CJ CheckPoint Sociological Theories Response

Resource: pp. 101-105 of Juvenile Delinquency: The Core

Locate—by searching the Internet—federal, state, or local programs with elements that exemplify the application of each of the sociological theories listed below:

· Social structure theories

· Social process theories

· Social conflict theories

Write a 100-word description of each program. You must have one program that exemplifies social structure theories, one that exemplifies social process theories, and one that exemplifies social conflict theories. Include each program’s main elements and explain the aspects of each program that address the focus of the relevant theory.

Cite your references in APA format.

c h a p t e r 4

Sociological View

of Delinquency
CHAPTER OUTLINE

SOCIAL FACTORS AND DELINQUENCY

SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES
Social

Disorganization

Anomie/Strain
Cultural Deviance

SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES

SOCIALIZATION AND DELINQUENCY
Preventing and Treating Delinquency:
SafeFutures: Using Community
Resources to Prevent and Control Youth
Crime and Victimization
What Does This Mean to Me? Tools That
Can Make a Difference
Preventing and Treating Delinquency:
Dare to Be You
Social Learning Theories
Social Control Theories
Social Reaction Theories

SOCIAL CONFLICT THEORIES
Law and Justice
The Conflict Concept of Delinquency
Social Structure Theories and
Delinquency Prevention
Social Process Theories and
Delinquency Prevention
Social Reaction Theories and
Delinquency Prevention
Social Conflict Theories and
Delinquency Prevention

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you
should:

1. Know what is meant by the term
social disorganization.

2. Understand the relationship
between neighborhood fear,
unemployment, social change,
and lack of cohesion and
delinquent behavior patterns.

3. Be familiar with the concept of
strain and anomie.

4. Comprehend the elements of
general strain theory and the
concept of negative affective states.

5. Understand how cultural deviance
creates a breeding ground for
gangs and law-violating groups.

6. Know the social processes that
have been linked to delinquency.

7. Be able to differentiate between
learning and control theories.

8. Identify the elements of labeling
and stigma that reinforce
delinquency.

9. Recognize the role that social
conflict plays in creating an
environment that breeds antisocial
behaviors.

10. Be familiar with the social programs
that have been designed to improve
neighborhood conditions, help
children be properly socialized, and
reduce conflict.

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82 C H A P T E R 4

The kids who are being helped by the No More Victims programs often live in tough
urban environments in families torn apart and in stress. Although there may be
some factors related to delinquent behavior at the individual level, the majority of
delinquency experts believe that the key to understanding delinquent behavior lies in
the social environment. Most delinquents are indigent and desperate, not calculating
or evil. Most grew up in deteriorated parts of town and lack the social support and
economic resources familiar to more affluent members of society. Understanding
delinquent behavior, then, requires analyzing the influence of these destructive social
forces on human

behavior.

Explanations of delinquency as an individual-level phenomenon fail to account
for these consistent social patterns in delinquency. If violence is related to biochemi-
cal or chromosomal abnormality, then how can we explain the fact that some areas
of the city, state, and country have much higher crime and delinquency rates than
others? Large cities have more crime problems than rural towns; inner-city areas
have higher delinquency rates than suburban areas. It is unlikely that all people with
physical or mental problems live in one section of town or in one area of the coun-
try. Some individual-level theorists believe that viewing violent TV shows can cause
aggression. Yet adolescents in rural and suburban areas watch the same shows and
movies as kids who live in the city. If the media causes violence, how can urban-rural
delinquency rate differences be explained? If violence has a biological or psychologi-
cal origin, should it not be distributed more evenly throughout the social structure,
as opposed to being concentrated in certain areas?

SOCIAL FACTORS AND DELINQUENCY
What are the critical social factors believed to cause or affect delinquent behaviors?

■ Interpersonal interactions. The shape of interpersonal relationships may be a
source of delinquent behavior. Social relationships with families, peers, schools,
jobs, criminal justice agencies, and the like, may play an important role in creat-
ing or restraining delinquency.1 In contemporary American society, there has
been a reduction in the influence of the family and an increased emphasis on
individuality, independence, and isolation. Weakened family ties have been
linked to crime and delinquency.2

It is difficult to be a teen today. Some

kids are being raised in indigent areas

that are the sites of poor housing, un-

derfunded schools, and law-violating

youth gangs. Others are being raised in

dysfunctional families, and some are la-

beled as “losers” from the day they are

born. Kids whose parents are convicted

criminals serving prison sentences often

face all three of these social problems.

The organization No More Victims,

founded in 1993 by Marilyn K. Gambrell,

an author and former Texas parole offi-

cer, works with parents and students to

help them cope with the roadblocks in

their lives. No More Victims teaches kids

to understand their personal pain, and

in so doing, learn how to stop hurting

themselves and others.

VIEW THE CNN VIDEO CLIP OF THIS

STORY AND ANSWER RELATED CRITICAL

THINKING QUESTIONS ON YOUR JUVENILE

DELINQUENCY: THE CORE 2E CD.

culture of poverty
View that lower-class people form
a separate culture with their own
values and norms, which are
sometimes in conflict with con-
ventional

society.

■ Community ecological conditions. Residing in a deteriorated inner-city area that
is wracked by poverty, decay, fear, and despair influences delinquency. These
areas are the home of delinquent gangs and groups.

■ Social change. Political unrest and mistrust, economic stress, and family disinte-
gration are social changes that have been found to precede sharp increases in
crime rates. Conversely, stabilization of traditional social institutions typically
precedes crime rate declines.3

■ Socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status may also affect delinquency. It seems
logical that people on the lowest rung of the economic ladder will have the great-
est incentive to commit crime: they may be enraged by their lack of economic
success or simply financially desperate and disillusioned. In either instance, delin-
quency, despite its inherent dangers, may appear an attractive alternative to a life
of indigence. Economic influences may be heightened by the rapid advance in
technology; kids who lack the requisite social and educational training have
found the road to success almost impassable. A lack of opportunity for upward
mobility may make drug dealing and other crimes an attractive solution for so-
cially deprived but economically enterprising people.4

In this chapter we will review the most prominent social theories of delinquency.
They are divided into three main groups: (1) social structure theories hold that delin-
quency is a function of a person’s place in the economic structure; (2) social process
theories view delinquency as the result of a person’s interaction with critical elements
of socialization; and (3) social conflict theories consider delinquent behavior to be a
result of economic deprivation caused by the inequities of the capitalist system of
production.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES
In 1966, sociologist Oscar Lewis coined the phrase culture of poverty to describe the
crushing burden faced by the urban poor.5 According to Lewis, the culture of poverty
is marked by apathy, cynicism, helplessness, and mistrust of institutions such as police
and government. Mistrust of authority prevents the impoverished from taking advan-
tage of the few conventional opportunities available to them. The result is a perman

ent

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 83

Social scientists find that stabi-
lization of traditional social
institutions usually precedes
crime rate declines. Crime rates
respond to the ability of social
institutions, such as the police,
to achieve public acceptance.
Here, Officer James R. Clarke
hands out his trading cards to
students at Hardy Elementary
School in Smithfield, Virginia.
The cards, paid for through
a community policing grant,
act as public relations for the
Smithfield department, which
is trying hard to reach out to
children.

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Juvenile Delinquency: The Core COPYRIGHT © 2005 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc

underclass whose members have little chance of upward
mobility or improvement. This extreme level of eco-
nomic and social hardship has been related to psycho-
logical maladjustment: people who live in poverty are
more likely to suffer low self-esteem, depression, and
loneliness.6

Nowhere are urban problems more pressing than
in the inner-city neighborhoods that experience con-
stant population turnover as their more affluent resi-
dents move to stable communities or suburbs. Social
conditions have actually worsened in some urban areas
during the past decade.7 As a city becomes hollowed
out, with a deteriorated inner core surrounded by less
devastated communities, delinquency rates spiral up-
ward.8 Those remaining are forced to live in communi-
ties with poorly organized social networks, alienated
populations, and high crime.9 Members of the urban
underclass, typically minority group members, are
referred to by sociologist William Julius Wilson as the
truly disadvantaged.10

The impoverished are deprived of a standard of
living enjoyed by most other citizens, and their chil-
dren suffer from much more than financial hardship.
They attend poor schools, live in substandard housing,
and lack good health care. More than half of families
in poverty are fatherless and husbandless; many are
supported entirely by government aid. Instead of in-
creasing government aid to the needy, however, in the
past decade a concerted effort has been made to lim

eligibility for public assistance.

Neighborhoods that provide few employment
opportunities are the most vulnerable to predatory
crime. Unemployment destabilizes households, and
unstable families are more likely to produce children
who choose aggression as a means of dealing with lim-
ited opportunity. Lack of employment opportunity
also limits the authority of parents, reducing their abil-
ity to influence children. Because adults cannot serve
as role models, the local culture is dominated by gangs
whose members are both feared and respected. Preda-

tory crime increases to levels that cannot easily be controlled by police. Hundreds of
studies have documented the association between family poverty and children’s
health, achievement, and behavior.11 Children in poor families suffer many prob-
lems, including inadequate education. They are less likely to achieve in school and to
complete their schooling than are children with more affluent parents.12

Poor children are more likely to suffer from health problems and to receive
inadequate health care. Unfortunately, the number of children covered by health
insurance has decreased and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future.13

Lack of coverage almost guarantees that these children will suffer health problems
that will impede their long-term development. Children who live in extreme
poverty or who remain poor for extended periods exhibit the worst outcomes.14

Poor children are much more likely than the wealthy to suffer social ills ranging
from low birthweight to never earning a college degree. The cycle of poverty can
lead to a variety of adverse outcomes, including life- and health-endangering condi-
tions (see Figure 4.1). Providing adequate care to children under these
circumstances can be an immense undertaking.

