for the American citizenry
(Witt et al., 1994). Following its work, the Truman Commis-
sion recommended the development of new two-year colleges
and recommended these colleges be called community colleges
(Witt et al., 1994).

Further Insights

Gleazer (1980) explains, “Historically, the community college
was based on the assumption that there were large numbers of
people not served by existing institutions and the unserved were
to be the clientele of these new colleges” (p. 7). One general

Community College Education

segment of the clientele was to be the average citizen. Witt et al.
(1994) indicated that the colleges would be responsive and help
meet the needs of average citizens in a fluctuating world. The
colleges would also help to educate adults and offer “a practical
solution to the problem of adults needing affordable postsecond-
ary education close to home” (AACC, 2001, p. 103). It has been
said that community colleges’ success is rooted in their values of
community responsiveness and access as well as creativity and a
focus on student learning (AACC, 2001).

In terms of community colleges’ highly held value of access,
Cohen and Brawer (2003) stressed that “more than any other
single factor, access depends on proximity” (p. 16). Community
colleges have opened the doors of higher education to more indi-
viduals not just because of their open access policies but also
because they are local, neighborhood institutions that have phys-
ically put higher education in the reach of people who otherwise
would not have had proximity to it. Boggs (2004) explained that
community colleges have “become the largest sector of higher
education, representing nearly 1,200 regionally accredited insti-
tutions within commuting distance of over 90 percent of the
population” (¶ 1). Community colleges also facilitate access
because of the lower tuitions that they charge (Bailey & Morest,
2006).

Community College Students
As noted, adult students were to be part of the clientele of the
new community colleges. Spellman (2007) noted that most com-
munity college students are adult or nontraditional students who
are 24 years of age or older. Bailey and Morest (2006) further
explained that the students at community colleges are more likely
than those at four-year institutions to be older, part-time stu-
dents from lower-income households who may have dependent
children and be first-generation college students. Increasingly,
students are immigrants or the children of immigrants (Terani-
shi, Suárez-Orozco, & Suárez-Orozco, 2011). Data indicate that
57 percent of community college students also work more than
twenty hours per week (CCSSE, 2006). Despite the nontradi-
tional clientele they largely serve, according to the American
Association of Community Colleges (AACC, 2001), community
colleges enroll about half of all first-time college freshmen.

As noted, the majority of community college students are
enrolled part-time. It has been demonstrated that these students
are less engaged in their educational experience than full-time
community college students (CCSSE, 2006). For instance, part-
time community college students appear to interact both inside
and outside the classroom less often with faculty members than
do full-time community college students. In general, commu-
nity college students more often appear to engage in active and
collaborative learning inside the classroom instead of outside it
(CCSSE, 2006).

Community College Curriculum & Instruction
In terms of the education they provide, comprehensive commu-
nity colleges serve a three-prong mission:

• Prepare students for transfer to four-year institutions.
• Provide vocational training.
• Serve the community through continuing education ef-

forts (Witt et al., 1994).

In addition to these three major curricular functions, there are
two other main curricular functions of community colleges:
developmental education and community service (Cohen &
Brawer, 2003). In general, academic transfer enables students
to fulfill the lower-division coursework they need to enter the
upper divisions of a four-year institution (Cohen & Brawer,
2003). Meanwhile, vocational-technical education deals with
occupational, career, and technical studies. Radio repair and
secretarial services were earlier courses taught in these areas
of study. Next, continuing education is generally geared to
individuals who are primarily no longer students and wish to
take classes for personal development. At the same time, devel-
opmental education, or remedial education, has become more
important with the rise in the number of students who were
poorly prepared for advanced study while in secondary school
(Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Finally, community service reflects,
for instance, different short courses, workshops, and noncredit
courses offered for the benefit of the local communities (Cohen
& Brawer, 2003).

Community college instructors have traditionally dedicated little
time to research and scholarship and have instead focused on
teaching. Class size also tends to be small (Cohen & Brawer,
2003). While these conditions seem to provide a favorable envi-
ronment for student learning, researchers were not convinced;
they wanted a better assessment of community college education.
Five benchmarks of effective educational practice at commu-
nity colleges were developed as part of the Community College
Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE) (McClenney, 2004).
Established in 2001, the CCSSE helps to assess community col-
lege student engagement with purposeful educational practices
(McClenney, 2004). The five benchmarks are as follows:

• Active and collaborative learning: Occurs when students
are active participants in their educational experience (for
example, they have opportunities to think about what they
are learning and apply it) and collaborate with others in
their learning efforts

• Student effort: Reflects the amount of time students dedi-
cate to their educational experience

• Academic challenge: encompasses “challenging intellec-
tual and creative work” (¶ 12)

• Student-faculty interaction: Reflects the amount of mean-
ingful contact students have with faculty members

• Support for learners: Materializes not only in the pres-
ence of academic and career services to support students
but also in a general commitment to student success that
permeates campus (McClenney, 2004).

Community College Education

Serving the Community
Community colleges have been recognized for their responsive-
ness to their communities (AACC, 2001). Their responsiveness
has clearly materialized in their curricular offerings. For exam-
ple, in 2000, thousands of community colleges began offering
high-tech coursework to meet a growing demand for this type of
education (Burnett, 2000). A joint survey between the American
Association of Community Colleges (AACC) and ACT in 1999
showed that community college students’ main reason for enroll-
ment was to strengthen their workplace skills in technology and
computers (“Survey,” 2000). Nontraditional students, especially,
are looking to community colleges to update computer skills,
and employability, in a poor economy (Jesnek, 2012). Also, fol-
lowing the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, hundreds
of community colleges began offering degrees and certificate
programs in homeland security. Some have even built facilities
dedicated to training in the area as well (Gilroy, 2005). Finally,
the Chronicle of Higher Education reported that “as tuition at
four-year institutions nears prohibitive levels for some students,
and the demands of the global economy become more press-
ing, community colleges increasingly are focusing on producing
creative thinkers as well as skilled workers” (Ashburn, 2006,
p. 6). At some community colleges these trends have led to the
creation of honors programs, which began to take off at the col-
leges during the 1990s (Ashburn, 2006). In addition to honors
programs, some community colleges also have other types of
special educational programs for students. Service-learning has
been promoted as part of community college education since
1994, and about half of all community colleges offer it as part of
their curriculum (AACC, 2001, as cited in Weglarz & Seybert,
2004). Service learning fulfills two aspects of the community
college mission: educating students and serving the local com-
munity (Weglarz & Seybert, 2004).

Dual Enrollment
Community colleges are also actively involved in easing the tran-
sition from high school to college through their participation in
dual enrollment programs. According to data from the National
Center for Education Statistics on trends in dual enrollment
during the 2002-03 academic year, a greater percentage of public
two-year institutions had students taking courses in dual-enroll-
ment programs than either public or private four-year institutions
(Kleiner & Lewis, 2005). Overall, 93 percent of public two-year
institutions had students enrolled in dual enrollment classes as
compared with 64 with of public four-year institutions and 29
percent of private four-year institutions (Kleiner & Lewis, 2005).

In terms of educational success in community college, Bailey and
Morest (2006) noted that transfer and degree completion rates at
community colleges have remained low. Rosenbaum, Redline,
and Stephan (2007) more strongly indicated that community col-
leges have “shockingly low degree-completion rates” (p. 49).
This can in part be attributed to the characteristics of community
college students themselves, who face a dizzying array of aca-
demic, occupational, and personal struggles (Bailey & Morest,
2006). A national study found that only 34 percent of students

who begin community college with degree aspirations succeed
in obtaining any sort of degree credential within the eight years
after high school (Rosenbaum, Redline & Stephan, 2007).

Issues
Vocational Technical Programs
One current issue in community college education is the decreas-
ing terminal function of vocational-technical programs (Cohen
& Brawer, 2003). The original intent of these programs was to
train students to enter certain skilled occupations and fields after
graduation (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). However, more and more
vocational-technical students are transferring to four-year insti-
tutions to pursue advanced coursework in similar fields (Cohen
& Brawer, 2003). At the same time, the number of students
transferring to four-year institutions after academic transfer or
collegiate preparation is declining because the students enrolling
are more often not dedicated to a certain line of study and may,
for instance, just be taking courses for personal interest (Cohen
& Brawer, 2003).

Remedial Education
Another current issue is the increasing remedial function of
the community colleges (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). According
to Bailey and Morest (2006), “College access has become fun-
damental to economic opportunity in the United States” (p. 1).
However, access to college is only one part of the equity agenda
that community colleges help carry out. The concept of equity in
higher education has also come to reflect that educators hope to
ensure that students are adequately prepared for postsecondary
education and to ensure that students have an equal chance at
succeeding once enrolled in college (Bailey & Morest, 2006).
Community colleges have directly engaged in preparing students
for college-level work through their developmental studies pro-
grams. Estimates show that about half of the students who enter
various community colleges are not prepared for college-level
work (Bailey & Morest, 2006). Community colleges help to
bring the academic skills of these students up to standard (Bailey
& Morest, 2006).

