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The research lifecycle is the process a researcher takes to conduct a study from inception to completion. For this assignment, you must write a paper that describes the research process conducted in three dissertations (one for each method: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods). Use the ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global database in our library to search for your sample doctoral dissertations.
Your paper should include information about the following for each dissertation:
Music Ensemble Participation and Student Achievement in Mathematics: A Quantitative
Study
Dissertation Manuscript
Submitted to Northcentral University
School of Education
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
by
ADRIAN JERMAINE MITCHELL
San Diego, California
November 2022
Approval Page
Music Ensemble Participation and Student Achievement in Mathematics: A Quantitative
Study
By
ADRIAN JERMAINE MITCHELL
Approved by the Doctoral Committee:
Sylvia Lyles
Dissertation Chair: INSERT
NAME
Strickland
Committee Member: Janet
INSERT
NAME
PhD
01/18/2023 | 12:58:37 MST
Degree Held
Date
PhD
01/18/2023 | 11:15:59 MST
Degree Held
Date
PhD
01/18/2023 | 12:43:41 MST
Vance
Committee Member: Joanna
INSERT
NAME Degree Held
Date
Abstract
The problem addressed in this study was that due to music programs being underfunded, there is
limited data about the academic benefits that students could receive from participation in music
classes. The study was designed to compare scores on the Algebra 1 mathematics standardized
test for music class participants and non-music class participants. The purpose of this study was
to see if any differences existed between the two entities through the lens of Walberg’s theory of
academic achievement (Walberg’s theory of educational productivity). Participants (N=102)
scores were collected and analyzed with an independent samples t-test through the IBM SPSS
software. The findings of the study concluded that music participants scored higher than the
non-music class participants on Algebra I mathematics tests. The results of the study align with
existing literature that states that individuals who participate in music classes outperform
individuals who do not participate in music classes academically. Results from this study can be
utilized to aid stakeholders and administrators in making financial or educational environmental
decision that can aid in the retaining of music classes or into the creation or incorporation of
music class into the curriculum.
Acknowledgements
Words cannot express my gratitude to so many people that have inspired, encouraged,
and aided me in my endeavors to further my education. I could not have undertaken this journey
without the help of so many individuals and I want to take this time to acknowledge a few. I
would first like to thank my supervisors, chairs, and committee members for aiding along the
way. I could not have made it this far without your patience, knowledge, and expertise.
I am also grateful to my colleagues and office mates for their moral support, encouraging,
words, and prayers. Big thanks should also go to my mentors and teachers, who have impacted
and inspired me to be greater. Your words, presence, and poise has always echoed in my heart,
and I will continue to challenge myself to be greater.
Lastly, I would be remiss in not mentioning my family, parents, and supporting friends.
Their belief in me has been a strong motivational force during this process and I could not have
endured this process without the love and support you all have shown me.
Table of Contents
Section 1: Foundation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
Statement of Problem…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Purpose of the Study ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Research Questions ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4
Hypotheses …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4
Conceptual/Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………………………….. 4
Definitions of Key Terms …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Review of the Literature ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7
Ethical Assurances …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24
Summary ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 25
Section 2: Methodology and Design ………………………………………………………………………………… 27
Design and Method ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29
Population and Sample ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 30
Materials/Instrumentation …………………………………………………………………………………………… 32
Operational Definitions of Variables ……………………………………………………………………………. 33
Data Collection and Analysis………………………………………………………………………………………. 34
Assumptions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
Limitations ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 35
Delimitations …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 36
Summary ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 37
Section 3: Findings, Implications, and Recommendations ………………………………………………….. 39
Findings …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 40
Research Questions1 / Hypothesis 1 …………………………………………………………………………….. 41
Evaluation of the Outcomes ………………………………………………………………………………………… 44
Implications and Recommendations for Practice …………………………………………………………… 46
Recommendations for Future Research ………………………………………………………………………… 46
Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 49
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 51
Appendix A ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
List of Tables
Table 1. Algebra 1 test scores for the 2019 PARCC Algebra 1 assessment for music participants
and non-music participants ……………………………………………………………………………………… 42
Table 2. Independent Samples t-test SPSS Results ……………………………………………………………. 43
Section 1: Foundation
In many educational settings in the United States, instrumental music courses are
typically underfunded in comparison with core academic classes (Forbes, 2016; Kao, 2021;
Rajan, 2017; Vinnard, 2021). This lack of funding creates various hurdles and pitfalls for
instrumental music classes including lack of suitable instruments, resources, and adequate
facilities. These contributing factors can lead to a decline in participation in instrumental music
classes, a decline in the ability of those classes to perform adequately, or a decreased allocation
of time for students to participate. This lack of funding is a result of higher demands for schools
to maintain certain scoring on standardized state testing or face harsh consequences (Bath et al.,
2020, Lierse, 2017). The fear of consequences including loss of job or the state taking control of
the school has led to many actions that inadvertently influences financial decision that impact
instrumental classes (Matthews & Koner, 2022; Shaw, 2018).
The perceptions from many stakeholders, administrations, and leadership are that a large
focus and attention on academic subjects such as math and science will aid in greater student
achievement on standardized test as opposed to spending more time in arts classes (Croft et al.,
2016; May & Brenner, 2016; Rajan, 2017). These perceptions are especially true amongst
leadership, administrations, and stakeholders that are connected to low academic performing
schools. There are some studies that have shown that perceptions and actions taken to transform
low performing schools that focuses on professional development for teachers, changes to the
school environment and climate, and academic achievement in core subjects (Duke, 2015;
Harris, 2019; Shaw, 2018). However, there is a lack of attention on arts education to improve
student academic achievement (Lorenza, 2021; May & Brenner, 2016).
Statement of Problem
The problem addressed in this study was that due to music programs being underfunded,
there is limited data about the academic benefits that students could receive from participation in
music classes (Forbes, 2016; Guhn, 2021; Rajan, 2017; Shaw & Auletto, 2022). Research has
shown that administrations and stakeholders are unaware of the potential benefits of music
education classes and generally make budgetary decisions without considering the impact of arts
education classes on academic achievement (Ramlal et al., 2020; Tran & Smith, 2020;
Bakokonyane, 2022). Furthermore, research has shown that stakeholders and administration do
not consider arts education as a valued knowledge base in relation to core academic education
(Conkling & Kaufman, 2020; Lilliedahl, 2022). Research has shown that students that
participate in music class ensembles outperform students who do not (Bergee & Weingarten,
2021; Carioti et al., 2019). According to research, the focus on standardized testing, budget cuts,
and lack of administrative policy and understanding has led to a decrease in funding, utilization,
and attention in music classes (Bath et al., 2020; Elpus & Abril, 2019). Federal policies such as
the Elementary and Secondary Education Action of 1965, as amended by the No Child Left
Behind (NCLB) had a negative impact on music education programs; either eliminating them or
reducing the allotted budget to focus on core academic classes tied to standardized testing (Ladd,
2017). Due to increased demands for higher scoring on standardized testing many stakeholders,
administrations, and leaders focus on academic subjects to aid in greater student achievement on
standardized test as opposed to an increased focus on the arts (Forbes, 2016; Lierse, 2017; Shaw,
2018). Because of the complex nature of music, results from scholarly research studies show a
mix of support for and against the impact of music education, making it difficult to influence
budgetary decisions to fund music education programs (Foster & Jenkins, 2017; Sala & Gobet,
2020). Schools, administrations, communities, and students miss out on the many benefits
associated with participation in music classes. In recent years, the passage of the “Every Student
Succeeds Act” (ESSA) 2015 has replaced the “No Child Left Behind Act” (NCLB) and opened
the doors for stakeholders to create transformative policies to positively impact music education,
professional development for arts educators, funding, and to recognize its impact on the
educational framework (Bernstorf, 2017; Kos, 2018; Odegaard, 2016; Poulin, 2019).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative causal comparative study was to compare the
mathematics standardized testing scores of music class students and non-music class students.
This study can be used as a means of identifying potential impacts of music class participation on
academic achievement in order to inform stakeholders and administrations. Data from the
mathematics portion of spring 2019 standardized testing session was collected and analyzed in
an independent samples t-test to determine if music students score higher than non-music
students. Data was collected from students in a high school setting in a school district in
southern Maryland consisting of students that are enrolled in Algebra 1 and participate in music
classes (band, guitar, orchestra, piano, and/or choir) and non-music students with a year or more
of enrollment in the institution during the spring semester of testing for the 2019 school year. A
sample size of 100- 200 students was determined through Q*Power analysis in SPSS to be the
sample size obtained needed for this study to have any effect on the correlation of the data
(significance – .05, Power – .8, Standard Deviation – 5, with a population mean size of 100 to
250; an effect size of .10 (mean 100) to .50 (mean 250). Results from this study determined if
there is a difference in standardized achievement scores in mathematics (Algebra 1) between
music class students and non-music class students. The results from the study can help decision
makers make funding decisions about music and other arts courses and programs.