84 C H A P T E R 4

There are more than 13 million kids living in poverty in the
United States. Poor children are more likely to receive inade-
quate health care and as a result they will suffer health problems
that will impede their long-term development. Children living in
poverty are much more likely than the wealthy to suffer social
ills ranging from low birth weight to never earning a college
degree. They are at great risk for crime and delinquency.

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To read the transcript of an
interview with Dr. William
Julius Wilson, click on Web
Links under the Chapter
Resources at http://cj.
wadsworth.com/siegel_
jdcore2e.ht

tp
:

This view of delinquency is both structural and cultural. It holds that delinquency
is a consequence of the inequalities built into the social structure and the cultural val-
ues that form in inner-city, poverty areas. Even youths who receive the loving support
of family members are at risk of delinquency if they suffer from social disadvantage.15

The social structure theories tie delinquency rates to socioeconomic conditions
and cultural values. Areas that experience high levels of poverty and social disorganiza-
tion will also have high delinquency rates. Residents of such areas view prevailing social
values skeptically; they are frustrated by their inability to be part of the American

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 85

Figure 4.1 Examples of Documented Pathways
from Poverty to Adverse Child Outcomes

Source: Arloc Sherman, Poverty Matters (Washington, DC: Children’s Defense Fund, 1997), p. 23.

Iron deficiency

Anemia and problems
with problem solving,
motor coordination,
attention, concentra-
tion, and lower long-
term IQ scores

Financial
barriers
to college

Lower
school
attainment

Fewer books and
lessons, fewer family
trips and extra-
curricular activities

Lower academic
achievement

Child must work
or care for siblings

More mind wander-
ing and less effort
in school, lower
school enrollment
and attainment

Homelessness

Infant mortality,
chronic diarrhea,
asthma, delayed
immunizations,
family separation,
and missed school

Frequent
moving

Not
completing
high
school

Utility
shut-offs

Home fire
deaths

Water
leakage

Mold and
cockroaches

Asthma

Inferior child care

Child stress (measured
by higher stress hormone
levels), anxious and
aggressive behavior,
and less active or
friendly behavior

Perceived financial hardship

Parental stress and depression

Family conflict, less effective
parenting behavior, marital
strain, and breakup

Child behavior problems,
aggressiveness, delinquency,
and learning problems

Peeling paint, falling
plaster, and fewer
opportunities to clean
and repaint

Lead poisoning

Low birthweight,
hearing loss, brain and
kidney damage, reading
disability, lower IQ
scores, dropping out
of school, and attention
deficit and hyperactivity
disorders

Poverty

Poor nutrition

Family stress

Fewer resources for learning

Housing problems

underclass
Group of urban poor whose mem-
bers have little chance of upward
mobility or improvement.

truly disadvantaged
According to William Julius Wil-
son, those people who are left out
of the economic mainstream and
reduced to living in the most
deteriorated inner-city areas.

social structure theories
Those theories which suggest that
social and economic forces operat-
ing in deteriorated lower-class
areas, including disorganization,
stress, and cultural deviance, push
residents into criminal behavior
patterns.

Dream. Structural theories are less concerned with why an individual youth becomes
delinquent than with why certain areas experience high delinquency rates.

All social structure theorists are linked in their belief that social conditions con-
trol behavior choices. However, there are different interpretations of the nature of the
interaction between social structure and individual behavior choices. Three promi-
nent views stand out: social disorganization, anomie/strain, and cultural deviance.

Social Disorganization
The concept of social disorganization was first recognized early in the twentieth
century by sociologists Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay. These Chicago-based schol-
ars found that delinquency rates were high in what they called transitional neigh-
borhoods—areas that had changed from affluence to decay. Here, factories and
commercial establishments were interspersed with private residences. In such envi-
ronments, teenage gangs developed as a means of survival, defense, and friendship.
Gang leaders recruited younger members, passing on delinquent traditions and en-
suring survival of the gang from one generation to the next, a process referred to as
cultural transmission. While mapping delinquency rates in Chicago, Shaw and
McKay noted that distinct ecological areas had developed what could be visualized
as a series of concentric zones, each with a stable delinquency rate (see Figure 4.2).16

The areas of heaviest delinquency concentration appeared to be the poverty-stricken,
transitional, inner-city zones. The zones farthest from the city’s center were the least
prone to delinquency. Analysis of these data indicated a stable pattern of delinquent
activity in the ecological zones over a sixty-five-year period.17

According to the social disorganization view, a healthy, organized community
has the ability to regulate itself so that common goals (such as living in a crime-free
area) can be achieved; this is referred to as social control.18 Those neighborhoods
that become disorganized are incapable of social control because they are wracked by
deterioration and economic failure; they are most at risk for delinquency.19 In areas
where social control remains high, children are less likely to become involved with
deviant peers and engage in problem behaviors.20 Social institutions like schools and
churches cannot work effectively in the climate of alienation and mistrust that char-
acterizes disorganized areas. The absence of political power limits access to external
funding and protection; without outside resources and financial aid, the neighbor-
hood cannot get back on its feet.21

Children who reside in disorganized neighborhoods find that involvement with
conventional social institutions, such as schools and after-school programs, is either
absent or blocked, which puts them at risk for recruitment into gangs.22

These problems are stubborn and difficult to overcome. Even when an attempt is
made to revitalize a disorganized neighborhood by creating institutional support
programs such as community centers and better schools, the effort may be countered
by the ongoing drain of deep-rooted economic and social deprivation.23 Even in
relatively crime-free rural areas, areas that are disorganized because of residential
instability, family disruption, and changing ethnic composition have relatively high
rates of delinquent behavior and youth violence.24

A number of concepts define contemporary social disorganization theory.

Relative Deprivation According to the concept of relative deprivation, in
communities where the poor and the wealthy live relatively close to one another, kids
who feel they are less well off than others begin to form negative self-feelings and
hostility, a condition that motivates them to engage in delinquent and antisocial
behaviors.25 This feeling of relative deprivation fuels the frustration that eventually
produces high delinquency rates.

Community Change Some impoverished areas are being rehabilitated or gen-
trified, going from poor, commercial, or transient to stable, residential, and affluent.

86 C H A P T E R 4

The Northwestern Univer-
sity/University of Chicago
Joint Center for Poverty
Research examines what it
means to be poor and live in
America. Find this Web site by
clicking on Web Links under
the Chapter Resources at
http://cj.wadsworth.com/
siegel_ jdcore2e.

ht
tp

social disorganization
Neighborhood or area marked by
culture conflict, lack of cohesive-
ness, a transient population, and
insufficient social organizations;
these problems are reflected in the
problems at schools in these areas.

transitional neighborhood
Area undergoing a shift in popula-
tion and structure, usually from
middle-class residential to lower-
class mixed use.

cultural transmission
The process of passing on deviant
traditions and delinquent values
from one generation to the next.

social control
Ability of social institutions to
influence human behavior; the
justice system is the primary
agency of formal social control.

relative deprivation
Condition that exists when people
of wealth and poverty live in close
proximity to one another; the
relatively deprived are apt to have
feelings of anger and hostility,
which may produce criminal
behavior.

gentrified
The process of transforming a
lower-class area into a middle-
class enclave through property
rehabilitation.

Other formerly affluent communities are becoming rundown. As communities go
through these changes, levels of delinquency increase.26

Communities on the downswing are likely to experience increases in the number
of single-parent families, changes in housing from owner- to renter-occupied units, a
loss of semiskilled and unskilled jobs, and the growth in the numbers of discouraged,
unemployed workers who are no longer seeking jobs. These communities also tend to
develop mixed-use areas in which commercial and residential properties stand side by
side, an ecological development that increases the opportunity to commit crime.27

Community Fear Disorganized neighborhoods suffer social incivility—trash
and litter, graffiti, burned-out buildings, drunks, vagabonds, loiterers, prostitutes,
noise, congestion, angry words. This evidence of incivility convinces residents that
their neighborhood is dangerous and in decline.28 They become fearful and wary
and try not to leave their homes at night.

Fear of crime is much higher in disorganized neighborhoods than in affluent
suburbs.29 Residents have little confidence that the government can do anything to

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 87

Figure 4.2 Concentric Zones Map of Chicago

Loop
Lake Michigan

III

III
II
I

4.
1

5.
8

7.
5

9.
7

12
.9

24
.5

3.
73.

83.
5

Note: Arabic numerals represent the rate of male delinquency.