Bachelor’s Degrees
In contrast to the increasing remedial function, some com-
munity colleges across the country offer bachelor’s degrees
(Troumpoucis, 2004). These degree programs are either offered
independently by the community college or jointly with a four-
year institution. More than one hundred community colleges
offered the bachelor’s degree as of 2004 (Troumpoucis, 2004).
Some say that this effort on the part of community colleges is
responsive to community needs and will bring higher education
opportunities to more students, especially nontraditional stu-
dents who may not be able to travel to a four-year institution to
pursue an advanced degree (Troumpoucis, 2004). Others argue
that the move may soften the mission of community colleges
and the value of the two-year degree (Troumpoucis, 2004). The
bachelor’s degrees that community colleges offer tend to be in

Community College Education

vocational areas, such as auto body design. Some have labeled
these types of bachelor’s degrees the “applied baccalaureate
degree” (“History Marches Forward,” 2005, p. 1).

Financial Concerns
Community colleges are also facing financial difficulties.
According to Boggs (2004), “Community college leaders are
struggling to meet accelerating demand with declining public
resources” (p. 13). There is increased enrollment pressure on
the colleges due to several factors. For instance, not only is the
population of high school graduates in the United States increas-
ing, but more of them are choosing to attend college and turning
to community college as a more cost-efficient way to start their
college careers (Boggs, 2004). In the meantime, community col-
leges are facing severe cuts in the state and local funds upon
which they rely (Boggs, 2004; Crookston & Hooks, 2012). Com-
munity colleges count on public funding more than any other
segment of the higher education community (Boggs, 2004). On
average, community colleges nationally receive about 60 percent
of their operating funds from state and local sources while 35
percent of public four-year institutions’ funds come from these
sources (Boggs, 2004).

Terms & Concepts

Baby Boomers: The populous generation born after World War
II between 1946 and 1964 (Wattenberg, 1986).

Dual Enrollment: Also referred to as “dual credit,” “concur-
rent enrollment,” “joint enrollment.” Occurs when students take
college-level courses and earn college credit while still in high
school (Kleiner & Lewis, 2005).

First-Generation College Students: Students who are the first in
their immediate families to attend college.

First-Time College Freshmen: Students who enter college without
any previous enrollment at another higher education institution;
these students may enter college directly after high school.

Nontraditional Students: Students who exhibit one of more
of the following characteristics: lack of a standard high school
diploma, delayed college enrollment, part-time college enroll-
ment, financial independence, and full-time employment.
Nontraditional students may also have dependents other than a
spouse (for example, children or relatives) and may be single
parents (Horn, 1996).

Remedial Education: Raising skills or knowledge of various
subjects or fields to acceptable levels (Barnhart & Stein, 1962).

Service-Learning: “A teaching and learning strategy that inte-
grates meaningful community service with instruction and
reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsi-
bility, and strengthen communities” (NSLC, n.d.).

Student Engagement: “The amount of time and energy that stu-
dents invest in meaningful educational practices” (McClenney,
2004, p. 7).

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rue&db=ehh&AN=5293603&site=ehost-live

Weglarz, S., & Seybert, J. (2004). Participant perceptions of a
community college service-learning program. Community
College Journal of Research & Practice, 28 (2), 123-132.
Retrieved August 1, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=12275843&sit
e=ehost-live

Witt, A., Wattenbarger, J., Gollattscheck, J., & Suppiger, J.
(1994). America’s community colleges: The first century.
Washington, D.C.: Community College Press.

Suggested Reading

Andrews, H. (2000). Lessons learned from current state
and national dual-credit programs. New Directions for

Community College Education

Community Colleges, 2000 (111), 31. Retrieved August 1,
2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=9175129&site=ehost-live

Cejda, B., & Rhodes, J. (2004). Through the pipeline: The
role of faculty in promoting associate degree completion
among Hispanic students. Community College Journal of
Research & Practice, 28 (3), 249-262. Retrieved August 1,
2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=12252763&site=ehost-live

Meyer, H. (2006). A fragile balance. Community College
Week, 18 (11/12), 8-11. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from
EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.
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hh&AN=19556926&site=ehost-live

Pascarella, E. (1997). It’s time we started paying attention to
community college students. About Campus, 1 (6), 14.

Retrieved August 1, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database
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com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=10318159&sit
e=ehost-live

Portmann, C., & Stick, S. (2003). The association between
departmental affiliation and curricular decision making.
Community College Journal of Research & Practice, 27
(6), 519. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from EBSCO Online
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ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=102
44719&site=ehost-live

Somers, P., et al. (2006). Towards a theory of choice for com-
munity college students. Community College Journal of
Research & Practice, 30 (1), 53-67. Retrieved August 1,
2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=18908495&site=ehost-live

Essay by Marlene Clapp, Ph.D.

Dr. Marlene Clapp has nearly nine years of experience in the higher education field. She completed her undergraduate work at the
College of William and Mary and also holds a master’s degree from Virginia Tech. She earned her doctorate in higher education admin-
istration from Boston College in 2005 and works as a higher education researcher .

Copyright of Community College Education — Research Starters Education is the property of
Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users
may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

Career Transition Education Resources
Adult Education > Career Transition Education Resources

Abstract

Career transition can be a daunting process for many workers
who are unsatisfied with their current careers, or who find that
their skills are becoming outdated. Colleges and universities,
state job service agencies, private companies, and even some
employers are all ready to help workers by offering job train-
ing, tools for job searching, and tips for interviewing and writing
effective résumés and cover letters. Resources are also available
for workers transitioning into retirement or for those who are
considering starting a small business.

Overview

In previous generations, most people spent their adult lives
working for a single company and expected to remain at that

company until retirement. Only in a few fields, such as dance
or professional sports, were career transitions deemed natural,
because, after a certain age, the professionals could no longer
physically perform what was required of them. Today this is no
longer the case.

The workplace has become rapidly changing environment. In
the wake of downsizing, restructuring, corporate takeovers,
and outsourcing, jobs that were once believed to offer lifelong
job security no longer have such guarantees. In 2001, the U.S.
Department of Labor reported that over 21,000 employees were
laid off and almost 2.5 million people filed for unemployment
insurance – the largest number of people to do so in 30 years.
The 2007-2009 recession and global financial crisis were accom-
panied by massive layoffs in the United States. In 2012, after a
prolonged contraction of the economy, hiring increased modestly
and company downsizing leveled off somewhat. Even so, 12.2
million people were unemployed (Williamson, 2012). Company
relocations, mergers, and technological advances often result in
job loss. In the past, the unemployed tended to be stigmatized.
However, as more and more workers go through job loss, unem-
ployment is becoming more acceptable. It is no longer seen as
always being the individual’s fault. With this change in percep-
tion, it is easier for adults with the necessary skills to make a
transition from one job to another (Gale, 2003).

Because of the volatile job market, many adults have had to either
voluntarily or involuntarily reevaluate their careers. For some,
this can be a time of opportunity. Regardless of how a career tran-
sition happens, there are many resources to help adults acquire
the skills and knowledge needed to begin a new career. Some of
these resources are offered by government or social service agen-
cies, some are available through colleges and universities in the
form of education and other support services, some come in the
form of partnerships, and some are even offered by employers.

Applications
State & Local Resources
State and local job service agencies are one resource for adults
considering a career change. Many now have websites that
anyone can access. These sites have links to local newspapers,
employer websites, job postings, labor market information, and

Abstract
Overview
Applications

State & Local Resources
College & University Resources
Partnerships
Employer Resources
Adult Education Classroom
Community & Technical Colleges
Private Companies

Entrepreneurship

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

Career Transition Education Resources

other resources. Local job service offices advertise state and fed-
eral government openings as well as local job openings, and
most offices update their listings daily. Job service offices may
also offer computers with software packages that can help clients
create résumés and cover letters, as well as internet access so cli-
ents can search online job postings. Most offices also have career
libraries. These services are offered free of charge.

States can also use workforce development funds to improve
local and regional economies through job training, job retrain-
ing, unemployment insurance, and other benefits. For example,
if voters pass a table gaming bill allowing card games and rou-
lette to be played at establishments that already offer video slot
machines, a specialized workforce will be needed. A gaming
establishment may already have employees and be willing to
pay for their training and certification at a local college, but new
employees will also be needed to fill the new jobs. A state work-
force development office may cover the training and certification
costs for other, unemployed adults in an effort to help them gain
employment.

The federal Small Business Administration also provides
resources for entrepreneurs through its Small Business Devel-
opment Center Program, which is designed to give help, both
technical and managerial, to current and prospective small busi-
ness owners.

College & University Resources
Colleges and universities can also provide useful resources. For
workers who do not like their jobs and are thinking of making a
career change, or for those who are no longer employed, many
colleges have career centers with professional counselors who
can help workers assess their skills and interests to determine
what professions may be best. Counselors can administer interest
inventories, assist with résumé development, help their clients
write an effective cover letter, and conduct mock interviews.
Career centers may also offer internet access, or a career library.
Career centers or community and continuing education depart-
ments may also offer career development workshops on topics
like résumé writing, career planning, interviewing, networking,
stress management, leadership skills, effective communication,
and job search techniques. These workshops are usually pre-
sented free of charge if offered through a college’s career center
or placement office. However, there may be a nominal fee if the
workshops are offered through a community and continuing edu-
cation department.

Career centers can also help adults who are preparing for retire-
ment but would like to continue working after they retire. These
adults can speak with a counselor about what aspects of their
current position they like and what aspects they would rather
avoid in a new position.

