Business Question

DOI: 10.1002/sres.2623RESEARCH PAPER
A critical systems thinking approach to empower refugees
based on Maslow’s theory of human motivation
Roelien Goede1 | Christine Boshuizen‐van Burken2
1
School for Computer Science and
Information Systems, North West
University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
2
School of Innovation Sciences,
Eindhoven University of Technology,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Correspondence
Roelien Goede, School for Computer
Science and Information Systems, North
West University, Hoffman Street,
Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa.
Email: roelien.goede@nwu.ac.za
The life of a refugee is hard. We show how Maslow’s theory of motivation can
be utilized to better understand the situation of refugees in the Netherlands.
Our aim is to formulate guidelines for the authorities in terms of logistical support. From a methodological position, we motivate the use of critical systems
thinking to be used in wicked problems. The popular account of Maslow’s
work undermines key aspects from the original work, namely, preconditions
for need satisfaction and the role of information. As we analysed stories told
by refugees, it is these lesser known aspects of his theory that provided most
insights. Freedom in host countries is gained on different levels. Contrasting
Maslow’s view, we propose that freedom is an “end” and hierarchical. Without
information, the refugee cannot experience freedom. Because the stories of the
refugees follow Maslow’s needs hierarchy, we argue that information provided
should be according to this hierarchy.
KEYWORDS
critical systems thinking, refugee crises, theory of human motivation, wicked problems
1 | INTRODUCTION
The decision to leave one’s country is not an easy one. It
is difficult enough to make a decision to emigrate legally
to another country, but for most asylum seekers, this is
not a rational act. Asylum seekers leave their countries
out of desperation not knowing what the future will hold.
They act on an overwhelming motivation to seek safety
elsewhere, even risking their lives.
The commitment of European countries towards
accepting refugees have been criticized for a long time
(Levy, 2010). Since the civil war started in Syria in 2015,
Europe has been under pressure to accommodate millions of asylum seekers. The term “refugee” is a description of the legal status assigned to an asylum seeker
after specific phases of the process have been completed.
Percoco and Fratesi (2018) provide more detail on technical information on asylum seekers and refugees in
relation to migrants. They highlight the fact that in
Syst Res Behav Sci. 2019;36:715–726.
comparison with migrants, refugees initially have less
rights to freedom in the host country.
The logistics process experienced by the asylum
seekers in the Netherlands is a complex sequence of
administrative steps administered and serviced by different parties such as the Immigration and Naturalization
Service (IND), the Central Agency for the Housing of
Asylum Seekers (COA), and various social or voluntary
organizations, such as Dutch Council for Refugees
(Vluchtelingenwerk Nederland). The research reported
in the paper was done as part of the NWO (Netherlands
Organisation for Scientific Research) funded research
project “The Refugee Crisis in Europe: Modelling
Humanitarian Logistics.” The objective of the overall
research project was to optimize the humanitarian logistics process for refugees in a value sensitive manner.
In this paper, we reflect on the suitability of the theory
of human motivation (Maslow, 1943, p. 383) to better
understand the refugee logistical process in the
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© 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
Netherlands and propose improvements. We use the
model of Checkland and Holwell (1998) on elements of
research to guide our process. Research is guided by a
framework of understanding (F) that is embodied in a
methodology (M) and applied to an area of concern (A)
as depicted in Figure 1. Epistemologically, learning takes
place resulting from the application in all three spheres,
F, M, and A. We aim to provide practical guidelines,
based on refugee experiences, to improve the logistic process in the Netherlands. A secondary objective is to position the work of Maslow as framework of understanding
for problems that can be described as wicked problems
within the methodological framework of critical systems
thinking and critical social theory research.
We start our discussion with a brief positioning of the
area of application in the framework of understanding, by
positioning the refugee situation in the framework of
wicked problems. Then our focus shifts to finding a suitable methodology, and we motivate the use of critical systems thinking and also critical social research. These
methodologies promote theoretical guidance by a scholar
in the critical tradition. We then show how Maslow’s
original work can fit this purpose. In the empirical part
of the paper, we reflect on stories told by the refugees in
terms of the theory of motivation of Maslow. Our conclusions represent the “learning about” part of Figure 1,
where we attempt to make contributions to each of the
elements of the research project.
2 | THE REFUGEE SITUATION A S A
WICKED PROBLEM
Rittel and Webber (1973) argue that problem areas in
social planning can be described as “wicked problems.”
They argue that these problems do not have solutions.
Rather, one solution often leads to yet another problem.
Some applicable characteristics of wicked problems are
as follows: (a) It is not possible to provide a definitive definition of the problem; (b) there is no end date or
FIGURE 1
stopping rule, because the nature of the problem implies
that it is never solved; (c) solutions cannot be found—
proposed strategies can only be labelled as better or
worse; (d) there is not an ultimate test for the success of
a proposed intervention in the wicked problem situation;
(e) problems are symptoms of other problems; and,
finally, (f) the discrepancies in the problem situation
can be explained in numerous ways and the solution
depends on the specific description supported.
From the wicked problem perspective on the refugee
problem, we understand that we cannot solve problems,
we can at most aim to improve some aspects of the logistical process, while accepting that all our suggestions
have the potential to highlight other problems. The refugee situation can be viewed from various perspectives
leading to motivating different interventions. Although
our overall research project investigated perspectives
from the refugees, government agencies, and non‐profit
organizations, this paper focusses on the refugee perspective. Typical of wicked problems is the fact that the problem originates in an area, in our case a country, different
from where the improvement is sought. Furthermore,
success is very relativistic: When is the problem situation
“solved”/completed from the perspective of an individual
refugee?
When finding a methodology for problem solving in a
wicked situation, it is clear from the characteristics that a
methodology should be inherently critical of the point of
view taken of the problem situation. Furthermore, the
methodology should not be dependent on a precise problem description, nor aim to provide a concise solution to
the problem. The methodology should inherently be
aimed at improving the situation for those affected by it.
Finally, the methodology should encourage awareness
of the wider context of the problem under investigation.
We argue that critical systems thinking can be used as
such a methodology in the improvement of specific problems for refugees. We do not claim to solve the problems
or to provide overall solutions; we rather claim that critical systems thinking is beneficial to understand some
Elements of the study based on the model by Checkland and Holwell (1998)
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716
aspects of the problem in order to achieve some improvement, which in our case allows us to suggest practical
improvements to the logistical process for refuges in the
Netherlands. This obvious limitation is caused by the
wicked character of the refugee problem. Critical systems
thinking as methodology for intervention is discussed in
the following section.
3 | METHODOLOG Y: CRITICAL
SYS TEMS THINK ING A ND
CR ITICAL SOCIAL RESEARCH
Critical systems thinking has a rich history and diverse
implementation areas as described by Jackson (2019),
also as part of the larger systems thinking school of
thought, which is focussed on holistic problem solving.
Generally, being critical focusses on the assumptions of
other people; however as Ulrich (1983) argues, critical
thinking starts with our own assumptions. Before we
may attempt to understand the assumptions of others,
we need to articulate our own assumptions. This statement forms part of our justification for using critical systems thinking to address the wicked problem of the
refugee situation in the Netherlands in terms of the characteristics of wicked problems listed in the previous
section.
The first three commitments of critical systems thinking discussed by Jackson (2019) have special bearing on
the arguments presented in this paper: (a) Critical systems thinking seeks to demonstrate critical awareness of
the assumptions/values of those involved and affected;
(b) critical systems thinking also shows social awareness
of the context of theories to be applied in the improvement of the situation; and (c) critical systems thinking
is dedicated to human emancipation in order to develop
the potential of individuals.
The question posed and discussed in this paper is
whether and how we can rely on the work of Maslow to
improve our understanding and intervention in order to
improve the situation of refugees in the Netherlands.
Because the mandate for our research comprises logistical issues of refugees, we also focus on information and
information systems. From a methodological perspective,
the seminal work of Myers and Klein (2011) guides critical social research in information systems according to
the following principles: (a) using core concepts of critical
social theorists to guide data collection and analysis; (b)
taking a value position in terms of the normative environment of the research, such as equal opportunities; (c)
revealing and challenging prevailing beliefs and social
practices; (d) individual emancipation in terms of
reaching potential, realization for needs (explicitly stated
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by Myers & Klein, 2011), or self‐reflection; (e) improvements in society, assuming that improvement is possible;
and (f) improvements in social theories based on its application to guide interventions.
To summarize our argument up to this stage, the refugee problem is a wicked problem; wicked problems are
not solved, but rather improved by considering various
perspectives, which motivates the use of critical systems
thinking. Critical systems thinking allows for the critical
application of different social theories. From our research
sponsor’s mandate, we focus on logistics and therefore
information flow. This allows us to work within the
framework of critical social research developed by Myers
and Klein (2011). Their first principle promotes the use of
a critical scholar to guide the research process. In this
paper, we show how the work of Maslow (1943) can be
accommodated both within the commitments of critical
systems thinking and as a critical scholar in critical social
research in information systems. Our secondary aim is
therefore to promote the original work of Maslow to be
used in critical social theory studies in information systems research.
Subsequently, we argue that the work of Maslow has
been summarized and popularized to the extent that the
original essence has been lost when the popular accounts
are studied in isolation from the original (“proper”)
account. We discuss this in the next section.