Source: Clifford R. Shaw, Delinquency Areas (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929), p. 99.

counter the drug dealers and gangs that terrorize the neighborhood.30 They tell oth-
ers of their experiences, spreading the word that the neighborhood is dangerous.
Businesses avoid these areas and neighbors try to move out and relocate to other,
safer areas. As people and businesses leave, the neighborhood becomes even more
destabilized and crime rates soar. Neighborhood kids may adjust psychologically by
taking risks and discounting the future; teenage birthrates soar, and so do violence
rates.31 As crime rates rise, so does fear.32

In fear-ridden neighborhoods, social institutions cannot mount an effective
social control effort. Because the population is transient, interpersonal relationships
tend to be superficial. Neighbors don’t know each other and can’t help each other
out. Social institutions such as schools and religious groups cannot work effectively
in a climate of mistrust. When community social control efforts are blunted, crime
rates increase, further weakening neighborhood cohesiveness.33 As cohesiveness
declines, fear increases, which reduces community cohesion and thwarts the ability
of its institutions to exert social control over its residents.34 This never-ending cycle
is shown in Figure 4.3.

Community Cohesion In contrast to disorganized areas, cohesive communi-
ties have high levels of social control and social integration; people know one an-
other and develop interpersonal ties.35 Residents of these areas develop a sense of
collective efficacy: mutual trust and a willingness to intervene in the supervision of
children and help maintain public order.36 Communities that are able to maintain
collective efficacy can utilize their local institutions—businesses, stores, schools,
churches, and social service and volunteer organizations—to control crime.37 These
institutions can be effective in helping kids avoid gang membership, thereby lower-
ing neighborhood crime rates.38 Parents in these areas are able to call on neighbor-
hood resources to help control their children; single mothers do not have to face the
burden of providing adequate supervision alone.39

Anomie/Strain
Inhabitants of a disorganized inner-city area feel isolated, frustrated, ostracized from
the economic mainstream, hopeless, and eventually angry. These are all signs of what
sociologists call strain. How do these feelings affect criminal activities? To relieve
strain, indigent people may achieve their goals through deviant methods, such as
theft or drug trafficking, or they may reject socially accepted goals and substitute
more deviant goals, such as being tough and aggressive.

Strain theorists view crime as a direct result of lower-class frustration and anger.
Strain is limited in affluent areas because educational and vocational opportunities

88 C H A P T E R 4

Figure 4.3 The Cycle of Social Disorganization

Disorganization

Weak community
cohesiveness

Weakened social
controlsIncreased fear

Neighborhood
change

Weak social controls
• Formal
• Informal

Fear

collective efficacy
A process in which mutual trust
and a willingness to intervene in
the supervision of children and
help maintain public order creates
a sense of well-being in a neighbor-
hood and helps control antisocial
activities.

strain
A condition caused by the failure
to achieve one’s social goals.

are available. In disorganized areas, strain occurs because legitimate avenues for suc-
cess are all but closed.

It was Robert Merton (1910–2003), one of America’s preeminent sociologists,
who adopted the concept of strain to explain crime and delinquency. Merton argued
that although most people share common values and goals, the means for legitimate
economic and social success are stratified by socioeconomic class. Upper-class kids
have ready access to good education and prestigious jobs; kids in the lower class
rarely have such opportunities. Without acceptable means for obtaining success,
individuals feel social and psychological strain; Merton called this condition anomie.
Consequently, these youths may either (1) use deviant methods to achieve their goals
(for example, stealing money) or (2) reject socially accepted goals and substitute
deviant ones (for example, becoming drug users or alcoholics). Feelings of anomie or
strain are not typically found in middle- and upper-class communities, where educa-
tion and prestigious occupations are readily obtainable. In lower-class areas, how-
ever, strain occurs because legitimate avenues for success are closed. Considering the
economic stratification of U.S. society, anomie predicts that crime will prevail in
lower-class culture, which it does.40

General Strain Theory Merton’s view focuses on the strain that builds up
when lower-class kids become frustrated because they lack the means for achieving
their personal goals. In his general strain theory, sociologist Robert Agnew argues
that there are actually more sources of strain than Merton realized (see Figure 4.4).41

1. Strain caused by failure to achieve positively valued goals. This type of strain will
occur when youths aspire to wealth and fame but assume that such goals are
impossible to achieve. Also falling within this category is the strain that occurs
when individuals compare themselves with peers who seem to be doing a lot
better, or when youths believe they are not being treated fairly by a parent or a
teacher. Such perceptions may result in reactions ranging from running away
from the source of the problem to lowering the benefits of others through physi-
cal attacks or vandalism of their property. For example, the student who believes

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 89

Figure 4.4 Elements of General Strain Theory

Failure to
achieve goals

Disjunction of expectations
and achievements

Removal of positive stimuli

Presentation of
negative stimuli

Sources of strain

Antisocial
behavior

• Anger
• Frustration
• Disappointment
• Depression
• Fear

Negative
affective states

• Drug abuse
• Delinquency
• Violence
• Dropping out

anomie
Normlessness produced by rapidly
shifting moral values; according to
Merton, anomie occurs when
personal goals cannot be achieved
using available means.

general strain theory
Links delinquency to the strain of
being locked out of the economic
mainstream, which creates the
anger and frustration that lead to
delinquent acts.

he is being “picked on” unfairly by a teacher slashes the tires on the teacher’s car
for revenge.

2. Strain as the removal of positively valued stimuli. Strain may occur because of the
loss of a positively valued stimulus.42 For example, the loss of a girlfriend or
boyfriend can produce strain, as can the death of a loved one, moving to a new
neighborhood, or the divorce or separation of parents.43 Loss of positive stimuli
may lead to delinquency as the adolescent tries to prevent the loss, retrieve what
has been lost, obtain substitutes, or seek revenge against those responsible for the
loss. For example, a child who experiences parental separation or divorce early
in his life may seek out deviant peers to help fill his emotional needs and in so
doing increase his chances of delinquency.44

3. Strain as the presentation of negative stimuli. Strain may also be caused by nega-
tive stimuli. Included in this category are such pain-inducing social interactions
as child abuse, criminal victimization, school failure, and stressful events, rang-
ing from verbal threats to air pollution. For example, children who are abused at
home may take their rage out on younger children at school or become involved
in violent delinquency.45

According to Agnew, adolescents engage in delinquency as a result of negative
affective states—the anger, frustration, fear, and other adverse emotions that derive
from strain. The greater the intensity and frequency of strain experienced, the greater
their impact and the more likely they are to cause delinquency. Research supports
many of Agnew’s claims: kids who report feelings of stress and anger are more likely
to interact with delinquent peers and engage in criminal behaviors;46 people who fail
to meet success goals are more likely to engage in illegal activities.47

In sum, kids who feel strain because of stress, disappointment, and anger are
more likely to engage in delinquent behaviors.48 To relieve their feelings of frustra-
tion, they may join deviant groups and gangs whose law-violating activities produce
even more strain and pressures, which result in even more crime.49

Agnew himself has recently found evidence that experiencing violent victimiza-
tion and anticipating future victimization are associated with antisocial behavior.50

This finding indicates not only that strain is produced by actual experiences but that
it may result from anticipated ones.

90 C H A P T E R 4

According to Agnew, strain may
be caused by the presence of
negative pain-inducing interac-
tions within the family, such as
child abuse and neglect. Chil-
dren who are abused at home
may take their rage out on
younger children at school or
become involved in violent
delinquency. On the other
hand, a warm, supportive
family life, such as that shown
here, can help kids cope with
delinquency-producing
environmental strain.

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negative affective states
Anger, depression, disappoint-
ment, fear, and other adverse
emotions that derive from strain.

Cultural Deviance
The third structural theory, cultural deviance theory, holds that delinquency is a
result of youths’ desire to conform to lower-class neighborhood cultural values that
conflict with those of the larger society. Lower-class values include being tough,
never showing fear, living for today, and disrespecting authority. In a socially disor-
ganized neighborhood, conventional values such as honesty, obedience, and hard
work make little sense to youths whose role models may include the neighborhood
gun runner, drug dealer, or pimp. Those adolescents who share lower-class values
and admire criminals, drug dealers, and pimps find it difficult to impress authority
figures such as teachers or employers. They experience a form of culture conflict and
are rendered incapable of achieving success in a legitimate fashion; as a result, they
join together in gangs and engage in behavior that is malicious and negativistic.51

Both legitimate and illegitimate opportunities are closed to youths in the most
disorganized inner-city areas.52 Consequently, they may join violent gangs to defend
their turf, displaying their bravery and fighting prowess.53 Instead of aspiring to be
“preppies” or “yuppies,” they want to be considered tough and street-smart.

Youths living in disorganized areas consider themselves part of an urban under-
class whose members must use their wits to survive or they will succumb to poverty,
alcoholism, and drug addiction.54 Exploitation of women abounds in a culture
wracked by limited opportunity. Sexual conquest is one of the few areas open to
lower-class males for achieving self-respect. The absence of male authority figures
contributes to the fear that marriage will limit freedom. Peers heap scorn on anyone
who allows himself to get “trapped” by a female, fueling the number of single-parent
households. Youths who are committed to the norms of this deviant subculture are
also more likely to disparage agents of conventional society such as police and teach-
ers.55 By joining gangs and committing crimes, lower-class youths are rejecting the
culture that has already rejected them; they may be failures in conventional society,
but they are the kings and queens of the neighborhood.