Partnerships
Some businesses work with private companies to develop transi-
tion programs which will prepare their employees to move into

other positions in the company. These companies come to the
business or train off-site at their own offices or a hotel. They
charge on either a per-person basis or by the group. Private com-
panies can also assist businesses through a staff reduction by
providing assessment and guidance services to people who will
be losing their jobs. They can provide career assessment through
computerized and paper-and-pencil inventories, offer career
planning and exploration, and help with goal setting. They can
also design and present customized workshops for the affected
employees, help them with résumé and cover letter development,
and provide appropriate feedback.

Employer Resources
Today, many employers are seeing the benefits of offering career
transition services internally. Internal services can save a com-
pany money on recruitment, training, and outplacement costs.
By providing career transition services, these employers can
also define their own career paths for future consideration and
for the recruitment of new employees. And the career counsel-
ing they provide can not only lessen the stress of downsizing
– and thereby mitigate negative publicity – but also train current
employees for new jobs within the company (Kleiman, 1985, as
cited in Boulmetis, 1997).

In order to offer these services, companies must have adult edu-
cators who can help employees develop the skills and knowledge
needed to make the career transition successful. They must also
have human resource personnel or counselors who are capable
of providing support and promoting career transition to employ-
ees. Educators and counselors should have knowledge and skills
similar to those of human resource management, training, and
development professionals. These include adult learning theory
and development, program design, group facilitation, and con-
sulting skills (Chalofsky & Gerstein, 1985, as cited in Boulmetis,
1997).

Adult Education Classroom
State resources such as unemployment insurance are often pro-
vided with the stipulation that the beneficiaries must be willing
to train for a new career. For adults who are going back into the
classroom after years or decades in the workforce, this can be a
difficult transition. For adults who have never had formal train-
ing, it can be even more challenging.

For instance, if a local coal mine shuts down, hundreds of people
may lose their jobs. Many of these men and women began work-
ing in the mines just after or even before they graduated high
school, and have forgotten a lot of what they learned. When they
enroll in college for re-training, their placement test scores will
probably indicate that they need to be placed in remedial courses.
But basic reading and math courses won’t interest them because
the only reason they are attending college is to extend their ben-
efits until the mine reopens, which may or may not happen.

Colleges, therefore, need to adapt their usual teaching strategies
in order to better serve these students. This might include creat-

Career Transition Education Resources

ing special cohort classes so these students can attend classes
together for additional support, or appointing special counselors
or advisors to them to build a trusting relationship in which the
students feel free to ask questions and seek advice. Counselors
and advisors can also be key to their clients’ success by helping
them be open to career change, helping them evaluate their skills
and interests to match them to available jobs, and by reassuring
them that their efforts will pay off in the end.

Community & Technical Colleges
Community and technical colleges have a special role in work-
force training. They are known for quickly adapting to changing
economies, and offer the communities they serve new degrees
and certifications in cutting-edge skills and technology. In
August 2007, the U.S. Department of Labor Employment and
Training Administration announced that it would be giving com-
munity and technical colleges $125 million in grant funds to
build community-based job training in high-growth and high-
demand industries. These funds were meant to build capacity
and develop training activities over a number of years, enabling
the colleges to train students for careers in local and regional
economies (U.S. Department of Labor, 2007). Though many
community colleges experienced budget cuts during and after
the 2007-2009 recession, a strong correlation was made between
falling employment and escalating community college enroll-
ment (Hillman & Orians, 2013).

Community colleges can also work with incoming businesses
and industries to train the workforce in the skills they will need
to obtain a job with a region’s new employers. If a company is
considering relocating to a certain area, they may contact the
local college to discuss setting up training sessions for potential
employees. These sessions may be offered free of charge with
the incoming company paying the training costs. The company
describes the skills they need their employees to have, and the
college is responsible for setting up and conducting the train-
ing. For example, a customer service company may require its
employees to have basic computer and telephone skills. To meet
that need, the college would offer training in the company’s oper-
ating system as well as basic telephone etiquette. The college
may also go a step further by including components on résumé
and cover letter writing as well as interview skills to ensure that
students have the confidence to apply for a job and interview
with hiring personnel.

Private Companies
With the new instability of the job market, there are now com-
panies that offer seminars targeted especially towards adults
who are facing downsizing or a base closure, considering retire-
ment, resigning voluntarily, being forced to leave their current
position, or voluntarily or involuntarily retiring. Lasting any-
where from a half day to three days, these seminars focus on
how workers can deal with career change as well as how they
can find another job or become self-employed. Some of the
topics covered include:

• Balancing change and career
• Building professional trust
• Career transition training
• Conquering procrastination
• Coping with workplace anxiety and depression
• Eliminating fear and worry in the workplace
• Effective anger control
• Entrepreneurship
• Starting a small business
• Writing a business plan
• Interviewing for the job you want
• Life after a government career
• Managing organizational change
• Résumé writing
• Reversing the effects of downsizing
• Test taking tips and skills

Objectives of courses such as these include:

• Using positive steps to get a job
• Analyzing talents
• Marketable skills and areas of interest
• Determining which jobs to go after
• Overcoming barriers to a successful job hunt
• Developing an action plan for getting a job
• Learning how to tap the hidden job market
• Understanding what it takes to get a job interview
• Following up on job interviews
• Developing support systems and networks
• Using job plans to get a job right now (J & K Associates,

Inc., 2006).

Entrepreneurship

The federal Small Business Administration’s Small Business
Development Centers are located throughout the country, and
services are provided free of charge. These centers provide
one-stop assistance to people and businesses by giving them all
forms of advice and guidance. There is at least one Small Busi-
ness Development Center in every state with more than 1,100
local subcenters and satellite locations nationwide. They are
often housed on a community college or university campus, but

Career Transition Education Resources

they can also be located within a chamber of commerce or a
local economic development corporation. These centers work
with individuals from professional and trade associations, the
legal and banking communities, local colleges and universities,
and chambers of commerce to provide expertise in all aspects of
owning a small business. A Small Business Development Center
can:

• Offer counseling, training, and technical assistance for
every element of small business management, such as
the studies of their financial, marketing, and production
organization states

• Help aspiring business owners develop a business plan to
secure bank funds

• Assist with trade, procurement aid, venture capital forma-
tion, and rural development internationally

• Help their clients apply for state and federal business
grants

• Provide a variety of workshops and seminars, publica-
tions, financial programs, and contract assistance to help
new business owners succeed (Small Business Adminis-
tration, n.d.)

Conclusion

Workers who are thinking of voluntarily leaving their current
position need to think carefully before making a decision. To
be successful, they must identify their ultimate goal, the steps
necessary to reach that goal, and any obstacles they may face,
as well as develop strategies to overcome these obstacles. If a
lack of credentials is an obstacle, then he or she could go back to
school or take a night class. A network of support from family,
friends, and mentors can ease the transition and help the person
think things through. People who are changing careers also need
to have a backup plan and an emergency fund in case unexpected
difficulties pop up (Woods, 2002).

While an employee can do very little once a company is sold,
decides to downsize, or completely closes down, there are a
few things he or she can do beforehand to make it easier to find
employment, such as gaining additional knowledge, learning
new skills, and getting more experience in the field. According
to Custard (2007), employees can:

• Build a reputation for professional excellence among a
wide network of contacts

• Obtain additional training or credentials whenever the
opportunity arises

• Take a course
• Enhance their computer skills
• Build and grow a network of professional contacts

• Pursue an undergraduate or advanced degree
• Gain experience outside their field by volunteering for

temporary assignments

• Become active in professional organizations by volun-
teering for a board position or volunteering to work at
regional or national conferences (Custard, 2007).

Job security is far less common than it used to be. However,
the volatility and instability of the job market does not have to
be intimidating. While no one wants to be put in the position of
having to start over again, there are many free resources which
can help with the transition in both practical and emotional
terms. For some, losing a job can be viewed as an opportunity –
the event that provides the impetus to do what they have always
wanted to do but were too afraid to try. The United States econ-
omy may never be able to offer complete job security again, so it
is important to be aware of the available resources and use them
to keep skills current and marketable.

Terms & Concepts

Career Assessment: Tests that are designed to help people under-
stand their interests, values, aptitudes, and skills and how these
all impacts their potential success and satisfaction with different
career options.

Career Counselor: A professional who helps people clarify their
life or career goals, administers and interprets assessments and
inventories to assess abilities and interests to identify career
options, helps develop career plans, teaches strategies and skills
for job hunting, assists in the development of résumés and cover
letters, and helps with anything that is required for a job search.

Career Transition: A state in which employees change jobs
within a company or corporation or find an entirely different
occupation with another employer.

Corporate Takeover: The act of assuming control or manage-
ment of a company and usually occurs when a large company
takes over a smaller company.

Downsizing: A corporate strategy in which a company reduces
its size and complexity in order to increase its efficiency and
profitability.

Mock Interview: A practice interview that can be videotaped,
allowing for constructive feedback and better interview prepara-
tion.

Outsourcing: An arrangement in which an organization contracts
with another organization to perform functions traditionally han-
dled by internal staff.

Career Transition Education Resources

Small Business Development Center: A government program
established in 1976 with the mission of providing management
assistance to established and prospective small business owners.

