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Egyptian Journal of
Forensic Sciences
Yaacob et al.
Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
(2022) 12:26
https://doi.org/10.1186/s41935-022-00282-6
Open Access
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Evaluating the potential application
of palmprint creases density for sex
determination: an exploratory study
Roszaharah Yaacob1, Helmi Hadi1, Haidi Ibrahim2, Yusmazura Zakaria3 and Nik Fakhuruddin Nik Hassan1*
Abstract
Background: Identification of sex plays a vital role in forensic and medicolegal investigations. Although several studies were conducted in the past to assess sexual dimorphism in friction ridge skin characteristics, a similar study has
not been attempted using creases characteristics. The present study was carried out to determine the sex differences
based on creases density among the Malaysian population. A novel method was proposed by measuring creases
density in 2 cm × 2 cm square at the hypothenar region on the right palmprints to evaluate its feasibility for sex discrimination purposes. A total of 150 subjects were investigated in this study.
Results: Results revealed that significant differences were observed in the creases density for males and females.
Palmprint mean creases density of 3.46 creases/cm2 and 5.73 creases/cm2 were calculated in male and female subjects, respectively. Results indicated that females tended to have a significantly higher creases density than males in
the selected region. Analysis using the independent sample t-test demonstrated that the creases density of males
and females was significantly different (p < 0.001), with mean differences ranging between −2.90 and −1.65.
Conclusions: It is evident that palmprint creases density is a potential indicator for sex determination.
Keywords: Palmprint, Creases density, Sex determination
Background
Identification means the determination of the individuality of a person. It can be either complete (absolute) or
incomplete (partial). Complete identification will provide
a definitive fixation of a person’s identity, while insufficient identification will reveal some facts of an individual like sex, age, and race (Kapoor and Badiye 2015).
Palmprint is an image of a palm area of a hand that
can be either in the form of a photograph of a hand or
an impression left on a surface (Nibouche et al. 2012).
Region for palmprint starts from the wrist to the root of
the fingers, and it can provide a lot of information that
*Correspondence: nikf@usm.my
1
Forensic Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Kota Bharu, Malaysia
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
can be used in personal identification. Since the palmar
surface covers a large area compared to a fingerprint, a
palmprint contains more information and many features
that can easily be extracted for identification (Kong et al.
2009).
Personal identification based on palmprints in the
context of forensic science is of paramount importance
because 30% of latent prints recovered from crime scenes
are from palms (Jain and Feng 2009). Oftentimes, the
prints collected from crime scenes and weapons used by
criminals belong to palms (Kanchan et al. 2013). Palmprint theoretically fulfils the foundation of identification
which is permanent and unique. Palmprint’s uniqueness
originates during human foetal development of friction
skin (David 1991), and it is permanent until death (Krishan et al. 2014).
In the palmprint recognition process, two unique features are used in analysing palmprint, namely friction
© The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the
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Yaacob et al. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
(2022) 12:26
ridges and the palmar flexion creases. The discontinuities in the epidermal ridge patterns are called palmar flexion creases. Palmar creases appear before the
formation of friction ridges during the embryonic skin
development stage (Jain and Feng 2009), and both of
them develop concurrently with the volar pads (Hays
2013). Palm creases and friction ridges share similarities as both are permanent until decomposition due
to death and unique due to the growth, development,
and regression of volar pads (David 1991). Thus, these
factors qualify themselves as features in palmprint
recognition.
Personal identification based on creases is very rare.
There is no record of total crease extraction used for personal identification on palmprint (Chen et al. 2001). Due
to their rarity, many examiners may not be aware of their
existence, or the lack of published data likely limits the
willingness of latent print examiners to proceed with the
identification (Hays 2013). The possibility to use creases
as a characteristic for palmprint identification exists
because it lies within the same biological process that
supports friction ridge skin identification. Palmar flexion creases can be used in personal identification in cases
when the palmprint is lacking in ridge detail. Hence, the
same methodology employed to identify friction ridge
skin can be utilised to identify palmar flexion creases.
