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This is literally just a discussion. It has no word limit and is based off of opinion. Answers will vary between 50 words or more but it doesn’t have to be a lot just get the point across. Each powerpoint is to help answer or you can google.
Week 1 Forum
Discussion Question 1.1
Gender/Sexual Orientation/Biological Sex.
Discuss the differences among gender, sexual orientation, and biological sex. This is important because some people mistakenly believe that homosexuality is a form of gender confusion or that gay men or lesbians want to be the other sex. Some believe that gay men are “feminine” and lesbians “masculine,” mistakenly confusing gender and orientation issues.Provide evidence or reasoning to support your particular perspective.
Week 2 Forum
Discussion Question 2.1.
Theory : Havelock Ellis argued against nineteenth-century beliefs that masturbation had no ill health effects. Why has morally proscribed behavior—such as masturbation—often been seen to have dangerous health consequences? Today some continue to link morally proscribed behavior to negative health consequences, such as homosexuality and AIDS. From a public health point of view, what are the consequences of viewing health problems as moral problems? Provide evidence or reasoning to support your particular perspective. Which theoretical perspective, as described in Chapter 2, closely represents your view?
Discussion Question 2.2.
Gay/Lesbian Research. Discuss why current gay/lesbian research has moved away from the “origins” of homosexuality. What are the methodological and political limits on conducting research on homosexuality?
Week 3 Forum
Discussion 3.1
Uncovering the Breasts in Public.
Periodically women complain about laws requiring them to cover their breasts in public, whereas men are not so required. Occasionally women protest such laws, go in public with their breasts uncovered, and are arrested. What is the justification for such laws? Are they discriminatory against women? Explain.
Week 4 Forum
Discussion 4.1
Penis Size.
Discuss cross-cultural concern about or interest in penis size. What different meanings may large or gigantic penises signify? Slides of art from ancient Rome, Japan, and Mesoamerica, as well as contemporary erotic art (as illustrated in Chapter 4), may be used to illustrate the point. What are some myths about penis size? How does the stereotype of black and Latino men having large penises reinforce ethnic stereotypes?
Week 5 Forum
What have you learned about development of gender stereotypes and about sex differences in self-esteem that helps explain why women’s progress in entering male-dominated professions has been slow? (Use examples in Ch 5 to help answer question).
Chapter Two
Studying Human Sexuality
Sex, Advice Columnists,
and Pop Psychology
The sex information/advice genre seeks to:
Inform—transmit information that is factual and accurate
Entertain—attract audiences through hosts’ personalities as well as high-interest or bizarre material
Often includes moral judgments
Use social science and psychiatry to give authority
Use and Abuse of Statistics
Popular media may summarize social science research in an oversimplified or distorted manner
Sensationalize findings
Over generalize results of research
Report statistics that agree with widely-held preconceptions
Popular media may not emphasize the importance of replication
Thinking Critically about Sex
Basic scientific principles require a commitment to objectivity
observation of reality while excluding researchers’ feelings or beliefs
Subjectivity is to be avoided
Difficult to achieve especially in the area of sexuality
Sexuality can bring out powerful emotions and moral ambivalence
Value Judgments: Limitations
Do not tell us what motivates people
Do not tell us how frequently people behave in a given way
Do not tell us how people feel
Only tell us how we ourselves feel
Value Judgments vs. Objectivity
Value judgments only reveal the thoughts or feelings of one person
Objectivity describes reality
Objective positions can be tested
Cultural relativity requires that we examine appropriateness within the cultural norms where it exists
Value Judgments vs. Objectivity
Value judgments imply how a person ought to behave
Objective statements describe how people actually behave
Value judgments cannot be empirically evaluated
Objective statements can be empirically evaluated
Opinions, Biases, and Stereotypes Interfere with the Pursuit of Knowledge
Opinions are unsubstantiated beliefs or conclusions according to an individual’s personal thoughts
Biases are personal leanings or inclinations
Stereotypes are sets of overgeneralized beliefs about an individual, a group, or an idea, etc.