Research Questions
RQ1
What are the differences, if any exists, in the scores on the Algebra 1 mathematics
standardized test for students who participated in music classes and the scores for
students who did not participate in music classes?
Hypotheses
H10
There is no significant difference in scores between students who participate in music
classes and students who do not participate in music classes.
H1a
There is a significant difference in scores between students who participate in music class
and students who do not participate in music classes.
Theoretical Framework
Walberg’s theory of academic achievement (Walberg’s theory of educational
productivity) focuses on the psychological characteristics and environments that influence
behavioral, attitudinal, and cognitive educational outcomes (Reynolds & Walberg, 1992).
Walberg’s research utilizing the Walberg’s theory of educational productivity identified several
variables that impact and influence a student’s education outcomes such as prior achievement or
student ability, classroom climate, peer groups, exposure, quantity or quality of instruction, age
or developmental stage, motivation, and home environment (Astin, 1993; Fullarton, 2002;
Walberg et al., 1987). Further research by Wang et al (1997) expanded upon Walberg’s theory
of academic achievement (Walberg’s theory of educational productivity) focusing on student
learning characteristics such as motivation, behavioral, and cognition and its potential positive
effect on student outcomes (DiPerna & Elliott, 2002; Greenberg et al, 2003; Wang et al., 1997;
Zins et al., 2004). Continued research from Walberg’s theory highlighted the importance of
targeting variables such as motivation, self-regulated learning, and interpersonal and social skills
in relation to academic performance (Greenberg et al., 2003; Gutman et al., 2002; Zins et al.,
2004). Zins et al (2004) also found that there are strong ties between confidence and motivation
of a student in their learning abilities to performing better in school. In more recent years,
Walberg’s theory of productivity has been applied and expanding upon highlighting other
influencing factors or variables such as aptitude, instructional and social psychological
environments, and collective family educational levels as an influence on academic achievement
(Brouwer et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2021; Mazana et al., 2019)
Definitions of Key Terms
Academic achievement
Academic achievement is the extent to which educational long-term and short-term goals
are achieved by students, teachers, or institutions (Foster & Jenkins, 2017; Guhn et al.,
2020; Lancaster, 2021; Shaw, 2021).
Arts Education
Arts education is defined as the process of learning and/or how to teach the creation and
production in the visual and performing arts educational environment (Dempster, 2017;
Foster & Jenkins, 2017).
Band (concert band)
A group of instrumentalists, consisting of players who perform on woodwind
instruments, brass instruments, and percussion instruments including instruments such as:
flute, clarinet, saxophone, oboe, bassoon, trumpet, trombone, euphonium, tuba, snare
drum, bass drum, timpani, and xylophone (Bergee, 2015; Kelly, 2019)
Mathematics Achievement
Mathematics achievement is the competency that is shown by a student in the subject
area surrounding mathematics (Bergee & Weingarten, 2021; Reeves, 2012).
Music education
As a field of education, music education is the practice in which educators teach the
learning of music vocally or instrumentally (Abril, 2019; Holochwost et al., 2017; Shaw,
2021).
Music funding
Music funding involves financial resources allocated towards music classes or music
ensembles that aid in the development of those classes or ensembles and support the field
of education (Major, 2013).
Music Student
Music students are enrolled and study in classes such as general music, instrumental
music, or vocal music related classes (Davies, 2019; Elpus, 2013; Mawang et al., 2018).
Orchestra (string orchestra)
A group of instrumentalists, consisting of players who perform on a violin, viola, cello,
and double bass. Large orchestras add in the use of woodwind, brasswind, and
percussion instruments along with the stringed instruments. (Tsugawa, 2019; Zabanal,
2021)
Standardized test
Used by state educational agencies, a standardized test gauges whether a student has
learned what is expected to learn by a state’s standards (Holochwost et al., 2017)
Test scores
Test scores are a unit of measurement that expresses the performance outcome of a test
taker on a given test or exam (Shaw, 2021).
Review of the Literature
The purpose of this quantitative study was to compare the academic achievement of
music students and non-music students regarding the mathematics standardized test. Participants
consisted of a minimum of 100 students in a southern Maryland high school setting. Music
students consisted of students who participated in band, orchestra, guitar, piano, or choir classes
and enrolled in the Algebra 1 class, while non-music students consisted of all other students
enrolled in the Algebra 1 class, while not participating in music classes. Students participating in
other fine arts classes was excluded from this study. Data was obtained from the 2019
standardized test in mathematics (Algebra 1) comparing the achievement and scores of music
class students and non-music class students.
A method of identifying common themes and ideals was utilized to highlight various
concepts such as: instrumental music and its effect on academic achievement, stakeholders’
response to failing schools, high stakes testing and its effect on financial decision making, and
the impact of financial decisions on the climate of music education. The literature review
contains various accounts of information from education practitioners, research experts, school
psychologist, and educational experts from peer-reviewed articles and journals.
This literature review reviewed existing literature related to concepts that show the
influence of instrumental music on academic achievement and the benefits associated with fine
arts education towards a student’s academic growth. These concepts of the literature review
include stakeholders’ response to budget concerns and academic progress, effects of music
education on academic achievement, state of music educational classes in response to highstakes testing, and the state of music educational classes in response to financial distributions.
The literature in this study was collected utilizing article databases such as: ProQuest,
Sage Journals, ERIC, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, and JSTOR through the
Northcentral University Library. All identified articles, journals, and students were researched
and examined for authenticity and relevancy to the given study. The following terms were
utilized for the proposed topic of study: academic achievement, high-stakes testing, music
learning, music class, teacher effectiveness, music achievement, music education, academic
performance, instrumental music, instrumental ensemble, budget, budget/funding cuts, and low
performing schools. These terms were combined with other specific or limiting terms such as
band, orchestra, socioeconomic status, mathematics, standardized testing, instrumental classroom
climate, and decision-making. The literature review focused on administrative responses to low
performance and academic achievement and then branch off into the effects of instrumental on
academics, other influencing or non-influencing factors, budget cuts and its effects, and
educational policies on the school climate.
Administrative Response to Low School Performance
Research has shown that while most educational institutions have music programs and
curriculums, a small majority of the administrations of these institutions require the class or
enforce its equality amongst core classes (Shaw, 2021). The perception of principals and
administrations in schools with low performing academics choose to focus on improving school
climate, culture, and academics (Ramlal et al., 2020). In lower performing schools the
administrations focused on utilizing resources to focus on developmental educational
opportunities such as remedial programs thus limiting the resources available to support or
encourage the use of arts educational programs already established in the school curriculum
(Pashiardis et al., 2018). The response of educators in this study involved a utilization of three
phases to improve low performing schools involving a restructuring of school routines, an
increased emphasis on behaviors and the school environment, and an increased emphasis on the
school’s priorities and values (Tubin & Farchi, 2022). State intervention is often a driving force
in response to low performing schools often overlooking the local or internal teacher or
administrative response in favor of a state-level leadership response (Schueler & West, 2022).
One study saw that principals focus on mentorship with educators, supporting administrations,
and creating role modeling programs with students to increase more social interactions to
improve academic achievement (Tran & Smith, 2020). However, there is no mention of support
for any music educational classes. Some successful intervention in low-performing schools
involved administrations including all stake holders and staff in creating and implementing the
mission, values, plans, and vision for the school environment (Bakokonyane, 2022).
Furthermore, the implementation aided in the monitoring of class and school instructions,
resulting in an improvement in academic performance. Some administrations focus on
simplifying activities, recruitment of high-quality teachers, leadership training, and outside
innovative educational programs to foster academic success without the need for altering current
school classes (Khanal et al., 2020; Makgato & Mudzanani, 2019). The focus on disciplinary
climate and additional time in core academic subjects is a successful strategy for improving
academic success in low achieving schools (Agasisti et al., 2021). When addressing the need of
principal actions that lead to a change in academic performance in low performing schools, a
focus on attendance, test scores on standardized tests, and graduation rates are seen as the main
source of response from principals as outlined by the “No Child Left Behind” educational policy
(Redding & Nguyen, 2020). However, the article found no signification connection between
improvement and these actions yet suggest that indirect influences from other factors such as
operations and management could have contributed to the school’s improvement. Studies have
shown that a big impact to improving low-performing schools is in the characteristics, vision,
traits, and leadership style of the lead administrator or administrations (Leahy, 2019; Rodriquez
et al., 2020). Principles are also influenced by performance-based accountability measured
aimed to ensure that administrations are being responsive and achieving certain goals based on
the given educational policies (Camphuijsen, 2021). As a result, the influences caused
administrations to drive behavioral changes that impacted the educational practices of the
institutions in their command generally stemming from achievement on standardized testing.
Effects of Administrative Support
Arts educational programs and classes achievement improves when it is supported by
principals and stakeholders (Lorena, 2021). Arts education can be a major reformation tool in
improving academic performance in a low performing school setting (May & Brenner, 2016).
