CHP 445 ODU Data Analysis Reporting

Using the data, you collected in Section #5, and using a statistical software of your choice (e.g. SAS, SPSS, R, STATA, Excel, JMP, Minitab…) analyze and summarize your data by providing simple descriptive statistics for your major variables (i.e. dependent, independent, demographics, ….).

1. Report the results of your analysis in an understandable way by creating tables and graphs to represent relevant descriptive and inferential statistical results.

2. Do your results agree with what you’ve predicted in your hypothesis in Section 4?

Resources:

Under the Modules tab, I am posting an extra module on “review of statistical models and software”. This module provides some information and web links tutorials for the most commonly used statistical software. The module also discusses how to organize your variables based on their types and provides different type of statistical tests and their uses.

Research question: What is the perception of the impact of wearing masks on skincare among
healthcare workers?
Research Problem: The research problem is to investigate (explore, understand, or examine)
whether wearing mask for long period of time is related to skincare issues in healthcare
Identify and define independent variable:
Independent variable is the explanatory or predicting variable that predicts the variation in the
dependent variable and is often constant
IV: Amount of time wearing mask
Measuring how much time a healthcare worker wear masks and measuring the types of masks a worker
wears.
Identify and define Dependent variable:
Dependent variable is the outcomes or surprise variable that is influenced by the independent variable
DV: Skincare issue
Reaction to the skin is what is being measured
Hypothesis: we hypothesize …
Hypothesis is a statement saying what you expect to find in your research.
If healthcare workers wear mask for a long period of time, then they are more likely to have skincare
issues because the mask cause friction on the skin.
We hypothesize that healthcare workers wearing mask for long period will be at a higher risk for
skincare issues.
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Small. Charmane
CHP 461
Michele Kekeh
10/23/2022
Research question: What is the perception of the impact of wearing masks on skincare
among healthcare workers?
1. Select the kind of research design you will use to collect data.
Cross-sectional research design
2. 2. Provide reasons why you chose a specific design instead of the other.
The cross-sectional study is the most suitable research design for my study on the
perception of the impact of wearing masks on skincare among healthcare workers. The crosssectional study determines the exposure and outcome at the same time making it very suitable for
my research since it doesn’t involve waiting time. This research design will enable me to collect
a large amount of information over a short period of time. Additionally, I will inexpensively
collect data through the use of surveys. This cross-sectional study will enable me to conduct the
research using minimum resources. Therefore, I will be able to collect extensive quantities of
information from a large pool of participants over a short period of time.
3. Address issues of reliability and validity related to the design of your choice.
The cross-sectional study is reliable for my study on the perception of the impact of
wearing masks on skincare among healthcare workers. This is because cross-sectional studies
have been found to be the most effective design to use for examining the prevalence of diseases,
Small
and knowledge among healthcare workers as well as patients. Due to its profound efficiency in
assessing the prevalence of diseases, the cross-sectional design will be the best design to use in
my research which involves the study of the impact of wearing masks on skincare among
healthcare workers.
However, the use of the cross-sectional design raises numerous validity issues. For
instance, since the study will only observe people in a specific region, it is not possible to
precisely tell whether the cause-effect relationship drawn from the study applies to other
healthcare workers in other facilities and geographic locations (Carlson and Morrison 80).
Hence, this requires me to replicate the same results in other geographical locations, in different
time zones, and for different populations. Another issue about the cross-sectional design is
related to internal validity. In this regard, there is a question of whether the cause-effectrelationship observed can be attributed to specifically the use of face masks and not other
possible causes.
Survey questions
1. Since the wearing of face masks at all times became the new norm in the United
States and the world at large, have you experienced any of the following facial skin
complaints:
a) Skin breakages
b) Skin irritation
c) Increased pimples
d) Any other facial skin-related issues (specify)
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2. When purchasing masks, how important are natural fabrics to you?
a) Very important
b) Fairly important
c) Not important
d) Other (kindly specify)
3. Have you ever experienced facial skin issues in the past
a) Once
b) Never
c) A couple of times
d) Multiple times
4. How often do you change your face masks in a day?
a) Once
b) After every patient
c) Twice
d) Other (please specify)
5. How comfortable are you using facial masks?
a) Very comfortable
b) Very uncomfortable
c) Comfortable
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d) Do not mind
6. Is the LEVEL OF FILTRATION important to you when choosing your preferred
facial masks?
a) Not important (I only wear masks as a compliance measure
b) Somehow (I prefer the recommended amount of protection although I also need to Feel
comfortable
c) Very important (I prefer masks sealed with polypropylene filtration
7. Did the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic significantly alter your mask-wearing
patters? Did your frequency of wearing masks increase with the onset of the
pandemic?
a) Yes
b) Not really
c) Other (please specify)
8. Does your family have a history of skin acne and skin disease