Stereotypes
A schema is a way of organizing information which often underlies stereotypes
Sexual stereotyping is often used to justify discrimination or social groups
Women
Poor people
African Americans, Latino/as, Asian Americans
Gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender people
Stereotypes
Stereotypes structure our knowledge by shaping:
What we see
What we notice
What we remember
How we explain things
Attitudes and Behavior
Attitude: a predisposition a person has to act, think, or feel in certain ways
Behavior: the way a person acts
Behavior does not predict attitude and vice versa
Frequent discrepancies exist between the two on individual and cultural levels which can result in confusion
Common Fallacies: Egocentrism and Ethnocentrism
Fallacy: an error in reasoning that affects our understanding of a subject
Egocentric fallacy: the belief that our own personal experience and values are generally held by others
Ethnocentric fallacy: the belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or culture’s values and customs are innately superior to others’
Egocentrism and Ethnocentrism
Often occur in our consideration of different ethnic groups
Transmitted from one generation to another
Prevent understanding from a culturally relative position
Sex Research Methods
Scientific Method: the method by which a hypothesis is formed from impartially gathered data and tested empirically.
Induction: drawing a general conclusion from specific facts
Seeks to describe the world rather than to evaluate or judge it
Research Concerns
Ethical
Concerns use of human beings as subjects of research
Methodological
Concerns center on information-gathering techniques and accuracy
A representative sample of people is necessary to draw accurate conclusions
Ethical Issues
Informed consent
Full disclosure of purpose, risk, benefits
Agreement to participate may be withdrawn
Protection from harm
Emotional distress must be avoided
Identity of subjects must be confidential
Sampling
Sample: a portion of a larger group of people are observed or studied
Inferences are made to the larger group
Good samples are:
Random
Representative
Unbiased
Limitations of Samples Restrict Generalizations
Depend on volunteers or clients
Takes place at universities or colleges with student volunteers
Some ethnic groups are underrepresented
Gay men, lesbian women, bisexual and transgendered people may not be publicly identified
Clinical Research
An in-depth examination of an individual or group that comes to a specialist for assistance with disorders and problems
Limited by an emphasis on pathological behavior
Shaped by cultural definitions of what is pathological
Survey Research
Questionnaires
Administered quickly
Forced choice allows many formats
Interviews
Allow more information to be gathered
Allow subjects to guide topics
Sexual diaries
Collect richer information
May work well with some subjects but not all
Survey Research Limitations
Subjects may report self behavior with bias
Interviewers may collect information with a bias
Subjects may be embarrassed in an interview
Accuracy of subjects’ memory fades as time passes
Difficult for subjects to accurately estimate factors such as how long sexual encounters last
Observational Research
The researcher unobtrusively observes and makes notes about people’s behavior
Serious ethical issues in observing sexual behavior without subjects’ knowledge or consent
Known observation generally affects behavior
Participant Observation
The researcher participates in the behaviors which she or he is studying
Used frequently by anthropologists
Is sex research controversial because it compromises objectivity?
Experimental Research
The systematic manipulation variables to examine the effect on behavior
Independent variables: factors that can be manipulated and changed by the experimenter
Dependent variables: factors that are likely to be affected by changes in the independent variable
An Example of Experimental Research
Examine effect of various amounts of alcohol on sexual arousal
Alcohol—independent variable
Plethysmograph measurement of arousal—dependent variable
Causal effect demonstrated
The Sex Researchers
In 19th century, Western sexuality began to be studied from a scientific framework
Fascinated with “pathologies” of sex: fetishism, sadism, masturbation, homosexuality
Since that time, a liberalizing trend in our thinking about sexuality
20th century researchers viewed sexuality more positively
The Sex Researchers
Three themes evident in later 20th century sex researchers’ work:
Belief that sexual expression is essential to an individual’s well being
Desire to broaden the range of legitimate sexual activity, including homosexuality
Belief that female sexuality is equal to male sexuality
Richard von Krafft-Ebing
(1840-1902)
Psychopathia Sexualis (1886):
A collection of the case histories of fetishists, sadists, masochists, and homosexuals
Attributed variations in Victorian sexuality to “hereditary taint,” “moral degeneracy,” and masturbation
Brought public attention to sexual behaviors that had never been documented
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Dramatically impacted Western ideas
Sexuality begins at birth with five-stage development:
Oral stage (birth to 1 year)
Anal stage (age 1-3)
Phallic stage (age 3-5)
Latency stage (age 6-puberty)
Genital stage (puberty onward)
Sigmund Freud: Phallic stage
Oedipal Complex: Boy develops sexual desires for mother and fears father
Castration anxiety: Fears his father will cut off his penis: castration anxiety
Electra complex: Girl develops sexual desire for father and fears mother
Penis envy: Girls never acquire the “lost penis” and therefore fail to develop an independent character like that of boys
By age 6, boys and girls resolve their complexes by relinquishing their desires for their parents and identifying with their same-sex parent
Sigmund Freud: Impact
Freud was pioneering in commitment to science and explorations of the unconscious
Over the past generation, his influence among American sex researchers has dwindled
Lack of empiricism
Inadequate description of female development
