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Sampling Considerations Using information gained from this week’s readings, analyze the second article you selected in Unit 1.Summarize the type of research used in the article, as defined by the text. the sampling procedure that was used to recruit the participants, as defined by the text. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the method of sampling used. Evaluate whether the sampling procedure was appropriate for the type of research, and whether it allowed the researcher to answer the research question or questions. Post the persistent link for the article in your response. Refer to the Persistent Links and DOIs guide, linked in Resources, to learn how to locate this information in the library databases. Cite all sources in APA style and provide an APA-formatted reference list at the end of your post.
TheQualitative Report 2015 Volume 20, Number 8, Article 6, 1260-1269
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR20/8/bell6
Understanding African American Males’ Schooling Experiences:
A Qualitative Inquiry
Edward E. Bell
Independent Researcher, Raleigh, NC, USA
The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand how African American
males feel about their schooling experiences. This inquiry involved 18
participants located in eastern North Carolina. Many African American
males lack early learning experiences to adequately prepare for a positive
schooling experience. The findings from this study might prove helpful for
working with African American males in an educational setting. Keywords:
Black Males, Graduation, Qualitative Research, Education
African American males need early positive schooling experiences to prepare them
for lifelong learning in the classroom, yet many African American males do not attend
quality preschool programs or participate in early learning opportunities (McCall, 1993).
These types of early childhood experiences might better prepare African American males for
learning and foster a positive schooling experience. Rounds-Bryant (2008) concluded that
“school is the first public place that many children get the opportunity to demonstrate mastery
and competence outside of their family environment” (p. 27). In addition, Rounds-Bryant
postulated that early failure in school typically leads to classroom frustration, academic
withdrawal, and negative behavior. Most important, early academic successes might promote
a long-lasting appreciation for schooling among African American males.
Literature Review
Historical Overview of African American Males
The experience of African American males in America is unlike any experience other
immigrants have faced (Douglas, 2007). During slavery, African Americans were
dehumanized and treated as inferior based solely on their skin color (Douglas; Anton, 2009).
Even today, individuals discriminate against African American males by assuming they
possess less-than-acceptable qualities, such as being lazy and irresponsible (Douglas;
Swanson, Cunningham, & Spencer, 2003). African American males may still be
experiencing the residual effects of slavery, and their academic performance may be linked to
biases (Douglas). Hallinan (2010) revealed that with “roots in history of slavery, civil war,
and racial segregation, Black-White differences in social status and resources have been
difficult to overcome” (p. 50). Hallinan further noted that for decades public schools enrolled
primarily non-Black students, making it essentially illegal for African American students to
read or write. Historically, African Americans have inherited generations of self-hatred and
the looming effects of slavery (Douglas). Many African American males have internalized
negative stereotypes about themselves, their appearance, and their abilities. As a result, these
negative beliefs about the dominant culture may have impeded the academic potential of
African American males (Douglas; Bell, 2009) and interfered with their overall ability to
become successful in classrooms that yield a positive schooling experience.
1261 The Qualitative Report 2015
School Experiences of African American Males
Fostering a positive schooling experience for African American males involves
respecting them and valuing their classroom contributions (Bell, 2009, 2010). Many African
American males lack adequate opportunities to develop positive classroom experiences.
They are often berated for minor classroom behavioral issues that become magnified by
teachers and administrators. This prevents an alarming number of African American males
from positively engaging in the learning process. When this happens, African American
males find their problems are often exacerbated by educators and taken more seriously as
compared to those of White male offenders. This leads to a distortion of African American
males’ view of schooling and thus interferes with creating positive
schooling experiences.
McLaren and Kincheloe (2007) posited the resistance theory as a means to help
African American males compensate for complex educational issues. This theory provides a
mechanism for understanding how African American males react to school conditions and
helps to make meaning of how African American males respond to the school environment
and policies (Noguera, 2001). African American males who attempt to voice their concerns
regarding unfair treatment or combat negative school experiences are often seen as antisocial
or harboring a negative view of schooling (Bell, 2009). Davis (2003) concluded in his
research that to be Black and male in public school places one at risk for a disproportionate
number of suspensions and a higher rate of school failure. For many African American
males, school simply becomes a pipeline into the prison complex (Ferguson, 2000). Many
factors contribute to this school-to-prison pipeline, including academic failure of students,
disparate discipline practices, inadequate teaching, and high dropout rates (Christle, Jolivette,
& Nelson 2005).