4 | F RAM EWOR K OF
UNDERSTANDING: THE THEORY
OF HUM AN M OTIVATION
We already positioned the refugee logistics situation in
terms of the theoretical description of wicked problems.
Our goal in this section is to provide background on the
theory of human motivation to serve as the framework
of understanding in our study.
4.1 | Proper versus popular Maslow
The theory of human motivation is extremely popular in
a large number of disciplines. Google Scholar cites more
than 28,000 citations, and this number is probably many
fewer than the actual citations of the paper in journals
from the time it was published in 1943. It is taught in
many commerce graduate programmes and well known
by most people with some graduate training. Brookman
(1989) argues that teaching the needs hierarchy to students improves retention rates of students in universities.
With popularity also comes misrepresentation and critique. When one searches for “Maslow Hierarchy of
Needs” on an Internet browser and views the images in
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GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
the results, the hierarchy appears in countless shapes and
versions for page upon page. Closer examination, however, shows that none of the pages contain other important information from the original Maslow paper!
Our application of Maslow’s work to the refugee problem is not without parallels. In 1977, Adler described the
situation of immigrants in Israel according to the theory
of human needs. In a recent study conducted by Lonn
and Dantzler (2017), the hierarchy of needs was used to
guide counselling for refugees in the United States, providing a thorough review of the work of Maslow in terms
of the levels of the hierarchy. Other sections of the original paper are not well represented in that report.
We show in this section that the original paper contains much more information and that this is crucial to
the understanding of the work of Maslow in relation to
the refugee situation. Our discussion follows the course
of the paper by Maslow. In our presentation of the work,
we also reflect on the work in terms of our secondary
objective of presenting the work of Maslow in the realm
of critical systems thinking and critical social research.
GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
When these assumptions are reflected upon from a
critical systems perspective, a number of observations
come to mind: A holistic view is promoted by the first
assumption, which is inherent in systems thinking; the
goal seeking intention described in the ninth assumption
can be coupled with the specific objective oriented characteristic of a system; different perspectives are acknowledged in assumption number four; and another systems
characteristic, the environment, is acknowledged by
assumption number eleven. These characteristics of systems were developed by Churchman (1968). Above all,
the fact that assumptions are listed at the beginning of
the paper resonates with the first commitment of critical
systems thinking listed in the previous section.
Subsequent to the assumptions, Maslow positions his
work in the context of his time. He associates his work
with amongst others the functionalist tradition of Dewey,
the holism of Werheimer and Goldstein, and the
dynamicism of Freud and Adler. From a critical systems
thinking position, this is an example of the second commitment of taking contemporary theories into
consideration.
4.2 | Assumptions
4.3 | The hierarchy of needs
Before discussing the theory of motivation, Maslow starts
the paper with a list of assumptions based on previous
work. He argues that the proposed theory is framed by
these initial assumptions. We only quote the ones here
that are most applicable to our work with refugees. Original numbering is used for ease of reference:
1. The integrated wholeness of the organism must be
one of the foundation stones of motivation theory. …
3. Such a theory should stress and center itself upon ultimate or basic goals rather than partial or superficial
ones, upon ends rather than means to these ends. …
4. There are usually available various cultural paths to
the same goal.
6. Human needs arrange themselves in hierarchies of
prepotency. That is to say, the appearance of one need
usually rests on the prior satisfaction of another, more
pre‐potent need. … No need or drive can be treated as
if it were isolated or discrete. …
9. Classifications of motivations must be based upon
goals rather than upon instigating drives or motivated
behavior. …
11. The situation or the field in which the organism
reacts must be taken into account but the field
alone can rarely serve as an exclusive explanation for
behavior. …
13. Motivation theory is not synonymous with behavior
theory. (Maslow, 1943, p. 370)
We provide a short summary in Table 1 of the popular
version of the hierarchy of needs with comments on each
level from the original work of Maslow. In preparation of
our empirical work in the following main section of the
paper, we provide in the table intuitive reflections on
the situation of the refugees.
From our critical systems perspective, this theory of
motivation also describes the journey of a person to reach
his potential. Inherently, the work by Maslow represents
the value position that it is good for a person to reach
his true potential as described in the final category of
self‐actualization. We assume in this paper that the
emancipative goals of the third commitment of critical
systems thinking can be coupled with Maslow’s striving
for self‐actualization of the individual.
The section of the original paper following the discussion of the needs is seldom thoroughly presented in secondary literature. We focus on three aspects from the
final part of the original paper: preconditions for basic
need satisfaction, the role of information, and, finally,
other characteristics of the theory.
4.4 | The preconditions for the basic need
satisfaction
“There are certain conditions which are immediate prerequisites for the basic need satisfactions. Danger to these
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718
Similar to physiological needs, when a person experiences a dangerous Maslow revisits the idea of freedom later, which is more comprehensive
situation, the “whole organism [functions] as a safety‐seeking
than safety. Similar to physiological needs, the future perspective is
mechanism” (p. 380). Maslow further refers to the preference of
determined by the need for safety. In an adopted country, the
familiar things. He links the role of religion also to this feeling of order
refugees would benefit from access to familiar things from their own
and safety seeking.
culture and religion. In their adopted country, the needs are
motivated no longer by an emergency situation.
These needs come to the fore when the previous levels are “fairly well
gratified,” (p. 381). A lonely person might even forget that he was
once hungry. Maslow stresses the need to receive and give love.
The esteem needs fall in two groups: first, self‐esteem based on
As lower levels are somewhat satisfied, the refugee’s future perspective
achievement, adequacy, “confidence to face the world and
is no longer determined by short‐term needs only. A further level of
independence and freedom” and, second, the need for recognition or
belonging develops into a normalized social structure. Refugees
“desire for reputation and prestige …” (p. 382), and aspects such as
typically experience a lack of confidence based on their inability to
attention and appreciation.
communicate in the language of the host country. Furthermore, they
experience judgement by host citizens and an underestimation of
their worth.
The artist wants to paint again and the musician wants to make music The artist wants to paint again and the musician wants to make music
again. The question is raised whether the musician wants to play his
again. “What a man can be, a man must be,” (p. 382). Even when all
music in the host country or his original home country. This might
other needs are fulfilled, a new “discontent may develop, unless the
differ from individual to individual.
individual is doing what he is fitted for,” (p. 382). Maslow writes: “The
specific form that these needs will take will vary greatly from person
to person,” (p. 382).
Safety needs: security of the body,
employment, resources, morality, the
family, health, property.
Love/belonging: friendship, family, and
sexual intimacy
Esteem needs: self‐esteem, confidence,
achievement, respect of others, and
respect by others.
Self‐actualization: morality, creativity,
spontaneity, problem solving, lack of
prejudice, and acceptance of facts.
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Once the previous needs are satisfied in the host country, refugees
experience a strong need to know the whereabouts of their family
and friends. Refugee programmes should allow the refugees the
satisfaction of serving the needs of other people.
Physiological needs: Two aspects need to be taken into account:
Usually, the first encounter with refugees by host countries and aid
homeostasis and the idea that appetites represent actual body needs. A
organization consists of meeting their physiological needs. The final
finite list of physiological needs is impossible to compile as the needs
decision to leave the country of origin and therefore the need to leave
of the body is so diverse. These needs are most “pre‐potent” (p. 373),
an unbearable situation overrode many other considerations in the
of all the needs. This means for example that a person experiencing
life of the refugees. It implies that long‐term goals were not in the
extreme hunger will use all receptors and effectors as hunger‐
minds of people finding any means possible to reach a country of
gratifying tools. Future perspectives are influenced only by factors
safety. Refugees struggling to reach safety can and should be viewed
related to need satisfaction. Maslow acknowledges here that people in
as people in an emergency situation, where the hierarchy of needs
emergency situations act different from people in typical situations.
does not always apply in the same way as in a typical society. Once in
the Netherlands, the physiological needs of the refugees are mostly
satisfied.
Reflection on refugee situation
Biological needs: breathing food, water,
sex, sleep, homeostasis, and excretion.
Reflection from original paper
Reflection of the hierarchy of needs
Level of needs (popular
description from Wikipedia)
TABLE 1
GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
is reacted to almost as if it were a direct danger to the
basic needs themselves.” (Maslow, 1943, p. 383). These
preconditions are different from the hierarchy as they
are not “ends” such as the needs, but they are rather
means to the ends that are almost in themselves “ends.”
Maslow focusses his discussion on preconditions on
the role of freedom as a means that strongly motivates
individuals in order to allow them to achieve the ends
presented in the hierarchy. He presents the following list
of freedoms: “freedom to speak, freedom to investigate
and seek for information, freedom to express one’s self,
freedom to investigate and seek for information, freedom
to defend one’s self, justice, fairness, honesty orderliness
in the group are examples of such preconditions for basic
need satisfaction. Thwarting in these freedoms will be
reacted to with a threat of emergency response” (p. 383).
This list enables us to understand the position of the
refugees in a host country from another perspective.
Often, citizens experience immigrants as ungrateful, or
people light‐heartedly argue that inmates get better food
in prison than outside in poverty. This argument of
Maslow explains that one cannot appreciate need satisfaction when one has no freedom. Our empirical study
presented in the next main section shows that refugees
do not experience freedom in the host country. This lack
of freedom severely influences their experiences of the
activities of the host government and aid organizations.
With this statement, Maslow leads us to a good understanding of the data depicting continuous discontent from
refugees.