Questions of relevance to contemporary society
In the field of sex research, his work is now primarily of historical interest
Havelock Ellis (1859-1939)
One of the first modern affirmers of sexuality
Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897-1910)
Pointed out the relativity of sexual values
Appealed to case studies as well as studies in animal behavior, anthropology, and history
Challenged view that masturbation was abnormal
Documented existence of women’s sexual desires
Reevaluated homosexuality as a congenital condition
Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956)
The Kinsey Reports
Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948)
Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953)
Statistical documentation of American sexual behavior
Showed a significant discrepancy between public standards and actual standards of sexual behavior
Alfred Kinsey: Impact
Sexual Diversity and Variation
Extraordinary diversity in behaviors of subjects
Many subjects (e.g. 50% of men) had sexual experiences with members of the same-sex
Reevaluation of Masturbation
Important for women
Harmless
Pleasurable
Alfred Kinsey: Controversy
Same sex behavior
Labels of “heterosexual” and “homosexual” were inadequate ways of understanding sexual behavior
Devised the “Kinsey Scale”
Rejection of normal/abnormal dichotomy
Sexual differences are a matter of degree, not kind
Became an advocate of the tolerance
Decline of society
Kinsey’s Scale from 0 to 6
Alfred Kinsey: Criticisms
Statistical methodology: unrepresentative sampling
Emphasis on quantification of sexual behavior
Rejection of the psychological dimension (reducing behavior to genital activity)
William Masters (1915-2001) and Virginia Johnson (1925-)
Human Sexual Response (1966)
Detailed the sexual response cycles of hundreds of male and female research subjects
Combined clinical observation with direct measurement of genital arousal using electronic devices
Masters and Johnson: Outcomes
Similarity of male and female sexual responses
Women achieve orgasms via clitoral stimulation
Legitimized female masturbation
Masters and Johnson: Outcomes
Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970)
Argued that sexual problems were not the result of neuroses or personality disorders
Rather, lack of information, poor communication, or relationship conflict contributed
Used behavioral therapy to treat sexual problems with great success
Contemporary Research Studies
Several large, national, or multi-site sexuality related studies have recently been conducted
The National Health and Social Life Survey (1994)
The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (biannual)
The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (annual)
The National Survey of Family Growth (periodic)
College Alcohol Study (every few years)
Community Intervention Trial for Youth Project
Contemporary Research Studies
Large scale national sexuality related studies
Smaller scale studies
Difficulties due to political and social climate
Restricted funding
The National Health and Social Life Survey 1994
Americans are largely monogamous
On average, Americans have sex about once a week
Adultery is the exception, not the rule
Most Americans rank vaginal intercourse as most preferred activity
The National Health and Social Life Survey (cont.)
Homosexuality less prevalent than originally believed
Orgasms appear to be the rule for men and the exception for women
Forced sex and the misperception of it remain critical problems
3% of Americans claim never to have had sex
The National Survey of Family Growth 2002
A majority of Americans report experiencing a great deal of diverse sexual activity
A small percentage of Americans report experiencing homosexual activity
American men report more partners then women
A large group of Americans do not report using condoms in the last year
The Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2003
Almost half report having had sexual intercourse
Few report having had sexual intercourse with four or more partners
Over half report using a condom during their last sexual intercourse
One fourth report of sexually active students report using alcohol or drugs during most recent sexual experience
National College Health Assessment 2005
Majority report a new sex partner in the last year
Half report experiencing oral sex within the last month
Half report experiencing vaginal sex within the last month
Students do not routinely use condoms
Birth control pills and condoms are the most commonly used contraceptive
Emerging Research Perspectives
Feminist scholarship
Focus on gender issues
Examines distribution of power in sexual relationships
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender
Focus on personal experience
Examines social and psychological components
Feminist Scholarship Principles
Gender is significant
Female experience devalued
Power is critical in relationships
Different methodologies must be incorporated
Ethnic diversity must be addressed
Important GLBT researchers across time
Ulriches
Kertbeny
Hirschfeld
Hooker
Foucault
Critical Inclusions for Future Research
Expanded definitions of sexuality
Intervention based research
Accepting and positive representation of sexuality
Directions for Future Research
Global perspective
Inclusion of other fields of scientific study
Ethnicity and Sexuality
Researchers have begun to recognize differences among ethnic groups
Related factors: socioeconomic status, environment, methodology, researcher’s stereotypes
African Americans and Research
Sexual stereotypes
Socioeconomic status
Racism
Black subcultures
Latinos and Research
Sexual stereotypes
Traditional cultures
Catholicism
Acculturation
Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders
Increase in population
Collectivist culture
Immigration
Sexual stereotypes
Summary
Sex, advice columnists, and pop psychology
Methods of sex research
History of sex research
Challenges for the future
Chapter One
Perspectives on Human Sexuality
Sexuality in Popular Culture Is Shaped by the
Mass Media, So We Should Ask:
What kinds of sexuality are portrayed by the media?