If the culture of the community helps promote delinquency, then it may be pos-
sible to prevent delinquency by reshaping community climate. That approach is the
subject of the following Preventing and Treating Delinquency feature.

SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES:
SOCIALIZATION AND DELINQUENCY

Not all sociologists believe that merely living in an impoverished, deteriorated, lower-
class area is determinant of a delinquent career. Instead, they argue that the root cause
of delinquency may be traced to learning delinquent attitudes from peers, becoming
detached from school, or experiencing conflict in the home. Although social position
is important, socialization is considered to be the key determinant of behavior. If the
socialization process is incomplete or negatively focused, it can produce an adolescent
with a poor self-image who is alienated from conventional social institutions.

Socialization is the process of guiding people into acceptable behavior patterns
through information, approval, rewards, and punishments. It involves learning
the techniques needed to function in society. Socialization is a developmental pro-
cess that is influenced by family and peers, neighbors, teachers, and other authority
figures.

Early socialization experiences have a lifelong influence on self-image, values,
and behavior. Even children living in the most deteriorated inner-city environments
will not get involved in delinquency if their socialization experiences are positive.56

After all, most inner-city youths do not commit serious crimes, and relatively few of
those who do become career criminals.57 More than fourteen million youths live in
poverty, but the majority do not become chronic offenders. Simply living in a violent
neighborhood does not produce violent children; research shows that family, peer,

✔ Checkpoints

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 91

Checkpoints
✔ The social structure view is that

position in the socioeconomic
structure influences the chances of
becoming a delinquent.

✔ Poor kids are more likely to commit
crimes because they are unable to
achieve monetary or social success
in any other way.

✔ Kids who live in socially disorga-
nized areas commit crime because
the forces of social control have
broken down.

✔ Strain occurs when kids experience
anger over their inability to achieve
legitimate social and economic
success.

✔ The best-known strain theory is
Robert Merton’s theory of anomie,
which describes what happens
when people have inadequate
means to satisfy their goals.

✔ Robert Agnew’s general strain
theory holds that strain has
multiple sources.

✔ Cultural deviance theories hold that
a unique value system develops in
lower-class areas; lower-class kids
approve of behaviors such as being
tough and having street smarts.

To quiz yourself on this
material, go to questions
4.1–4.12 on the Juvenile

Delinquency: The Core 2e Web site.

cultural deviance theory
Links delinquent acts to the for-
mation of independent subcul-
tures with a unique set of values
that clash with the mainstream
culture.

culture conflict
When the values of a subculture
clash with those of the dominant
culture.

socialization
The process of learning the values
and norms of the society or the
subculture to which the individual
belongs.

and individual characteristics play a large role in predicting violence in childhood.58

Only those who experience improper socialization are at risk for crime. This vision
has been used to guide many delinquency prevention programs, including the Dare
to Be You program discussed in the Preventing and Treating Delinquency box on
page 94.

Research consistently shows a relationship between the elements of socialization
and delinquency. The primary influence is the family. When parenting is inadequate, a
child’s maturational processes will be interrupted and damaged. For example, there is
now evidence that children who grow up in homes where parents use severe discipline
yet lack warmth and involvement in their lives are prone to antisocial behavior.59 In

92 C H A P T E R 4

SafeFutures: Using Community
Resources to Prevent and
Control Youth Crime and
Victimization
Youth violence and delinquency are particular problems for
communities suffering from economic and social disorgani-
zation. In Boston, Massachusetts, the Blue Hill Corridor—
consisting of the Grove Hill, Franklin Hill/Franklin Field,
and Mattapan neighborhoods—has a history of poor econ-
omy, inaccessibility to resources, high unemployment rates,
and violence. The SafeFutures program was created to help
reduce delinquency in these and other neighborhoods suffer-
ing from high delinquency rates and economic problems.
The goals of SafeFutures are as follows:

■ Create partnerships among all levels of government.
■ Develop graduated sanctions to hold youths accountable

to their victims and communities.
■ Reduce the risk factors of delinquency in the community.
■ Provide services for at-risk juveniles and immediate

interventions for juvenile offenders.

Program Components
SafeFutures has implemented a set of four services that build
on community services, strengths, and supports:

■ Treatment and enforcement programs
■ Prevention and early intervention programs
■ Gang-free schools and community initiatives
■ Prevention and early intervention programs for at-risk

and delinquent girls

The treatment and enforcement component strengthens
relationships between the police department, district attorney,
probation department, and city government institutions. This
involves a day treatment center for increasing availability of
after-care services (services provided after a child gets in
trouble with the law), mental health services, counseling, job
training, education programs, and enforcement of probation
for the juvenile justice system. In addition, this component
provides probation officers with funds to work on volunteer
programs to help juveniles meet their probation obligations.

The prevention and early intervention component
provides age-appropriate violence prevention programs that
improve and expand existing mentoring programs. Annual
open houses are held for families to meet local social service
providers.

The gang-free schools and community initiatives are
geared to prevent gang participation in middle schools and
high schools. The initiative creates alternative schools for
teens who are at a high risk of engaging in gang activity.
Finally, there are also prevention and early intervention
programs for at-risk and delinquent girls, including a case
management system for girls sent to juvenile court, and
counseling for girls in need. In a joint effort with local social
service agencies, SafeFutures plans to create educational aid,
mentoring, team and sport activities, health education,
individual treatment help, family counseling, a twenty-four-
hour help line, and vocational trade support.

SafeFutures is now being tried as a demonstration proj-
ect in six communities. In addition to Boston, other sites
include Seattle, Washington; St. Louis, Missouri; Contra
Costa County and Imperial County, California; and Fort
Belknap, Montana. Each of the six communities have re-
ceived funds from the federal government to provide a group
of services that build strength, service, and support in the
community.

CRITICAL THINKING
Is it a wise use of scarce public funds to create prevention
programs such as SafeFutures, or would society be better
served by building more secure juvenile institutions and in-
carcerating youthful offenders? Would a deterrence strategy
be a more effective method of gang control than one based
on education, treatment, and counseling?

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION RESEARCH
To read about the use of mentoring to control juvenile

violence, go to Delores D. Jones-Brown and Zelma Weston
Henriques, “Promises and Pitfalls of Mentoring as a Juvenile
Justice Strategy,” Social Justice, 24:212–234 (1997).

Source: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
(OJJDP), SafeFutures. www.ncjrs.org.

Preventing and Treating Delinquency

contrast, parents who are supportive and effectively
control their children in a noncoercive fashion are
more likely to raise children who refrain from delin-
quency; this is referred to as parental efficacy.60

Delinquency will be reduced if parents provide the
type of structure that integrates children into the
family while giving them the ability to assert their
individuality and regulate their own behavior.61

The family-crime relationship is significant
across racial, ethnic, and gender lines and is one of
the most replicated findings in the criminological
literature.62

The literature linking delinquency to poor
school performance and inadequate educational
facilities is extensive. Youths who feel that teachers
do not care, who consider themselves failures, and
who drop out of school are more likely to become
involved in a delinquent way of life than adolescents
who are educationally successful.

Still another suspected element of deviant so-
cialization is peer group relations. Youths who be-
come involved with peers who engage in antisocial
behavior and hold antisocial attitudes may be
deeply influenced by negative peer pressure. Peers
may teach them the “skills” necessary to look and
sound “tough.”63

Even potentially productive activities such as an after-school job can promote
crime if it means unsupervised involvement with peers who advocate that money
earned be spent on bling bling, drugs, and alcohol rather than saving for a college
education!64 Kids who maintain close relations with antisocial peers will sustain
their own criminal behavior into their adulthood. When peer influence diminishes,
so does delinquent activity.65

Sociologists believe that the socialization process affects delinquency in three
different ways.

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 93

What Does This Mean to Me?

Tools That Can
Make a Difference
When you think about your community, what organization
might you start, or volunteer to assist, that could enhance
children’s lives and help prevent gang violence and delin-
quency? Consider, for example, these:

• A peer-support hotline—to address issues and questions
about gangs, drugs, crime, and personal problems.

• Preventive education programs—skits and workshops on
topics such as suicide, child abuse, teen pregnancy, and
AIDS presented at shopping malls, schools, and commu-
nity centers.

• Improvement projects for neighborhoods—to encourage
children and young people to participate in projects to
clean up graffiti and improve neighborhoods.

• Learning public life skills—programs might include
public speaking, planning, and active listening.

• Organizing young people for social change—volunteers
work with children and young people to organize so that
their voices can be heard.

Do you think these would work? What others might you
suggest?

According to social process
theories, children’s relationships
to key societal institutions are a
crucial determinant of their de-
velopment and behavior. It is
not surprising, then, that social
institutions such as the Red-
lands, California, Police Depart-
ment assign officers to bond
with teens in an effort to gain
their trust and confidence.

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W
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P
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s

parental efficacy
Parents are said to have parental
efficacy when they are supportive
and effectively control their chil-
dren in a noncoercive fashion.

■ Learning. Delinquency may be learned through interaction with other people. By
interacting with deviant peers, parents, neighbors, and relatives, kids may learn
both the techniques of crime and the attitudes necessary to support delinquency.
According to this view, because they learn to commit crimes, children who are
born “good” learn to be “bad” from others.