4.5 | The desires to know and to
understand
In another similar section labelled “The desire to know
and to understand” (p. 385), Maslow refers to cognitive
needs and argues that we do not know enough about
these needs. He supports this fact with an observation
that people will endanger themselves and risk the satisfaction of the lower level needs while being driven by
curiosity or their need for exploration or desire for facts.
Considering the lack of scientific evidence, Maslow is
willing to commit to the following statement: “We shall
then postulate a desire to understand, to systematize, to
organize, to analyse, to look for relations and meanings.”
(p. 385). He then extends this postulation by observing
that knowledge motivates the drive for more knowledge.
He explicitly refers to a small hierarchy in which “the
desire to know is prepotent of the desire to understand”
(p. 385) yet warns against separating the need for meaning from the basic needs. Ironically, exactly, this warning
is flaunted by popular accounts of the theory of needs.
GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
This observation, when viewed in the context of the
role of freedom as precondition to need satisfaction, provides us with a major incentive to enhance the work done
by the Dutch Government by supplying the refugees with
accessible information to achieve meaningful understanding of their administrative journey. Proficiency in
Dutch is highly advised and supported by the Dutch government, but refugees’ lack thereof hinders their ability to
make sense of the processes required to achieve freedom.
4.5.1 | Further characteristics of the basic
needs
In the final part of the paper, Maslow ties the loose ends
in his theory. However, critics argue that his need to do
so is indicative of the logical shortcomings of the theory
(Neher, 1991).
In a section labelled “The degree of fixity of basic
needs” (p. 386), Maslow provides certain exceptions to
the order of the needs presented. He mentions two seemingly opposite groups of interest to our objective. On the
one hand, he argues that individuals who have been “satisfied for a long time” (p. 387) might be willing to ignore
lower level needs when they are motivated to achieve
higher needs based on knowledge. On the other hand,
some individuals are so used to long‐time deprivation that
some more basic needs are also ignored in favour of
higher needs. We will aim to understand from our empirical data to which of these groups the refugees belong.
In a section on “Cultural specificity and generality of
needs” (p. 389), Maslow provided some insights on how
different cultures experience needs. He first acknowledges the differences in cultures, but then he argues:
“However, it is the common experience of anthropologists that people, even in different societies, are much
more alike than we would think from our first contact
with them, and that as we know them better we seem
to find more and more of this commonness” (p. 389). This
resonates with our experiences of the refugees and motivates us to continue our quest to create an environment
where “they” are part of “us” in the Netherlands.
We conclude our discussion of the proper version of the
work of Maslow by stating that the most beneficial parts of
the work when applied to the refugee problem are not
reported in the popular versions of this theory. After studying the complete paper, we understand that freedom is a
precondition for need satisfaction; the need for information and meaning is as important as the needs in the popular hierarchy and finally that need satisfaction has some
exceptions. In terms of the hierarchy, we have observed a
number of insights, discussed in the second column of
Table 1. All of these insights are used to make sense of
our empirical data presented in the following section.
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Motivation for leaving: safety and to an extent physiological.
This phase in almost all the stories relates to an emergency. People are so driven by their
quest for freedom; they do not focus on their physiological needs when they start the
journey.
From the current perspective, the emergency is over and some reflection on the future
occurs. In this phase, the physiological and safety needs are addressed.
Maslow reflects on the role of religion in his discussion of safety needs. Here, the tone
changes to higher order needs.
The refugee acknowledges the role of the government in satisfaction of lower order
needs and focusses on love and belonging. However, as the basic needs are satisfied
focus moves to self‐esteem.
On this level, the lack of information is evident. Lack of recognition. This person has a
clear understanding of her own self‐esteem needs.
In Syria there was a lot of violence; there are many groups, money became useless, there
is no electricity or water. I stayed with my parents. My parents told us to flee, to get
away, it was not save for a Christian, and for a woman, if I was a Muslim, no problem.
I came from Syria to Turkey with a car and a bus, then with a boat to Greece. We started
at 12.00 at night, going around and around because they feared the police, we were 80
people in a boat of 40, the captain was half mad, he was drinking, young people took
over driving the boat and they did not know what they were doing. We had to discard
our belongings to make the boat lighter. People were crying, after 16 hours we landed
on an island, we were lost, we slept there until the following morning, then the police
of Greece came to us on the island and they took us to Greece.
The paperwork and legal matters were not a problem, but it could be a problem to get
documents of your qualifications that were of any value here. I stayed in Ter Appel 2
days, Veenhuizen 1 week, Wassenaar 3 months, back to Ter Apel for 1 month and
then Hoogeveen for 8 months. Moving around is not such a big problem, COA was so
good for us, all places are the same. In Ter Apel they give us food instead of money. In
Hoogeveen they gave us money. It was better to give the money, because I can choose
what I buy. For me clothing was not a problem, always I meet nice people in COA, the
people who work for COA. In that time I have money, it is not expensive here.
On the boat I prayed all the time to God for help, and God helped me … It is not easy,
but you can do it. You can study, you must have a dream to follow, life does not stop,
the Netherlands is good, you can do it. And Jesus was with me always.
No other country will give us what the Netherlands gave to us. But they should have a
program from the beginning. In Wassenaar we were 12 families, with up to 20 men—
but they do not tell us what jobs there are, they want us to do voluntary work for 4
hours per week, if you get a job you can cancel it—but we cannot find work and if we
go to work outside the extra income is not enough to pay the costs, you have no
driver’s license, no car in winter, you can only work close by, but there is no work
here.
A database of work is needed. While I am busy with school I can work part‐time in
bookkeeping. I can work with clients in a store, and reduce the cost to the town—so I
can get into contact with the Dutch and become used to the situation, it would be
better for the Netherlands, for me, for our families, if we have families. The
Netherlands should have a solution for the young people.
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(Continues)
Related concepts from the theory of motivation
Story of Refugee 1
TABLE 2 Story from Refugee 1
GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
Finally, she still reflects on her deepest sorrow and longing for her parents.
5 | E M P IR I C A L DA T A : S T O R I E S
TOLD BY REFUGEES
I am still learning Dutch. It is a new place, new food, new people, different style, but I
am getting used to it … the time in Almere I often visited my aunt, she is here … . My
brother also came after me, he has children. My parents cannot come; the journey is
too tough for them. You cannot bring you whole family.
Her quest for self‐esteem and self‐actualization is now focussed on the Netherlands.
The problem is to build our family … the future will be good if my parents were here, but
they cannot come. I like it here in the Netherlands, I want to study here, the church
gives me a place, I have friends there. I look for the church wherever I go, I now go to
three churches—Java, Dutch RCC, and sometimes to Syrian church.
Another reference to love and belonging. Every time she feels threatened, she refers
back to the safety provided by her religion. This is evident in other stories also.
Social life is no problem. We go with Dutch people to church and eat with them. In Syria
we had many Muslim friends before the war, but during the war we were afraid of
Muslims. (Shows photo of their church in Syria, it is now in ruins.) Here we have
Muslim friends, but they do not come to our house. As a Christian, I go to church
twice a week, I pray twice a day, my best friend is from the church, the Egyptian
Coptic church.
Story of Refugee 1
TABLE 2
(Continued)
Related concepts from the theory of motivation
GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
5.1 | Data collection and analysis
As discussed earlier, the data collection forms part of a
larger government‐funded research project into the logistical experiences of refugees in the Netherland. Data from
various stakeholders were collected for the project. The
focus of this paper is on the stories of the refugees themselves regarding their experiences in the Dutch system.
The reader is reminded that this is indeed representative
of a specific perspective amongst others of the total problem situation. Data for this paper were collected using
interpretive semistructured interviews with refugees,
aiming to understand the refugee experiences. The
researchers clearly indicated that they are not government officials nor are they in a capacity to immediately
address the problems expressed by the participants.
Content analysis was performed on seven detailed
accounts by refugees. The stories of the refugees regarding their logistical experiences are highly comparable.
The stories also concurred with other interviews with
government agencies and non‐profit organizations, which
formed part of the larger research project. Even with only
seven detailed interviews, saturation was achieved.
All the stories had the same components:
• A difficult decision to leave their country of origin,
mainly based on safety (one person left because he
was unwilling to join the armed forces of Syria);
• A journey mostly by small boat lasting more than 10
hr, losing all personal belongings;
• A rescue by a Mediterranean country resulting in
satisfaction of physiological needs;
• Passing through European countries with hostile
officials before reaching the Netherlands with kinder
officials who supplied train tickets to Ter Appel where
the refugees were taken into the system;
• From there different stories representative of administrative struggles coupled with social problems;
• Most stories contain accounts of friendly help from
outsiders;
• Almost all the stories narrate a future perspective of
uncertainty in terms of career options; and
• All the stories end with an extreme expression of
sadness in terms of longing for relatives.
Although each story told by a refugee resonates the
needs hierarchy of Maslow, it is the lesser known section
of Maslow’s theory that provides the most insight into the
lives of the refugees. We demonstrate this by supplying
the text of one of the stories of a refugee and inserting
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722
Safety needs as well as love and belonging needs are threatened. Refugee experiences
lack of familiar things.
Lack of information and meaning.
Lack of love and belonging due to language barrier.
Self‐esteem: lack of confidence
In Nijmegen, AZC, I was 6‐7 months, very difficult, the authorities did not give money,
they gave food that was not good—it is a different culture, different food, potatoes and
pork, while most people in Syria do not eat pork.It is a permissive culture: Holland is
the place of free women, drugs, some went to the place where women have little
clothes on but I stayed in the camp.