What messages about sexuality are sent?
Who are the messages intended for?
What messages are ignored or avoided?
What shapes the selection by the media?
Mass Media Portrayals of Sexuality Occur in Multiple Forms
Television
Movies
Music
Magazines, tabloids, books
Hand held technology
World Wide Web
Advertising
Media Portrayals of Sexuality:
Sell products
Produce sexual arousal
Increase sexual behavior
Provide sexual information
Correct or incorrect
Media Effects Live by:
Keeping sexual behavior visible
Reinforcing sexual and relationship norms
Including irresponsible models
Mass-media Depictions Are Meant to Entertain, Not Inform
Rarely present reality scenarios
Perpetuate the status quo
Create a social context by defining:
What behaviors are appropriate
With whom they are appropriate
Why they are appropriate
Television
Increasing exposure
Increasing sexual content
Rare presentation of risk
Rare presentation of responsible action
Unrealistic presentation of sexuality
Television
FCC regulation of public airwaves
Enforces regulations via fines
Responds to public grievances
Does not regulate cable
Parental responsibility
Television Genres
Comedy series
Soap Operas
Crime/action-adventure programs
Drama series
Commercials
Music videos
Games
Other
Television Genres Emphasize Different Types of Content
Comedy series – Taboos
Soap Operas – Sexual transgressions
Crime/action – Sexual variation
Drama series – Situations
Television Genres Emphasize Different Types of Content (cont.)
Commercials – Attitudes
Music Videos – Individual expression
Games – Exploitation & aggression
Other – Variations
Note absence of risk or responsibility
Feature Length Films
Sexy content
Nudity
Sexual double standard
Vulnerability
Rare presentations of risk or responsibility
GLBT People in the media
Historically absent from mainstream films
Historically presented stereotypically
New trend to present GLBT in positive ways
Online Sexual Activities
Global
Cybersex
Online sex Web sites/chat rooms
Meet new partners
Safety
Triple A Engine
Access
Affordability
Anonymity
Cybersex
Real time event involving two persons
engaging in sexual talk for the purpose of
sexual gratification
Online Sexual Activities Effect on Culture
Crosses distance
Promotes intimacy without physical contact
Creates a new level of plasticity and expression
Positive for expression of under represented groups
Negative if it becomes compulsive or addictive
Dial-a-Porn
Commercial telephone sex lines that enable the caller to anonymously “talk dirty” with someone
Phone worker is paid to respond to the caller’s fantasies
Creates a sense of “pseudo-intimacy” with the voice
Cell Phone Sex
Easy access
Privacy
Mobility
Potential billion dollar industry
Sexuality Across
Cultures and Times
What is considered “natural” varies between cultures
In America, kissing is considered erotic
The Mehinaku of the Amazonian rain forest consider kissing to be a disgusting sexual abnormality
Culture molds and shapes our sexual interests
Cultural Differences: Mangaia of Polynesia
Adolescence have a high level of sexual desire
Adolescents are instructed on how to please their partner
A woman may leave a man who does not satisfy her
Adulthood is marked by a decrease in sexual desire
Cultural Differences: The Dani of New Guinea
Little interest in sexuality
Sex for reproduction
Extra relational sex and jealousy is rare
Female orgasm is unknown
5 year sexual abstinence between pregnancies
Cultural Differences: Victorian Americans
Women had reproductive desire rather than sexual desire
Women with sexual desire classified as suffering from “nymphomania, or furor uterinus”
Men were viewed as animal like
Men had raging, uncontrollable sexual appetites
Victorian Americans: Long Lasting Effects
War between sexes
Madonna – Whore dichotomy for women’s roles
Women’s responsibility to tame men’s impulses
Sexual double standard
Sexual Orientation: The Pattern of Sexual and Emotional Attraction Based on the Gender of One’s Preferred Partners
Heterosexuality: between men and women
Homosexuality: between persons of the same sex
Bisexuality: both males and females
Contemporary American Culture
Heterosexuality is the only sexual orientation receiving full social and legal legitimacy
State by state recognition of civil unions
Who knows which states currently have legislation?