In the identification of palmprint based on friction
ridge skin, the method used is by measuring the total
ridge count (TRC) and friction ridge density. Ridge
density is defined as the ridge count that corresponds
to a defined area (Kapoor and Badiye 2015; GutirrezRedomero et al. 2011). Density is the first method that
allows the assessment of all types of patterns on fingers
and palms. These methods can also be applied to identify
palmprints based on features of creases.
Currently, the palmprint recognition system is focussing more on sorting out prints based on populations
without giving much attention to the impact of sex.
The ever-increasing number of crimes in this country
has made palmprints a crucial tool in the investigation
process. If the sex of an individual is established with
certainty, the burden of the crime investigator can be
reduced by half (Nayak et al. 2010; Krishan et al. 2013).
In such cases, identification of sex will help an investigating officer to narrow down the investigation. Numerous
studies have attempted to develop sex estimation methods based on friction ridge density (Mundorff et al. 2014)
and palmar tri-radii (Badiye et al. 2019; Jerković et al.
2021). To the best of our knowledge, the use of palmprint
creases density for sex discrimination among Malaysians has never been explored (Roszaharah et al. 2016).
The present study aims to study the variability of palmprint creases density in the Malaysian population and
Page 2 of 8
its significance in the determination of sex in forensic
examinations.
Methods
A total of 150 subjects (75 males and 75 females) aged
between 18 and 20 years were randomly chosen. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the institutional ethics committee, and all subjects filled consent
form individually. The palmprint images used in our
research were acquired through a general scanner, which
was a Canon E400 series. The images were scanned at
300 dpi × 300 dpi and saved in JPEG format. They were
24-bit-per-pixel colour images with a size of 2488 × 3484
pixels (i.e. around 8.6 Mpixel image). Examples of input
image used in this experiment is depicted in Fig. 1a.
There were also six markers or pegs in each image. These
markers were used to help the subjects to align their hand
during image acquisition.
A 2 cm × 2 cm square was drawn and cropped on the
palmprint images by using Adobe Photoshop (Fig. 1b).
The beginning of distal transverse creases was used as
a starting point for drawing the square in the hypothenar region. The palmprints were manually analysed in
the region of interest (ROI) (Krishan et al. 2014). Some
alterations of the hue, brightness, and contrast were also
made to increase the clarity of the creases Three pixels and more creases were drawn and traced by using
Bamboo Pad, a wireless touchpad with a digital stylus
(Wacom, China). In the online palmprint matching system, three pixels produced 100% genuine acceptance
rate (GAR) (Jerković et al. 2021). Thus, in this study, we
selected three pixel lines to draw creases to increase the
identification accuracy. The creases were divided based
on their directions: creases shift to the right, and creases
shift to the left. Different colours for tracing were used to
differentiate the directions of the creases in the ROI. Yellow colour was used on the creases that shift to the right,
while pink colour was used to trace the creases that shift
to the left. The example of traced creases in the ROI is
illustrated in Fig. 1c. Any bifurcation palmar creases were
counted individually as independent creases, i.e. a crease
that bifurcates was counted as two. The total numbers
of creases in the square were counted. This value represented the number of creases in 4 cm2 areas and reflected
the creases density value.
The main objective of this study was to evaluate
whether sufficient sexual dimorphism exists in the palmprint creases density using the sex estimation method on
an unknown palmprint. To examine intra and interobserver repeatability, the first analyst repeated measurements on 40 randomly selected samples, and the second
analyst conducted measurements on the same samples.
Intra- and interobserver repeatability was examined
Yaacob et al. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
(2022) 12:26
Page 3 of 8
Fig. 1 a Position of right palm for palmprint sampling. b 2 cm × 2 cm square region of interest (ROI) at hypothenar was drawn, and the beginning
of distal transverse creases was used as a starting point (marked as fix point 1). c 3 pixels and more creases were drawn based on direction; yellow
colour was used to trace creases that shift to the right and pink colour for creases that shift to the left
using a paired samples t-test, technical error of measurement (TEM), and relative technical error of measurement (rTEM). The samples were statistically analysed by
obtaining the total and group descriptive values using
SPSS version 22 (IBM Corporation, USA), and a comparison between sexes was carried out to determine its
significance.