Another study found that the potential positive or negative impact to the arts educational
offerings at a school is largely determined by the personal philosophies and values of the
administration (Rentschler & Reid, 2021). When those values and philosophies align with the
incorporation and value of arts education, great achievement can be obtained in those programs.
Many advances in both academic and social achievement in a school setting can be achieved
through leaderships that focuses on various educational pedagogy and building relationships with
educators in their related fields (Ramlal et al., 2020). The actions, roles, and responsibilities of
the school administration can have a profound effect on the outcomes of a school’s environment
(Pashiardis et al., 2018). The administrators’ skills and attention to the inner and outer workings
of the school environment is key to that effect. One study examined the integration of music and
music education reform and policy from principles into the everyday practices of their school
learning environment. The article concluded that the principles successfully integrated artsbased education into the curriculum, framework, teaching practices, and into the creation of arts
educational opportunities in an elementary and middle school setting (Scripp & Glibert, 2016).
The results of this integration were found to be an effective strategy for optimizing learning both
in core subjects and in arts subjects, while benefitting the entire school community.
Effect of Music Education on Achievement
One research study found a significant relationship between achievement in a musical
setting and achievement in reading and mathematics (Bergee & Weingarten, 2021). Music
training in preadolescent children can yield positive results in cognitive and social understanding
(Carioti et al., 2019). Another research study also noted the improvement of academic
achievement of young children when introduced to musical lessons during their developmental
years (Winter, 2016). The infusion of arts education into STEM education (Science,
Technology, Engineering and Math education) resulting in STEAM education (Science,
Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Math education) is shown to have positive impacts on
student achievement and the empowerment of teachers in schools that implement this
educational ideal (Hunter-Doniger, 2018). Skills gained form participation in arts and music
class has been shown to better facilitate social and emotional learning among youths (MorgroWilson & Tredinnick, 2020). These improvements have aided in improving goal setting skills,
increased the utilization of empath, in building strong relationships, and improvement in decision
making. Even students with a non-formal or indirect access to arts education has been shown to
improve self-confidence and empowerment amongst youths despite the socioeconomic status
(Ferrer-Fons et al., 2022). A study on the effect of music or the study of music on academic
performance of children ranging from ages 3 to 12 found that it can have many positive benefits
on a child’s development with effects to emotional intelligence, social skills, and academic
performance (Blasco-Margraner et al., 2021). Many studies have concluded that participation in
music classes can aid in achievement in other academic subject areas (Lancaster, 2021).
Results of this study presented a strong support for keeping music in the educational curriculum
and to increase financial resources for those educational classes. Participation in music classes,
more specifically instrumental music classes, has been shown to have a positive effect on many
mental, emotional, and motor skills of students with special needs (Rose et al., 2018).
Participation in music classes has a positive influence on academic achievement, GPA’s, math,
and reading scores, while decreasing the odds of school suspensions or negative outcomes
(Winsler et al., 2020). However, the students that were enrolled in other arts class such as visual
arts were not as conclusive. One study found that an arts-integrated curriculum has a positive
effect on urban student’s academic achievement however it is unknown as to the direct factor
that creates these effects (Moss et al., 2018). Analysis of the findings suggest that there are
improvements into the core knowledge and executive functions can be a contributing factor.
Studies testing the effect of arts participation in children at a younger stage on cognitive
development or developmental outcomes found a strong effect on educational outcomes with
students who participated in arts classes (Foster & Jenkins, 2017). However, there was no effect
found on any cognitive outcomes tested. An early childhood longitudinal study found that with
an implementation of a few minutes of art and/or music instruction weekly positively influence
academic achievement in the areas of reading and math from kindergarten to 5th grade
(Todhunter-Reid, 2019). Moreover, the associations positive impact of that instruction increased
in strength as the students progressed from grade to grade. Research examining the relationships
between academic achievement of students who participated in a music program and those who
did not concluded that participation in an instrumental music program can be a benefit to school
academic achievement (Guhn et al., 2020). There is a positive impact of music participation on
other skills such as spatial, short-term memory, executive functions, and temporal reasoning
(Holchwost et al., 2017; Holmes & Hallman, 2017). Arts education provides important
opportunities for students from many different backgrounds and cultures to demonstrate their
learning, gives them an opportunity to participate in a positive activity, and gives them an
opportunity to express themselves often resulting in enhancement in social emotional learning
and academic achievement (Kerby et al., 2021). Positive cognitive and brain development has
also been linked to individuals that participate in music or instrumental classes (Kraus & WhiteSchwoch, 2020). However, some research has found that factors such as socioeconomic status
has no impact on student achievement will concluded that high academic achievement was
linked to participation in arts related classes (Beese & Martin, 2019). Furthermore, the authors
found that participation in any form of arts education in the school setting and outside of the
school setting aiding in positively impacting academic achievement. Exploration into the music
educational programs in a Montessori school setting found that many of the schools’ educators
supported the program and found it to be very engaging for the students and beneficial for
understanding the culture of the building (Rajan, 2017).
Other Influencing Factors
Exploration into the link between other factors such as participation in extracurricular
activities and high academic achievement concluded that participation in some activities can
improve performance while participation in others can diminish it (Hughes et al., 2016).
Another study also found an indirect increase in academic motivation and achievement form
students who participated in extracurricular activities, mainly sports activities (Jan, 2016).
One study found that students that participated in Career and Technical educational programs
saw in increase in academic achievement on standardized testing despite the economic
background or academic history of the student (Michaels & Barone, 2020). Participation in any
art; visual arts, vocal music, instrumental music, dance, and drama can show improvement in
cognitive functions and achievement especially in younger aged students (Fleming et al., 2015;
Schneider & Rohmann, 2021). Another study found an increase in cognitive levels amongst
students who study musical notation (Taninmis, 2016). The exploration into the effects of a
student’s socioeconomic status on academic achievement between multiple groups of students,
participants, and non-participants in music concluded that the lower socioeconomic status had a
negative effect on student achievement while higher statuses had a greater effect positive effect
on student achievement (Waters et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2020; Zhou & McLellan, 2021). This
presents the question of whether these statuses in connection with music participation influence
the achievement outcomes. Changes in academic environment and changes in health and social
habits has been seen as a contributing factor in positively impacting student achievement (Tadese
et al., 2022). One study found that student achievement can be impacted by school choice
suggested that the outcomes of student achievement can be rooted in the competition between
schools resulting in an improvement in school quality that indirectly impacts student
achievement (Jabbar et al., 2022). Another study found that the influence on student
achievement can be rooted in the educator, their professional development, and their
presentations and teaching habits (Hall et al., 2017). A students’ socioeconomic status has some
level of influence on achievement and into adopted goals (Berger & Archer, 2018). In some of
the cases the fluctuations in statuses led to different goals, but these goals all led to positive
outcomes. However, one study saw that while students that participated in music classes had
high overall academic achievement scores, it was inconclusive a student’s socioeconomic status
had any impact on student achievement (Kinner, 2019). In examination of the relationship
between academic achievement of music participants in different quality band programs it is
concluded that the students in the higher quality music program scored slightly higher than the
lower quality students (Bailey, 2018). This presents the question of whether the academic
achievement of studies is more influenced by the quality of the music program. One could infer
that a higher quality music program will produce higher academic achievement in participating
students. There are other factors that can influence academic achievement such as the parental
academic involvement, the family’s socioeconomic status, the parents’ social subjectivity, the
social mobility exhibited in the home environment (Zhang et al., 2020). Parental support and
involvement in the integration of music class has been seen to cause a positive impact on not
only student achievement in academics but in the performance of music itself (Haryono et al.,
2018). Interest towards a given subject along with other factors such as gender, type of school,
and parent or guardians socio-economic status are all factors that can affect student achievement
(Schnell and Loerwald, 2019). There can be many other factors that aid in a student’s success
and achievement such as: age, study skills, motivation, satisfaction with the education
environment, prior achievement, and social environment (Brouwer et al., 2016). Sometimes the
geographic location of a student can be an attributing factor to student achievement. There are
several interlocking factors that can be attributed to student achievement including factors such
as socioeconomic status, family, and friend influence, parent to child relationships, parental
practices, and consistency of family home environment (Washington et al., 2020). Meanwhile,
one study found that the simple enjoyment of learning can be an influencing factor when it
comes to academic achievement (Camacho-Morles et al., 2021). The results of this article
indicated positive results between the enjoyment of learning and academic performance through
a meta-analytical review of students from primary school to the collegiate level.