The first problem was the COA, no study, no discussion about what we can do in future,
the only discussion was about our tradition and the Netherland tradition. I have been
in the Netherlands for months but I cannot speak well—if you want to study or work,
you must know the language.
There are highly educated people from Syria: managers, engineers, scientists, doctors,
academics. But here you feel useless. I myself had 27 employees, I was their manager.
Here we are treated as if we can do nothing, because of the language and the feeling of
inferiority … for example, I came to an official of COA, I asked if I could use the
computer. He asked me, do you know what that is? I used the keyboard, he asked
where did you learn that, in Syria? I could laugh about it now, but then it was very
difficult for me. The war has destroyed everything, I have no money now, but I am not
stupid … more than once I felt that I should rather go back to Syria and that death
would be better than the camp.
Others also referred to “the golden answer” of “I do not know” given by the COA.
Need for love and belonging
Here, a religious statement is also used to address safety needs. Lack of familiarity is also
an expression of a safety need.
Need for love and belonging
Not enough information about how the process proceeds and what to expect: The golden
answer from the COA was always: I do not know.
Loneliness: it is difficult to live a normal life. I am alone, I do not have work, I do not
have friends, I have no contact with Dutch people, cannot learn the language if I do
not talk it and hear it. I often talk to nobody for 48 hours.
I am an atheist, for me it is easier, but Muslims are not used to it that the women walk
around with bare arms, or that young men and women have free relations.
This is our first contact with Europeans, we have not enough guidance—everything is
different in the Netherlands: eat, speak. I must become a European, not in everything,
but in work, in life style. There is something that I can never loose, my Syrian identity,
my own country. It is a culture shock, the people here speak directly, they say what
they think. I once thanked a man that he was friendly, and he replied that it isn’t
important to be friendly.
723
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(Continues)
Lack of information.
Fear of safety of brother
My brother has 5 months in prison in Syria, dead or alive, I don’t know. I had to go fight
war for the government, but I didn’t want to, therefore I left
Self‐esteem: lack of recognition
Related concepts from the theory of motivation
Story from Refugee 2
Section of the story of the Refugee 2
TABLE 3
GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
He also ends with a deep sorrow in terms of missing his family.
Self‐actualization
Work is the big problem, we need help. I have an education but you feel people
underestimate you.
I am uncertain what to do. I think about the future, what must I do, must I study, must I
seek work? I sleep 4‐5 hours, then I wake up, I worry about the future, I miss my
family, if I find work I will be happy, but now I have lots of time and it gets boring.
Self esteem
At this stage my biggest problem is the future, what can I study, what can I work, get
income, not be always under care, they are not clear with us what we can do here in
Netherlands—what is a good diploma, what not.
Lack of information
Related concepts from the theory of motivation
Section of the story of the Refugee 2
TABLE 3
(Continued)
GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
labels in the text representing the corresponding aspects
of the theory of human motivation. The story is rewritten
from the broken Dutch and English used by the refugee.
The woman is about 30 years old. She fled from Syria
because she did not feel safe as a Christian.
The story reported in Table 2 is representative of the
components of other stories. In Table 3, we provide a
series of individual statements, taken from a story by a
man. The flow is similar to the previous story, but this
person relays more detail of his own experience.
5.2 | Discussion
This discussion focusses on the stories told by refugees.
The conclusion section will focus on the “learning about”
part of Figure 1, constituting the main contribution of the
paper.
The story of the woman quoted in Table 2 represents
both needs that are satisfied and needs that are still to
be satisfied. The flow of the needs is similar to the levels
of Maslow’s hierarchy as indicated by the second column
in Table 2. The woman’s story has the typical components
representative of the logistics process. From reading this
story in terms of the needs hierarchy, we can make the
following observations: (a) One gets the impression that
her current need for self‐esteem is influencing her reflection of her initial entry situation. She says that documentation was not a problem, except for her qualification
certificates. (b) Her religion is her coping mechanism as
during her story, she falls back on her religion and the
support she gets from her religious support structure even
when she talks about higher level needs. (c) Her longing
for her parents constitutes a deep discontentment. This
longing can be classified on the level of “love and belonging,” but although her experience of it is very intense, she
also focusses on self‐esteem. However, at the end of her
story, she positions her own self‐esteem and perhaps even
self‐actualization in terms of the limitation caused by the
absence of her parents.
The man’s story in Table 3 has a strong focus on discontentment. He articulates various needs not satisfied
and focusses much more on his negative experiences.
The parts of the story not repeated in the table are also
more critical of the process than the account of the
women. The man tells a story of discontent but also intuitively follows the levels in the needs hierarchy. He
expresses how his needs are not satisfied. The lack of
freedom and lack of information are evident in his
account. This aspect will be revisited in the conclusion
section.
It should be noted that when these interviews were
conducted, the theory of human motivation had not been
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724
identified by the research team as a suitable theory to
interpret the data.
6 | CONCLUSION
Our conclusion represents the “learning about” section of
the framework depicted on Figure 1 in Section 1 of the
paper. We follow a similar order to the discussion of the
paper. The refugee crisis is indeed a wicked problem.
We experienced how different refugees react with different levels of satisfaction to the same interventions. From
the longing for family, we realized that it is not possible
to simply “solve” the problems of the refugees. One’s
reaction to the stories is almost a feeling that no matter
what the host country provide, the overwhelming loss
experienced by the refugees will still be present. This
highlights the greater world need to solve the problems
in the countries of origin.
We did not experience any limitations in applying the
critical systems thinking commitments to our methodology. The principles for critical social research in information systems were useful to guide our research, also
because it highlights the contribution we make by focusing on the proper rather than popular Maslow. Our focus
on the original version of Maslow was partly motivated
by the first commitment of critical systems thinking to
be critical of assumptions and partly a result of the
principle on questioning prevailing beliefs. From our
discussion of Maslow, we conclude that, when the
commitments of critical systems thinking and critical
social theory are used as justification, his work can
indeed be used for guidance in a critical theory research
study.
It is the indeed the lesser known parts of Maslow’s
paper that proved the most advantageous in guiding our
understanding. Maslow’s focus on freedom as precondition for needs satisfaction holds true for the refugees.
The refugees do not experience freedom in the host country and do not experience contentment in the needs satisfaction efforts of the host nation. We need to further
explore whether Maslow’s position on freedom as a
“means” rather than an “end” holds true in this situation.
The actions of the refugees are motivated by different
levels of freedom. They realize that learning the language
will provide some freedom to work; work would provide
more financial freedom; financial freedom would provide
freedom of association in terms of residence. We have
reason to believe that the freedoms listed by Maslow
forms a hierarchy of their own. Another factor not
discussed in popular versions of Maslow yet present in
proper Maslow is the need for information. The second
refugee referred to the “golden answer” of “I don’t know”
725
given by the authorities. Maslow argues that one of the
situations where you are willing to forego your more
basic needs is when you know in doing so you will reach
a better place. The refugees are in a constant state of
uncertainty because of a lack of knowledge. This uncertainty along with lack of freedom are the key problems
we experienced in our interaction with refugees.
Before providing guidelines towards the logistical process, we reflect on what we learned in general from our
analysis of the stories of the refugees. Their stories had
similar components and is representative of the needs
hierarchy of Maslow. Religion and religious organizations
provides safety and some contentment for the Christian
women. The man expressed continuous discontentment.
His experience of the differences of the Dutch culture to
his own is unsettling him. Both refugees have a need for
more information on different levels, and both acknowledge the freedom brought by knowledge of the Dutch
language.
In terms of the aim of our paper, we provide guidelines
towards the logistical process from our insights into the
lives of the refugees:
• The refugees need more and better information. The
levels of the needs hierarchy can provide a good foundation. The women who is currently focusing on self‐
esteem and self‐actualization expressed a need for a
vacancy database and information on how to validate
her qualifications. On every level of the needs hierarchy, targeted information can be supplied. The original paper’s focus on religion in terms of the safety
needs is omitted in popular versions of Maslow. Early
information on religious groups and organizations can
assist the refugees because we saw in the story of the
woman the importance thereof. The man reported
an overwhelming amount of information on the
Dutch culture and did not appreciate the value
thereof. His experience thereof was threatening in
terms of his safety need of familiar things. The balance and timing of information is crucial, and we
argue that the levels of the needs hierarchy may assist
in this regard.
• From reading all the stories of the different refugees,
it became clear that the refugees had expectations of
freedom when they left their countries but they experienced a lack thereof in the host country. This is
caused by many factors, also lack of information, but
mainly by regulations: regulations aimed to manage
the possible chaos in the host nation, but also regulations to preserve the culture and language of the host
nation. The man expressed the need to fill the early
period after arrival with Dutch language lessons. A
quick Internet search shows that he could have used
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GOEDE AND BOSHUIZEN‐VAN BURKEN
his smart device to teach himself basic Dutch from the
Internet. This highlights a deeper conclusion: The
level of needs drives one’s motivation, and consequently, the refugee in the early phases of the process
is not focussed on learning the language. Maslow say
that a man who received food forgets that he was hungry. When the lower levels are satisfied, those needs
are forgotten by the refugees and the focus shifts to
other needs. We saw this with the woman’s view of
her academic certificates and the man’s discontentment with time wasted that could have been used
for learning the language.