Results
All measurements demonstrated a high degree of repeatability for both on the intra- and interobserver levels.
Differences between the mean values of different observations were not statistically significant (p > 0.05), and
the obtained rTEM values were lower than 2% for both
intra- and inter-observer.
The descriptive statistics of palmprint creases for male
and female subjects are tabulated in Tables 1 and 2,
respectively. The creases shift to the right ranged from 1
to 34 creases for males with a mean of 9.77 and from 6 to
37 for females with a mean of 16.36. On the other hand,
Table 1 Descriptive statistics: creases shift to the right and the
left in males and females
Type
Creases shift to the right
Creases shift to the left
Sex
Min
Max
Mean ± SD
Male (n = 75)
1
34
6
37
9.77 ± 6.36
Male (n = 75)
0
13
0
15
Female (n = 75)
Female (n = 75)
16.36 ± 5.99
4.05 ± 2.68
6.56 ± 3.12
Table 2 Descriptive statistics: total creases and creases density
in males and females
Total creases
Creases density
Sex
Min
Max
Mean ± SD
Male (n = 75)
13.83 ± 7.71
Male (n = 75)
2
37
Female (n = 75)
11
46
0.50
9.25
Female (n = 75)
2.75
11.50
22.92 ± 7.61
3.46 ± 1.94
5.73 ± 1.91
Yaacob et al. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
(2022) 12:26
the creases shift to the left ranged from 0 to 13 creases for
males with a mean of 4.05 and from 0 to 15 for females
with a mean of 6.56. Higher numbers of creases shift to
the right were observed for both sexes. The total creases
at hypothenar ranged from 2 to 37 creases for males with
a mean of 13.83 and from 11 to 46 for females with a
mean of 22.92. The creases density ranged from 0.50 to
9.25 creases/cm2 for males with a mean of 3.46 creases/
cm2 and from 2.75 to 11.50 creases/cm2 for females with
a mean of 5.73 creases/cm2.
The independent sample t-test results to compare the
creases density between males and females are depicted
in Table 3. The differences in the creases density of males
and females were statistically significant (p < 0.001), with
a mean difference between −2.90 and −1.65. The difference between the mean creases density among males
and females was −2.27 creases/cm2. The frequency
distribution of creases is shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Both
males and females demonstrated normal distribution
patterns regarding the pattern of distribution of creases
shift to the right and to the left, total creases count, and
creases density on the palm. However, the female palmprints showed significantly higher value counts for all
characteristics.
Discussion
In forensics, an evidence needs to be able to narrow
down suspects or victims in the identification process,
including sex determination. With the increase of criminal cases and identity impersonation methods, previous
ways of personal recognition are deemed insufficient
(Fang 2007). Therefore, alternative methodologies, new
identification metrics, or an addition to the existing identification strategies are crucial. Thus, new methods like
personal recognition based on creases on palmprints will
be beneficial to fingerprints experts and law enforcement
communities (Cook et al. 2010). Palmprint is one of the
popular biometric features used in the pattern recognition system (Rodríguez-Ruiz et al. 2019). Unfortunately,
only a few studies have been carried out to utilise palmprints as an identification method in forensic science.
Most of the past studies were conducted on fingerprints
despite palmprints having many potentials for forensic
Table 3 Independent sample t-test comparison of males and
females creases density
Variable Mean (SD)
Density
Male (n =
75)
Female (n
= 75)
3.46 (1.94)
5.73 (1.91)
Mean
difference
(95% CI)
t-stat (df)
P-value
−2.27
(−2.90,
−1.65)
−7.223
(148)
< 0.001
Page 4 of 8
individualisation. Features on palmprints are also stable
as most of these features remain unchanged in an individual life span (Yaacob et al. 2019). Despite this lack of
research, palmar flexion creases are considered a viable
personal identification medium by some experts in this
field. In fact, a previous study on ridge count in fingerprints suggested that palmar traits such as creases
revealed extreme homogeneity compared to ridges (Karmakar et al. 2008). The results of our study showed that
creases on palmprints could also be utilised to identify
the sex of an individual.