No Connections
While there are many articles that suggests that there is a link between arts education
participation and academic achievement, there are some researchers that have concluded a
completely opposite result. In comparison of the academic achievement of students with
disabilities who participated in music with those that did not it is concluded that there was no
significant difference between any of the participants through their standardized test scoring
(Gonzalez, 2020). The authors in this study found that there was little to no casual evidence that
supported the idea that arts participation is directly correlated to academic achievement (Sala &
Gobet, 2020). The authors suggested that while students that participated in arts classes
generally had higher scores than non-participants, other factors could be an influence on that
achievement. One study examined if there were any cognitive benefits for students who
participated in some form of musical training, which was deemed as an advocated form of
education for school-aged children. Data analysis from this study found no significant difference
in the academic performance scores from students in this environment (Cooper, 2019). It was
determined that the environment had a stronger effect on a student’s cognitive intervention. This
research study sought to test the effects of jazz improvisation instruction on cognitive and
executive functions of middle school band students (7th-8th grade). The results of the study
concluded mix results while the 8th grade experimental students scored better on the cognitive
exam there were many errors found on the test (Norgaard et al., 2019). The 7th grade group
experienced no effect to their cognitive outcomes and that many of the outcomes achieve was
dependent of the type of instruction that as given. One study suggested that participation in
rigorous music programs as well as competitive athletic programs prompted students to spend
less time on academic endeavors and more time on musical studies or athletic training (Weight et
al., 2020).
Budget, Finances, Resources, and Music Education
Administrations, principals, and stakeholders struggle to make budgetary decision due to
the factors that influence the educational climate in a school setting (Myende, 2018).
Particularly in low performing schools, state demands for academic success results in
administrations using financial resources to foster academic achievement. As a result of a lack
of value or understanding music education is underfunded. Some schools focus resources on
collaborative learning due to policies imposed on the school system as opposed to other subject
areas (Forbes, 2016). The results of the study presented findings that not only saw a lack of
funding for the music educational classes but also a decrease in the significance and need for
those programs. Music programs grow and flourish when they are properly funded. Larger
schools with large budgets saw an increase in student achievement and enrollment in
instrumental classes (Hedgecoth & Major, 2019). The lack of funding for music education can
be attributed to many factors including a lack of understanding for music education, a lack of
evidence, research, or literature surrounding its positive effects, or due to an increased pressure
place on academic institutions for academic success (Harris, 2019). Some influencing factors
that negatively impact music education is due to a lack of music teachers in addition to a lack of
access based on funding, race, or poverty (Shaw & Auletto, 2022). Potential budgetary decision
and budget making are attributed to the values and image that is incumbent on the principal
(Ramlal, 2020). The principal or administration could ultimately make budgetary decisions that
impact music education for their given school. Some studies found the incorporation of the
music programs in a Montessori school setting to be very beneficial for the school educationally
and culturally (Rajan, 2017). However due to limited budgets and time restrictions for classes
the music program was severely diminished and many of the benefits loss. There is a significant
relationship between budget allocations and student achievement on the class level, but there is
no significance between budget allocations and student achievement on standardized test scores
(Cobb-Clark & Jha, 2016). Music education needs to be funded by finances but also by
advocacy in the administrative leadership (Nickel, 2021). Principals with backgrounds in
teaching music results in many avenues that supports a connection between music educators,
classes, and school administrations (Nickel, 2021). Research examining the relationship between
academic achievement and social-emotional learning garnering mixed results showing a
nonsignificant variable and propensity score difference between choral students, instrumental
students, and the control group (Shaw, 2018). The only comparable data point existed in the
reading scores which presented a much higher score for music participants; however, many other
variables could have been a factor such as: race, sex, and prior school achievement (Shaw,
2018). Budget models, budget reductions, and cuts to arts education during the great recession
greatly impacted music education and its curriculum (Hedgecoth & Major, 2019). The article
makes suggestions on how education policy makers can alter their frameworks to support and
reinstate music instruction in the classroom. The article found that a lack of understanding was a
key factor in many of these case that led to the dismantling of the music curriculum.
High Stakes Testing and Music Education
The emphasis placed on high stakes testing has caused a strain on many educational
institutions, thus resulting in a panic to increase test scores and focus on core academic classes
(Croft, 2016). These demands place administrations in the decision-making mindset to create
opportunities to foster student growth and focus on the parallel academic classes. In a research
study focused on the music educational system in schools in England, the researcher found that
the school system focused on a high-quality curriculum and did not consider the arts to be a
significant part of that educational curriculum (Bath et al., 2020). The results of these demands
create significant threats to the music educational programs which included funding cuts, class
cuts, or policies that do not include arts education. Other studies concluded a similar fact that
states that the focus on high stakes or standardized test creates a hindrance to arts education, its
funding, and policies that protect those classes (Harris, 2019; Rajan, 2017). High-stakes testing
marginalizes the arts education curriculum leading to budget cuts for arts education classes,
teachers, and decreases the capacity of arts educators to produce high quality programs
(Chapman, 2015). Exploration into the high stakes testing assumptions that were deemed to
improve academic performance and increase the graduation rates under the No Child Left
Behind educational policy concluded that many teachers were forced to emphasize test taking
strategies in core subjects which deemphasized the focus on other enrichments and arts classes
(Cavendish et al., 2017). Furthermore, the emphasis on high stakes testing decreased student
engagement and limited many education opportunities.
Policies and Testing on Teaching
Educational reform, high-stakes testing, and academic demands have not only caused a
disturbance with arts education classes, but also with teacher’s ability to produce high quality
ensembles, their evaluations, and their job security (Robinson, 2019). The evaluation system for
educators have proven to be unreliable and lacking the ability to accurately evaluate teachers or
continues to lack in innovation and advancement for evaluating the effectiveness of educators
(Gonzalez et al., 2017). Educational reform policies are disconnected from the education and
tends to be an assault against public and teacher education (Croft et al., 2016). The
accountability placed on music educators because of education policies that focus on
standardized test competence creates unnecessary tension and stress (Shaw, 2016). Many of
these stressful factors includes teacher evaluations and improvements in test score ratings, which
all do not include the arts education practices. Many administrations evaluated arts educators
through a traditional lens that does not connect with the scope of arts classes (Carter & Roucher,
2020). These disconnections present many challenges that effect the expertise of the evaluator
and the expectations in the teacher assessment. The author found that many of the evaluators did
not focus on the musical expertise but in classroom management and student engagement. High
stakes testing and policies surrounding standardized testing impacts and distorts teaching,
teaching practices, and narrows the curriculum and experiences for students (Sigler, 2020).
Educational reform has focused more on teacher evaluation and alternative teacher certification,
which indirectly made teaching harder and limited the teacher’s autonomy, while simultaneously
defunding public education and overemphasizing the high-stakes testing (Vaughan-Marra &
Marra, 2017). It has been noted that many negative influences on teacher evaluation or proper
education policy changes are due to a lack of understanding about the impact or nature of the arts
classes. Teacher anxiety, quality, and performance were negatively impacted by the evaluator
that was not privy to the knowledge in the content area and the instructional progress
(Wakamatsu, 2016). One study highlighted the increase in demand for evaluation, assessment,
and accountability in the public-school system, resulting in a de-professionalization of teachers
and teacher evaluations based on assessment and compliance to testing criteria (Nyberg, 2016).
As a result, the participants of this study comprised of school music educators determined that
the conceptualization and understanding of music education and learning are important for
informing policies and creating an environment for inclusion and having a positive impact on
teachers, their professionalism, and the language needed to inform of the music educational
practices. With the implementation of ESSA (Every Student Succeeds Act) the increased
latitude towards school improvement and accountability policies has increased (Welsh et al.,
2019). However, the threat of schools being taken over by state-level officials has become a
form of educational reform that has caused negative attitudes and has subsequently increased
accountability pressures and caused a disruption in moral and ethical response amongst educators
and administrators. Policies centered around high stakes testing and teaching evaluation has
been characterized as an ineffective way of evaluating teaching quality and has been met with
resistance from both educators and administrators (Henning et al., 2018; Phillips et al., 2017).
The results of these enacted policies have caused educators to create task forces and focus groups
to not only expose the potential risk of enacting these policies but highlight the persons
negatively impacted by these policies which are the students themselves. Exposing principals,
evaluators, or administration to arts education or proposing integration of arts education equally
into the schools’ system can result in a higher quality of teaching (Wakamatsu, 2016).