Bibliography

Blaschke, L. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A
review of heutagogical practice and self-determined
learning. International Review of Research in Open &
Distance Learning, 13(1), 56-71. Retrieved December 15,
2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=71275487&site=ehost-live

Boulmetis, J. (1997). Helping adults through their career tran-
sitions. Adult Learning, 8 (3), 11. Retrieved August 11,
2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=aph&AN=9707082545&site=ehost-live

Custard, B. (2007). Do you have career insurance? Journal of
Environmental Health, 69 (9), 40-41. Retrieved August
11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=aph&AN=24966368&site=ehost-live

Gale, S. (2003). No longer stigmatized by the “U” word, laid-
off workers get a chance. Workforce Management, 82 (12),
81-83. Retrieved August 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online
Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebsco-
host.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11352296
&site=ehost-live

Graduate School, USDA (n.d.). Career transition and train-
ing center management. Retrieved August 11, 2007, from
http://www.grad.usda.gov/index.php?option=com&#x005F
;content&task=view&id=51&Itemid=248

Hillman, N., & Orians, E. (2013). Community colleges and
labor market conditions: How does enrollment demand
change relative to local unemployment rates? Research in
Higher Education, 54(7), 765-780. Retrieved December
15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education
Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp
x?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90593059&site=ehost-live

J & K Associates, Inc. (2006). Downsizing & base closures.
Retrieved August 12, 2007, from http://www.jandkassoci-
ates.com/catview.asp?catid=2

Small Business Administration (n.d.). The office of Small
Business Development Centers. Retrieved August 12,
2007, from http://www.sba.gov/aboutsba/sbaprograms/
sbdc/aboutus/index.html

U.S. Department of Labor Employment and Training
Administration (2007). What’s new in workforce invest-
ment?. Retrieved August 11, 2007, from http://www.
doleta.gov/usworkforce/whatsnew/eta_default.
cfm?id=1716

Williamson, L. (2013). U.S. labor market continued to improve
in 2012. Monthly Labor Review, 136(3), 3-21. Retrieved
December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87094055&sit
e=ehost-live

Woods, B. (2011). Ticket to work. Community College Journal,
82(3), 20-23. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO
Online Database Education Research Complete. http://
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A
N=70868631&site=ehost-live

Woods, P. (2002). Look before you leap. Essence, 33 (7), 102.
Retrieved August 11, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database
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ost-live

Suggested Reading

Ballback, J. & Slater, J. (1996). Making Career Transitions.
Tucson, AZ: Fisher Books.

Erickison Walker, J. (2000). The Age Advantage: Making the
Most of Your Mid-Life Career Transition. New York, NY:
Berkley Trade.

Feller, R. & Walz, G. (1996). Career Transitions in Turbulent
Times. Exploring Work, Learning, and Careers.
Greensboro, NC: ERIC/CASS.

Harrington Hays, K. (1999). Managing Career Transitions:
Your Career as a Work in Progress. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wilson, D. (2004). Back in Control: How to Stay Sane,
Productive, and Inspired in Your Career Transition.
Boulder, CO: Sentient Publications.

Career Transition Education Resources

Essay by Sandra Myers, M.Ed.

Sandra Myers has a master’s degree in Adult Education from Marshall University and is the former Director of Academic and Institu-
tional Support at Miles Community College in Miles City, Montana, where she oversaw the college’s community service, developmental
education, and academic support programs. She has taught business, mathematics, and computer courses; her other areas of interest
include adult education and community education.

Copyright of Career Transition Education Resources — Research Starters Education is the
property of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple
sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

Nontraditional Older Students
Higher Education > Nontraditional Older Students

Abstract

Generally, “nontraditional student” refers to students who are
the first generation in their families to attend college; in other

instances it is used synonymously with students of color,
students with disabilities, or students from disadvantaged socio-
economic backgrounds. This paper discusses changes in the U.S.
higher education student population and develops a clear profile
of the nontraditional older student by compiling the information
and findings from various studies that have specifically targeted
this category of student. As an extension of the student profile,
the studies are also used to discover what issues and concerns
most affect the nontraditional student. The article examines the
largest and most common obstacles nontraditional older students
encounter when trying to earn a college degree. It concludes by
analyzing the most relevant aspects of the educational policies
and systems currently in place, points out how these policies
are often incompatible with the nontraditional student profile,
and makes recommendations for policy adjustments to better
complement the needs and problems common to nontraditional
students.

Overview

Defining “Nontraditional Student”

In educational literature, the term “nontraditional student” is
often used so broadly that it can refer to quite different catego-
ries of students. The term is sometimes used to refer to students
who are the first generation in their families to attend college; in
other instances it is used synonymously with students of color,
students with disabilities, or students from disadvantaged socio-
economic backgrounds (Bundy & Smith, 2004, ¶ 2). The term
is also occasionally used to mean the same as “gifted children”
(Setting Students on a new path, 2007, ¶ 2). Because the term has
been used to describe so many different groups or categories of
students, we should first narrow our definition to focus on what
is actually the central definition for “nontraditional student.” For
the purpose of this paper, the term “nontraditional student” will
be limited to describe “those who are older than 24 years of age
and who may have dependents, be financially independent, and
attend college on a part-time basis” (Bundy & Smith, 2004, ¶ 2).

This definition centers on students who have already been
working in full-time jobs, typically for at least a few years,
and have decided to re-enter formal education so as to gradu-
ally earn a college degree, even as they continue meeting their
various responsibilities of work and family. This definition

Abstract
Overview
Defining “Nontraditional Student”

Profiling the Nontraditional Student: Sample
Studies

Career Motivations

Self-Improvement

Further Insights

Barriers for Nontraditional Students

Part-Time Status

Financial Considerations

Family Responsibilities

Viewpoints

Educational Innovation for Nontraditional
Students

On-Campus Child Care

Flexible Course Delivery

Additional Support

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

Nontraditional Older Students

can also include mothers who do not work outside the home
because they provide full-time care for children. These women
have committed to gradually earning a degree so as to increase
their employment opportunities once their children become less
dependent. So, a nontraditional student is older than a traditional
student and attends school while also working and / or taking
care of dependents. Nontraditional students may be full time
students, but they are most often part-time students since they
usually cannot manage a full-time course load while simultane-
ously caring for family members or working. However, in the
“past few decades, paid employment among college students
has become increasingly common,” and this is a trend that may
coincide with the growth in the number of nontraditional student
enrollments (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005, p. 915).

It might seem upon first impression that the above-defined group
of students represents a relatively minor portion of the overall
number of students attending college today. Surprisingly, some
of the educational surveys claim that over half of the nation’s
students today are aged twenty-five or older, married, or have
children – meaning they fit into the nontraditional student cat-
egory. This has also been a growth trend for several decades. As
Taniguchi and Kaufman (2005) note:

. . .while the enrollment of students aged 24 or younger
grew by 51 percent between 1970 and 2000, the
increase for older students was about three times as
large (National Center for Education Statistics (NCES),
2002a). In 1999-2000, 40 percent of all enrollees were
in their mid-20s or older, with a large proportion of
them attending part time and having dependents (p.
912).

Thus, the number of nontraditional students has grown until
it has become either the majority of college students, or very
close to the majority, and it seems likely that this trend will
continue. Considering that this trend has been increasing for
decades, educators, counselors, and educational institutions
should endeavor to create an accurate profile of nontraditional
students. The first step in doing so is to ask some important
questions: what is the typical life situation for nontraditional
students, what motivates them, what are their concerns, what
needs do they have, and what are their common perspectives
on college education?

Profiling the Nontraditional Student: Sample Studies
Chao and Good (2004) performed a qualitative study that they
assert yielded a theoretical model of nontraditional college stu-
dents’ perspectives on college education. They also noted that
“very little research has investigated the counseling needs of
nontraditional students. In fact, the profession has not yet clearly
identified the reasons that nontraditional students enroll in col-
lege, nor adequately described their perspectives of the college
experience” (Chao & Good, 2004, p. 5). This lack of clarifying
the motives and common difficulties of nontraditional students

was the impetus for their relatively small study (consisting of
about fifty participants).

The authors used questionnaires and held lengthy interviews
with the nontraditional students in their study, after which they
compiled what is essentially a profile of the nontraditional stu-
dent. Their findings showed that a “dynamic interaction among
several factors was central to the participants’ perceptions of
pursuing college education.” Chao and Good write that “central
to the interaction was a sense of hopefulness that participants
held toward their decision, struggles, and perceptions about the
future” (p. 7). The authors also believe that this core category of
hopefulness “critically influenced five other themes: motivation,
financial investment, career development, life transition, and
support systems” (Chao & Good, 2004, p. 7). Apparently due
to their hopefulness, nontraditional students have a tendency to
actively manage their education, employment, family, and inter-
personal relationships. The authors of the study conclude that
nontraditional students also actively integrate their college edu-
cation into their career development; they conclude:

In this study, some people pursued college education
because they ‘felt stuck with their current jobs.’ Other
participants intended to change career goals via college
education. They saw their degrees as facilitating career
development (Chao & Good, 2004, p. 9).