Homosexuality,
Bisexuality, and Culture: Ancient Greece
Roles for men
Highest form of love: Same-sex relationships between men
Between an older and a younger man
Men were also expected to be married
Roles of women
Child bearing was associated with marriage
Courtesans
Homosexuality,
Bisexuality, and Culture: Sambians of New Guinea
Sexual orientation is malleable across lifespan
Young males engage in sexual activity with one another
Adolescence marks the occurence of sexual activities between males and females
Adulthood marks the end of sexual activities between males
Gender and Culture
Gender:
What makes a person a man or woman goes beyond simple anatomy.
Gender is the set of culturally-influenced characteristics associated with being male or female
Gender and Culture
The characteristics associated with being male or female
Culturally defined
Not always defined by genitals only
Fully explored in Chapter Five
Transsexual and Transgender Persons
Genitals and gender identities are discordant
A person born with a penis self-identifies as a woman
A person born with a vulva and vagina self- identifies as a man
Not the same as transvestite
Gender and Culture: Two spirits
Biological males who assume female dress, gender role, and status
Accepted as a “man-woman” and given spiritual status in several cultures worldwide
Includes some Native American, Filipino, Lapp, and Indian cultures
Some females considered “two-spirit,” but more rare than with males
Societal Norms and Sexuality
Diversity across cultures and times
Calls into question what is inherently natural or normal
Words like “natural,” “unnatural,” “normal,” and “abnormal” are value judgments
They often state how we feel about behaviors, rather than objectively describing those behaviors
Natural Sexual Behavior
How do we decide if a sexual behavior is natural or unnatural?
What is natural?
What is unnatural?
Natural Sexual Behavior
We have internalized the norm since infancy
Is a part of “the cultural air we breathe” and like the air is invisible
We have learned our culture’s rules so well, they seem instinctive
Normal Sexual Behavior
Behavior that conforms to a group’s average or median patterns of behavior
Not related to moral or psychological judgments
Normal Sexual Behavior
Many people feel pressure to behave like the statistical norm
Ironically, most of us actually don’t know how others behave sexually
Most people do not talk about their sexual activities, especially those that they perceive as being outside the norm.
Sexual Behaviors and Variations
Researchers view human sexuality as characterized by sexual variation, i.e. sexual variety and diversity
Understand sexual activities as existing on a continuum of frequency and behavior
People’s activities can be typical or atypical of the group average—does not necessarily indicate deviance
Sexual Behaviors and Variations
Many activities thought of as “deviant” are engaged in by most of us to some degree:
Exhibitionism
Voyeurism
Fetishism
Authors’ Standard
The authors of the text believe that the basic standard for judging various sexual activities is:
Whether they are between consenting adults
Whether they cause harm
It is up to the individual to evaluate the ethical or moral aspect of behavior in accordance with his or her values.
Summary
Popular culture
Sexual behaviors and norms vary
Understanding diversity
Influence of culture
Summary (cont.)
Popular culture
Sexual behaviors and norms vary
Understanding diversity allows us to acknowledge that there is no such thing as inherently “normal” or “natural” sexual behavior
Sexual behavior strongly influenced by culture
Chapter Four
Male Sexual Anatomy, Physiology, and Response
Male Sex Organs:
What Are They for?
Sex organs serve a reproductive function
Also serve other functions:
Bringing pleasure to self
Giving pleasure to others
May serve to attract potential sexual partners
Sharing of genital sexuality can play a bonding role in relationships
External Structures
The penis
The scrotum
The Penis
Penis: from Latin word for tail
organ through which sperm and urine pass
Three main sections:
Root: attaches penis within the pelvic cavity
Shaft: contains 3 parallel columns of erectile tissue
Corpora cavernosa: 2 columns along the front surface
Corpus spongiosum: runs beneath corpora cavernosa, also forms the glans
The Penis
Glans penis: head of penis; most sensitive
Corona: rim at base of the glans
Frenulum: on underside of penis; triangle of sensitive skin
Foreskin: sleeve-like covering of the glans
Circumcision
Urethra: a tube that transports urine and semen
When penis erect, urinary duct is blocked
The Penis: Myths
Penis size not linked to body size or weight, muscular structure, race or ethnicity or sexual orientation
No relationship between penis size and ability to have sexual intercourse or satisfy a partner
The Scrotum
A pouch of skin that holds the two testicles
Scrotum skin more heavily pigmented
Sparsely covered with hair
Divided in the middle by a ridge of skin
Testicle temperature control: 93°F
Internal Structures
Testes:
Two major functions: sperm and hormone production
Shaped like olives; 1.5” long and 1” diameter.