Educational Policies and Music Education
Educational policy towards the pressing demands of academic concerns influences many
administrative decisions that ultimately impact arts education classes (Bath, 2020; Dempster,
2017). The implementation of the NCLB (No Child Left Behind) educational policies influenced
time and attention away from subjects that were not in accordance with standardized testing
(Ladd, 2017). There were many challenges that were imposed on music classes because of
educational reform policies resulting in a diminishing of the scope and impact of music
educational classes (Forbes, 2016). Educational policies that include the implementation of
Common Core practices, standardized testing, cross curricular incorporations, and new teacher
evaluations has caused a negative impact on teacher practices and the importance of music
education in the curriculum (Sears, 2019). Academic pressure and community demand for the
utilization of public funding has led to the underfunding of music education classes (Harris,
2019). An overview of the educational policies and its effect on the music programs in a
Victorian school system over the span of 50 years concluded that the school system’s outdated
policy and lack of development has led to the diminishment of quality and access to music
programs (Lierse, 2017). Arts education in public schools have been neglected in its public
funding decreased due to the differences in the conception of public educational policies and the
lack of implementations or recognition of the arts (Jung, 2018). A lack of implantation and
innovation could possibly lead to the demise of the music education classes in a school setting
while educational reform based on high stakes testing impacts teacher practices and has been
unsuccessful in changing academic outcomes of students (Demir & Keles, 2021). In some urban
elementary school settings, the arts program was completely removed due to educational
policies, budget cuts, and enrollment (Shaw, 2018). Policies that influence arts education usually
come indirectly or as an afterthought, involving inconsistent or unnerving implementations that
have little to no effect on music education (Shaw, 2020). There have been attempts to create
educational policy reform and legislature to aid in the including and strengthening the direction
of arts education in the school curriculum. One article utilized the expertise of music teachers,
therapist, and clinicians to discuss educational policies and arts instruction at the school district
level (Salvador & Pasiali, 2017). The discussion aided in policy suggestions that included
increasing the administrators understanding of music education so that they can be betterinformed, and child centered, increasing the administrators understanding of music education so
that they can provide equal treatment amongst all educators, and improving music teacher
development and providing access to effective strategies to improve music teaching and learning
for all students. In this study, it was determined that there was no inclusion policies or language
that supported inclusive learning in the non-core subject areas such as music and art. (Wong &
Chik, 2016). As a resulted a push for educational reform with inclusive language of non-core
subject areas was implemented focusing on learning and understanding music, inclusion of the
arts in the curriculum, and budget concerns in relation to the arts. Other educational policy
reforms for inclusion have included the ideals of optimizing recruitment and the rigor of the
teacher education programs, finding alternate routes for patrons to get into the teaching
profession, overhauls of the teacher induction program, support for new teachers, opportunities
for career advancement, professional development and support for educators, and a new system
for teacher evaluation (Vaughan-Marra & Marra, 2017). One study highlighted the impact of
educational policies and how various implications can conform arts education and education into
a new system that stifles the decline of arts educational classes (Arostequi, 2019). Examples of
combined arts curriculum evaluation and standardized testing with well thought out strategies
can be the key to shifting the educational curriculum into an all-inclusive process that limits the
removal or demise of the arts curriculum. Arts education and its policies are very complex and
should not be limited to the standard educational polices govern by certain levels of the
community, unions, or other philanthropic organizations (Colwell, 2019). Educational
institutions should adopt educational policies that impact the entire arts education community
that can allow for a well-rounded educational experience for all students as seen in the “Every
Student Succeeds Act of 2015” (Kos, 2018).
Ethical Assurances
This study received approval form Northcentral University’s Institutional Review Board
(IRB) prior to the collection of data. The data acquired required no direct contact with
participants as the participant’s name and identities was removed and are not required for the
presentation of findings. The researcher is currently employed in the school area where the
student data was obtained and where the research will take place. To ensure ethical procedures
are followed only former student data is utilized, no identifying information was acquired, and
any participant information that cannot be removed was excluded from the student data
acquisition. The risk to participants is at a minimal level and no ethical issues should be
relevant.
The data was acquired through direct communication with the registrar at the existing
institution. Only required data was obtained eliminating any identifying information.
There should be no forms of coercion or alterations to the data and the data was pulled directly
from the institutions database. The research does not discuss any sensitive information
concerning any of the participants in this study. IRB protocols for confidentiality was consulted
and utilize to ensure approval. The information obtained was secured in a filing cabinet in my
instrument closet and locked in for a minimum of 3 years.
The role of the researcher in this study is simply to collected concrete data and to draw
conclusions based on the data obtained. The researcher in this instant is an educator at the school
where data is obtained and is possible familiar with participants for this study. The educator can
be swayed due to personal ideas about the field of study and firsthand observation and opinions
about the outcome of the study. The researcher only examined the data and outcomes that is
given because of the data. Data cannot be altered thus eliminating the potential for swaying
outcomes. The researcher only reported findings in its entirety without adding any areas for
opinions, thoughts, optional avenues, or biases.
Summary
Research has shown that there is a significant relationship between positive academic
achievement in mathematics and participation in a musical setting (Bergee & Weingarten, 2021).
Furthermore, participation in an instrumental music program can provide positive benefits for
school academic achievement (Guhn et al., 2020). However, schools are influenced to limit the
funding for arts education programs due to educational policies imposed on them or policies that
highlights core subjects as a means for academic growth in opposition to arts education classes
(Agasisti et al., 2021; Bath, 2020; Dempster, 2017; Forbes, 2016). Furthermore, there is research
that suggest that participation in any arts related education or ensembles have little to no
influence on student achievement in core academic classes (Norgaard et al., 2019; Sala & Gobet,
2020). A quantitative study design is utilized as a research method to compare the academic
achievement of students that participate in a music ensemble and non-music students. The study
sought to answer whether there is a difference in academic achievement of students who
participate in a musical setting and those who do not. The study focused on the mathematics
core discipline as a means for comparison. This design also aims to gather a better
understanding of arts education and its impact on student achievement.
Section 2: Methodology and Design
The problem addressed in this study was that due to music programs being underfunded,
there is limited data about the academic benefits that students could receive from participation in
music classes (Forbes, 2016; Guhn, 2021; Rajan, 2017; Shaw & Auletto, 2022). Research has
shown that administrations and stakeholders are unaware of the potential benefits of music
education classes and generally make budgetary decisions without considering the impact of arts
education classes on academic achievement (Ramlal et al., 2020; Tran & Smith, 2020;
Bakokonyane, 2022). Furthermore, research has shown that stakeholders and administration do
not consider arts education as a valued knowledge base in relation to core academic education
(Conkling & Kaufman, 2020; Lilliedahl, 2022). Research has shown that students that
participate in music class ensembles outperform students who do not in academic core classes
and on various standardized tests (Bergee & Weingarten, 2021; Carioti et al., 2019). According
to research, the focus on standardized testing, budget cuts, and lack of administrative policy and
understanding has led to a decrease in funding, utilization, and attention in music classes (Bath et
al., 2020; Elpus & Abril, 2019). Federal policies such as the Elementary and Secondary
Education Action of 1965, as amended by the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) had a negative
impact on music education programs; either eliminating them or reducing the allotted budget to
focus on core academic classes tied to standardized testing (Ladd, 2017). Due to increased
demands for higher scoring on standardized testing many stakeholders, administrations, and
leaders focus on academic subjects to aid in greater student achievement on standardized test as
opposed to an increased focus on the arts (Forbes, 2016; Lierse, 2017; Shaw, 2018). Because of
the complex nature of music, results from scholarly research studies show a mix of support for
and against the impact of music education, making it difficult to influence budgetary decisions to
fund music education programs (Foster & Jenkins, 2017; Sala & Gobet, 2020). Schools,
administrations, communities, and students miss out on the many benefits associated with
participation in music classes. In recent years, the passage of the “Every Student Succeeds Act”
(ESSA) 2015 has replaced the “No Child Left Behind Act” (NCLB) and opened the doors for
stakeholders to creative transformative policies to positively impact music education,
professional development for arts educators, funding, and to recognize its impact on the
educational framework (Bernstorf, 2017; Kos, 2018; Odegaard, 2016; Poulin, 2019).
The purpose of this quantitative causal-comparative research study was to determine if
there is a difference in mathematics standardized testing scores of music class students and nonmusic class students. This study can be used as a means of identifying potential impacts of
music class participation on academic achievement in order to inform stakeholders and
administrations. Data from the Algebra 1 mathematics portion of spring 2019 standardized
testing session was collected and analyzed in an independent sample t-test to determine if
instrumental students score higher than non-instrumental students. To address the study’s
purpose, the following research question was created:
RQ1. What are the differences, if any exists, in the scores on the Algebra 1 mathematics
standardized test for students who participated in music classes and the scores for
students who did not participate in music classes?
This section presents the design and method that answers the research questions of this study and
population and sample that was used to determine the participants and the number of participants
in this study. Also, discussed in this section are the materials and instrumentation needed to
gather data and conclusions in this study as well as a presentation of the operational definition of
the variables found in this study.
Design and Method
The purpose of this quantitative causal-comparative study was to compare the
mathematics standardized testing scores of music class students and non-music class students.
Quantitative research generally consists of gathering data (typically numerical data) utilizing
specific instruments and analyzing that data with statistical software while allowing for the
collection of data with no risk of identifying participants and with a strong avenue for obtaining
valid and reliable data (Duckett, 2021; Raby & McNaughton, 2021). Quantitative research
generally consists of design methods such as correlational, descriptive, experimental, and causalcomparative styles covering designs where variables are not controlled and observed, where
variables are only described, and where variables are controlled and relationships between those
variables are established (Batt & Kahn, 2021; Duckett, 2021; Ellis, 2021; Miksza & Elpus, 2018;
Schenker & Rumrill, 2004; Turner et al., 2013). A descriptive design was not chosen as this
design observes or determines the state or status of an identified variable, which does not relate
to the given hypothesis for the research study. An experimental or quasi experimental design
was not chosen as that design is used to establish cause or effect relationships between a group of
variables or manipulates the variables to find relationships. A correlational research design was
not chosen for this study because the students’ scores on one variable will not be used to predict
scores on the other.