■ Control. Delinquency may result when life circumstances weaken the attachment
a child has to family, peers, school, and society. Because their bonds to these in-
stitutions are severed, some adolescents feel free to exercise antisocial behavior.
This view assumes that people are born “bad” and then must be taught to con-
trol themselves through the efforts of parents and teachers.

■ Reaction. Some kids are considered winners by others; they are admired and
envied. Others are labeled as “troublemakers,”“losers,” or “punks.” They are stig-
matized and find themselves locked out of conventional society and into a
deviant or delinquent way of life. This view holds that kids are born neither
bad nor good but become what they are through the reactions of others.

Each of these views is discussed in the following sections.

94 C H A P T E R 4

Dare to Be You
Dare to Be You (DTBY) is a multilevel, primary prevention
program for children ages two to five and their families. The
main goal is to lower the risk of future substance abuse.
Program founders believe that a child’s future high-risk
activities can be curtailed by improving parent- and child-
protective factors in the areas of communication, problem
solving, self-esteem, and family skills.

How Does It Work?
DTBY is a community-based program. Participants come
from every social, racial, and ethnic background. The program
targets low parental effectiveness, which causes children to be
insufficiently prepared to enter school. The goals include these:

■ Improved parental competence
■ Increased satisfaction with and positive attitude about

being a parent
■ Adoption and use of nurturing family management

strategies
■ Increased and appropriate use of limit setting
■ Substantial decreases in parental use of harsh punishment
■ Significant increases in child developmental levels

The program has three main components:

■ Family component. The program offers parent, youth,
and family training, with activities teaching self-respon-
sibility, personal and parenting efficacy, communication,
and social skills. It seeks to help families suffering from
poor communication, unstable family environment, and
mental health problems. It consists of a twelve-week
(thirty-hour) family workshop series and semiannual
twelve-hour reinforcing family workshops.

■ School component. The program trains and supports
teachers and child-care providers who work with the
targeted youth.

■ Community component. The program trains community
members who interact with target families: local health
departments, social services agencies, probation officers,
and counselors. It focuses on community problems such
as levels of alcohol and drug use.

Outcomes and Results
The results of this prevention program have been quite good.
Families enrolled in the program have experienced an in-
crease in parental effectiveness and satisfaction with their
children. Other success indicators are a decrease in parent-
child conflict, a reduction in the use of harsh punishment,
and an increase in the children’s developmental level. Re-
searchers find that the addition of school and community
components is necessary for a successful systems approach.
Overall, the DTBY program builds on community strengths
to establish efficacy.

CRITICAL THINKING
Do you believe it is possible for a government-sponsored
program to overcome the negative outcomes of years of per-
sonal deprivation suffered by adolescents living in disorga-
nized, deteriorated neighborhoods?

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION RESEARCH
To read about the operations of a similar program,

look up Thomas Hanlon, Richard Bateman, Betsy Simon,
Kevin O’Grady, and Steven Carswell, “An Early Community-
Based Intervention for the Prevention of Substance Abuse
and Other Delinquent Behavior,” Journal of Youth and Ado-
lescence 31:459–471 (2002) on InfoTrac College Edition.

Source: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administra-
tion, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. http://model
programs.samhsa.gov/pdfs/FactSheets/Dare .

Preventing and Treating Delinquency
Juvenile Delinquency: The Core COPYRIGHT © 2005 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc

Social Learning Theories
Social learning theories hold that children living in even the most deteriorated areas
can resist inducements to crime if they have learned proper values and behaviors.
Delinquency, by contrast, develops by learning the values and behaviors associated
with criminal activity. Kids can learn deviant values from their parents, relatives, or
peers. Social learning can involve the techniques of crime (how to hot-wire a car) as
well as the psychological aspects (how to deal with guilt). The former are needed to
commit crimes, whereas the latter are required to cope with the emotional turmoil
that follows.

The best-known social learning theory is Edwin Sutherland’s differential associ-
ation theory.66 Sutherland believed that as children are socialized, they are exposed
to and learn prosocial and antisocial attitudes and behavior from friends, relatives,
parents, and so on. A prodelinquency definition might be “don’t get mad, get even”
or “only suckers work for a living” (see Figure 4.5). Simply put, if the prodelinquency
definitions they have learned outweigh the antidelinquency definitions, kids will be
vulnerable to choosing criminal behaviors over conventional ones. The prodelin-
quency definitions will be particularly influential if they come from significant oth-
ers such as parents or peers and are frequent and intense. In contrast, if a child is
constantly told by her parents to be honest and never harm others, and is brought up
in environment in which people “practice what they preach,” then she will have
learned the necessary attitudes and behaviors to allow her to avoid environmental
inducements to delinquency.

Social Control Theories
Social control theories suggest that the cause of delinquency lies in the strength of the
relationships a child forms with conventional individuals and groups. Those who are
socialized to have close relationships with their parents, friends, and teachers will de-
velop a positive self-image and the ability to resist the lure of deviant behaviors. They
develop a strong commitment to conformity that enables them to resist pressures to

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 95

Figure 4.5 Social Learning Theory of Delinquency

Delinquent Behavior
Youths learn the

attitudes, techniques,
values, and perceptions

needed to sustain
delinquent behavior.

Learning
Norms and values
are transferred to
youths through

learning experiences.

Deviant Values
Significant others, such
as parents and peers,

hold values that condone
criminal and delinquent

behavior.

Exposure
Youths are exposed to

deviant norms and values
while in intimate contact
with significant others.

social learning theories
Posit that delinquency is learned
through close relationships with
others; assert that children are
born “good” and learn to be “bad”
from others.

differential association theory
Asserts that criminal behavior is
learned primarily in interpersonal
groups and that youths will be-
come delinquent if definitions
they learn in those groups that
are favorable to violating the law
exceed definitions favorable to
obeying the law.

social control theories
Posit that delinquency results from
a weakened commitment to the
major social institutions (family,
peers, and school); lack of such
commitment allows youths to
exercise antisocial behavioral
choices.

violate the law. If, however, their bonds to society become fractured or broken, youths
will feel free to violate the law because they are not worried about jeopardizing their
social relationships (see Figure 4.6).

The most prominent control theory is the one developed by sociologist Travis
Hirschi.67 In his classic book Causes of Delinquency, Hirschi set out the following
arguments:

■ All people have the potential to commit crimes—for example, under-age drink-
ing—because they are pleasurable.

■ People are kept in check by their social bonds or attachments to society.

■ If these social bonds are weakened, kids are able to engage in antisocial but per-
sonally desirable behaviors.

Hirschi argues that the social bond a person maintains with society contains
four main elements.

■ Attachment to parents, peers, and schools

■ Commitment to the pursuit of conventional activities such as getting an educa-
tion and saving for the future

■ Involvement in conventional activities such as school, sports, and religion

■ Belief in values such as sensitivity to the rights of others and respect for the legal
code

If any or all of these elements of the social bond weaken, kids are free to violate
the law. For example, a boy who is not attached to his parents may also lack commit-
ment to his future. It is unlikely that he will be involved in conventional activities such
as sports, school, or church. It is also likely that he will not believe in conventional

96 C H A P T E R 4

Figure 4.6 Elements of the Social Bond

Involvement

B
elief

C
om

m
itm

ent

Attachment

School activities
Sports teams
Community
organizations
Religious groups
Social clubs

Family
Friends
School
Community
Religious groups

Honesty
Morality
Fairness
Patriotism
Responsibility

Wealth
Career
Success
Future goals
Society

Social
Bond

social bond
Ties a person to the institutions
and processes of society; elements
of the bond include attachment,
commitment, involvement, and
belief.

values such as “honesty,”“hard work,” and “discipline.” Because he does not have to
worry what his parents or teachers think about him or about how his behavior will
affect his future, he is free to engage in unconventional activities such as shoplifting,
substance abuse, and precocious sex. It really doesn’t matter if he gets caught, he has
little to lose.

Hirschi’s vision of delinquency causation is one of the most influential of recent
times. There is a significant amount of research evidence that supports his ideas:

■ Positive social attachments help control delinquency.68

■ Kids who are detached from the educational experience are at risk of
criminality.69

■ Kids who do well and are committed to school are less likely to engage in delin-
quent acts.70

■ Kids who are attached to their families are less likely to get involved in a deviant
peer group and consequently less likely to engage in criminal activities.71

Although many research efforts support Hirschi’s ideas, some important ques-
tions have been raised about his views. For example, Hirschi argues that commitment
to future success, such as an exciting career, reduces delinquent involvement. What
about the adolescent who wants to be a success but fails to achieve what he desires;
would the resulting strain make him crime-prone?72 Questions have also been raised
about the social relations of delinquents. Hirschi portrays them as “lone wolves,” de-
tached from family and friends, while some critics believe that delinquents do main-
tain close peer group ties.73 In fact, there is some evidence that drug abusers maintain
even more intimate relations with peers than do nonabusers.74 Hirschi would counter
that what appears to be a close friendship is really a relationship of convenience—
“Birds of a feather flock together.” Do you really believe that gang boys have close
relationships and “bond” with one another?

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 97

According to Hirschi, kids who
are involved in conventional
activities, such as the champion
athletes shown here, will en-
hance their social bond and
resist delinquent temptations.