Career Motivations
Many nontraditional students have a very strong career devel-
opment motive behind their decision to earn a degree. Such a
statement may seem obvious; it may seem that all students
enroll in order to develop a good career, but we should consider
whether there is a relevant difference of profile between nontra-
ditional and traditional students that creates a difference in their
motives for attending college. For example, traditional students
enter college straight from high school, often have no idea what
they want to major in, frequently join fraternities and sororities,
and otherwise extensively engage in abundant social lives. This
difference may cause traditional students, who are between the
ages of 18 and 23, not to be as concerned with career develop-
ment compared to their older classmates.

A study that Bye, et al. (2007) carried out supports this idea;
their study used a larger group consisting of 300 students. The
study was carried out in a 2-1 ratio wherein there were twice as
many nontraditional students in the study than there were tra-
ditional students (Bye et al, 2007, p. 149). The authors observe
that, “whereas younger students interacted primarily with peers
and in peer-related activities, older students were less involved
in campus activities and more likely to be involved in caring for
family” (Bye et al, 2007, p. 143). They also noted that a student
may have less intrinsic motivation if the student “simply takes
on a predetermined role from a script written by others, such as
young undergraduates might do when following their parents’
desire that they study in a particular field” (Bye et al, 2007, p.

Nontraditional Older Students

146). The authors’ research revealed that nontraditional students
had higher levels of intrinsic motivation to learn than did tra-
ditional students (Bye et al, 2007, p. 156), and this is probably
related to their strongly career-oriented motivations.

In another study, Bauman, Wang, DeLeon, Kafentzis, Zavala-
Lopez, and Lindsey (2004) created a questionnaire that requested
reasons why the nontraditional student decided to enroll in a
college course program; the results correspond to the Chao and
Good study: the number one reason given was for the sake of
career advancement. The respondents gave specific answers
such as “to be more marketable in a competitive job world” and
“career burnout after fifteen years” (Bauman et al, 2004, p. 15).
These reasons match the Chao and Good study, in which some
respondents said they felt stuck in their current jobs. All of these
responses indicate just how important career objectives are for
nontraditional students.

Self-Improvement
Two more motivating factors were evident in the Bauman et al.
(2004) study, that of “self-improvement,” which was the second
most frequently given reason, and “family,” which was the third
most frequently given reason. The Bauman et al. study also
ascertains which services the schools should offer as the most
beneficial and needed for nontraditional students. Correspond-
ing to the above-described primary motivation of nontraditional
students, the most desired service was career-counseling service,
with 76% of the survey respondents saying they would either be
likely or very likely to use that service. Some of the other highly
ranked services also indicate something about the nontraditional
student’s profile. The second highest ranking was for stress
management workshops, at 57%, and financial aid workshops,
at 53%. Other revealing findings, similar to the above rankings
(from 53% to 40%), indicate a need for time management work-
shops, study skills workshops, personal counseling, financial
assistance for child care, and support groups for returning stu-
dents (Bauman et al, 2004, p. 15).

The Bauman (2004) study demonstrates a marked difference
between the lifestyles of a traditional and nontraditional stu-
dent. For example, it seems improbable that traditional students
would highly rank support groups or financial assistance with
child-care services. In fact, the Bye et al study found that only
two of the traditional students had a child to support, whereas
40% of the nontraditional group had children to support (Bye et
al., 2007, p. 149). Also, 68% of traditional students reported their
parents as a primary source of income, whereas 95% of non-
traditional students were either self-supporting, funded through
loans, scholarships, etc, or were supported by a spouse.

These studies help create an accurate idea of who nontraditional
students are, and what life is generally like for most of them. All
educators and counselors should be aware of the characteristics
that form the nontraditional student profile, and consider how
educational institutions might provide better services for nontra-
ditional students.

Further Insights
Barriers for Nontraditional Students
Taniguchi and Kaufman note that nontraditional students
have received only limited attention in educational attainment
research, even though these students have a growing presence in
colleges across the nation. The authors say that, “among nontra-
ditional students who enrolled in 1989-1990 with the intention
of obtaining a bachelor’s degree, only 31 percent had earned one
by 1994, relative to 54 percent of their traditional counterparts”
(Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005, p. 912). They then note that “pre-
vious research suggests that factors such as part-time enrollment
and the lack of access to financial assistance significantly explain
the college attainment gap between nontraditional and traditional
students, while their family characteristics have relatively lim-
ited explanatory power” (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005, p. 913).

Part-Time Status
Though far fewer nontraditional students earn a degree within
five years, this finding should not be surprising since far more
nontraditional students attend school only part time, meaning it
could take them ten years instead of four years to get through
a degree program. However, the authors allude to studies that
show a correlation between being a part-time student and not
completing a degree program at all, and this should cause con-
cern among educators and educational institutions. Additional
support of this fact can be found in a report published by the
National Center for Education Statistics (2002), which found
that, indeed, adult learners are more likely to leave post-second-
ary education without earning a degree (cited in Compton et al,
2006, p. 74).

One example of a negative factor is that prolonged enrollment
interrupted by periods of absence from school can hamper the
continuity of students’ learning, and this can make courses that
progress from basic to increasingly advanced material much
more difficult. These kinds of educational disruptions can be an
obstacle to degree completion. Also, Taniguchi and Kaufman
(2005) note that nontraditional students often have lower interac-
tion with their instructors and fellow students outside classrooms
– a characteristic we have already seen in the profile – and this
can lessen their support system for getting help when problems
arise.

Additionally, the length of time it takes nontraditional students to
finish their degree programs can simply be too discouraging for
some Researchers point out other major obstructions that nontra-
ditional students encounter on their path to obtaining a degree.

Financial Considerations
For example, the very definition of a “nontraditional student,”
as established above, forms the “federal lines of demarcation
between students who are dependent on their parents and those
whose personal income alone is considered by the financial aid
system” (Hart, 2003, p. 100). Consequently, nontraditional stu-
dents do not have the same financial aid opportunities that the

Nontraditional Older Students

federal system and the educational institutions provide tradi-
tional students, and this also means that the current system may
be unfair, or is at least causing unnecessary hardship for the older
half of today’s college students. Nontraditional students are usu-
ally not eligible to apply for financial assistance programs such
as scholarships, assistantships, tuition waivers and student loans,
and this makes financial hardship one of the bigger barriers for
the nontraditional student. Research indicates that financial aid
probably helps increase educational outcomes because it lifts
some of the student’s financial burden and allows him or her
more time for studying, completing assignments, researching
or otherwise concentrating on important academic activities.
According to Taniguchi and Kaufman,

Financial aid has built-in incentives to encourage its
recipients to maintain high grades and work toward the
timely completion of their education. Therefore, part-
time students’ degree completion is also hindered by
their exclusion from financial aid (2005, p. 914).

Family Responsibilities
Another factor is family care. The Bauman et al study showed
that 40% of the nontraditional students had children to care for.
According to Taniguchi and Kaufman (2005), one additional
infant or toddler decreases the odds of degree completion by
about 50% for both genders. Juxtaposing these two sets of sta-
tistics gives us good reason to believe that 20% of nontraditional
students do not complete degrees because their infants need so
much attention and time that, as parents, they cannot also find
the time to attend school (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005, p. 924).
That is probably why such a high percentage of nontraditional
students in the Bauman et al study highly ranked the need for
financial assistance for child-care services.

Older students have more complex life circumstances and
therefore need personal assistance that differs from traditional
students. The added financial responsibilities of older students,
as well as their necessarily more varied attendance patterns,
mean that a system predicated on a model intended for tradi-
tional students sometimes does not serve them very well.

One example is that the financial aid system was designed and
implemented for traditional students who depend upon their par-
ents’ resources. Unlike nontraditional students, the traditional
student often has never been part of the workforce, the student
goes to college full-time, and graduates according to the tradi-
tional, four-year model. Society and institutions have created
a system around this model, and this needs to be examined in
relation to nontraditional students – particularly now that nontra-
ditional students constitute quite possibly the majority of those
going to college.

As Hart notes, such students are likely to be more interested in
distance education, and this is why the author argues that national
leaders should provide a forum to review and revise the financial
aid system that serves nontraditional students. One interesting

suggestion that Hart makes is to alter the traditional finance
model and consider how we might allow student aid and financ-
ing for distance education, since distance education is often a
good alternative for nontraditional students.

Another example from the area of financial aid is Hart’s point
that financial aid programs usually assume that a student does
not attend one term of an academic year (the summer), and thus
annual aid is limited to two semesters or three quarters. But for
many nontraditional students, this model does not match their
lifestyles. As Hart observes, “Students who attend year-round
reasonably assume that they should be able to get aid for every
term in which they enroll, but the system currently does not meet
that basic need” (Hart, 2003, p.106).

Viewpoints
Educational Innovation for Nontraditional Students
The growth of the nontraditional student population has impor-
tant implications when considering the policies and services that
have traditionally applied to college students, and this is why we
should be examining policy in a different light than that of the
past. For example, Chao and Good argue that the close connec-
tion between “educational and career aspirations underscores the
importance of vocational / career counseling with nontraditional
students,” and that “understanding the travails and aspirations
of nontraditional students during their career and educational
transitions is therefore crucial for counselors to facilitate student
success” (Chao & Good, 2004, p. 10).