The causal-comparative research design was chosen due to the design parameters that to
examine potential causes for differences in existing groups or relationships between independent
and dependent variables after and event has happened. The causal-comparative design does not
use any form of experimentation or any form of manipulation of the variables. The goal of this
research design is to determine whether the variables affected the outcome by comparing two or
more groups. Furthermore, causal comparative and correlational research are similar with the
former differing through the independent variable being more categorical. The data for this
research study will be considered ex post facto in the fact that the data already exist and has
existed for more than 3 years. In a similar style research study, the author uses a causalcomparative study design to compare the effects of simulation to other teaching strategies by
comparing one group that utilized a high-fidelity simulation strategy to another group that
utilized another formidable strategy to see if there was any difference in critical thinking skills
(Blakeslee, 2020).
A qualitative methodology was not chosen for this study as studies of that designs focus
on the how or qualities of that study. Qualitative research usually follows a few research designs
including case studies, narrative research, and phenomenology. (Batt & Kahn, 2021; HowardGrenville et al., 2021). The designs in a qualitative research study would not be accurate for the
given topic of interest because of the lack of a phenomenon to follow. The study is not
necessarily following an experience, trying to get clarity on a culture, or looking to describe this
event or thing. Furthermore, qualitative research focus on meanings, words, and the exploration
of concepts, while quantitative research focuses on numbers, statistics, and the measure of
variables that aligns with the topic of interest.
Population and Sample
The study took place in a high school in southern Maryland. The school is one of 33 high
schools in the Prince Georges County school district. There is an average of 1,112 students in
the high schools in southern Maryland. The high school where the study will take places has a
population of 1,015 students in grade 9 through 12. Approximately 99.3 percent of the student
population is considered a minority. Approximately 69.8 percent of the student population is
considered African American, 27.5 percent Hispanic, 1.3 percent Asian, 0.9 percent considered
mixed raced, and 0.7 percent white. Approximately 62 percent of the student population is
considered economically disadvantaged. The school is located in a large suburban lower middleclass area. The average graduation rate is 67 percent which is below the Maryland median state
average and the average proficiency in mathematics according to the MCAP/PARCC (Maryland
Comprehensive Assessment Program/Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and
Careers) assessment is 1 percent (Maryland Department of Education, 2019). Of the 1,015
students in the school, the students that met the criteria for this study consisted of 409 students.
The number of students from the 409 are identified as music participants and non-music
participants and a sample size of 100 – 200 students was determined through Q*Power analysis
in SPSS to be the sample size obtained needed for this study to have any effect on the correlation
of the data (significance – .05, Power – .8, Standard Deviation – 5, with a population mean size of
100 to 250; an effect size of .10 (mean 100) to .50 (mean 250).
In quantitative research a probability sampling is generally utilized to select an equal
random sample to make a strong statistical inference about the whole group while non-probable
sampling generally offers a more biased sample pool (Gilard, 2021; Mulisa, 2021). This study
utilized a stratified random sampling, which divides the sample pool into categories (music
students and non-music students). Sample sizes should be large enough to represent the total
population and not small enough to elicit potential errors (Farber & Fonseca, 2014; Vozzi et al.,
2021).
The registrar, principal, and testing coordinator of the school sites was contacted via
email or in person to collect the data. The requests were as follows: (a) for the MCAP/PARCC
Algebra 1 mathematics standardized test scores for students enrolled and/or testing for Algebra 1
during the 2018-2019 and (b) for the test scores will be categorized by students who were
enrolled in music classes (band, orchestra, choir, guitar, and/or piano) and by students who were
not enrolled in those classes. No student identities were recorded and only test scores were
collected. The criterion for this study required that all participants be equal in academic
experience and ability to avoid potential biases or negative impacts to the nature of the study.
Therefore, it is imperative that the students are not influenced by experience in other math
classes or on other mathematics standardized test. Algebra I was chosen as the data point as this
is the first mathematic endeavor that the participants experience in this academic setting and only
participants that experienced this endeavor shall be selected for this study.
Materials/Instrumentation
An email (see Appendix A) was sent to the research site requesting the tests scores on the
Maryland Comprehensive Assessment Program (MCAP) or Partnership for Assessment of
Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) test in Algebra I. Student mathematics test scores
are derived from a standardized testing method approved for use from the state board of
education for Maryland school systems. Standardized testing is graded by the Educational
Testing Service (ETS) both by automation and humans to ensure accuracy. The automated
systems utilize 10 years+ scoring technologies from the Natural Language Processing (NLP) to
ensure accuracy in scoring for multiple choice and short answer questions. Seals of approval
from the state of Maryland will be sought for validity of the student scores. The data was
requested with no student names and divided into two lists indicating scores from students that
participated in music classes and non-music class participants. Only the school will be privy to
each individual student and their scoring. The data was analyzed through an independent
samples t-test via the IBM SPSS statistics statistical analysis program. Data derived from the
utilization of this software can be inaccurate through rare false positives or user error. Multiple
attempts and utilization of this software will be used to determine accurate data points.
Operational Definitions of Variables
For this study, the two operational variables are mathematics test scores of the
participants and student participation in relation to the criteria for this study. The mathematics
test scores, and student participation was provided and coded by the institution where the data
was collected. The students’ mathematics scores will one of the variables for this study. The
student scores were measured on an interval scale from 650 to 850 (Maryland Comprehensive
Assessment Program (MCAP)/Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers
(PARCC). According to MCAP/PARCC, scores from 650 to 699 are considered level 1 (did not
meet expectations, 700 to 724 are level 2 (partially met expectations), 725 to 749 are level 3
(approached expectations), 750 to 802 are level 4, (met expectations), and 803 to 850 are level 5
(exceeded expectations). The total scores for each group (students participating in music
classes/students not participating in music classes) was utilized to enumerate the data via the
average of those scores.
The students’ participation or non-participation was the other variable for this study.
Students’ participation will be measured on a nominal scale from 1 to 2. The number 1 will
represent the scores of students who participated in music classes, while the number 2 will
represent the scores of students who did not participate in music classes. Data for each of the
labels was derived from the institution’s standardized testing data which was divided into two
lists (music participants/non-music participants).
Data Collection and Analysis
Approval from the International Review Board (IRB) was attained through (a) research
and understanding of the review processes, (b) completion of CITI training courses, (c)
preparation of any necessary documentation needed (consent, informational, etc.), (d)
understanding and reviewing of any policies and protocols needed for the review board, and (f)
through submission of application or other requirements deemed necessary by the review board.
The participants in this study were gathered by the institution where participants meet the criteria
for the given study. The principal, registrar, and testing coordinator received an email stating my
credentials and request for the participants needed for the study.
The data for this study consisted of non-identifiable archival data that is requested from
the research site via email sent directly to the principal and registrar. The data request consisted
of mathematics standardized test data (Algebra I) to be requested in two documents with only
scoring data associated with the criteria needed for this study (music and non-music
participants). The data was requested from a high school in the southern Maryland area school
system prior to in depth research for this study.
The mathematics scoring data of the music participants and non-music participants was
analyzed via an independent samples t-test through the IBM SPSS statistical software. The
independent samples t-test allowed for the comparison of means between students who enrolled
in music classes and those students who did not to determine significance and differences. This
analysis can be utilized to answer the research question: RQ1-What are the differences, if any
exists, in the scores on the Algebra 1 mathematics standardized test for students who
participated in music classes and the scores for students who did not participate in music
classes?
By utilizing the test scores, the mean difference can be determined and presented to test
the hypothesis: H10 – There is no significant difference in scores between students who
participate in music class and students who do not participate in music classes.
H1a – There is a significant difference in scores between students who participate in music class
and students who do not participate in music classes.
Assumptions
One assumption of the study is that the test score data provided to the researcher will be
accurate and unmanipulated in any form. Additionally, because the data was provided by a third
party, it is assumed that the Algebra 1 mathematics standardized test scores are for qualifying
students who participated in music classes versus the scores for non-music students who did not
participate in music classes. The final assumption is that the standardized test was given during
the time frame related to the study and that no other form of testing, standardized or other, was
given.
Limitations
One limitation surrounds the idea that I am currently an employee in the county where
the participants of the study were selected. The extent of contact with some or all the
participants was potentially made prior to the beginning of this research study. However,
participant personally identifiable information was not requested or provided. Another limitation
of the study is that I may present potential biases from me because I am in the career field; that
is, I work in the field of music and at the research site. It could be in my best interest that the
results and findings from the study are favorable. The collection of archival data and considering
that students’ personal data will not be associated with the results may eliminate or diminish
researcher bias. Another limitation can be found in the qualifying students and their academic
experiences in school. The qualifying student experiences can differ through their class
schedules and academic route during this time in school. One example could include
participants that could be enrolled in Algebra 1 but has taken Algebra II or Geometry due to
failure or lack of recognition of grading from a previous institution. Another example could
include second time test takers or participants that utilized special projects to complete testing
requirements. It is ideal that participants have similar academic paths so that other potential
influencers such as experiences in other mathematics classes will not alter the results of the
study. As a result, ideal qualifying participants should be first time Algebra 1 students and/or
first time Algebra 1 test takers class. Generally, Algebra 1 is the first mathematics experience
the participants have in the high school setting in this area. The final limitation involves not
having enough participants to show some level of significance in the study. A substantial
number of students is needed for a statistical analysis.