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au

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lin

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he

Im
ag

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W

or
ks

Despite these questions, Hirschi’s vision of control has remained one of the most
influential models of delinquency for the past twenty-five years.

Social Reaction Theories
Another group of sociologists believes that the way society reacts to individuals and
the way individuals react to society determines individual behavior. Becoming stig-
matized, or labeled, by agents of social control, including official institutions such as
the police and the courts, and unofficial institutions, such as parents and neighbors,
is what creates and sustains delinquent careers.75

According to this view, also known as labeling theory, youths may violate the
law for a variety of reasons, including poor family relationships, peer pressure, psy-
chological abnormality, and prodelinquent learning experiences. Regardless of the
cause, if individuals’ delinquent behaviors are detected, the offenders will be given a
negative label that can follow them throughout life. These labels include “juvenile
delinquent,”“mentally ill,”“junkie,” and many more.

The way labels are applied is likely to have important consequences for the delin-
quent. The degree to which youngsters are perceived as deviants may affect their
treatment at home and at school. Parents may consider them a bad influence on
younger brothers and sisters. Neighbors may tell their children to avoid the “trouble-
maker.” Teachers may place them in classes reserved for students with behavior prob-
lems, minimizing their chances of obtaining higher education. The delinquency label
may also affect the attitudes of society in general, and youthful offenders are sub-
jected to sanctions ranging from mild reprimands to incarceration.

Beyond these results, and depending on the visibility of the label and the manner
in which it is applied, youths will have an increasing commitment to delinquent
careers. As the negative feedback of law enforcement agencies, teachers, and other
figures strengthens their commitment, delinquents may come to see themselves as
troublemakers and “screw-ups.” Thus, through a process of identification and sanc-
tioning, reidentification, and increased sanctioning, young offenders are transformed.
They are no longer children in trouble; they are “delinquents,” and they accept that
label as a personal identity—a process called self-labeling (see Figure 4.7).76

When kids who have been rejected by society violate the criminal law, they may be
given official labels, applied in “ceremonies”—for example, during juvenile court trials
or expulsion hearings in schools—that are designed to redefine the deviant’s identity.77

The effect of this process is a durable negative label and an accompanying loss of status.
The labeled deviant becomes a social outcast who is prevented from enjoying higher
education, well-paying jobs, and other societal benefits. Because this label is “official,”
few question the accuracy of the assessment. People who may have been merely suspi-
cious now feel justified in their assessments: “I always knew he was a bad kid.”

A good example of the labeling ceremony occurs in juvenile courts. Here offend-
ers find (perhaps for the first time) that authority figures consider them incorrigible
outcasts who must be separated from the right-thinking members of society. To
reach that decision, the judge relies on the testimony of witnesses—parents, teachers,
police officers, social workers, and psychologists—who may testify that the offender
is unfit to be part of conventional society.78 As the label juvenile delinquent is con-
ferred on offenders, their identities may be transformed from kids who have done
something bad to “bad kids.”79 This process has been observed in the United States
and abroad, indicating that the labeling process is universal.80 Kids who perceive that
they have been negatively labeled by significant others such as peers and teachers are
also more likely to self-report delinquent behavior and adopt a deviant self-
concept.81 The labeling process helps create a self-fulfilling prophecy.82 If children
continually receive negative feedback from parents, teachers, and others whose opin-
ion they take to heart, they will interpret this rejection as accurate. Their behavior
will begin to conform to the negative expectations; they will become the person that

98 C H A P T E R 4

stigmatized
People who have been negatively
labeled because of their participa-
tion, or alleged participation, in
deviant or outlawed behaviors.

labeling theory
Posits that society creates deviance
through a system of social control
agencies that designate (or label)
certain individuals as delinquent,
thereby stigmatizing them and
encouraging them to accept this
negative personal identity.

self-labeling
The process by which a person
who has been negatively labeled
accepts the label as a personal role
or identity.

self-fulfilling prophecy
Deviant behavior patterns that are
a response to an earlier labeling
experience; youths act out these
social roles even if they were falsely
bestowed.

others perceive them to be (“Teachers already think I’m stupid, so why should I
bother to study?”). The self-fulfilling prophecy leads to a damaged self-image and
an increase in antisocial behaviors.83

The labeling perspective can offer important insights:

■ It identifies the role played by social control agents in the process of delinquency
causation; delinquent behavior cannot be fully understood if the agencies em-
powered to control it are ignored.

■ It recognizes that delinquency is not a pathological behavior; it focuses on the
social interactions that shape behavior.

■ It distinguishes between delinquent acts and delinquent careers and shows that
they must be treated differently.84

Labeling theory, then, may help explain the onset and continuation of a delinquent
career. It clarifies why some youths continue down the path of antisocial behavior
(they are self-labeled), whereas most are able to desist from crime (they are stigma-free).

SOCIAL CONFLICT THEORIES
According to social conflict theories, society is in a constant state of internal con-
flict, and different groups strive to impose their will on others. Those with money
and power succeed in shaping the law to meet their needs and to maintain their in-
terests. Those adolescents whose behavior cannot conform to the needs of the power
elite are defined as delinquents and criminals.

According to this view, those in power use the justice system to maintain their
status while keeping others subservient: men use their economic power to subjugate
women; members of the majority want to stave off the economic advancement of
minorities; capitalists want to reduce the power of workers to ensure they are willing
to accept low wages. Conflict theory thus centers around a view of society in which
an elite class uses the law as a means of meeting threats to its status. The ruling class
is a self-interested collective whose primary interest is self-gain.85

Law and Justice
Social conflict theorists view the law and the justice system as vehicles for controlling
the have-not members of society; legal institutions help the powerful and rich to
impose their standards of good behavior on the entire society. The law protects the
property and physical safety of the haves from attack by the have-nots, and helps

✔ Checkpoints

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 99

Figure 4.7 Labeling Theory

Initial Delinquent Act
Youths commit crimes

for a number of reasons.

Decision to Label
Some youths are labeled
“official” delinquents by

police and court
authorities.

Creation of a New Identity
The labeled youths are

known as troublemakers,
criminals, and so on, and
shunned by conventional

society.

Acceptance of Labels
The labeled youths begin

to see themselves as
outsiders. Secondary

deviance. Self-labeling.

Deviance Amplification
The outcast youths are

now locked into
delinquent careers.

Detection by the
Justice System

Arrest is influenced by
racial, economic, and

power relations.

Checkpoints
✔ Some experts believe that delin-

quency is a function of socialization.
✔ People from all walks of life have

the potential to become delinquents
if they maintain destructive social
relationships with families, schools,
peers, and neighbors.

✔ Social learning theory stresses that
kids learn both how to commit
crimes and the attitudes needed
to support the behavior.

✔ People learn criminal behaviors
much as they learn conventional
behavior.

✔ Social control theory analyzes the
failure of society to control anti-
social tendencies.

✔ All people have the potential to
become delinquents, but their
bonds to conventional society
prevent them from violating the law.

✔ Labeling theory (also known as
social reaction theory) maintains
that negative labels produce delin-
quent careers.

✔ Labels create expectations that the
labeled person will act in a certain
way; labeled people are always
watched and suspected.

To quiz yourself on this
material, go to questions
4.13–4.19 on the Juvenile

Delinquency: The Core 2e Web site.

The conflict view of delin-
quency is rooted in the politi-
cal philosophy of Karl Marx.
To learn more about Marx’s
viewpoints, click on Web Links
under the Chapter Resources
at http://cj.wadsworth.com/
siegel_ jdcore2e.h

tt
p
:

social conflict theories
The view that intergroup conflict,
born out of the unequal distribu-
tion of wealth and power, is the
root cause of delinquency.

control the behavior of those who might otherwise threaten the status quo. The rul-
ing elite draws the lower middle class into this pattern of control, leading it to believe
it has a stake in maintaining the status quo. According to social conflict theory, the
poor may or may not commit more crimes than the rich, but they certainly are ar-
rested more often. Police may act more forcefully in areas where class conflict creates
the perception that extreme forms of social control are needed to maintain order. It
is not surprising to conflict theorists that complaints of police brutality are highest in
minority neighborhoods.86 Police misbehavior, which is routine in minority neigh-
borhoods, would never be tolerated in affluent white areas. Consequently, a deep-
seated hostility is generated among members of the lower class toward a social order
that they may neither shape nor share in.87

The Conflict Concept of Delinquency
Conflict theorists view delinquency as a normal response to the conditions created
by capitalism.88 In fact, the creation of the legal category delinquency is a function of
the class consciousness that occurred around the turn of the century.89 In The Child
Savers, Anthony Platt documented the creation of the delinquency concept and the
role played by wealthy child savers in forming the philosophy of the juvenile court.
Platt believed that the child-saving movement’s real goal was to maintain order and
control while preserving the existing class system.90 He and others have concluded
that the child savers were powerful citizens who aimed to control the behavior of
disenfranchised youths.91

Conflict theorists still view delinquent behavior as a function of the capitalist
system’s inherent inequity. They argue that capitalism accelerates the trend toward
replacing human labor with machines so that youths are removed from the labor
force.92 From early childhood, the values of capitalism are reinforced. Social control
agencies such as schools prepare youths for placement in the capitalist system by
presenting them with behavior models that will help them conform to later job ex-
pectations. For example, rewards for good schoolwork correspond to the rewards a
manager uses with employees. In fact, most schools are set up to reward youths who
show promise in self-discipline and motivation and are therefore judged likely to
perform well in the capitalist system. Youths who are judged inferior as potential job
prospects wind up in delinquent roles.