• The waiting times in the process is frustrating the refugees. Once again, it is a matter of information. Some
of the refugees experienced uncertainty in terms of
the course of the administrative process.
• Finally, we propose that the proper version of
Maslow’s theory of motivation is implicitly represented in information provided to the refugees.
Universities do it explicitly as reported earlier, the
argument being that students who are aware of the
hierarchy are more focussed on self‐actualization
and less likely to suspend their studies. Would the refugees benefit from such an approach?
Wicked problems are not solved; rather, attempts are
made to improve them. We proposed ideas in an attempt
to improve the situation of the refugees. However, an
individual’s progress through the needs hierarchy
presented by Maslow has a unique pace. The role of people to assist individuals in specific needs cannot be
underestimated. From our study, we conclude that in
order to provide some improvement to the refugees, we
need to provide relevant information and means to
achieve freedom.
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How to cite this article: Goede R, Boshuizen‐van
Burken C. A critical systems thinking approach to
empower refugees based on Maslow’s theory of
human motivation. Syst Res Behav Sci. 2019;36:
715–726. https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.2623
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726
Intellectual Discourse, 24:1 (2016) 59–81
Copyright © IIUM Press
ISSN 0128-4878 (Print); ISSN 2289-5639 (Online)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: An Islamic
critique
Anke Iman Bouzenita* and Aisha Wood Boulanouar**
Abstract: Abraham Maslow’s model of the hierarchy of needs is pervasive
in many academic specialisations. After a short description of the model, this
article summarises the existing criticisms. While criticism on the empirical
validity of the model and its ethno-centricity are frequently mentioned in
the literature, the authors of this article give special focus on the missing
consideration of the spiritual aspect of human existence in Maslow’s model. The
study explores reasons for the commodification of the model (i.e. the divorcing
of the model from its substance and using it simply as a commodity) and the
non-consideration of Maslow’s later changes. Special focus is laid on the usage
of this model in marketing, given its position as a field which embodies the
capitalist perspective so completely through, particularly, advertising but also
through the conceptualisation of people. The article describes the model’s
diverse reception in Muslim academic circles. It offers an Islamic critique
of both its foundations and its usage. The study concludes that attempts at
harmonising the model with the higher objectives (maqāṣid) of the Sharī‘ah do
not do justice to either model.
Keywords: Hierarchy of needs; Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah; marketing; Maslow
spirituality.
Abstrak: Penggunaan Model Abraham Maslow tentang hierarki keperluan
adalah cukup berleluasa dalam kebanyakan pengkhususan akademik. Selepas
penerangan ringkas model tersebut, artikel ini meringkaskan kritikan-kritikan
* Anke Iman Bouzenita is an Associate Professor in the Department of Islamic
Sciences, College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman.
Email: bouzenita@squ.edu.om. ()
** Aisha Wood Boulanouar is an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Marketing, College of Economics and Political Science, Sultan Qaboos
University, Oman. Email: aboulanouar@squ.edu.om.
60
Intellectual Discourse, Vol 24, No 1, 2016
yang sedia ada. Kritikan terhadap kesahihan emipirik model tersebut di samping
isu yang berorientasikan etnik kerap diperbincangkan dalam sorotan litertur.
Namun, pengarang kertas kerja ini memberikan fokus yang khas terhadap
pertimbangan yang tidak terdapatnya aspek kerohanian dalam kewujudan
manuasia bagi model Maslow tersebut. Kertas kerja ini membincangkan sebabsebab model tersebut dilihat sebagai satu komoditi (memisahkan model daripada
bahan dan menggunakannya sebagai satu komoditi) dan bukan menjadi satu
pertimbangan untuk perubahan model Maslow. Tumpuan khusus diberikan atas
penggunaan model ini dalam pemasaran, berdasarkan kedudukannya sebagai
satu bidang yang merangkumi perspektif kapitalis sepenuhnya, terutama sekali
bagi bidang pengiklanan. Tetapi ia juga melihat pembentukan konsep manusia
itu sendiri. Artikel ini menerangkan kepelbagaian penerimaan model tersebut
dalam kalangan para akademik Islam. Ia memberikan kritikan secara Islam
terhadap asas dan penerimaannya. Kertas kerja ini cuba untuk mengharmonikan
dan menyatukan kedua-dua model tersebut dengan berobjektifkan Sharīah
(maqāṣid) yang lebih tinggi lagi; namun ia tidak dapat memberikan keadilan
kepada kedua-dua model tersebut.
Kata Kunci: Hierarki keperluan; Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah; pemasaran, Maslow;
kerohanian.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – developed in the 1950’s in the U.S. by
Abraham Maslow, son of Ukrainian Jewish immigrants – is a pervasive
model, often presented in the simplified form of a pyramid, to students
of different specialisations. As Yang states, Maslow’s Motivation
and Personality, first published in 1954, “has been one of the most
extensively referenced publications in the past 46 years” (Yang, 2003).
The model has persisted ever since in psychology, education, economics,
marketing, management, sociology, political science, and others. It has
thoroughly permeated public consciousness. Although Yang’s statement
refers predominantly to the U.S., it cannot be denied that the model has
left an imprint on public consciousness wherever it is taught.
In the wake of Western hegemony and the academic proliferation of
study plans and contents, the hierarchy of needs model has gained worldwide
acceptance. Although very much embedded in capitalist ideology, its
universal validity is, most of the time, assumed; it is hardly taught in a
critical way that encourages discussion on its possible weaknesses.
It cannot be reconstructed whether Maslow has considered his
own model to be of universal nature, applicable worldwide. Recent
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS/ A. I. BOUZENITA & A. W. BOULANOUAR
61
theorists have contended that Maslow did not intend his hierarchy to
be universal (Loh, Wrathall, & Schapper, 2000), although Wahba and
Bridwell (1976) note, “Maslow postulated [in his own works] that his
needs are ‘more universal’ for all cultures than other superficial desires
or behaviours (p. 213, citing Maslow, 1970, p. 54). It seems, however,
to have been received as such. As Yang infers, “his emphasis on the
instinctual nature of basic needs easily leaves the impression that his
theory is universally applicable” (Yang, 2003, p. 171).
The field of marketing has been chosen as a case study to exemplify
the commodification of the model. We understand commodification
as the choice of certain ideas, their simplified symbolic representation
(sometimes with a lack of consideration of their intellectual or societal
background) and their translation into a standard and/or merchandise.
Marketing is particularly suitable for this purpose, as its own substance
concerns promoting a perspective, rather than the substance of an item,
and the reduction of that item or idea or experience to “what sells” being
intrinsic to it. This paper attempts to reconsider Maslow’s model and
its usage and reception in the academic field, particularly in Muslim
academic circles.
A brief description of Maslow’s model
Maslow promoted a “humanistic” approach to studying humankind,
rejecting the “value-free, value-neutral, value-rejecting” (Maslow,
1971, p. 4) hegemony in the science of his time (and ours). As an atheist,
Maslow considered the scientific thinking of his day as undervaluing
human experience by referring to the natural sciences for models without
consideration for the complexity and scope of human experience. In
developing his model, Maslow believed that “the growing tip” should
be modelled – those who were exceptional – to show humankind its
potential:
The growing tip is where all the action takes place, this is
where all the chromosomes are diving, where all the growth
processes are most vivid and most active. What I’ve done as
a technique is pull out the best specimen rather than sampling
the whole of the population (1971, p. 5).
Maslow attempted to derive “a psychology from healthy people rather
than sick ones” (Maslow, 1982, p. 235). The pyramid model seems to be
the most common representation of his model of the hierarchy of needs
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Intellectual Discourse, Vol 24, No 1, 2016
with the exceptional right at the top, occupying and personifying the
“self-actualisation” level. Maslow himself never seems to have used the
simplified pyramid scheme.
Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs” model appealed very widely as “it
provides both a theory of human motives by classifying basic human
needs in a hierarchy, and a theory of human motivation that relates
these needs to general behaviour” (Wahba & Bridwell, 1986, p. 213).
According to Westwood (1992) in Loh et al. (2000, p. 3), the model is
based on three main principles:
1. The Deficit Principle – if a need is not satisfied, it generates
tension, motivating action towards satisfaction. This assumes a
satisfied need does not motivate; also, unmet needs are assumed
to predominate (Maslow, 1970, p. 293).
2. The Prepotency Principle – the needs must be met in their
ascending order, and only after each lower stage needs are at
least partially met, can the next higher stage needs be pursued
(Maslow, 1982, p. 236).
3. The Progression Principle – physiological needs, such as food,
shelter and warmth must be met before a person will look to
needs further up the pyramid (Maslow, 1982, p. 236).
Further, the model neatly separated the needs into “growth” needs
(achievement, self-actualisation) and “deficit” needs (safety, belonging)
(Wahba & Bridwell, 1976). The paradox of this model is that Maslow
maintained that all levels of needs are interdependent (Maslow, 1970, p.
97), whilst asserting that they are prepotent and progressive. The model
has been taken into “operation” without attention being paid to this last
note on interdependence. Similarly, consideration of Maslow’s later
development of the model – which made it much less neat, has also not
been operationalised (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). In fact, Loh et al. (2000)
contend that, “despite overwhelming evidence that the intrinsic nature
of the theory does not work, its relevance stems not from the feasibility
of the theory, but from the “usability” of the theory” (p. 21).