Delimitations
This study covers music and non-music participants and their mathematics standardized
test score data (Algebra I). This study does not cover any other testing subject area, any other
grade level, or any other fine arts participant. The study is limited to mathematics test score data
(Algebra I), one educational institution found in a southern Maryland area school system,
participants who are a part of that institution, and participants who meet the criteria for the study.
The study focuses on comparing the mean data of the music participant and non-music
participant to address the problem of music classes being underfunded with limited data about
the academic benefits that students could receive from participation in music classes. The
following has been excluded from this study: (a) participant’s grades in music class, (b)
participant’s grades in all other academic classes, (c) participants in other fine arts classes, and
(d) participants who participated in other math classes prior to testing (Geometry, Algebra II,
Advanced Math, etc.).
Summary
The problem addressed in this study was that due to music programs being underfunded,
there is limited data about the academic benefits that students could receive from participation in
music classes (Forbes, 2016; Guhn, 2021; Rajan, 2017; Shaw & Auletto, 2022). The purpose of
this causal comparative quantitative study is to compare the Algebra I mathematics standardized
testing scores of music class students and non-music class students. A causal comparative
quantitative design was chosen as a method to provide statistical data that aided in discovering
any academic achievement that is linked to music participants and non-music participants and to
seek out any difference that may exist between the two groups. The study took place in a high
school in southern Maryland, one of 33 schools in the Prince Georges County school district.
The high school’s population is approximately 1,015, with roughly 409 meeting the criterion for
participation I this study. The sample size of 100 – 200 participants were chosen for this study to
yield a strong data collection, analysis, and findings for this study. Participants will be selected
based on the following criteria: (a) must be enrolled in Algebra I during the 2018-2019 school
year, (b) must have taken a mathematics standardized test that year (Algebra I), (c) other
participants must have been enrolled in a music class, (e) must not have taken any other
mathematics standardized test or course during that school year or previous years, (f) and cannot
be a part of any educational population from another school during that time.
IRB approval was granted an email was sent to the principal and registrar of the school
explaining any details, participant criteria, and purpose for the study. The researcher made it
clear that no personally identifiable data is requested, and that all data is kept confidentially and
only used for research purposes. The researcher utilized a samples t-test to analyze the scoring
data from the music and non-music participants to produce findings that answer the research
questions designed for the study.
Section 3: Findings, Implications, and Recommendations
The purpose of this quantitative causal comparative study was to compare the
mathematics standardized testing scores of music class students and non-music class students. A
quantitative casual comparative design was chosen as a method to provide statistical data that
can aid in discovering any academic achievement that is linked to music participants and nonmusic participants and to seek out any difference that may exist between the two groups. The
problem addressed in this study was that due to music programs being underfunded, there is
limited data about the academic benefits that students could receive from participation in music
classes (Forbes, 2016; Guhn, 2021; Rajan, 2017; Shaw & Auletto, 2022). Research has shown
that administrations and stakeholders are unaware of the potential benefits of music education
classes and generally make budgetary decisions without considering the impact of arts education
classes on academic achievement (Ramlal et al., 2020; Tran & Smith, 2020; Bakokonyane,
2022). Furthermore, research has shown that stakeholders and administration do not consider
arts education as a valued knowledge base in relation to core academic education (Conkling &
Kaufman, 2020; Lilliedahl, 2022). Research has shown that students that participate in music
class ensembles outperform students who do not (Bergee & Weingarten, 2021; Carioti et al.,
2019). According to research, the focus on standardized testing, budget cuts, and lack of
administrative policy and understanding has led to a decrease in funding, utilization, and
attention in music classes (Bath et al., 2020; Elpus & Abril, 2019). There are a few limitations
and factors that could have influenced the interpretation of the research findings. The
participants’ scores in this study could have been influenced by factors such as educational
experiences and academic history. These variables were not addressed in this study; however,
steps were taken to mitigate the impact of those variables on the results of the study. While
variables such as education experiences and family and/or economic factors may impact
students’ scores, by establishing criteria for the selection of students’ scores to be included in the
study, a level of likeness between student characteristics (i.e., first time high school students,
first-time test takers (Algebra 1) helped to establish reliability of the results. Another limitation
stems from the potential lack of participants needed to ensure significant results from the
findings. A larger pool of participants was utilized to ensure that the results would be accurate.
This section includes the findings of the study, focusing on characteristics and general
analysis and interpretations of the study. Furthermore, this section presents the research
questions and hypothesis while showcasing any other descriptive information based on the
results of the analysis. This section also presents an overall evaluation of the outcomes of the
study, going in depth into the study findings, and how it addresses the problems and purposes
stated. Lastly, this section describes the implications and recommendations for the study, with
recommendations for future research. An overall conclusion of all the findings, implications,
and analysis is presented at the end of this section emphasizing how the results inform specific
practices and implications inferred.
Findings
The data collected from the institution was obtained and analyzed via the SPSS software.
The data consisted of numerical scores categorized by music and non-music students. The study
took place in a high school in southern Maryland, one of 33 schools in the Prince Georges
County school district. The high school’s population is approximately 1,015, with roughly 409
meeting the criterion for participation in this study. Participants were selected based on the
following criteria: (a) must be enrolled in Algebra I during the 2018-2019 school year, (b) must
have taken a mathematics standardized test that year (Algebra I), (c) other participants must have
been enrolled in a music class, (e) must not have taken any other mathematics standardized test
or course during that school year or previous years, (f) and cannot be a part of any educational
population from another school during that time. A sample size of 102 participants was chosen
for this study to yield a strong data collection, analysis, and findings for this study. Of the 409
potential participants 209 met the criteria for this study. The data consisted of 51 scores was for
music students and 158 scores for non-music students. The scores from both the music student
category and non-music student category were analyzed using an independent samples t-test.
The test score data was not manipulated in any form and was taken from the organized sheet and
inputted into the SPSS software for analysis. The SPSS software does not manipulate any data
points entered into its application panel and has been an approved application for research
studies.
Research Questions1 / Hypothesis 1
What are the differences, if any exists, in the scores on the Algebra 1 mathematics
standardized test for students who participated in music classes and the scores for students who
did not participate in music classes? In this quantitative causal comparative study, the results of
the independent samples t-test rejected the null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in
scores between students who participate in music classes and students who do not participate in
music classes and accepted the alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference in scores
between students who participate in music class and students who do not participate in music
classes.
A listing of data points was identified as category 1 (music students) and category 2 (nonmusic students), as noted in Table 1 and the results of the independent samples t-test are noted in
Table 2. The scores represent the participant’s performance on the PARCC Algebra 1 test. The
Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) exam was utilized
during this time to evaluate the performance of the participants in various core academic subjects
including English, Science, and Mathematics. The participants’ scores are measured on an
interval scale from 650 to 850 with a score of 650 to 699 considered level 1/did not meet
expectations, 700 to 724 are level 2/partially met expectations, 725 to 749 are level 3/approached
expectations, 750 to 802 are level 4/met expectations, and 803 to 850 are level 5/exceeded
expectations. The scores in Table 1 are the total scores for the participants on the Algebra 1 test
given in 2019.
Table 1. Algebra 1 test scores for the 2019 PARCC Algebra 1 assessment for music
participants and non-music participants
Category 1
Category 2
Music Participant
Non-Music Participant
718
714
724
650
699
718
781
655
716
715
711
664
650
719
710
705
710
678
679
719
705
693
711
710
705
722
738
681
756
687
744
711
655
719
712
710
731
718
660
715
725
679
690
701
655
700
696
706
679
715
711
722
730
697
714
725
735
670
752
720
749
670
736
692
728
733
711
740
707
755
691
731
685
707
693
745
697
Total Participant Scores (N=102)
685
710
687
700
685
716
694
708
678
699
687
701
711
723
705
653
675
687
707
700
694
679
715
706
685
Table 2. Independent Samples t-test SPSS Results
Variable
Music
Non-Music
N
51
51
Mean
711.45
698.35
Standard Deviation
28.539
18.740
Std. Error Mean
3.996
2.624
The results of the independent samples t-test indicated that the identified music students
obtained an average of 711.45 points and the identified non-music students obtained an average
of 698.35 points on the standardized test. The test indicated a significance level/p value of .007
and a mean difference of 13.098 which falls in between the 95% confidence interval of
difference of 3.613 and 22.583 with equal variances assumed. As a result, the null hypothesis is
rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. For this group, there is a significant difference in
math achievement scores for students who participated in music classes and those who did not
participate in music classes.