a) Yes, very common
b) Very rare
c) Few people have experienced skin problems
d) Never
9. Have you sought treatment for any facial skin related issues?
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a) Yes, numerous times
b) No, I have only used skin care remedies
c) I have been thinking about it but I haven’t done it yet
d) I don’t have a reason to, my facial skin is in good condition
10. Do you think there is a relationship between the quality of a face mask and skinrelated diseases? Are some types of facial masks more likely to cause facial skin
problems compared to others?
a) Yes, Low-quality masks increase the chances of healthcare workers developing facial
skin care issues among
b) No, it all comes down to the sensitivity of a person’s skin
c) Other (please specify)
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Works Cited
Carlson, Melissa DA, and R. Sean Morrison. “Study design, precision, and validity in
observational studies.” Journal of palliative medicine 12.1 (2009): 77-82.
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Pajo, Introduction to Research Methods, SAGE Publishing, 2018.
Learning Objectives
 Review the characteristics of experimental research
 Describe the steps necessary in preparing and collecting data using a
questionnaire
 Compare and contrast the different methods of data collection
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Experimental Research
 In experimental research, a group is exposed to a variable of study (e.g.,
testing a new drug or trying out an intervention)
 We must assess whether any changes observed in the experimental
group are due to the experimental condition
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Ethical Considerations
 When conducting experimental research be vigilant about ethical
issues
 Treat participants with respect
 Notify participants about risks
 Obtain consent to participate
 Visit https://www.citiprogram.org/index.cfm?pageID=265 to read
about the research code of ethics
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Quasi-Experimental Research
 Experimental designs, namely our ability to randomly assign
participants to control and experimental groups, are not possible in
every context
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Collecting Data Through Questionnaires
 Conducting surveys is a common procedure for data collection
particularly in social science
 A survey refers to the method of data collection
 A questionnaire is the instrument containing the questions
 Untested questionnaires = non-standardized survey questionnaires
 Tested questionnaires = standardized survey questionnaires (e.g., math,
writing or reading tests we complete in school)
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Designing Questionnaires:
Step 1
 Develop a list of constructs
 Examine your hypothesis and develop a list of constructs to be measured
 For example: If we hypothesize gender influences college students’ choice
of major, then gender is one construct and major is another. Other
constructs of interest may be race, age, parental education, and so on
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Designing Questionnaires:
Step 2
 Determine how each construct will be accurately measured in question
form
 Search for established instruments measuring these constructs (e.g., census
data, Centers for Disease Control questionnaires, etc.)
 Examine the literature to find examples of other constructs
 Review the appropriateness of the instruments based on your research
goals and the appropriateness of the instrument for your sample
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Designing Questionnaires:
Step 3
 Think of all possible answers to these questions
 Some questions will be simple
 Answers should always be mutually exclusive (e.g., when answer choices
do not overlap with each other)
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Designing Questionnaires:
Step 4
 Avoid misleading, socially desirable, double-barreled questions or
overly technical terms
 Word questions clearly
 Be grammatically correct
 Avoid leading or biased language
 Technical terms can confuse participants
 Avoid double-barreled questions (i.e., ask about multiple concepts in one
question but only allow one answer)
 Consider the language literacy needs of your population
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Designing Questionnaires:
Step 5
 Organization that attracts and holds participant attention
 Consider the ordering of questions in your survey (e.g., combine all the
demographic questions at the end after the “attention-grabbing”
questions)
 Follow a logical continuity (e.g., group all religiosity questions together)
 Be careful about using only scale measurements (i.e., strongly agree, over
very unlikely), as participants may start skipping or answering questions
repetitively
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Designing Questionnaires:
Step 6
 Clarity and brevity
 Make sure all the questions are clear, simple, and lack ambiguity
 When questions are difficult to understand participants may become
frustrated
 Construct short questions when possible
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Designing Questionnaires:
Step 7
 Attention to contingency questions
 Contingency questions are follow-up questions
 Creating these types of questions requires you to think ahead
 For example: Do you use psychiatric medications? Yes or No. If the participant
chooses Yes we may follow-up and ask about the types of medications they
use
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Designing Questionnaires:
Step 8
 Create an answer scale
 When measuring attitudes, belief, and opinions, group the answers in a
scale
 Likert-type scales or likability scales (e.g., scales from very likely to unlikely
in scales of 4 or 5) are usually utilized
 Remember to create a scale that measures the same concept (different
concepts can create confusion) from a minimum to a maximum.
 Consider the number of response choices (odd or even)
To force participants to pick a choice = Even
 To allow a neutral point for participant to pick = Odd