Business subjects – Economics and Management, and from them,
Marketing, Finance, Information Systems and the like – have modelled
their theories and research on the hard sciences. However, in some
areas of business, such as Management and Marketing, the inevitable
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS/ A. I. BOUZENITA & A. W. BOULANOUAR
63
influence of the social sciences has been felt, due to the concentration
in these areas on people – as workers, as owners, as buyers, as sellers,
as suppliers. As such, anthropology, sociology, education and especially
psychology, have been mined for theories and models.
In business, Maslow’s model is still taught as a textbook fundamental
(for example, Kotler’s Principles of Marketing (2015) first published in
1957 and now in its 16th edition and Robbins’ Management (2013), now
in its 12th edition). The model has also been widely used especially with
regard to: 1) consumer motivation to buy (e.g. Guarin & Knorringa,
2014; Taormina & Gao, 2013); and 2) as a model for increasing
worker productivity (e.g. Jerome, 2013; Ramprasad, 2013; Jarkas,
Radosavljevic, & Wuyi, 2014). The model, particularly packaged as
an eye-pleasing pyramid, both appeals to people’s “common sense”
and is easy to understand and explain. It can be seen in action in
advertising campaigns, which frequently leverage a “perceived need
gap” and the tension surrounding it to evoke purchase. In addition,
it can be perceived right through to the so-called “corporate social
responsibility” initiatives by businesses where employees are allowed a
half-day a month to do community work such as help out with reading
in schools or working for the disabled. These programmes have the
double benefit for companies in being very motivating for staff, who feel
they are contributing to the community and discouraging staff turnover
due to staff feeling committed to the programmes they participate in
(Korschun, Bhattacharya, & Swain, 2014; Lee, Park, & Lee, 2013).
Additionally, they have the benefit of the company seemingly concerned
with the community and its needs and requirements (Chomvilailuk &
Butcher, 2013; Smith, Read, & López-Rodríguez, 2010). All of which
bring bottom line (i.e. monetary) rewards (Shauki, 2011), consistent
with their overall goal of profit maximisation.
Different critiques of Maslow’s model
The model has been criticised as ethnocentric and also as “selfaggrandising” in the self-actualisation stage – a stage which resulted in
Maslow himself finding fault with the original formulation, and working
towards a very different formulation of his model of human motivation.
It is not difficult to find diverse critiques of Maslow’s model.
There have been ample criticisms on its empirical validity. Maslow, in
fact, made limited personal observations the basis of his model (as he
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mentioned himself, he only took into consideration model behaviour
(Maslow, 1971). There was no empirical study covering different
sections of even American society at the time he formulated his model.1
Most of the conceptual and validity criticisms have focused on
two foundations of the model: the model’s reliance on “Western”
individualism as opposed to more collectivist societal forms of
organisation, and its ethno-centricity. Hofstede (1984, pp. 389–398)
criticises the model for its ethno-centricity (Loh, 2000). Hofstede’s own
research on “universal” values highlights factors like individualism
versus collectivism, large or small power distribution, the degrees of
uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity, and short and
long term orientation across a wide-range of cultures (Gambrel, 2003,
p. 144). Maslow used the observations of his immediate surroundings.
He formulated his model on the highly individualistic society of the
U.S. in the 1950s. He did not consider more collectivist societies
(Far and Middle Eastern) and the impact of their collectivism when
talking of the hierarchy of needs. Edwin C. Nevis (1983), an American
psychologist who taught organisational psychology in Shanghai,
identified the model as being unsuitable for the Chinese context, and
developed his own: Nevis’s hierarchy of needs. Nevis realised that need
hierarchies of different cultures are classifiable based on the dimension
of individualism-collectivism as well as an ego-social dimension (Loh
et al., 2000, p. 9). Not unlike Maslow, Nevis never made empirical data
the foundation of his research (Loh et al., 2000). He did not test his
hierarchy with actual Chinese people.
Gambrel and Cianci (2003) have pointed out the limitations of
Maslow’s Western-based model by using his motivation theory model
in international management, contrasting it with the special needs of
a more collectivist culture such as China’s. The authors state that the
three most well-known content theories, including Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s three-factor
theory, have all been developed by American theorists. These theorists
used only American subjects in their research (Gambrel, 2003). The
problem of universalisation seems therefore quite common. This
approach to cross-cultural research remains prevalent today, for as
Smith (1999) states, “research in itself is a powerful intervention, which
has traditionally benefited the researcher and the knowledge base of the
dominant group in society” (p. 176). Cofer and Apply (1964) pointed
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out that the contrast between growth and deficiency needs characterised
the views of many prominent theory-building psychologists of the
time such as Rogers, Allport and Fromm as well as Maslow (Wahba &
Bridwell, 1976, p. 236).
Contrasting Maslow’s individualist approach to a Far Eastern
(Chinese) collectivist approach is to be expected in view of the
concentrated attempts at creating new models applicable in economic
relations between “West” (here: the U.S.) and “East” (here: China) (Loh
et al., 2000).
More refined models have been developed on this basis. Yang
(2003) criticises Maslow’s model with regard to its “hierarchical
unidimensionality” and “cross-cultural validity”, developing what he
calls a “Double Y-model of Basic Human Needs.” He tried to re-arrange
human needs in terms of their relative potency in a non-linear model
and distinguished between collectivistic and individualistic needs. It is
interesting to observe that the criticism of Maslow’s model that seems
to be given most attention to is the one that promises more success
in the international business (management, marketing) field, while
the mere insight into truth and falsehood is not a primary motif in the
deliberations.
Commodification of the model and Maslow’s later changes
Koltko-Rivera gives ample consideration to the later version of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs model, which places “self-transcendence as a
motivational step beyond self-actualization” (2006, p. 302). The author
mentions a number of important consequences of this re-consideration
for theory and research, among them the integration of spirituality into
the mainstream of psychology, and a more multiculturally integrated
approach to psychological theory (p. 302). Koltko-Rivera describes “the
typical textbook version of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs” as “seriously
inaccurate as a reflection of Maslow’s later formulation of theory” (p.
306):
The later model places the highest form of human
development at a transpersonal level, where the self/ego
and its needs are transcended. This represents a monumental
shift in the conceptualization of human personality and its
development. … At the level of self-transcendence, the
individual’s own needs are put aside, to a great extent, in
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favor of service to others and to some higher force or cause
conceived as being outside the personal self (pp. 306-307).
Koltko-Rivera’s paper is not only interesting with regard to Maslow’s
later version (as postulated in a number of public lectures held from 1967
onwards and his “The Farther Reaches of Human Nature”, published in
1971), and why it never found the appreciation it deserves, but also
with regard to the methodology of (humanist) psychology itself, with
the latter being vested in the structure of modern psychology and its
non-recognition of spirituality.
According to Koltko-Rivera, the misconception of the later
version is so persistent that “there is no mention of self-transcendence
as a motivational status distinct from self-actualization in almost any
textbook treatment of Maslow’s theory” (p. 307). Reasons for this
relate to Maslow having little opportunity to publicise the amended
theory himself (p. 308), the difficulty to access the material (p. 308),
and inherent reasons relating to the structure of psychology and
its unwillingness to give credit to spirituality in peoples’ lives and
“stigmatize serious researchers of religion” (p. 309). Perhaps this is
why Maslow added, as a level higher than self-actualisation, a selftranscendent level which operated as a “religion-surrogate” with “much
more personal meaning and effectiveness than the established idolatries
which pass as established religions” (Maslow, 1982). As part of this
theory development, Maslow proposed that a self-actualising individual
would experience an increase in the importance of self-actualisation
once the need was gratified (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976) in contrast to his
deficit principle.
The second aspect, based on a review of some of Maslow’s journal
entries, reveals the limited scope of personal experience and observation
of the limited human behaviour that found access into model-making,
such as taking American presidents as samples. The very fact that
Maslow experienced an almost fatal heart attack in this later phase of
his life (1967) and the transcendental experience it involved may have
drastically shown him the limitations of human existence. Maslow’s
journal entries, following his heart attack, identified his work motivation
as being “determined (unconsciously) by the Jewish passion for ethics,
utopianism, Messianism, the prophetic thundering. My whole value-laden
philosophy of science could be called Jewish – at least by my personal
definition. I certainly wasn’t aware of it then” (Maslow, 1982, p. 233).
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Maslow’s opinion that self-actualisation rarely happens, could
engage some criticism on the materialistic side of the “American
dream”. Maslow states:
There’s so little love in the US family, too. Is this because
of the narrowed-down blood family (instead of the extended
family a la Auntie Pearl? Frustration of belongingness?
Of the clan? Of the oasis in a crappy world?). I’ve rarely
seen a happy marriage and a happy family. What did this do
to the kids? All the hopes pooped out. Not only the social
institutions, but also the ultimate: affluence itself. To yearn
for a car or a house and then still be miserable – smack up
against the inadequacies of materialism. Materialism is a
marvellous philosophy and it works beautifully. It’s sparked
revolutions and people have willingly died for it. Until you
get affluence and prosperity and you’re just as miserable –
even more so (Maslow, 1982, p. 221).
Maslow’s concerns with the unexpected emptiness of materialism have
also been a source of some interest in the academic literature (Solomon,
Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 2004), particularly in psychology and
business. However, attempts to reconcile the cause of this lack of
fulfilment have been largely futile. Some suggestions for increasing
happiness (utility) have been to “get out into nature” (Nisbet, Zelenski,
& Murphy, 2011) or “volunteer more” (Borgonovi, 2008; Lui & Aaker,
2008).