On-Campus Child Care
One of the most obvious but as yet underdeveloped areas that
could help nontraditional students is to provide child-care services
either free of charge (perhaps as part of a newly designed finan-
cial aid package) or very inexpensively for those nontraditional
students who need child-care services. This obviously could be
done in any college large enough to support such a program. Some
colleges are already starting to innovate with such programs. For
example, Brookhaven College in Dallas, Texas formed a joint
venture with Head Start to build a preschool education center right
on the campus. The new facility is designed to accommodate 142
preschoolers, all of whom are children of nontraditional students.
The school has created a win-win-win situation:

• The program allows parents of young children to continue
their education, and the parents can conveniently stop at
the child-care center on their way to and from class.

• This helps the school itself since it will very likely
experience a higher retention of nontraditional student
enrollment, and

• The early-childhood education students at the school are
using the opportunity to get hands-on practical experience
by working at this same new facility (Hensley & Cal-
houn, 2007, p. 58).

Nontraditional Older Students

This is the kind of successful integration for a new child-care
program that more colleges should endeavor to create – if they
want to meet the needs of a growing nontraditional student popu-
lation.

Flexible Course Delivery
Even the college programs can be designed more sensitively for
nontraditional students. For example, McHenry County Col-
lege’s Academy of High Performance has designed some of their
programs so that the students enroll in a cohort, and remain in
that group. This likely strengthens their support system; the stu-
dents attend class once per week for 5 hours; students take two
or three courses and can earn up to 9 credit hours each term.
Offering classes in an 8-week or 16-week format using different
delivery methods including classroom, on-line, and telecourse
provides much more flexibility for nontraditional students at
McHenry County College. The cohorts meet at work sites or on
the campus, and the school often alters the start times to help the
employer. This is another example of how schools can innovate
so as to help nontraditional students (Léger, 2005, p. 641).

Additional Support
Compton et al point out that if institutions want to excel in serv-
ing adult students, the institution needs to be flexible and serve
them in what may seem like unconventional ways (Compton et
al, 2006, p. 78). Compton et al propose that institutions should
reduce the time and effort necessary for adult learners to move
through the system. If a nontraditional student has unique and
relevant experiences from his or her working life, then teach-
ers should consider ways to incorporate this. Also, according to
Compton et al, coursework should have practical applications
because “adults tend to have career-focused goals, and they will
often value courses and assignments that are seen as relevant to
their goals” (Compton et al, 2006, p. 79). By way of example,
the authors propose that instructors could allow projects com-
pleted in the workplace to count for credit, or they could make
workplace-related assignments. The authors also suggest initiat-
ing those same services that the participants of nontraditional
student studies ranked as their priorities. Thus, counseling cen-
ters should be available to help students through their emotional,
physical, intellectual, cultural, and vocational transitions, and
such centers should offer programs or workshops on stress man-
agement. Finally, argue Compton et al, “our institutions need
to take a proactive approach to uncovering the needs of adult
learners, rather than waiting until the traditional exit interview or
‘autopsy study’ to learn about problems” (Compton et al, 2006,
p. 79).

Conclusion

America is a leader in allowing nontraditional college student
enrollment. As Taniguchi and Kaufman observe, “there are few
other nations whose tolerance for ‘educational late blooming’
matches that of the United States” (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005,
p. 924). America has many schools available in many places,

such that there are community colleges, four-year colleges or
universities near most communities in every U.S. State. Com-
pared to European or other institutions of higher education, the
U.S. does have relatively flexible and open admission policies
that make college entry relatively easy.

However, as Taniguchi and Kaufman have also noted, and as we
have seen through profiling and examining degree completion
obstacles, nontraditional students have college-completion rates
that are significantly lower compared with those of traditional
students. This needs attention from government, educational
institutions and the academic community; by focusing more on
nontraditional students, there will be many changes that Ameri-
can society, its government, and its educational institutions can
undertake to help nontraditional students, and it is time to begin
working in earnest in that direction.

Terms & Concepts

Career Counseling: Career counselors or coaches use analysis
and assessments to focus on the clients’ issues of career explora-
tion, changes or development. Counselors work with people at
any level and assess the worker’s skills, abilities and work habits,
level of education, work experience and general interests. This
information helps to direct and fit a worker into the occupational
requirements of a jobs or point out a path for attaining a desired
career level.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation that comes from internal, indi-
vidual sources rather than from any external or outside rewards.
While a person may still seek rewards, external rewards are not
enough motivation for completing a task. An intrinsically moti-
vated student wants to get a good grade on an assignment, but
if the assignment is not interesting or personally rewarding, the
possibility of a good grade may not be enough to maintain that
student’s motivation to put significant effort into the project.
People with intrinsic motivation accomplish a task because it is
pleasurable, important, or personally significant.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES): is located
within the U.S. Department of Education and the Institute of
Education Sciences, and is the primary federal entity for collect-
ing and analyzing data related to education.

Nontraditional Student: According to the National Center for
Education Statistics, this is a large, heterogeneous population of
adult students who often have family and work responsibilities
as well as other life circumstances that can interfere with suc-
cessful completion of educational objectives. Usually, a defining
characteristic of this group is being over the age of 24.

Telecourse: A coordinated learning system which uses a series of
television programs supplemented by printed materials faculty
involvement in the form of lectures, and/or consultation. Most
telecourse programs are broadcast via local cable stations.

Nontraditional Older Students

Traditional Student: A student who enters college directly from
high school, takes courses on a continuous full-time basis, com-
pleting a bachelor’s degree program in four or five years by age
22 or 23. Generally, traditional students are financially dependent
on others, do not have spouses or families, consider the college
career to be their primary responsibility, and if employed, are so
only on a part time basis.

Bibliography

Bauman, S., Wang, N., DeLeon, C., Kafentzis, J., Zavala-
Lopez, M., & Lindsey, M. (2004). Nontraditional stu-
dents’ service needs and social support resources: A
pilot study. Journal of College Counseling, 7 (1), 13–17.
Retrieved December 4, 2007, from EBSCO Online
Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebsco-
host.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13039181
&site=ehost-live

Bundy, A., & Smith, T. (2004). Introduction to the special
section: Breaking with tradition: Effective counseling
services for nontraditional students. Journal of College
Counseling, 7 (1), 3–4. Retrieved December 1, 2007,
from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=
aph&AN=13038496&site=ehost-live

Bye, D., Pushkar, D., & Conway, M. (2007). Motivation, inter-
est, and positive affect in traditional and nontraditional
undergraduate students. Adult Education Quarterly, 57
(2), 141–158. Retrieved December 5, 2007, from EBSCO
Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=236
94167&site=ehost-live

Chao, R., & Good, G. (2004). Nontraditional students’ per-
spectives on college education: A qualitative study.
Journal of College Counseling, 7 (1), 5–12. Retrieved
December 4, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database
Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13038502&site=
ehost-live

Chen, J. C. (2014). Teaching nontraditional adult students:
Adult learning theories in practice. Teaching in Higher
Education, 19 (4), 406–418. Retrieved October 8, 2014,
from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=
true&db=ehh&AN=94773613&site=ehost-live

Compton, J. I., Cox, E., & Laanan, F. S. (2006). Adult learners
in transition. New Directions for Student Services, 114,
73–80. Retrieved December 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.

ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=224
56071&site=ehost-live

Coulter, X., & Mandell, A. (2012). Adult higher education: Are
we moving in the wrong direction? Journal of Continuing
Higher Education, 60 (1), 40–42. Retrieved October 8,
2014, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=
true&db=ehh&AN=72107388&site=ehost-live

Hart, N. K. (2003). Best practices in providing nontraditional
students with both academic and financial support. New
Directions for Higher Education, 121, 99–106. Retrieved
December 4, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9461037&site
=ehost-live

Hensley, R. D., & Calhoun, P. (2007). Groundbreaking ideas.
University Business, 10 (2), 57–59. Retrieved December
4, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=
true&db=aph&AN=24035628&site=ehost-live

Léger, N. (2005). Educating nontraditional students through
interdisciplinary collaboration. Community College
Journal of Research & Practice, 29 (8), 641–642.
Retrieved December 4, 2007, from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=
18288704&site=ehost-live

Setting students on a new path. (2007). American School
Board Journal, 194 (Suppl.), 17. Retrieved December 1,
2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=
true&db=ehh&AN=24523471&site=ehost-live

Taniguchi, H., & Kaufman, G. (2005). Degree completion
among nontraditional college students. Social Science
Quarterly, 86 (4), 912–927. Retrieved December 4, 2007,
from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=
aph&AN=18807361&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Davis, J. M. (2005/2006). Designing an online course
for nontraditional students: Revisiting the essentials.
International Journal of Learning, 12 (10), 121–127.
Retrieved December 4, 2007, from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=
24964261&site=ehost-live

Nontraditional Older Students

Jenkins, R. (2012). The new ‘traditional student.’ Chronicle of
Higher Education, 59 (8), A31–A32. Retrieved October 8,
2014, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=
true&db=ehh&AN=82540156&site=ehost-live

Kennedy, A. (2005). All grown up and going back to school.
Counseling Today, 48 (3), 28–29. Retrieved December 5,
2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=
true&db=ehh&AN=18203015&site=ehost-live

Mississippi universities expand net to get nontraditional
students. (2005). Diverse: Issues in Higher Education,
22 (16), 12. Retrieved December 5, 2007, from EBSCO
Online Database Education Research Complete. http://
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&
AN=18547077&site=ehost-live

Reid, K. (2006). Federal commission releases 4 papers.
Chronicle of Higher Education, 52 (36), A34. Retrieved
December 5, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21090279&
site=ehost-live

Essay by Sinclair Nicholas, M.A.