Size and weight decrease as men age
Not usually symmetrical in the way they hang
Suspended by spermatic cord
Within each testicle, there are about 1000 Seminiferous tubules: Production of sperm takes place in these tubes
Internal Structures
Epididymis
C shaped structure on the back of the teste
Sperm mature in vas deferens
Vas Deferens
The ducts that carry sperm from testicles to urethra for ejaculation
Vas deferens joins the ejaculatory duct within prostate gland
Internal Structures
Seminal vesicles
Secrete fluid that makes up 60% of semen
Prostate gland
Secretes fluid that makes up 30-35% of semen
Can be stimulated in anal play
Cowper’s (bulbourethral) glands
Secrete thick clear mucus prior to ejaculation
Urethra
Other structures
Breasts
Anus
Buttocks
Rectum
Male Sexual Physiology
Production of hormones
Spermatogenesis
Male Reproductive Hormones
Testosterone
Acts on seminiferous tubules to produce sperm
Regulates sex drive
Is responsible for development of secondary sex characteristics in puberty
Influences growth of bones and muscle mass
Spermatogenesis
Ongoing process from puberty onward
Sperm produced within seminiferous tubules of testicles (64-72 days)
Several 100 million sperm produced daily
20 days for sperm to travel through epididymis
During this time they become fertile and motile
Upon ejaculation, sperm expelled through urethra by muscular contractions
Male Sexual Response
Erection
Blood vessels expand and increase blood in penis
Veins that normally carry blood out are compressed, leading to engorgement of penis
Secretions from Cowper’s glands appear at tip
Ejaculation and Orgasm
Emission stage
Sperm sent into vas deferens
Rhythmic contractions begin
Feeling of ejaculatory inevitability
Expulsion stage
Rapid contractions
Semen spurts from urethral opening
Orgasm
Intensely pleasurable physical sensations that usually accompany ejaculation
Followed by refractory period
Summary
Male sex organs
Sexual physiology
Sexual response
Chapter Three
Female Sexual Anatomy
Female Sex Organs: What Are They for?
Reproductive function
Attract partners
Provide pleasure
Some anatomical issues remain unresolved
External Structures: The Vulva
Mons pubis
Clitoris
Labia majora
Labia minora
Mons Pubis
Latin for pubic mound
The pad of fatty tissue
Pubic hair
Sensitive to stimulation
Clitoris: Glans Clitoris
Contains a high concentration of nerve endings
Covered by hood when not engorged
Erectile
Sensitive to stimulation
Structurally analogous to penis
Clitoris
Erectile internal structure
Two 3.5” long branches called crura
Crura contain two corpora cavernosa: hollow chambers that fill with blood and swell during arousal
Orgasmic
Enlarges initially, then retracts beneath hood just before and during orgasm
Follows same pattern with repeated orgasms, though swelling is less pronounced
Labia Majora
Two folds of spongy flesh extending from the mons pubis toward the perineum
May have hair present
Contain a significant concentration of nerve endings
Labia Minora
Small folds within the labia majora that meet above the clitoris to form the clitoral hood
Significant variation in appearance
Contain a significant concentration of nerve endings
Swell during sexual arousal
Enclose the vestibule
Internal Structures
Vagina
Cervix
Uterus
Fallopian tubes
Ovaries
Vagina
Two reproductive functions:
Encompasses penis during coitus (vaginal intercourse)
Birth canal
3” to 5” inches in length
Introitus: the lower third of the vagina
The majority vaginal nerve endings
Hymen: thin membrane that partially covers introitus
Grafenberg Spot (G-spot)
An erotically sensitive area on front wall of the vagina mid-way between pubic bone and cervix
Female ejaculation
Uterus
Hollow, thick-walled muscular organ
Accommodates developing fetus during pregnancy
Approximately 3” by 3” in women who have not given birth
Endometrium: inner lining
Menstruation: removal of the endometrium
Cervix: the tapered end of the uterus, extends and opens into the vagina
Ovaries
Gonads that produce gametes
Produce egg cells (oocytes; ova) for reproduction
Two ovaries; size and shape of large almonds
Ovaries release oocytes in a process called ovulation
Fallopian Tubes
Also known as uterine tubes
Extend toward ovary
Fimbriae: fingerlike projections that do not connect to the ovary
Pathway for ovum to reach the uterus
Other Structures
Urethra: tube through which urine passes
Urethral opening