Marketing has looked at this area intensively through the lens of
one of its founding theories – the globalisation thesis (Levitt, 1983).
This thesis contends that as people become wealthier and move
beyond concerns for basic needs they will expand their consumption
to include “global products” or “global brands”. The expending of
their newly acquired greater disposable income on these goods, would
represent a convergence of symbols and, therefore values – Western,
specifically American, values (De Mooij, 2009). Inherent in this
theorised universalised convergence of Western values was the belief
that secularism would be more and more widely adopted – indeed, this
is a stated premise of Inglehart’s World Values Survey, one of the most
extensive values data collections in the world (Hossli, 2007):
We’re dying from a lack of spirituality. The metapathologies,
the value disturbances. We can’t stand being poor or crippled
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of diminished or evil human beings or being cowardly Jonahs.
We must like ourselves. But this can never be achieved – it
must keep on becoming and growing. You have to keep on
earning it and deserving it, It’s awful to be a bastard; it’s
awful to be unloved; it’s awful to feel cheap, guilty, ashamed,
embarrassed (Maslow, 1982, p. 62).
Although Maslow calls for spirituality, he was doubtless aware that
within secular materialist Western academic scholarship his call would
not be taken up. In fact, the marginalisation of religious or spiritual
viewpoints in Western social sciences is inherent in its underlying
epistemological bias (Habib, 1993). The adoption of a spiritual, or even
a more spiritual, perspective in Western academic scholarship would
undermine the “rational science”, the objectivity of the research and,
as such, it would not meet the needs of the societal (capitalist) model.
Maslow’s locus of “spirituality” as a source has not been pursued
with any real vigour in the literatures. Habib (1993) puts this down to
the epistemological bias in Western academic scholarship which sees
religion or spirituality as “unscientific” or inconsistent with humanist
scientific thought. Certainly in marketing, the early and unquestioned
adoption of the ethnocentric “globalisation thesis” (Levitt, 1983),
encouraged a myopia that was replicated across the social sciences.
De Mooij (2009) credits this to an ethnocentrism so deep that it goes
unnoticed, both by the countries of origin themselves, as well as those
countries the systems are exported to. This leads to on-going replication
of the same ideas, based on the same frameworks, and inherently holding
the same biases (see also Mukherji & Sengupta, 2004).
Obviously, although the secularisation anticipated by Inglehart and
others has not cascaded across societies, the commitment to the Western
view of humankind, also an inherent part of the bias of Maslow’s original
model, persists. This means that any reformulation of Maslow’s model
with the same premises cannot be successful, because the foundations
remain unsound.
Maslow in marketing: A case study
Marketing, as a field of study, is seen as an ideal case study for the
illustration of Maslow’s model. Not only is marketing, as it is enacted in
societies today, a product of the capitalist economic system, it also has a
long association and fascination with the hierarchy of needs.
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As mentioned, Maslow’s model is used across business disciplines
and is a fundamental concept taught in introductory marketing courses
(see Kotler, for example). As a Consumer Behaviour topic, Maslow’s
hierarchy shows students how people are motivated to meet needs,
being unable to advance until lower-order needs are met. In advertising
and promotions courses, Maslow can be used to show how people, upon
noticing a perceived gap between their current state and ideal state, are
moved to act to put their lives back into balance.
Marketing itself is an organically Western discipline, an outgrowth
of economics developed in U.S. business schools in the 1960’s. As
such, given both the time and the locational context of its formation,
marketing is a product of Western individualist secular capitalism and,
so, naturally operates on a profit maximisation model (Ali, al-Aali, &
al-Owaihan, 2013; Saeed, Ahmed, & Mukhtar, 2001).
Businesses developed in this environment exist solely to make
money for shareholders and can be said to have no obligation to ethical
considerations beyond what is legal, according to a civil system of
law (Alserhan, 2012). Capitalism itself challenges characteristics of
humankind as noble creations. “Humankind’s very being is related to
the amount of things humans can produce, the level of technological
development they can attain, and the degree to which they can
modernise consumer products. The role of the individual, then, is
greater consumption and a better standard of living” (Habib, 1993, p.
134).
Marketing is a mechanism established in and drenched with the
assumptions and biases of the superiority of a Western capitalist model.
It deals in perceptions, as opposed to realities, so despite the fact that
Maslow himself did not distinguish between needs and wants (Sheth
& Mittal, 2004), it is a short leap from “needs” (Maslow’s lower order
“deficit” needs) to “wants” (states or goods above the lower-order –
“growth” needs). The expansion of the “needs” category to include
perceived wants is very beneficial for businesses as it increases both
number of purchases and repeated purchase. Therefore, attracting
customers as young as possible into the consumption cycle maximises
customer lifetime value – or number of purchases over the course of
a life. Positioning products in minds of consumers as having human/
friend characteristics, as is the case with branding, allows consumers
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to feel they have relationships with products – proxies for Maslow’s
higher order needs (social, esteem, etc.).
Maslow’s model has been used very extensively in marketing to
leverage consumer perceived unmet needs and wants into sales. In fact,
the model is so pervasive, despite a lack of evidence of its efficacy that
a marketing paper has been written on this very topic (Soper, Milford,
& Rosenthal, 1995). Keynes (1931), the famous economist, has written
that “the needs of a human being may seem insatiable” (1931, p. 365).2
He nevertheless divides them into two classes – absolute needs (related
to self) and relative needs (your situation compared to that of others).
Presentation of Maslow’s model to business students results in little
questioning. The model neatly serves the required training the workforce
needs to be good “citizens” in a capitalist economy (Habib, 1993). This,
despite the fact that this model, as many others, is intrinsically wrong
for leaving out the spiritual aspect of human life. In fact, to acknowledge
humankind as more than “consuming units”, the model would need to
be completely inverted, so that self-transcendence was the initial step,
the step which defined purpose, before eating, drinking, and seeking
shelter. The objective in this case is to increase the speed and rate of
consumption amongst humankind. This one-dimensional exploitation
of people brought about by peddling a one-dimensional view of human
beings is damaging both for the people themselves and their societies;
both in terms of societal development and the development of business
ethics and practice (Boulanouar & Boulanouar, 2013).
Muslims’ receptions of Maslow’s model
The following will attempt to give an overview of Muslim academics’
reception of the model. They may vary from positively uncritical to
harmonising to critical approaches.
Ali (1995) does not criticise Maslow’s model as such, but rather
addresses the humanist approach as a third force (after psychoanalysis
and behaviourism) it is embedded in. He sees humanist psychology as
a response to the shortcomings (“mass dehumanization”, p. 55) of the
preceding models (psychoanalysis and behaviourism), attempting to
give more importance to the human being by placing him at the centre
of deliberations. “Humans have limitless capacity for growth and selfimprovement; in a nutshell, man is his own god. Consequently, the aim
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of the humanist is to spend time and effort on explaining what a person
is capable of doing, more than talking about what he/she is” (p. 55).
Ali rightly identifies the potential for this psychological approach with
regard to commodification:
The humanist approach to the study of psychology meant to
many of its adherents adoption of a secular kind of humanism
and rejection of God, coupled with complete commitment
to the concept of the self. Freedom is the driving force that
energizes human action, with the ultimate goal of life being
self-esteem and self-actualization. The momentum for this
model of man was boosted by the fact that the economies of
the industrialized nations began to need consumers (p. 55).
Given its proliferation and importance for so many different syllabi, it
is to be expected that the model found some amount of attention and
criticism within the Islamisation of the Human Sciences approach.
Ibrahim Ragab, in his 1997 paper entitled “Creative Engagement
of Modern Social Science Scholarship: A Significant Component of the
Islamisation of Knowledge Effort” refers to the later version of Maslow’s
“Theory of Metamotivation”, as an exceptional case for “describing
in very formal statements what clearly looks, in every way, like the
spiritual dimension of most religious teachings” (p. 44), even referring
to religious terminology, but being bound by the “cultural taboos of the
scientific community in which he functions” (p. 44).3 However, Ragab
criticises Maslow’s approach for asserting the rootedness of “spiritual
life” in the biological nature of the species, amounting to nothing but
higher animality (p. 44). Ragab states: “He [Maslow] thus imposes on
the reader his unwarranted and unsubstantiated denial of anything of
a supernatural nature. He gives us mere assertions in this particular
respect, without ever proving them” (p. 44).
Khaidzir, Anwar, and Hamsan (2011) mention Maslow’s model
as an example of the self-centeredness of humanist psychology. They
conclude:
Maslow believed that any human intelligence has the potential
to get to the point of self-actualization, but if the basic level
is not met, then it is a fatal failure to address human potential.
However, the question is could an intelligent man struggle to
beat the system with the lack of basic need? In many cases,
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what are the things that cannot be provided by the basic need
of intelligence? (p. 200).
In her paper on “The Innovation of Human Nature in Islam”, Shadiya
Baqutayan mainly criticises the missing spiritual aspect in Western
representations of the human nature, with Freud, Maslow and Marx
viewing the “human as an evolving animal” (p. 172).
Other authors have attempted to relate the model to the maqāṣid
pattern, the higher objectives of the Sharī‘ah. One common approach
seems to be to pragmatically attempt to join both the commodified
Maslow model and the commodified maqāṣidic model, while failing to
relate either model to their original worldview.