Views of Teachers
Teachers often view disruptive behavior by African American males as a catastrophic
occurrence. When African American males are unjustly or unfairly singled out for classroom
disruptions, they begin to develop an aversion towards the learning process. Consequently,
this cripples them in forging a positive schooling experience. Majors and Billson (1992)
concluded that African American males’ behavior is often misinterpreted. Misinterpretation
can cause educators to conclude that African American males are “thuggish” and that they
harbor a dislike for learning, thereby creating an environment where African American males
view school negatively and think teachers view them as lazy (Majors & Billson). Hereford
(2012) revealed in her research that African American males are disproportionately
suspended from school. The zero tolerance policy puts African Americans at a disadvantage;
unlike their counterparts, they often not given receive another chance to stay in school. In
addition, Caton (2012) noted an adverse impact of zero-tolerance polices when applied to
Black males. Caton found that these polices created a negative school environment and poor
student-teacher relationships for Black males, and this led to an inhospitable school
environment.
Studies have shown that the needs of African American males are often not met
within the public schools (Smith, 2005). Bennet (2006) and Brown (2004) concluded in their
research that low teacher expectations and unequal disciplinary actions increase the negative
perceptions that African American males have about their schooling experiences. Because of
this, Freedman (2006) noted that African American males face a culture of exclusion within
the public school system. Negative experiences that African American males have in school,
such as low teacher expectations, tend to perpetuate the marginalization of African American
males (Bennet). Adults working with students within the public school system fail to
Edward E. Bell 1262
understand how their “less-than” perception of African American males might contribute to
how those students view their schooling experiences (Blanchet, Mumford, & Beachum
(2005).
Gender and Culture
Researchers have worked to understand gender and education, particularly focusing
on the effects of how gender interacts with education (Davis, 2013). However, researchers
have given little attention to the interaction of gender and race as related to African American
male achievement (Davis). African American males are often disadvantaged by how gender
and race intersect; the relationship between the two is often misunderstood. Brown and
Davis (2000) concluded in their research that schools are not meeting the social and
developmental needs of African American males.
The culture of learning in most schools comes with expectations. Often the cultures at
school and at home are at odds. Schools have a code of conduct that might be different from
the code at home. In a national sample of 9,000 middle school students, 28.3% of African
American males were suspended during a school year as opposed to 10% of White males
being suspended (Losen & Skiba, 2010). These statistics might be attributed to the devaluing
of African Americans and the misunderstanding of their conduct. African American males
must come to appreciate school for its primary purpose, as a place to acquire an education;
however, they have a mixed view of school given their historical challenges. Good and
Brophy (1995) discussed factors that can be implemented to teach African American males
ways to view school more positively, primarily that teachers must present clear and consistent
roles for African American students and respond to crises fairly.
This researcher posited that the following strategies may produce a positive learning
environment for African American males:
Validate their presence and contributions to the class.
See them as individuals and not representatives of a group.
Treat them fairly and justly.
Don’t overreact to their misconduct.
Expect them to succeed.
Given the urgency of the situation in trying to keep African American males in school
and graduating, it seems ironic that scant attention has been given to the educational
experiences and perspectives of African American males in school (Davis, 2013, p. 519).
There is a paucity of research addressing how African American males feel about their
schooling experiences. Understanding the feelings of African American males might help
provide appropriate instructional interactions between student and teacher, which can
translate into a positive schooling experience. This research is important in filling a gap in
the existing literature. This study attempts to address how African American males feel
about their schooling experiences. Although Bell (2009) studied African American males
and the link between self-esteem and academic achievement, his quantitative research did not
address the feelings of African American males. Significant research has studied the
disengagement of Black males from school that translates into academic failure (Davis,
2013), yet minimal–if any–research exists that describes the feelings of African American
males regarding their schooling experiences.
1263 The Qualitative Report 2015
Researcher Stance
As an African American male, I strongly feel that additional research regarding the
education of African American males is always needed. Because keeping African American
males in school has become an urgent situation, it is important to understand how they feel
about their schooling experiences. Qualitative research is best suited to understand and to
explore the real-world experiences of African American males.