Sinclair Nicholas, MA, holds degrees in Education and Writing and is a freelance writer with many feature articles, essays, editori-
als and other short works published in various publications around the world. Sinclair is the author of several books, including “The
AmeriCzech Dream – Stranger in a Foreign Land” and the “Comprehensive American-Czech Dictionary;” he blogs at his website www.
pragueblog.cz, is a lecturer at the University of Northern Virginia – Prague, and has lived in the Czech Republic since 1991.

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RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

Virtual Universities
Higher Education > Virtual Universities

Abstract

This article presents information on virtual universities. Virtual
universities, also known as online universities or distance edu-
cation, evolved out of the history of distance education as new
technologies became available (Moore, 2003). They have served
to open up access to some form of higher education to students
who would otherwise not have the opportunity, such as working
adults who must balance the responsibilities of work and family
(O’Donoghue, Singh, & Dorward, 2001; Peltier, Schibrowsky,
& Drago, 2007). Larger, non-profit public institutions tend to be
more heavily involved in providing education virtually (Allen &
Seaman, 2006). At the same time, total virtual universities more
often tend to be for-profit entities (Antonucci, 2001). While the
demand for the online education that virtual universities provide
is growing, questions still remain about its legitimacy.

Overview

Importance of Virtual Universities

Many of those in education generally support the notion that
virtual universities provide educational opportunities to students
who would otherwise not have them. For instance, O’Donoghue,
Singh, and Dorward (2001) indicated that “access to the Internet
allows for distance learning that may encourage people to return
to education who would not otherwise due to work or other per-
sonal commitments” (p. 514). Likewise, others have said that
online education particularly benefits nontraditional students
who may have no other educational options (Peltier, Schi-
browsky, & Drago, 2007). Overall, Allen and Seaman (2006)
noted that “a critical question for those who support online edu-
cation has been to determine whether online learning is merely
a different way to serve the existing student base, or whether it
provides opportunities for an entirely new group of students” (p.
10). The latest annual survey sponsored by the Sloan Consortium
in fact found that the majority of chief academic officers (65 per-
cent) agree that online education is critical to their institution’s
long-term strategy (Sloan Consortium, 2011, p. 4).

Virtual universities are also changing the face of distance educa-
tion. Moore (2003) noted that “historically, distance education
has been regarded as an unimportant and marginal activity by
comparison with face-to-face, on-campus forms of teaching and
learning” (p. 40). However, enthusiasm for distance education
has grown rapidly with “the application of Internet-based infor-
mation and communications technologies” (Moore, 2003, p. 40).

Historical Development of Virtual Universities

Virtual universities evolved out of the history of distance edu-
cation as new technologies became available (Moore, 2003).
According to Boettcher (1996), “distance learning in higher edu-
cation evolved to provide access. It has provided access where
it might not have been, due to constraints of geography, time,
family, or money (para. 19). Distance education in the United
States has its roots in the Chautauqua Correspondence College,
which was founded in 1881, and the Extension Department at
the University of Chicago, which initiated the first university-
led distance education effort in 1892 (Moore, 2003). Initially
courses were designed to be delivered to adult learners via
correspondence through postal mail (Moore, 2003). While the
University of Chicago, which was a private institution, set off the

Abstract
Overview
Importance of Virtual Universities
Historical Development of Virtual Universities

About Virtual Universities

Characteristics of Virtual University Students

Current Issues

Growth in Virtual Universities

Questions of Legitimacy

Instructor Roles & Methods

Cost

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

Virtual Universities

university-led distance education effort, public land-grant uni-
versities, such as the Ohio State University and the University of
Wisconsin, served to accelerate it (Moore, 2003). Another public
land-grant institution, the State University of Iowa (now known
as Iowa State University) became the first university to deliver
educational programs over broadcast television in 1934 (Moore,
2003). Later, during the 1980s, the University of Wisconsin had
the world’s most advanced audioconferencing system (Moore,
2003). Finally, the land-grant institution first known as Pennsyl-
vania State College and now known as the Pennsylvania State
University was the first to offer a graduate degree in adult educa-
tion online during the 1990s (Moore, 2003). Overall, by the end
of the 1990s over 80 percent of public colleges and universities
offered courses over the Internet (Moore, 2003).

Virtual university courses are designed to be delivered over the
Internet (Moore, 2003). Both public and private institutions offer
online courses (Moore, 2003). The University of Phoenix Online
and Capella University are two of the more well-known private
providers (Moore, 2003). Rickards (2000) defined the virtual uni-
versity or virtual campus as “a set of technology enabled functions
making possible interactions between the different groups in the
university (student, teaching staff, management and support per-
sonnel) without the need to coincide in time or space” (p. 1).

Moore (2003) argued that over the course of its history distance
education in the United States has not fundamentally changed.
The technological mechanisms by which it is delivered may have
changed but approaches to teaching and organizational structures
have not (Moore, 2003). Over time, courses have been delivered
first by mail via print and correspondence, then by broadcast and
recorded audio and video, next by teleconferencing, and finally
via the Internet (Moore, 2003). Yet, the basic approach to teach-
ing has not changed and still involves

… a careful deconstruction of content and reassembly in a series
of ‘lessons’ for delivery in text to learners who are challenged
in their individual environments to interact with the content to
process it into personal knowledge; and that this processing is
assisted by an instructor through interaction with each learner in
support of that person’s independent study (Moore, 2003, p. 35).

About Virtual Universities
Types of Instruction
It has been stressed that “distance education requires, by defi-
nition, that communication between teacher and learner be
mediated by technology” (Moore, 2003, p. 34). The Internet
is the technological medium utilized by virtual universities
and courses are delivered online. According to Epstein (2006),
“technology allows schools to reach a broader student base
and to offer their programs according to students’ preferences
and time constraints” (p. 37). Online instruction at virtual uni-
versities can specifically be delivered either synchronously or
asynchronously (Epstein, 2006). In synchronous online instruc-
tion, students and their instructor attend class online at the same

time. Asynchronous online instruction is the opposite, and due
to the fact that students and their instructor do not have to attend
class online at the same time, it has been noted that asynchro-
nous online instruction holds the additional promise that “more
people might be able to receive their postsecondary degrees at a
time when it might be otherwise impossible” (Epstein, 2006, p.
36). Regarding virtual university instructors, according to Allen
and Seaman (2006), schools generally use the same mix of core
and adjunct faculty to teach online courses as traditional (face-
to-face) courses.

Total Virtual Universities
Total virtual universities differ in the extent to which they offer
courses online. Rickards (2000) noted that total virtual universi-
ties, in which all services are completely delivered online, are
the exception and that most institutions – both traditional and
non-traditional – are using some combination of technological
and conventional means (e.g., face-to-face instruction) to deliver
courses. Online-only colleges or total virtual universities tend to
be for-profit entities, whereas online segments of traditional col-
leges are not-for-profit (Antonucci, 2001).

Institutional size is apparently tied to which institutions have
virtual segments and to what extent. For instance, according to
Allen and Seaman (2006), “the larger the institution, the more
likely it is to have developed online courses and online pro-
grams” (p. 7). As such, larger institutions, including doctoral/
research and master’s institutions, tend to enroll more online
students. Yet, while the size of the online class at each of the
institutions tends to be smaller, associates institutions have the
largest share of online students because of the absolute number
of such institutions enrolling students. Also, in general, small,
private, four-year institutions are less likely than public institu-
tions to enroll online learners (Allen & Seaman, 2006). Finally,
“there is a very strong positive relationship between institutional
size and online program offerings: the larger the institution, the
more likely it is to have a fully online program, and the more
likely it is to have some form of online offering” (p. 8). For
example, two-thirds of the largest institutions have fully online
programs (Allen & Seaman, 2006).

Virtual universities may also be part of an educational system.
The Tennessee Board of Regents’ Online Degree Program has
been rated as one of top virtual university systems in the United
States. Not only do all Tennessee Board of Regents (TBR)
institutions, including six universities and thirteen community
colleges, participate in the system, but they are also joined by
twenty-six technology centers (Demoulin, 2005).

Characteristics of Virtual University Students
According to Moore (2003), “distance education is exquisitely
suited to meet the needs of the adult in search of learning, as it
delivers the means of organized formal study within the work
or home environment” (p. 2). Distance learning students in fact
tend to be mature adult learners, because these students generally
have the characteristics that are needed to be a successful dis-

Virtual Universities

tance learner including high motivation, strict discipline, and the
ability to work independently (Boettcher, 1996). These students
choose to study online because it is a more efficient approach
for them than studying in a traditional classroom (Lorenzetti,
2005b). Students who study virtually also often do so to “aug-
ment a career need or a desire to learn for other areas of life”
(Lorenzetti, 2005b, p. 3).