Perineum: area between genitals and anus
Pelvic floor
Other Structures
Anus: opening of rectum
Contains two sphincters (circular muscles that open and close like valves)
Dense supply of nerve endings
The lining of the rectum is fragile
In anal sex play, care must be taken not to rupture the delicate tissues
Condom and Lubrication
Breasts
Reproductive function of female breasts is to nourish offspring through lactation
Composed of fatty tissue and 15-25 lobes that radiate around a central nipple
Areola: the ring of darkened skin around nipple
Nipples erect in response to stimulation, cold, or sexual arousal
Women differ in the breast stimulation they find pleasurable
Female Sexual Physiology:
Reproductive Hormones
Hormones: chemical substances that serve as messengers
Sources: Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, ovary
Gonadotropin releasing hormones are from the hypothalamus and regulate the release of hormones from the pituitary
Pituitary Gonadotropins
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): stimulates the follicle to mature
Luteinizing hormone (LH): triggers the rupture of the follicle
Gonadotropins have an effect upon the gonads
Ovarian Hormones
Estrogens: stimulate maturation of reproductive organs, menstruation, and pregnancy
Progesterone: helps maintain the uterine lining during pregnancy
Female Sexual Physiology:
Reproductive Hormones
Hormone Where Produced Functions
Estrogen ovaries, adrenal glands Promotes maturation of reproductive
placenta during pregnancy organs, development during puberty,
regulates menstrual cycle, pregnancy
Progesterone ovaries, adrenal glands Promotes breast development, maintains uterine lining, regulates menstrual cycle, sustains pregnancy
Gonadotropin- hypothalamus Promotes maturation of gonads,
Releasing hormone (GnRH) regulates menstrual cycle
Follicle-stimulating pituitary Regulates ovarian function and
hormone (FSH) maturation of ovarian follicles
Female Sexual Physiology: Reproductive Hormones
Hormone Where Produced Functions
Luteinizing pituitary Assists in production of estrogen and
hormone (LH) progesterone, regulates maturation of
ovarian follicles, triggers ovulation
Human chorionic embryo and placenta Helps sustain pregnancy
gonadotropin (HCG)
Testosterone adrenal glands and ovaries Helps stimulate sexual interest
Oxytocin hypothalamus stimulates uterine contractions in
childbirth
Prolactin pituitary stimulates milk production
Prostaglandins all body cells mediate hormone response, stimulate
muscle contractions
The Ovarian Cycle
Cycle averages 28 days
Normal cycles last between 21 and 40 days
Generally results in ovulation in only one ovary per month
If two eggs are released: Fraternal twins
Ovaries typically alternate
The Ovarian Cycle
3 Phases of the ovary
Follicular phase: Days 1-10
Hormones signal 10 to 20 follicles to grow on ovaries; Estrogen matures one oocyte
Ovulatory phase: Days 11-14
Oocyte undergoes cell division; Follicle wall thins and ruptures; Oocyte enters abdominal cavity near fimbrae of fallopian tube
Luteal phase: Days 14-28
Estrogen levels drop; egg travels through fallopian tube towards uterus
The Menstrual Cycle
3 Phases of the uterine cycle
Menstrual phase (about 3-5 days)
Endometrium is shed
Endometrial tissue, mucous, other secretions, and 2-5 oz. blood is expelled through vagina
Proliferative phase (about 9 days)
Endometrium thickens, clear thin mucus secreted
Ends with ovulation
Secretory phase (14 days)
endometrium prepares for arrival of fertilized ovum
If no fertilization, ends with shedding of endometrium
Menstrual products
Disposable products
Pads and panty liners
Tampons
Reuseable products
Menstrual cups
Pads
Sponges
Menstrual variations
Emotional, physical, or behavioral changes
Pre Menstrual Symptoms
Menstrual dysphoric disorder
Dysmenorrhea
Amenorrhea
Menorrhagia
Sexuality and the Menstrual Cycle
Research inconclusive between desire and cycle
Taboo on sex during menstruation
Societal
Religious
Safety and STIs
Sexual response models
Masters and Johnson
Kaplan
Loulan
Female Sexual Response Model
Masters and Johnson 4 Phase Model:
excitement
plateau
orgasm
resolution
Female Sexual Response Model
Kaplan’s Tri-Phasic Model
Desire
Excitement
Orgasm
Female Sexual Response Model
Loulan’s Sexual Response Model:
Incorporates biological and affective dimensions
Willingness
Desire
Excitement
Engorgement
Orgasm
Pleasure
Desire: Mind or Matter?