I have spent years trying to understand what I can do to better understand the feelings
of African American males. Researchers and educators tend to look at numbers and rely on
statistics, which is necessary. However, exploring and understanding personal experiences
are strategies that I have used to help keep African American males in school, graduating
from college, and living productive lives. It is the hope that this inquiry will lead to a better
understanding of African American males. As a father of an African American male, I had to
ask him repeatedly, “How do you feel about school?” Knowing his feelings prepared me to
help him through difficult circumstances. Often, I became his best advocate to keep him
focused on what he thought about school, and sometimes it was not positive. He was recently
hired as an instructional coach in a rural school setting.
A qualitative researcher’s bias should be made known (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
As the researcher, I am an African American male who currently works with this population
as a community activist. In addition, I taught in a middle-school alternative program for at-
risk males. These experiences add credibility to the findings.
Method
The purpose of this generic qualitative study was to understand how African
American males feel about their schooling experiences. This type of design is best suited to
explore and understand the feelings of the study participants. Generic qualitative research is
not based on a certain set of philosophical assumptions, but it is a method to gain information
and to understand participants’ lived experiences. It is important to hear the experiences of
the participants. This design is explanatory in nature because it allows the researcher an
opportunity to explore the feelings participants have about school.
Generic designs tend to focus on subjective attitudes, beliefs, or experiences. In
general, qualitative research interprets human behaviors from the viewpoint of those who
have experienced them (Milacci, 2003). Qualitative research uses a naturalistic approach that
seeks to understand phenomena in context-specific settings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) in a
situation “where the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon of interest”
(Patton, 2001, p. 39).
Sample
The study participants were from a rural community in North Carolina. The study
took place in the winter of 2009. The sample consisted of 18 African American males in
grades 6-8. The sample for this study was selected utilizing snowballing, a subset of a
purposive sampling method which is used when a researcher aims to understand and gain
insight about a specific population (McMillian & Schumacher, 1997; Merriam, 1988).
Recruitment for the study occurred at a community event. One of organizers at the
event shared a flyer which described the purpose of the study, inclusion and exclusion
criteria, and informed the potential participants of the researcher’s presence at the event. The
organizer explained that the researcher might approach potential participants for study
participation. The organizer stressed that participation was strictly voluntary and one could
Edward E. Bell 1264
withdraw at any time. During the community event, the researcher approached 18 adults who
were accompanied by a minor. The researcher inquired about the potential parent-child
relationship and the grade of the child. Once the parent-child relationship was determined,
the researcher explained the nature of the study to the parent while the child listened. The
potential participants were given detailed information about the study such as its purpose and
procedures; participants were invited to participate in the study if the criteria were met;
participants verbally agreed to participate in the study; and participants were told they could
withdraw at time from the study and that their participation was strictly voluntary.
Participating parents and children signed consent forms.
It was important that this research study adhere to ethical procedures and standards as
set by All of the Children, Inc., an organization that focuses on the needs of youth. Without
approval from this organization’s research arm, the study could not have been conducted.
This organization supported, reviewed, and approved the study to ensure that participants
were not exposed to any harm and to ensure ethical standards were met.
Data Collection
Creswell (2000) noted that analyzing text and forms of data presents a challenge,
especially for qualitative researchers. One-to-one semistructured interviews were used to
collect the naturalistic data. The focus of the study was to explore and understand the
feelings of African American males regarding their schooling experiences. A total of 18
African American males were included in this study. The principal source of data for the
study was generated by semistructured interviews. Semistructured interviews involve
interaction between researcher and respondent. The particulars of the study were discussed
with the parent, such as the nature and reason for the study. The researcher explained the
right of refusal to participate or to withdraw from the study at any time. Subsequently, the
parent gave the researcher permission to speak with the minor child. In addition, the
researcher ensured the parent and the participant that no name would be used in the
study.
The parent verbally agreed to allow the minor child to participate in the study and then signed
a consent form. The researcher informed the parent that the participant could withdraw from
the study at any time. The researcher used this approach with all study participants.
Participants’ parents were also helpful in recommending other potential participants for the
study.
Qualitative researchers, the key instrument in data collection, present findings from
field notes and interviews. This study employed this process and provided detailed accounts
called descriptive narratives (McMillian & Schamacher, 1997). The researcher’s field notes
enhanced the validity of the research. It is important for qualitative researchers to highlight
participant meanings, which ultimately provides evidence that clarifies the data (Denzin &
Lincoln, 1994).
This study took place over a 3-month period; the semistructured interviews lasted
approximately 45 minutes. To protect the identity of the participants, the researcher assigned
each one a number. Participants were asked questions such as, “How do you feel about
school?” When necessary, follow-up questions were asked, such as, “Could you tell me
more?”