The findings showed that higher counts for creases shift
to the right, creases shift to left, total creases, and creases
densities were calculated and compared between females
and males. The different variations in males and females
could be reflected during the prenatal embryonic development in a period called the palmar formation period
(Karmakar et al. 2008; Stinson 1985). The factor that
causes the difference in friction ridge density between
fingerprints of males and females would also be applied
to the palmprint feature as it develops in the same way
during the pregnancy period (Wahdan and Khalifa 2017).
The prenatal sex differences in environmental sensitivity can play a role in establishing sexual dimorphism in
fingerprints because women are generally more resistant
to environmental insults than men (Ahmed and Osman
2016). In addition to that, the fact that males have coarser
epidermal surfaces than females could be one of the
factors influencing lower crease density in males than
females (Kralik and Novotny 2003).
Several other factors could also attribute to the sex difference. One of these factors would be the sexual dimorphism in body size and proportions (Wahdan and Khalifa
2017). Generally, males have a larger body size and proportions than females, causing variations in the male and
female features, and relatively, males have a larger size of
hand or palmar surface as compared to females (Kirchengast and Marosi 2009). Females are more canalised in
their development than males and are less affected by
environmental insults. Environmental effects that influence the development of features on the palm are dermal
growth, the thickness of the foetal epidermis, the elevation of the embryonic pad, and the position of fingers
(Hays 2013).
The significant mean difference in the creases density
is important to prove dissimilarities between both sexes.
The findings also demonstrate that creases density has a
potential application in predicting the sex from unknown
palmprints found at the crime scene as the hypothenar
region is the area typically encountered in the palmprints. Since no other study has attempted using creases
as a sex estimation method, a comparison of results can
only be made with previous studies that have utilised the
Yaacob et al. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
(2022) 12:26
Page 5 of 8
Fig. 2 Frequency distribution of mean creases shift to the right for a males and b females, and creases shift to the left for c males and d females
ridge density and palmar tri-radii methods. Past studies reported that females had higher ridge density than
males in the area of the analysis in the palm (Kapoor
and Badiye 2015; Krishan et al. 2014; Nayak et al. 2010;
Gutiérrez et al. 2013; Dhall and Kapoor 2015). In addition to that, significant differences were also observed in
the palmprint ridge density for sex detemination (Krishan et al. 2014). Female palmprints were observed to
show significantly higher counts for all characteristics.
These results were in agreement with a previous study
that reported that the quantitative value of palmar features was lower in males, and heterogeneity was mostly
marked in females (Rodríguez-Ruiz et al. 2019). The
application of palmar tri-radii (delta) for sex determination was also reported in the previous studies. The
distance between the deltas ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, and ‘d’ to the axial
tri-radius ‘t’ was measured individually as well as combined using handheld illuminated microscope (Badiye
Yaacob et al. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
(2022) 12:26
Page 6 of 8
Fig. 3 Frequency distribution of mean total creases at hypothenar for a males and b females and creases density for c males and d females
et al. 2019). The combined distances of ≤ 30 cm and ≥
32.5 cm have a higher probability of belonging to female
and male donors, respectively. Another similar study has
also demonstrated that measurements of the interdigital
palmar area utilising the distances between digital triradii on the palm were statistically significant and could
be used for estimating sex from palmprints in the Croatian population (Jerković et al. 2021).
Yaacob et al. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
(2022) 12:26
Furthermore, it was demonstrated that 2 cm × 2 cm
square ROI in this study could be utilised to calculate the
crease density and be proposed in palmprint examination
workflow. In this study, the same size of ROI was analysed
for all palmprint samples regardless of hand size and sex.
Hence, the same numbers of creases may be distributed
in a larger palmar surface area, leading to lower crease
density among males. In addition, the palmar characteristics have a relatively longer growth period as compared
to fingers, and the prenatal environmental factors influence their developments (Karmakar et al. 2008). Therefore, characteristics in palm such as creases may have a
uniqueness that can be used in the recognition process.