Class and Delinquency The capitalist system affects youths differently at
each level of the class structure. In the lowest classes youths form gangs, which can
be found in the most desolate ghetto areas. These gangs serve as a means of survival
in a system that offers no reasonable alternative. Lower-class youths who live in more
stable areas are on the fringe of criminal activity because the economic system ex-
cludes them from meaningful opportunity.

Conflict theory also acknowledges middle-class delinquency. The alienation of
individuals from one another, the competitive struggle, and the absence of human
feeling—all qualities of capitalism—contribute to middle-class delinquency. Because
capitalism is dehumanizing, it is not surprising that even middle-class youths turn
to drugs, gambling, and illicit sex to find escape.

Controlling Delinquents Conflict theorists suggest that, rather than inhibit-
ing delinquent behavior, the justice system may help to sustain such behavior. They
claim that the capitalist state fails to control delinquents because it is in the state’s
interest to maintain a large number of outcast deviant youths. These youths can be
employed as marginal workers, willing to work for minimum wage in jobs no one
else wants. Thus, labeling by the justice system fits in with the capitalist managers’
need to maintain an underclass of cheap labor.

Concept Summary 4.1 summarizes the various sociological theories of delinquency.

100 C H A P T E R 4

Social Structure Theories
and Delinquency Prevention
Each of the various branches of social theory has had an
impact on delinquency prevention activities and programs.
The following sections describe a few of these efforts.

The decade of the 1960s was the heyday of delin-
quency prevention programs based on social structure
theory. The approach seemed compatible with the poli-
cies of the Kennedy (New Frontier) and Johnson (Great
Society/War on Poverty) administrations. Delinquency
prevention programs received copious federal funding.
The most ambitious of these was the New York City–
based Mobilization for Youth (MOBY). Funded by more
than $50 million, MOBY attempted an integrated ap-
proach to community development. MOBY created
employment opportunities in the community, coordi-
nated social services, and sponsored social action groups
such as tenants’ committees, legal action services, and
voter registration. But MOBY died for lack of funding
amid questions about its utility and use of funds. The
most prominent contemporary manifestation of a pro-
gram based on social structure theory is Operation Weed
and Seed, the federal multilevel action plan for revitaliz-
ing communities.93 The concept of this program is that
no single approach can reduce crime rates and that social
service and law enforcement agencies must cooperate to
be effective. Therefore, there are four basic elements in
this plan: law enforcement; community policing; preven-
tion, intervention, and treatment; and neighborhood res-
toration. The last element, neighborhood restoration, is
the one most closely attached to social structure theory
because it is designed to revitalize distressed neighbor-
hoods and improve the quality of life in the target com-
munities. The neighborhood restoration element focuses
on economic development activities, such as economic
opportunities for residents, improved housing condi-
tions, enhanced social services, and improved public
services in the target area. Programs are being developed
that will improve living conditions; enhance home secu-
rity; allow for low-cost physical improvements; develop
long-term efforts to renovate and maintain housing; and
provide educational, economic, social, recreational, and

other vital opportunities. A key feature is the fostering of self-worth and individual
responsibility among community members.

Social Process Theories
and Delinquency Prevention
Social process theories suggest that delinquency can be prevented by strengthening
the socialization process. One approach has been to help social institutions improve
their outreach. Educational programs have been improved by expanding preschool
programs, developing curricula relevant to students’ lives, and stressing teacher de-
velopment. Counseling and remedial services have been aimed at troubled youth.

Prevention programs have also been aimed at strengthening families in crisis.
Because attachment to parents is a cornerstone of all social process theories, developing

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 101

According to conflict theory, the alienation of individuals from
one another, the competitive struggle, and the absence of
human feeling, all qualities of capitalism, contribute to
middle-class delinquency. Because capitalism is dehuman-
izing, it is not surprising that even middle-class youths turn to
violence, drugs, gambling, and illicit sex to find escape. Here
James Watson, who was raised in a middle-class home,
takes a last look at his mother and brother after being finger-
printed. Watson was found delinquent of manslaughter in the
beating death of Shane Farrell in New Smyma Beach, Florida,
in 2002, and was sentenced to 9 to 12 months in a high-risk
juvenile facility.

good family relations is an essential element of delinquency prevention. Programs have
been developed that encourage families to help children develop the positive self-image
necessary to resist the forces promoting delinquency.94

Prevention programs have also focused on providing services for youngsters
who have been identified as delinquents or predelinquents. Such services usually
include counseling, job placement, legal assistance, and more. Their aim is to reach
out to troubled youths and provide them with the skills necessary to function in

102 C H A P T E R 4

Social Theory

Theory Core Premise Focus
Social disorganization Crime is a product of transitional Identifies why crime rates are

neighborhoods that manifest highest in lower-class areas.
social disorganization and value Points out the factors that
conflict. The conflicts and produce the delinquency.
problems of urban social life
and communities, including fear,
unemployment, deterioration,
and siege mentality, influence
crime rates.

Strain People who adopt the goals of Points out how competition for
society but lack the means to success creates conflict and
attain them seek alternatives, crime. Suggests that social
such as crime. conditions and not personality

can account for crime. Can
explain middle- and upper-
class crime.

Cultural deviance Obedience to the norms of Identifies the aspects of lower-
their lower-class culture class life that produce street
puts people in conflict with crime. Creates the concept of
the norms of the dominant culture conflict.
culture.

Social learning People learn to commit delinquent Explains why some “at-risk”
acts through exposure to others kids do not become delin-
who hold deviant values and quents. Accounts for the
engage in deviant behaviors. effects of parental deviance

on kids.

Social control A person’s bond to society Explains the onset of
prevents him or her from delinquency; can apply to
violating social rules. If the bond both middle- and lower-class
weakens, the person is free to crime. Explains its theoretical
commit delinquent acts. constructs adequately so it

can be measured. Has been
empirically tested.

Social reaction People enter into law-violating Explains the role of society in
careers when they are labeled for creating deviance. Explains
their acts and organize their why some juvenile offenders
personalities around the labels. do not become adult criminals.

Develops concepts of criminal
careers.

Social conflict Crime is a function of class Accounts for class differentials
conflict. The law is defined by in the delinquency rate. Shows
people who hold social and how class conflict influences
political power. The capitalist behavior.
system produces delinquency.

Concept Summary 4.1

their environment before they get into trouble with the law.
In addition to these local efforts, the federal government has sponsored several

delinquency-prevention efforts using the principles of social process theory. These
include vocational training programs, such as the Comprehensive Employment
Training Act, as well as educational enrichment programs, such as Head Start for
preschoolers.

Social Reaction Theories
and Delinquency Prevention
As the dangers of labeling became known, a massive effort was made to limit the
interface of youths with the juvenile justice system. One approach was to divert
youths from official processing at the time of their initial contact with police. The
usual practice is to have police refer children to treatment facilities rather than to
the juvenile court. In a similar vein, children who were petitioned to juvenile court
might be eligible for alternative programs rather than traditional juvenile justice
processing. For example, restitution allows children to pay back the victims of their
crimes for the damage (or inconvenience) they have caused instead of receiving an
official delinquency label.

If a youth was found delinquent, efforts were made to reduce stigma by using
alternative programs such as boot camp or intensive probation monitoring. Alterna-
tive community-based sanctions were substituted for state training schools, a policy
known as deinstitutionalization. Whenever possible, anything producing stigma
was to be avoided, a philosophy referred to as nonintervention.

The federal government was a prime mover in the effort to divert children from
the justice system. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention spon-
sored numerous diversion and restitution programs. In addition, it made one of its
priorities the removal of juveniles from adult jails and the discontinuance of hous-
ing status offenders and juvenile delinquents together. These programs were de-
signed to limit juveniles’ interaction with the justice system, reduce stigma, and
make use of informal treatment modalities. (Diversion and deinstitutionalization
are covered in more detail in chapter 14.)95 Although these programs were initially
popular, critics claimed that the nonintervention movement created a new class
of juvenile offenders who heretofore might have avoided prolonged contact with

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 103

Social process theories suggest
that delinquency can be pre-
vented by strengthening the
socialization process and helping
social institutions improve their
outreach. Educational programs
have been improved by develop-
ing curricula relevant to students’
lives such as job training. Here,
Jeanetta Green (right) points to a
section of Corrinda Calhoun’s
practice job application during a
training class at Northeast Mag-
net High School in Wichita,
Kansas. The class, Summer
Youth B.E.A.T. Employment
Program 2003, is part of a pro-
gram called Hope Street Youth
Development, designed to help
youth get better trained to find
summer jobs.

deinstitutionalization
Removing juveniles from
adult jails and placing them in
community-based programs
to avoid the stigma attached to
these facilities.

juvenile justice agencies; they referred to this phenomenon as widening the net.96

Evaluation of existing programs did not indicate that they could reduce the recidi-
vism rate of clients.97 While these criticisms proved damaging, many noninterven-
tion programs still operate.