Data Analysis
Qualitative data collection can produce data in the form of interviews or oral surveys.
To analyze the data effectively, the researcher used open coding and axial procedures that
allowed the emergence of common themes by naming, categorizing, and describing
1265 The Qualitative Report 2015
phenomena (Creswell & Miller, 2000; Glaser, 1992; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). This study
also used grounded theory methods for the emergence of inductive codes through the
collection and analysis of the data. This approach promoted marking of salient points from
the text as well as the emergence of themes. The analysis of the field notes from the
interviews produced data relevant to the semistructured interviews. Collected data will be
secured and retained on a USB flash drive; only the researcher will have access to the drive.
Data will be destroyed after 7 years.
To ensure the trustworthiness and creditability of the findings, the researcher used
member checking and peer examination in the study. Data triangulation of multiple data
sources such as member checking, peer examination, and field notes enhanced validity of the
research. For example, after the interviews, the researcher shared respective notes with each
participant; this allowed participants the opportunity to validate their experience (Koelsch,
2013). The ultimate goal of member checking is establish truth (Cho & Trent, 2006).
In addition, after coding and analyzing the data, two professionals with over 30 years
of combined experience in child development and educating African American males
reviewed the data for credibility, thus bringing their expertise into the analysis. This strategy
allowed the researcher to further understand the data and code refining. Maxwell (2010)
stated that feedback from others is helpful in identifying assumptions and flaws in methods.
Results
The analysis revealed two key themes: feelings about school and feelings about
teachers. Students had mixed reactions to their views on schooling. They enjoyed coming to
school but faced some negative experiences there. When this happened, some of them
wanted to drop out of school and others became classroom disruptions. In particular, one of
the respondents felt that “school was not teaching him anything.” Other comments follow:
Theme 1: Feelings about School
“I like school. Man, I am doing my best.”
“I am trying to work harder.”
“I am good most times in school…ain’t dropping out of school. You know
they [teachers] want us to.”
“We are trying to [do] good in school, and I want to be rich.”
“School can be fun…I get up early for school.”
“Meeting your friends in school is the best part…all the laughs.”
“School is better than staying home all day…it is no fun being sick and
home…rather be in school.”
“It’s hard being in school when you are not wanted.”
“School can be good…I feel that my teacher makes it worse.”
Theme 2: Feelings about Teachers
Participants’ views on teachers were primarily negative. It is interesting to note they
were fond of going to school, yet they disliked the teachers. Teachers were often viewed as
“mean” and “controlling.” The issue of race was discussed. Some of the respondents felt
that they were “policed” more than other students. However, some of the participants noted
the kindness of teachers and that “some of them [are] willing to help you.” “Just don’t make
them mad,” one respondent stated. Additional comments follow:
Edward E. Bell 1266
“Teachers are mean.”
“I can’t get away with anything…but the Whites do.”
“Some [teachers] are nice to you.”
“Look, I am nice and they still are mean, so what do you do?”
“They [teachers] are nice to the White students.”
“As soon as I break a rule, I am in trouble…This doesn’t happen for
everybody, just us Black kids.”
“One time, you see, I was nice, and she [the teacher] still was hating on
me.”
“It is hard to decide if teachers really care about you…some never smile.”
“I know my math teacher likes me…he takes his time with me.”
“Well, my science teacher is nice sometimes, but she will flip on you
quick.”
“When I was late for class, my social studies teacher didn’t even explain
what I missed, but when another student was late, she did.”
“As soon as I say something, I get in trouble…those White boys never get
in trouble.”
“They try to trick us and get us in trouble.”
“Why do we get sent to the office when we misbehave? The White kids
don’t, and our behaviors are the same.”
“I can’t even make a sound…I get sent to the office.”
“I feel that school could be better if teachers just treated us fair.”
Discussion
African American males must develop and embrace a positive schooling experience.
It is important for educators to understand how African American males feel about school.
Bell (2009) concluded in this research that positive feelings about school may contribute to
academic growth. Most important, African American males are often made to feel inferior,
which may also translate into a negative perception of school. This can hamper the learning
potential of African American males (Bell, 2009; Steele, 1992; Swanson et al., 2003).
African American students have a history marred by underachievement and low expectations,
coupled with practices and measures that systematically place African American males at risk
academically (Anton, 2009; Bell, 2010; Douglas, 2007).