 Make sure answers are inclusive of all options
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Designing Questionnaires:
Step 9
 Conduct a pretest to evaluate the instrument
 Test your instrument with a group of people
 This allows you to assess:
how long it takes to complete your instrument
 any issues in question understanding
 any issues with participant discomfort

 If you enter your data after you collect it, this also allows you to identify
issues that may arise
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Methods of Data Collection
 Personally collecting information
 Computer-assisted telephone interviews
 Virtual collection of data
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Personally Collecting Information
 Can be laborious due to large sample sizes
 Widely employed by researchers
 Researchers will approach people individually and ask them questions
verbally or ask them to complete a questionnaire
 Advantages include the ability to note body language, record
impressions and keep records, maximize participation in study, and
maximize completion of the questionnaire
 Disadvantages include cost and time limitations
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Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
(CATI)
 CATI involves collection of data electronically (e.g., interviews
conducted by a computer)
 Even when using this method, it is critical that interviewers be trained
well. Interviewers need to consider:
 familiarity with content
 be mindful of bias and judgment
 set a comfortable environment and tone
 not lead the participant
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Virtual Data Collection
 Online surveys are very popular and can access a large number of
participants in a manner of minutes with a higher response rate than
face-to-face data or telephone data collection
 Limitations include the fact that many people do not have access to the
Internet, the fact that people who feel strongly about an issue will be
more likely to participate, and the researcher cannot guarantee
participant confidentiality
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Virtual Data Collection
 Online survey websites
 www.surveymonkey.com
 www.surveypro.com
 www.zoomerang.com
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Survey Development Considerations
 Start with a clear introduction that includes the study focus
 Assure participants of confidentiality
 Create consistent and visually appealing questions
 Be mindful of requiring answers to questions and the ethical
implications of doing this
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Open-Access Student Resources
 Action Plan
 Quizzes
 eFlashcards
 SAGE Journal Articles
and more at edge.sagepub.com/pajo
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Running Head: PPE’s EFFECTS
Study Population, analysis plan, and data collection
Small, Charmane
Old Dominion University
CHP 445
Michele Kekeh
11/3/2022
PPE’s EFFECTS
The emergence of the coronavirus (COVID-19) brought a new order of doing things as
part of containment measures. Health practitioners traditionally wore personal protective
equipment (PPE) like face masks to reduce the risk of the spread of diseases from the patient to
the health professional and vice versa. But with the rapid spread and lethality of COVID-19,
countries have implemented containment measures to prevent its spread. Health workers have
reported many side effects after caring for patients wearing masks during the peak of COVID-19.
The research aims to identify the negative effects of facemasks and develop recommendations to
guarantee the safety and comfort of health workers. The research was done in Texas in the USA
because of the diverse population, as there are black and white populations of different age
groups and gender. The research excluded health professionals who had existing dermatological
and terminal illness conditions before the onset of the pandemic.
A cross-sectional study was carried out among healthcare workers who worked in various
hospitals during the pandemic. All respondents filled out an online survey through Survey
Monkey with seventeen questions on the effects of masks, demographics, and their previous
medical history. We shared links to various hospitals for their staff to fill. This method is
preferred because of its flexibility, internet accessibility almost everywhere, and reduction of
costs. The challenge is that many issues go unnoticed and the responses are biased. A
descriptive statistic was the chosen mode of presenting the study findings as it allowed the
grouping of the data using the criteria identified earlier.
A total of 425 health workers filled out the online forms. 287 were ladies, and 138 were
men. 230 respondents were white, 106 were black Americans, and 89 were classified as others.
Three hundred sixty-two reported headaches as the most common side effect; skin rashes were
experienced by 293, and 124 respondents reported acne. Some respondents reported that the side
PPE’s EFFECTS
effect disappeared when they stopped using masks, while 87 required medical attention for the
skin rash to resolve completely.
To conclude, the use of face masks by health workers during the pandemic negatively
affected workers’ health, like headaches, acne, and skin rashes. In the future, it is better to come
up with masks that allow proper hydration and skin care and better designs (Den Boon, 2018).
that will reduce headaches and other side effects.
PPE’s EFFECTS
References
Aloweni, F., Bouchoucha, S. L., Hutchinson, A., Ang, S. Y., Toh, H. X., Bte Suhari, N. A., … &
Lim, S. H. (2022). Health care workers’ experience of personal protective equipment use
and associated adverse effects during the COVID‐19 pandemic response in
Singapore. Journal of Advanced Nursing.
Den Boon, S., Vallenas, C., Ferri, M., & Norris, S. L. (2018). Incorporating health workers’
perspectives into a WHO guideline on personal protective equipment developed during
an Ebola virus disease outbreak. F1000Research, 7.
Parajuli, B. R., & Dev, J. (2020). Adverse effects of personal protection equipment among health
workers during COVID-19. Headache, 60(5), 864-877.