Social Conflict Theories
and Delinquency Prevention
If conflict is the source of delinquency, then conflict resolution may be the key to its
demise. This is the aim of restorative justice, an approach that relies on nonpunitive
strategies for delinquency control.98 Restoration involves turning the justice system
into a healing process rather than a distributor of retribution. Most people involved
in offender-victim relationships actually know one another or are related. Restorative
justice attempts to address the issues that produced conflict between these people
rather than to treat one as a victim deserving sympathy and the other as a delinquent
deserving punishment. Rather than choose whom to punish, society should try to
reconcile the parties.99

Restorative justice is based on a social rather than a legal view of delinquency.
The relationships damaged by delinquent acts can only be healed in less formal and
more cohesive social groups, such as families and communities.100

The restorative justice movement has a number of origins. Negotiation, media-
tion, and peacemaking have been part of the dispute resolution process in European
and Asian communities for centuries.101 Native American and Native Canadian peo-
ple have long used participation of community members in the adjudication process
(sentencing circles, panels of elders).102 Members of the U.S. peacemaking movement

104 C H A P T E R 4

Principles of Restorative Justice

Crime and delinquency are Victims and the community have been harmed and are in need
fundamentally a violation of restoration. Victims include the target of the offense but also
of people and interpersonal include family members, witnesses, and the community at large.
relationships. Victims, offenders, and the affected communities are the key

stakeholders in justice. The state must investigate crime and
ensure safety, but it is not the center of the justice process. Vic-
tims are the key, and they must help in the search for restora-
tion, healing, responsibility, and prevention.

Violations create obligations Offenders have the obligation to make things right as much as
and liabilities. possible. They must understand the harm they have caused.

Their participation should be as voluntary as possible; coercion
is to be minimized.

The community’s obligations are to both victims and offenders
as well as the general welfare of its members. This includes the
obligation to reintegrate the offender in the community and to
ensure the offender the opportunity to make amends.

Restorative justice seeks to Victims’ needs are the focal concern of the justice process.
heal and put right the wrongs. Safety is a top priority, and victims should be empowered to

participate in determining their needs and case outcomes.

The exchange of information between victim and offender
should be encouraged; when possible, face-to-face meetings
might be undertaken. There should be mutual agreement
over imposed outcomes.

Offenders’ needs and competencies need to be addressed.
Healing and reintegration are emphasized; isolation and
removal from the community are restricted.

Concept Summary 4.2

restorative justice
Nonpunitive strategies for dealing
with juvenile offenders that make
the justice system a healing process
rather than a punishment process.

have also championed the use of nonpunitive alternatives to justice. Gordon Baze-
more and other policy experts helped formulate a version of restorative justice known
as the balanced approach, which emphasizes that victims, offenders, and the commu-
nity should all benefit from interactions with the justice system.103 The balanced
approach attempts to link community protection and victims’ rights. Offenders must
take responsibility for their actions, a process that can increase self-esteem and de-
crease recidivism.104 In contrast, overreliance on punishment can be counterproduc-
tive.105 To counteract the negative effects of punishment, restorative justice programs
for juveniles typically involve diversion from the court process, reconciliation between
offenders and victims, victim advocacy, mediation programs, and sentencing circles,
in which crime victims and their families are brought together with offenders and
their families in an effort to formulate a sanction that addresses the needs of each
party. Concept Summary 4.2 summarizes the principles of restorative justice.

S O C I O L O G I C A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y 105

• Social structure theories hold that delinquent behavior
is an adaptation to conditions that predominate in
lower-class environments.

• The social disorganization view suggests that econom-
ically deprived areas lose their ability to control the
behavior of residents. Gangs flourish in these areas.

• Delinquency is a product of the socialization mecha-
nisms in a neighborhood: unstable neighborhoods
have the greatest chance of producing delinquents.
Such factors as fear, unemployment, change, and lack
of cohesion help produce delinquent behavior patterns.

• Strain theories hold that lower-class youths may desire
legitimate goals but their unavailability causes frustra-
tion and deviant behavior.

• Robert Merton linked strain to anomie, a condition
caused when there is a disjunction between goals
and means.

• In his general strain theory, Robert Agnew identifies
two more sources of strain: the removal of positive
reinforcements and the addition of negative ones. He
shows how strain causes delinquent behavior by creat-
ing negative affective states, and he outlines the means
adolescents employ to cope with strain.

• Cultural deviance theory maintains that the result of
social disorganization and strain is the development of
independent subcultures whose members hold values
in opposition to mainstream society. These subcul-

tures are the breeding grounds for gangs and law-
violating groups.

• Social process theories hold that improper socializa-
tion is the key to delinquency.

• One branch, called learning theories, holds that kids
learn deviant behaviors and attitudes during inter-
action with family and peers.

• Control theories suggest that kids are prone to delin-
quent behavior when they have not been properly
socialized and lack a strong bond to society. Without
a strong bond they are free to succumb to the lure of
delinquent behavior.

• Labeling and stigma may also reinforce delinquency.
Kids who receive negative labels may internalize them
and engage in self-labeling. This causes a self-fulfilling
prophecy, which breeds even more deviant behaviors
and locks kids into a delinquent way of life.

• Social conflict theory views delinquency as an
inevitable result of the class and racial conflict that
pervades society. Delinquents are members of the
“have-not” class that is shut out of the mainstream.
The law benefits the wealthy over the poor.

• Social views of delinquency have had a great deal of
influence on social policy. Programs have been de-
signed to improve neighborhood conditions, help
children be properly socialized, and reduce conflict.

SUMMARY

culture of poverty, p. 82
underclass, p. 85
truly disadvantaged, p. 85
social structure theories, p. 85
social disorganization, p. 86
transitional neighborhood, p. 86

cultural transmission, p. 86
social control, p. 86
relative deprivation, p. 86
gentrified, p. 86
collective efficacy, p. 88
strain, p. 88

anomie, p. 89
general strain theory, p. 89
negative affective states, p. 90
cultural deviance theory, p. 91
culture conflict, p. 91
socialization, p. 91

KEY TERMS

To quiz yourself on this
material, go to questions
4.20–4.21 on the Juvenile

106 C H A P T E R 4

1. Is there a transitional neighborhood in your town
or city?

2. Is it possible that a distinct lower-class culture exists?

3. Have you ever perceived anomie? What causes
anomie? Is there more than one cause of strain?

4. How does poverty cause delinquency?

5. Do middle-class youths become delinquent for the
same reasons as lower-class youths?

6. Does relative deprivation produce delinquency?

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

You have just been appointed as a presidential adviser on
urban problems. The president informs you that he wants
to initiate a demonstration project in a major city aimed at
showing that the government can do something to reduce
poverty, crime, and drug abuse. The area he has chosen for
development is a large inner-city neighborhood with more
than a hundred thousand residents. The neighborhood
suffers from disorganized community structure, poverty,
and hopelessness. Predatory delinquent gangs run free and
terrorize local merchants and citizens. The school system
has failed to provide opportunities and education experi-
ences sufficient to dampen enthusiasm for gang recruit-
ment. Stores, homes, and public buildings are deteriorated
and decayed. Commercial enterprise has fled the area, and
civil servants are reluctant to enter the neighborhood.
There is an uneasy truce among the various ethnic and
racial groups that populate the area. Residents feel that little
can be done to bring the neighborhood back to life.

You are faced with suggesting an urban redevelopment
program that can revitalize the area and eventually bring
down the crime rate. You can bring any element of the
public and private sector to bear on this rather overwhelm-
ing problem—including the military! You can also ask
private industry to help in the struggle, promising them tax
breaks for their participation.

• Do you believe that living in such an area contributes
to high delinquency rates? Or is poverty merely an
excuse and delinquency a matter of personal choice?

• What programs do you feel could break the cycle of
urban poverty?

• Would reducing the poverty rate produce a lowered
delinquency rate?

• What role does the family play in creating delinquent
behaviors?

APPLYING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED

Before you answer, you may want to learn more about Op-
eration Weed and Seed, the federal office most involved in
community development projects designed to reduce de-
linquency, and on Canada’s National Crime Prevention
Strategy, which aims to reduce crime and victimization by
tackling crime before it happens. Just click on Web Links
under the Chapter Resources at http://cj.wadsworth.com/
siegel_jdcore2e.

To read about a program in Minneapolis, go to InfoTrac
College Edition and read Judith Martin and Paula Pentel,

“What the Neighbors Want: The Neighborhood Revitali-
zation Program’s First Decade,” Journal of the American
Planning Association 68:435–449 (2002). To find out more,
use “community crime prevention” in a key word search.

Pro/Con discussions and Viewpoint Essays on some of the topics in
this chapter may be found at the Opposing Viewpoints Resource
Center: www.gale.com/OpposingViewpoints.

DOING RESEARCH ON THE WEB

parental efficacy, p. 93
social learning theories, p. 95
differential association theory, p. 95
social control theories, p. 95

social bond, p. 96
stigmatized, p. 98
labeling theory, p. 98
self-labeling, p. 98

self-fulfilling prophecy, p. 98
social conflict theories, p. 99
deinstitutionalization, p. 103
restorative justice, p. 104

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