The findings of this study suggest that crease on palmprint can be used as an alternative to the traditional
method, which usually uses minutiae point and friction
ridge as identification features. In this case, the same
method used to identify friction ridge skin can be used
to identify palmar flexion creases. Palmprint contains
eight times the number of minutiae points compared to
fingerprints, and it has a large number of creases (Cook
et al. 2010). Thus, extracting minutiae on palmprint is
time-consuming compared to fingerprint since it has
a larger area to analyse, and many creases need to be
removed before they can be used for identification purposes. Creases on palmprints can also be used for identification if the palmprint evidence is in low resolution.
The crease can be observed as it is a more prominent feature than the minutiae point, which can only be analysed
in high-resolution prints (Chen et al. 2001). Although the
formation path of the major and minor crease is genetically controlled, the secondary crease appears at random,
and it is unique to the individual (Cook et al. 2010). Many
examiners put effort into comparing the frequencies of
various patterns such as palmar flexion creases in order
to reveal the anthropologic characters of the different
races of the populations (Park et al. 2010). Besides that,
previous research have shown that palmar features have
a high tendency to show the background of the populations as opposed to fingers (Karmakar et al. 2008).
Palm creases have the potential to complement with
minutiae details in the identification of palmprint, and
thus, these characteristics increase the evidential value of
palmprint. Moreover, like friction ridge skin, the biological process makes palmar features permanent and unique
(Jain and Feng 2009). In the examination of palmprint,
creases commonly serve as supportive information for
identifying or eliminating distorted latent palmprints. In
addition to that, the experts usually use creases to determine the orientation of the palm as the size of creases
is larger than the ridge pattern and easier to examine. Although the major creases are usually genetically
dependent, most of the other creases are not formed
Page 7 of 8
based on genetic factors. Even identical twins that have
similar genetic factors will have different palmprints. This
nongenetic or environmental factor in pregnancy will
form complex patterns or creases that are very useful in
personal identification (Kong et al. 2009). Although identification of palmprint based on creases is not common,
it is possible, and it plays an important role in palmprint
verification (Huang et al. 2008). In summary, this study
strongly encourage the use of creases density as identification means for sex determination, and due to the many
benefits of creases characteristics, it can be explored further for forensic individualisation purposes.
Conclusions
This study is one of its kind since no research has
attempted to compare the crease density in palmprints
for sex identification in Malaysia. The findings confirmed
that females had higher creases density than males in
the Malaysian population. Thus, the mean creases density can be used as a sex determination method to reveal
sex information from an unknown palmprint left at a
crime scene. The palmprint mean creases density of 3.46
creases/cm2 is more likely to be of male origin, and a
mean of 5.73 creases/cm2 is more likely to be of female
origin in the Malaysian population. The findings presented in this study propose a new personal identification
related to sex determination to complement the ridge
density method. Further comparative studies on creases
density of latent palmprints are warranted to establish
and validate its potential to be utilised on developed/
lifted latent print recovered from a crime scene. Similar
study shall be also conducted and tested in other population samples.
Abbreviations
GAR: Genuine acceptance rate; ROI: Region of interest; rTEM: Relative technical
error of measurement; TEM: Technical error of measurement.
Acknowledgements
We thank all the participants involved in this study.
Authors’ contributions
All authors contributed to the design of the study. Roszaharah performed
the experiments. All authors analysed the data and discussed and wrote the
manuscript. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
Financial support for this research is by the Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)
Research University Grant: 1001/PPSK/8011134.
Availability of data and materials
Please contact the author for data requests.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Informed consent has been obtained from the participating individual. Ethical
approval ref: USM/JEPeM/15090304.
Yaacob et al. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
(2022) 12:26
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details
1
Forensic Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Kota Bharu, Malaysia. 2 School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Nibong Tebal, Pulau
Pinang, Malaysia. 3 Biomedicine Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kota Bharu, Malaysia.
Received: 18 November 2019 Accepted: 2 May 2022
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