Evaluation of the Outcomes
The problem addressed in this study was that due to music programs being underfunded,
there is limited data about the academic benefits that students could receive from participation in
music classes (Forbes, 2016; Guhn, 2021; Rajan, 2017; Shaw & Auletto, 2022). The purpose of
this study was to compare the mathematics standardized testing scores of music class students
and non-music class students to determine if there was a difference based on the student’s
interaction with each setting. Research studies have suggested that there is a strong relationship
between academic achievement and participation in a musical setting or musical ensemble and
that those participants outperform nonparticipants in academic achievement (Bergee &
Weingarten, 2021; Carioti et al., 2019). Other research studies have concluded that there is no
correlation between academic achievement and music participation and that other factors are
attributed to positive student achievement (Gonzalez, 2020; Sala & Gobet, 2020; Winter, 2016).
The results from analysis showed a higher score mean average from the music participants than
to the non-music participants, which can be used to infer that participation in music classes can
potentially and positively impact academic achievement in core classes. Research has shown
that many educational policies and budgetary decision are made by administrations and
stakeholders to improve school climate, academic test results, and boost academic achievement
without consideration for music education as a means for improvement (Myende, 2018). Some
studies indicate a lack of understanding of the potential benefits of music education, which leads
to a decrease in significance for music education and decreased funding for those programs
(Forbes, 2016; Harris, 2019; Hedgecoth & Major, 2019). The result for this study supports the
ideal that music classes can be utilized as a means for growth in academic achievement.
Research has shown that increased emphasis and financial support in music education or
ensembles can foster positive impacts to students’ growth and development (Lorena, 2021; May
& Brenner, 2016; Rentschler & Reid, 2021). This study can help aid decision making in funding
for music ensembles and music classes.
Walberg’s theory of academic achievement (Walberg’s theory of educational
productivity) focuses on the psychological characteristics and environments that influence
behavioral, attitudinal, and cognitive educational outcomes (Reynolds & Walberg, 1992).
Walberg’s research utilizing the Walberg’s theory of educational productivity identified several
variables that impact and influence a student’s education outcomes such as prior achievement or
student ability, classroom climate, peer groups, exposure, quantity or quality of instruction, age
or developmental stage, motivation, and home environment (Astin, 1993; Fullarton, 2002;
Walberg et al., 1987). In this study, the results align with Walberg’s theory of academic
achievement/educational productivity, and with the factor of exposure and environments that
influence behavior. The participants in this study were exposed to a particular classroom setting
of a music class and/or participation in a musical ensemble. That exposure to that class stimuli
appear to have led to a positive effect on the participants and resulted in changes in their
academic performance. This research study adds to the concepts that music education or
participation in music classes may have a positive influence on academic achievement. The
research study aligns with the theoretical framework that suggest that a student’s outcomes and
behaviors can be influenced by exposure to a particular environment or setting. This research
findings support the literature that suggest music education is beneficial to academic
achievement and that more understanding of its benefits can help stakeholders make better
informed decisions about the assimilation of music educational practices in educational policies
(Lorena, 2021; May & Brenner, 2016; Ramlal et al., 2020; Scripp & Gilbert, 2016).
Implications and Recommendations for Practice
The findings of this study indicated that students who participated in music had a higher
average score (711.45) than students that did not participate in music classes (698.35) on the
2019 Algebra 1 mathematics standardized test. The differences in scores were approximately
13.1 points between music participants and non-music participants. The results align with
existing literature that indicates that students that participate in music or fine arts related classes
outperform their counterparts academically in core classes and participation in fine arts classes
often yield a positive impact on student achievement (Bergee & Weingarten, 2021; BlascoMargraner, 2021; Holchwost et al, 2017; Hunter-Doniger, 2018; Lancaster, 2021; Moss et al.,
2018; Rajan, 2017; Winsler et al., 2020). However, this study does not support previous
literature that states that there is no connection between music participation and academic
achievement and that the participation does not impact student growth or achievement in core
classes (Cooper, 2019; Gonzalez, 2020; Sala & Gobet, 2020).
This results from this study indicate that there is a difference in scoring between music
classes participants and non-music class participants, with the music class participants having a
higher average score than non-music class participants. One inference that can be drawn is that
stakeholders and administration can utilize the results of this study to make informed decisions
about student growth and achievement in low performing schools. Research has shown that
while some low performing educational institutions have music or fine arts programs, many
administrations place resources into the core class curriculums to foster student growth
(Pashiardis et al., 2018; Ramlal et al, 2020; Shaw, 2021). The findings from this study supports
the literature that participation in music classes can have a positive impact on student
achievement (Carioti et al., 2019; Forster & Jenkins, 2017; Winter, 2016). An application of
these inferences can allow stakeholders and administrations to have another avenue to impact
student growth, especially in low achieving schools. Stakeholders or administrations can make a
push for fine arts classes to be intertwined or integrated into the core high school curriculum.
Examples could include quarterly music and math collaborations and lessons or developmental
opportunities that showcase the supplemental strategies that link music to many other core
subject areas. Another application could be the creation or incorporation of after school or
summer music seminars or activities to be offered to students that may not have room for this
type of class in their schedule. Instrumental music workshops, music camps, or music
demonstrations and/or recitals can be incorporated into students’ educational experiences.
Continually, stakeholders or administrations could create study periods during the school day
that allow students once or twice a week to study or participate in music classes. Another
inference that can be drawn from the results is a focus on stakeholders and administrations’
decisions about funding for music programs or fine arts classes.
Research has shown that stakeholders and administrations struggle to make effective
financial decision due to factors such as school climate, academic pressures from educational
policies, and due to a lack of understanding or value in the fine arts or music curriculums
(Forbes, 2016; Harris, 2019; Myende, 2018). Research has shown that music programs that are
properly funded not only increase enrollment but also increase student achievement in core
academic classes (Hedgecoth & Major, 2019; Rajan, 2017). The findings in this study infer that
participation in music classes can yield positive results in core academic subjects. These results
can aid in providing knowledge to stakeholders and administrations about the impact of music
classes, thus allowing that knowledge to aid in making financial decisions that can potentially
create positive outcomes for students in any school setting. One example of this would be for
stakeholders or administration to lobby at the local school boards levels or with the city’s
councilman or other state legislature for funding for music classes. Stakeholders and
administrations could also lobby with private financiers or other non-profit organizations to find
additional funding that would aid in the creation or continuation of music programs both during
school and/or during the after-school hours.
Recommendations for Future Research
The results of this study indicated students that participated in music class yielded higher
average scores than non-music participants, however the study does not reveal whether music
class participation was the only factor involved to produce these results. One recommendation
for future research would be an experimental or quasi experiment study where many other
variables such as other core classes, athletic participation, socioeconomic status, and prior
experience can be isolated, and the participants can be evaluated solely based on the music class
experience with limited to no influence from other factors. Another recommendation would be a
research study to test the participants scoring in other core subject areas such as English,
Science, or Social Studies to see if there is influence or impact. This study does not also indicate
whether the music classes had a top tier ensemble or top-level educator and whether that would
have had an impact on student achievement. Top-tier ensembles on the high school level consist
of music ensembles that generally receive superior ratings at concert assessments, has
instrumentalist who can read or sight-read music at a grade 3 or higher level, has instrumentalist
with advanced level instrumental technique and control, and can perform at the highest music
level. Top-level educators consist of educators that have a profound positive impact on the
playing ability of an ensemble and has produced consistent top-tier ensembles during their
directing tenure. Another recommendation would be a study that is designed to analyze the
music ensemble or educator to see if any of those factors would have an influence on student
achievement.
Conclusions
In many educational settings in the United States, instrumental music courses are
typically underfunded in comparison with core academic classes (Forbes, 2016; Kao, 2021;
Rajan, 2017; Vinnard, 2021). According to research, the focus on standardized testing, budget
cuts, and lack of administrative policy and understanding has led to a decrease in funding,
utilization, and attention in music classes (Bath et al., 2020; Elpus & Abril, 2019). However,
understanding the impact of instrumental music courses on student achievement can help aid
stakeholders in make informed decisions about music classes and the potential positive impact
on student development and growth. Research has shown that students that participate in music
class ensembles outperform students who do not (Bergee & Weingarten, 2021; Carioti et al.,
2019). However, some research found that there was little to no casual evidence that supported
the idea that arts participation is directly correlated to academic achievement (Sala & Gobet,
2020). The focus of this study was to see if there was any difference in scoring between
participants that were apart of music classes and those who were not. The results of this study
support existing literature that participation in a music class or ensemble will foster positive
academic growth and development. The results indicate there is 13.1-point difference in scoring
amongst the music participants with their scores being higher than students that did not
participate in music class. With the given results, it can be inferred that participation in music
classes positively impacted academic achievement amongst the participants.
With music classes being underfunded the results of this study can be utilized to inform
stakehol…