Majors and Billson (1992) posited that some educators seem to overreact to African
American males’ behavior and become overly dramatic when they go against the normalcy of
classroom conduct. If educators could respond less dramatically to the behavior of African
American males and eliminate stereotypes and biases, this might increase positive schooling
experiences for this group of students (Majors & Billson). The nuances of their behavior,
race, and gender can place African American males at risk academically and add to their
negative perceptions of school. Some educators lack the cultural disposition to understand
the feelings and experiences of African American males (Steele, 1992) and often overreact
when African American males present challenging behavior; however, when non-African
American students display the same behavior, educators do little to correct them and respond
in a nonchalant manner. Steele concluded in his research that beliefs of inferiority and low
expectations mar African American male students. As a result, these students will continue
to fall prey to suspensions, low test scores, and academic failure (Bell, 2009, 2010) and
unfortunately will also continue to harbor a negative view of school.
1267 The Qualitative Report 2015
This study looked at how African American students experience school. Their
feelings about school were often tied to how teachers saw them. They were concerned about
how teachers viewed them. Often a bad day in school caused them to believe that they
disliked school. Participants enjoyed going to school. Teachers’ reactions were often
negative and contributed to African American males feeling unhappy about being in a
classroom where they were not respected or valued. Students tended to like school for social
and academic reasons; however, their negative views of teachers interfered with their overall
view of school. For many of them, this created negative feelings toward teachers and school.
Implications
Davis (2003) stated that Black boys need positive schooling experiences to keep them
engaged in school. Rounds-Bryant (2008) revealed that African American males need earlier
school experiences that are positive, and she noted that such experiences might insulate
African American males from negative views of schooling. Although there is some research
that has studied the schooling experiences of African American males, there appears to be a
lack of research that addresses the feelings of African American males regarding their
schooling experiences.
The practical implications of the proposed study can assist in filling the gap on
understanding how African American males feel about their schooling experiences. The
results of the study may assist teachers, school administrators, school counselors, and parents
to better address the academic needs of African American males and assist in keeping them in
school through graduation.
Conclusion
African American males must develop positive schooling experiences. Having
positive schooling experiences will undoubtedly keep African American males in school.
However, African American males must feel free to be who they are: young men who possess
unique qualities and abilities. Inappropriate responses to their behavior cause them to react
negatively and to develop a trajectory of unhealthy associations with schooling. Perhaps
African American males need earlier educational experiences where teachers intentionally
make them feel valued for who they are. More important, African American males need to
be valued, respected, and made to feel that they too are a welcome addition to any classroom.
This might ward off potential dislike for school when confronted with the stereotypes,
opinions, prejudice, and biases of others.
Given the aforementioned needs of African American males, the current education
landscape might be ill-equipped to deal with the needs of African Americans. Professional
development has begun to offer teachers strategies for implementing effective classroom
lessons.
There is an absence of tools that assess the feelings of African American males in the
classroom. If teachers, counselors, school psychologists, and other educational leaders can
more easily assess and evaluate the feelings of African American males, their findings might
enable them to keep this population in school and successfully graduating. These efforts
have the potential to abate the negative feelings that African Americans have about their
schooling experiences–and keep them in school and graduating.
Edward E. Bell 1268
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Author Note
Dr. Bell is an author, educator, researcher, poet, and presenter. He has published
several articles regarding the education of African-American males. He currently resides in
Raleigh, NC.
Dr. Bell received his AAS degree in criminal justice technology from Craven
Community College, his BA in criminal justice from North Carolina Central University, his
MA in counseling, and his EdD in education leadership from Liberty University. Dr. Bell is a
licensed school counselor in Virginia and a social studies teacher and North Carolina.
Correspondence regarding this article can be addressed directly to Edward E. Bell at
edbell1906@yahoo.com.
Copyright 2015: Edward E. Bell and Nova Southeastern University.
Article Citation
Bell, E. E. (2015). Understanding African American males’ school experiences: A qualitative
inquiry. The Qualitative Report, 20(8), 1260-1269. Retrieved from
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR20/8/bell6
http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/er/pnjoaqref.html
mailto:edbell1906@yahoo.com
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
permission.
- ADM_113910_20150817_00003
The Qualitative Report
8-17-2015
Understanding African American Males’ Schooling Experiences: A Qualitative Inquiry
Edward E. Bell
Recommended APA Citation
Understanding African American Males’ Schooling Experiences: A Qualitative Inquiry
Abstract
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