One researcher found that online students tend to be on average
three years older than traditional students (Lorenzetti, 2005a),
although approximately 40 percent of online students are under
the age of thirty and about 20 percent are younger than twenty-
five” (Groux, 2012). In a 2006 study, most online students (80
percent) were undergraduates and over half of all online stu-
dents largely studied at two-year (associates) institutions (Allen
& Seaman, 2006). At the same time, Allen and Seaman (2006)
noted that “the proportion of graduate-level students is slightly
higher in online education relative to the overall higher educa-
tion population” (p. 1). In 2011, sixty percent were employed
full-time, and the majority lived within 100 miles of the college
in which they enrolled in an online course (Kolowich, 2012).
Finally, Groux (2012) and Kolowich (2012) note that 70 percent
of students who take online course are women; 60 percent are
white, about 20 percent are black, and approximately 8 percent
identify themselves as Hispanic.

Current Issues
Growth in Virtual Universities
While it has had its ups and downs, according to Foster and Car-
nevale (2007) “the virtual campus is re-emerging” (para. 3). This
resurgence in online education is being fueled by public univer-
sities, like the University of North Carolina and the University of
Illinois, who are adopting a not-for-profit approach to their virtual
divisions (Foster & Carnevale, 2007). A survey by the education-
consulting firm Eduventures found that the name recognition
and geographic dominance of some not-for-profit institutions
may actually give them an edge over for-profit institutions in the
online education sector (Carnevale, 2007). For instance, accord-
ing to Eduventures, despite the flexibility of online courses in
choosing time and place of study, many students choose to enroll
in online programs that are offered by institutions located within
the same geographic areas in which they reside (cited in Car-
nevale, 2007; Kolowich, 2012). Thus, most online students still
want to study near a campus and nonprofit institutions’ histories
and reputations give them an additional edge nationally (Car-
nevale, 2007).

Demand for online education was growing at a substantially
higher rate than was overall enrollment in higher education,
and although the rate is slowing slightly, it continues to outpace
overall enrollment (Sloan Consortium, 2011, p. 4). For instance,
the although the 10 percent growth rate for online enrollments
during the fall of 2010 was the second lowest since 2002, it far
exceeded the less than 1 percent growth in overall higher educa-

tion enrollment. Overall, there was a total enrollment of online
students of over 19.5 million in the fall of 2010 (Sloan Consor-
tium, 2011, p. 11).

Various major reasons or events have been identified to explain
the onslaught of interest in distance education in general. One
event has been the rise of technology and advances that have
resulted in the convergence of communication and computing
technologies (Boettcher, 1996; Rickards, 2000). As a result,
“multiple, and occasionally seamless, communication links now
exist between homes, offices, cars, schools and workplaces”
(Boettcher, 1996, para. 2). Another major reason is the neces-
sity of continuing education in today’s world where workers
must stay up-to-date on emerging skills and developments in
their fields (Boettcher, 1996; Rickards, 2000). Likewise, a major
change in people’s lifestyles has been a growing focus on life-
long learning, or the “emerging overlap of education, training,
work and leisure activity” (O’Donoghue, Singh, & Dorward,
2001, p. 514). There is also greater demand for access to conve-
nient and flexible education (Rickards, 2000). Finally, according
to Boettcher (1996) “current models of higher education are very
resource-intensive, in terms of people, space, content develop-
ment, and time for learners” (para. 8). There is a belief, albeit
perhaps unfounded, that the new technologies of distance learn-
ing may offer a solution to the emerging cost issue (Boettcher,
1996). Rickards (2000) notes that there is an increasing view of
education as a private good. Overall, O’Donoghue, Singh, and
Dorward (2001) noted that as people’s lifestyles become more
complex and busy the market for distance learning over the
Internet may become broader.

Questions of Legitimacy
The legitimacy of online programs continues to be a major issue.
Hitch (2000) referred to the “prejudices and tensions inherent in
educating the adult” (p. 21). One such tension has dealt with
whether or not virtual universities can be licensed and accredited
(Hitch, 2000). Other concerns about quality surfaced as vir-
tual universities came on the scene and included how effective
advising and academic support services could be provided to
students and whether education acquired through online means
would match that provided via traditional means (Johnstone &
Krauth, 1996). Antonucci (2001) argues that online institutions
or virtual universities can offer college services just as easily
over the Internet as traditional institutions do on their physical
campuses. For example, libraries and databases can be delivered
online (Antonucci, 2001). Also, the latest annual survey spon-
sored by the Sloan Consortium found that the majority of chief
academic officers continue to rate online learning outcomes
to be the same or better than those associated with traditional
instruction (Sloan Consortium, 2011). This is especially true at
the largest institutions (Allen & Seaman, 2006). Additionally,
according to Peltier, Schibrowsky, and Drago (2007) various
research studies support that online learning can be just as effec-
tive as traditional, face-to-face instruction. Yet, Schank (2002)
argues that virtual university courses “are usually watered-down
versions of everyday college courses” (p. 83). Meanwhile, Hitch

Virtual Universities

(2000) questioned “whether higher education can fairly evaluate
a 21st century institution when using standards from earlier cen-
turies that may be outdated by technology and do not mesh with
the population that virtual universities serve” (p. 21).

Instructor Roles & Methods
One issue that seems to have received much attention in par-
ticular regarding virtual universities is the educational process,
including methods of teaching and learning as well as the role
of the instructor. In 2002, Schank remarked that “we should
worry about what kind of education these Virtual Us are going
to serve up” (Schank, 2002, p. 75). Regarding methods of
teaching, O’Donoghue, Singh, and Dorward (2001) indicated
that “there are strong arguments for and against the asynchro-
nous methods of teaching that virtual universities invite” (p.
520). For instance, some argue that students’ speaking skills
will suffer under such methods of teaching while others coun-
ter that students who may be too intimidated to speak up in
a traditional classroom may be more willing to engage online
(Barnard, 1999; Westera, 1999 as cited in O’Donoghue, Singh,
& Dorward, 2001).

Some have actually proposed that virtual universities can help
promote a kind of new learning (Antonucci, 2001; Schank,
2002). One example of this kind of new learning involved the
teaching of health care online via a virtual community in which
students “learn by doing” (Antonucci, 2001, p. 35). This type
of online collaborative learning and its associated success dem-
onstrate that “the lack of a classroom won’t matter” (p. 35). In
the virtual education environment, some have also stressed that
the role of a professor or lecturer shifts from that of a formal
teacher to a facilitator or mentor, who guides students in their
independent learning efforts (O’Donoghue, Singh, & Dorward,
2001). Overall, according to some, online education is “having a
profound effect on the future of postsecondary education and is
transforming the educational model from an instructor-driven to
an interactive and community-driven educational environment
in which all students share responsibility for learning outcomes”
(Peltier, Schibrowsky, & Drago, 2007, p. 140).

A 2013 study found, however, that while 97 percent of com-
munity colleges offer online courses, only 3 percent of students
attending those institutions are enrolled in entirely online degree
programs (Fain, 2013). For the most part, students felt they
learned better in face-to-face instructional settings, especially in
science and foreign language classes.

Cost
Another issue circulating about virtual universities deals with
the extent to which they help to reduce institutional costs. Rick-
ards (2000) stressed that “while some governments and some
university managements may still believe that online teaching
can reduce institutional costs, the evidence is to the contrary” (p.
4). In testament to the costs associated with virtual education,
several universities, such as New York University and Colum-
bia, abandoned their online ventures when enrollments were not

sufficient to justify the millions of dollars they invested in them
(Foster & Carnevale, 2007).

Terms & Concepts

Asynchronous Online Instruction: Students and their instructor
do not have to attend class online at the same time.

Continuing Education: A type of education in which students
have some previous educational training but continue their educa-
tion in order to, for instance, stay up-to-date on emerging skills
and developments in their fields (Boettcher, 1996; Rickards, 2000)

Distance Education: A type of education in which communi-
cation between teacher and learner is mediated by technology
(Moore, 2003).

Lifelong Learning: Deals with the notion that while some
learning occurs in independent, ordered fashion (e.g., formal
schooling) other learning is ongoing and overlaps with vari-
ous life activities from work to leisure activities (O’Donoghue,
Singh, & Dorward, 2001).

Nontraditional Students: Nontraditional students exhibit one or
more of the following characteristics: lack of a standard high
school diploma; delayed college enrollment, part-time college
enrollment, financial independence, and full-time employment;
nontraditional students may also have dependents other than
a spouse (e.g., children or relatives) and/or be single parents
(Horn, 1996).

Synchronous Online Instruction: Students and their instructor
attend class online at the same time.

Total Virtual Universities: Also known as online-only colleges,
institutions in which all services are completely delivered online;
tend to be for-profit entities (Antonucci, 2001; Rickards, 2000).

Virtual University: “A set of technology enabled functions
making possible interactions between the different groups in the
university (student, teaching staff, management and support per-
sonnel) without the need to coincide in time or space” (Rickards,
2000, p. 1).

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Stallings, D. (2001). The virtual university: Organizing
to survive in the 21st century. Journal of Academic
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Essay by Marlene Clapp, Ph.D.

Dr. Marlene Clapp has nine years of experience in the higher education field. She completed her undergraduate work at the College
of William and Mary and also holds a Masters from Virginia Tech. She earned her Doctorate in higher education administration from
Boston College in 2005 and has been working as a higher education researcher for the past several years.

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