We may quote as one example for this approach Zakaria and Abdul
Malek’s (2014) paper entitled “Effects of Human Needs Based on the
Integration of Needs as Stipulated in Maqasid Syariah and Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs on Zakah Distribution Efficiency of Asnaf
Assistance Business Programme.” The authors attempt to incorporate
the beneficiary categories of the Islamically defined alms, zakāh,
into Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model into the theory of the higher
objectives of Islamic Law (referred to as “needs”). Referring to Rosbi
and Sanep, the authors equate Maslow’s concept of self-actualisation
with religion, tacitly bearing with the difference in ranking awarded to
both the Maslowian self-actualisation (ranking last) and “religion” as a
“need” (ranking first) respectively. The authors do not attempt to answer
the question of the necessity to involve Maslow’s model for their zakāh
distribution scheme.
In a more critical approach, Alias and Samsudin (2005) declare
the Maslowian hierarchy of needs model as unsuitable to explain, for
instance, the Prophets’ Companions’ motivated behaviour “in neglecting
their physiological needs (life) in order to fulfil their self-actualising
needs (jihad)” (p. 13). They still consider the model as relevant, but
give preference to the principles of explaining this hierarchy using the
principles of Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah: “Consistent with the training of
‘aqidah, ‘ibadah, and akhlaq in Makkah and Medina, the Sahabahs had
naturally prioritised religion over life, which is the correct hierarchy
of needs for Muslims” (pp. 13-14). Interestingly, the authors equate
maqāṣid with needs rather than objectives, adding: “The obvious
difference between maqasid al-shar’iyyah and Maslow’s theory, in
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terms of content, is the inclusion of religion as a basic human need” (p.
10).
Explaining the dimensions of maqāṣid, Auda (2008) makes a similar
observation. He writes:
I find the levels of necessity reminiscent of the twentieth
century’s Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human (rather
than ‘divine’) objectives or ‘basic goals,’ which he called,
‘hierarchy of needs.’ Human needs, according to Maslow,
range from basic physiological requirements and safety, to
love and esteem, and, finally, ‘self-actualisation.’ In 1943,
Maslow suggested five levels for these needs. Then, in 1970,
he revised his ideas and suggested a seven level hierarchy.
The similarity between al-Shatibi’s theory and Maslow’s
theory in terms of the levels of goals is interesting. Moreover,
the second version of Maslow’s theory reveals another
interesting similarity with Islamic ‘goal’ theories, which is
the capacity to evolve (p. 8).
Unfortunately, the equation is void of any substantial attempt at
identifying the different underlying worldviews as well as the
terminology. The maqāṣid or (higher) objectives of the Sharī‘ah
are defined as this and other worldly values or results that are
realised upon the implementation and following of Islamic legal
rules in their entirety. Scholars writing on the maqāṣid have, from
their assessment of numbers of specific legal rules and principles,
inferred that certain objectives are met through the implementation
of certain legal rules – like the protection of al-dīn (the Islamic
way of life), life, intellect, offspring and wealth. The observation
of these objectives may play a role in ijtihād, the derivation of
legal rules, and in questions deciding on the priority of actions.
Needs in the motivational understanding, on the other hand, are
rather unreflected, physical or innate, and stand at the beginning
(representing the motivation) of undertaking an action, they are not
the result of an action. In addition, the Muslim’s aim in pursuing
any activity is to achieve the pleasure of his Creator by following
His commandments, regardless of whether the named objectives
are met or whether he knows about them in the first place. It seems
that the commodification of both the Maslowian and the maqāṣidic
model converge at this point in the literature.
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Striking a balance: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs from an Islamic
perspective
Islam as a way of life, brought to life through its Sharī‘ah, acknowledges
the different human needs and instincts, the instinct for survival and
procreation, just like the instinct of worship. It does not negate or
neglect any of these instincts and needs. It teaches the human being to
channel them, through the observance of the Islamic rules, towards his
own worldly and other-worldly benefits and that of society. The Islamic
way of life does not ask for or even condone the suppression of any of
these instincts at the expense of the other.
The demand to perform pure acts of worship, praying and fasting,
for instance, does not transgress the human’s capacities, and does not
keep him or her from pursuing studies, trade, or leading a fulfilled
family life. It is for this reason that there is no celibacy in the Islamic
system. The Prophetic Sunnah is reminiscent of asserting this balance.
Al-Bukhārī narrates the following ḥadīth from the Prophet (S.A.W.), on
the authority of Anas ibn Mālik: “Three people came to the chambers
of the Prophet’s wives (S.A.W.), asking them about his worship. When
they were informed about it, they seemed to belittle it, and said: “Who
are we in comparison to the Prophet (S.A.W.). All his preceding sins
and even those to happen have been forgiven. So one of them said: “I
will pray the entire night”, and the other said: “I will fast every day and
not break it” and the last said: “I will stay away from women and never
get married.” The Prophet (S.A.W.) came to them and said: Have you
said this and that? I am, by Allah, the most humble and Allah fearing
among you, but I fast and then break my fast, and I pray and sleep, and
I marry women. Whoever turns away from my Sunnah is not from me”
(al-Bukhārī, 1949:4476).
In a longer ḥadīth, the Prophet told his companion Abū al-Dardā’:
“Your body has a right over you, and your Lord has a right over you,
and your family has a right over you, so fast and break your fast, and
pray and join your family, and give everyone his right” (al-‘Asqalānī,
209:4903).
It has been established by the Prophetic ḥadīth that every human
being has Islam as his human nature (fiṭrah) when he is born. It is
only his parents who turn him into a Christian, Jew or Magian (alNawawī, 158:2658). On this basis, human nature is essentially the
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same everywhere, and this human nature has a strong spiritual need
it is trying to satisfy. A neglect of this need, as prevalent in secular
(Western) culture, or its complete annihilation (as was the case in
communist countries) leads to an imbalance, just as the sole focus on it,
as is prevalent in some religions, would.
Islam allows and stimulates trade, professional life, and economic
activity. It does lay down clear guidelines to regulate the same. Striving
and working to obtain your daily income (ṭalab al-rizq) is a means to
an end, not the ultimate goal in life. The following ḥadīth on the human
being’s want of possession shows that it is part of human nature never
to reach satisfaction when it comes to possessions. It should therefore
not be turned into the main purpose of life, as its fulfilment is impossible
by definition.
If the Son of Adam had two valleys full of possessions, he
would wish for a third one. Only dust will (finally) fill the
stomach of the son of Adam, and Allah forgives whom He
wants (al-Nawawī, 113:1048).
Capitalism plays on this innate disposition by making people believe
they will reach happiness owning/acquiring material possessions and
pleasures, thereby eternalising the circle of demand and supply, with
the result that people are finally thrown into an abyss of never-ending
unhappiness – which can then unsuccessfully be treated with the other
“alternatives” the market has to offer. Thus, the circle of commodification
is perpetuated.
The spiritual aspect in human life is not reserved for those who have
their basic needs saturated. Islamic experience is, rather, reminiscent of
actualising the link towards one’s Creator prior to and whilst saturating
these needs by evaluating any action within the five values of the
Islamic legal rule.4 This is achieved by reflecting on the permissibility
of, for instance, the food one is about to eat, the way to buy a car, etc. In
addition, a Muslim is supposed to invoke the name of Allah (by reciting
the basmalah) whenever starting any action. They thereby actualise
the (spiritual) link towards the Creator in any moment of their lives.
Additionally, any situation involving a lack of saturation of the named
“basic needs” leads to a deeper reflection, invoking the Creator’s name,
supplication (du‘ā’, ṣalāt al-ḥājah, etc.). These situations are spiritually
and intellectually reflected as situations of personal growth and tests of
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perseverance; passing them leads to happiness. The highly spiritualised
experience of fasting in the month of Ramadan, performed by Muslims
worldwide every year, actualises the self just because the very basic
need of food is not met from dawn to dusk.
Most fundamental Islamic concepts such as that of ‘ibādah
(worshipping Allah), rizq (the provisions provided for by Allah)
(S.W.T.), tawakkul (relying on Allah), and the belief in qaḍā’ and qadar
(fate and predestination) are all expressive of the fact that spiritual
concepts permeate the entire life, actions and decision making process
of the individual and community. Self-actualisation is therefore most
prevalent at any level of human existence.
In summary, the Islamic idea of self-transcendence permeates the
entire human life in any of its aspects, by continuously establishing the
link towards the Creator. The capitalist system promotes the (empirically
false) idea that happiness lies in the sheer accumulation of wealth and
physical pleasures of all sorts. As it is human nature never to be satisfied
with these acquisitions, the human being will never be able to reach
happiness, thereby remaining in a perpetuated cycle of consumption,
in spiritual, mental, and finally physical imbalance on the individual,
societal, and international levels. The percentage of depression, mental
illnesses, violence and despair in the highly developed industrialised
parts of the world, and those parts of the world adopting the same system
is a clear indicator to the destructivity of this system, its underlying
ideas, and application.
Contrary to this, the Islamic approach sees happiness in obtaining
the Creator’s approval and reward in the Hereafter. Happiness can
therefore be reached under any material situation. Although Islamic
concepts recognise the basic human needs and consider meeting them
a necessity, the spiritual actualisation of the human being is prevalent
under any situation.
Conclusion
Maslow’s model of the hierarchy of needs, though being pervasive in
many special…