A complex interaction between
The neural system
Hormones
Occurs throughout many parts of the body
Experiencing Sexual Arousal
Vasocongestion
Myotonia
Vaginal Sweating
Tenting
Labia may enlarge or flatten and separate
Sex flush
Clitoris swells
Breathing and heart rate increase
Nipples become erect, breasts may enlarge
Uterus elevates
Orgasm
As excitement increases
Clitoris retracts beneath clitoral hood
Vaginal opening decreases by about 1/3
Orgasmic platform
Continued stimulation brings orgasm:
Rhythmic contractions
Pleasure
Summary
Female sex organs
Sexual physiology
Sexual response
Chapter 5
Gender and Gender Roles
Sex, Gender, and Gender Roles
Sex: whether one is biologically female, male, or intersex
Genetic sex: chromosomal and hormonal sex characteristics
Anatomical sex: our physical sex; gonads, uterus, vulva, vagina, or penis
Gender: social and cultural characteristics associated with being male or female
Gender identity: gender one believes self to be
2
Sex and Gender Identity
Assigned gender
Based on anatomical appearance
Gender variations
Gender identity
Internalized feeling of femaleness or maleness
Gender role
The attitudes, behaviors, rights, and responsibilities that society associates with each sex
Influenced by culture, age, ethnicity, other factors
3
Gender-Roles
Gender-role stereotype:
A rigidly-held oversimplified belief concerning all males or all females
Gender-role attitude:
The belief one has for self and others concerning what’s appropriate for male or female traits
Gender-role behavior:
Activities or behaviors a person engages in as a female or male
4
Masculinity and Femininity
Sexes seen as polar opposites in traditional Western view, e.g. “opposite sex”
Different qualities associated with different genders
Sexism
Some qualities are biologically based, some culturally based
Gender and Sexual Orientation
Gender, gender identity, and gender role are conceptually independent of sexual orientation
However, many assume they are closely related
Heterosexuality has been assumed to be part of masculinity and femininity
Therefore, some believe that gay men can’t be masculine and lesbian women can’t be feminine.
Gender and Sexual Orientation
Studies show a link between individuals’
Negative attitudes towards gay and lesbian people
And those individuals’ adherence to traditional gender roles
Gender Theory
What is our relationship between our biological sex as male or female and our gender role as masculine or feminine?
Do we act the way we act because our gender role is bred in us or because of socialization?
Gender Theory developed as a field in the ’80s and ’90s to explore the role of gender in society
Gender Theory
Seeks to understand society through understanding how its organized by gender
Views gender as a basic element in social relationships
Examines socially-perceived differences between genders that are used to justify unequal power relationships
Gender Theory in Psychology
In psychology, gender theory focuses on:
How gender is created and what its purposes are
How specific traits, behaviors, and roles are defined as male or female
How gender creates advantages and disadvantages
Gender theory rejects the idea that gender differences are primarily biologically-driven
Operates from a social-constructivist framework
Theories of Socialization
Social learning theory
Cognitive development theory
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Emphasizes consequences as shaping gender related behavior
Cognition: Mental processes such as evaluation and reflection
Includes ability to use language
Anticipate consequences
Modeling
Cognitive Development Theory
Focuses on children’s active interpretation of gender messages at various developmental stages
Argues that after age 6 or 7, motivation to act like one’s gender is primarily internal, and that gender-role behavior is intrinsic
Social Construction Theory
Gender expression is an outcome of
Power
Language
Meaning
Relationship to sexual orientation
Women
Men
Gender-Role Learning: Childhood and Adolescence
Parents as socializing agents
Manipulation
Channeling
Verbal appellation
Activity exposure
Connections between sons and mothers
Ethnic groups
Gender-Role Learning: Childhood and Adolescence
Teachers as Socializing agents
Females are more common
Bias in presentation of topics
Peers as socializing agents
Play
Approval
Perceptions
Media
Gender Schemas: Exaggerating Differences
Interrelated ideas which help information processing
Cognitive organization of world by gender
Emphasize dichotomy
Minimize valuing of the individual
Contemporary Gender Roles
Women’s roles have changed
Men’s roles have changed
Must include diverse groups
Egalitarian approach to gender roles
Traditional Male Gender Role
Aggressiveness
Emotional toughness
Independence
Feelings of superiority
Decisiveness
Power orientation
Competitiveness
Dominance
Violence
Traditional Male Sexual Scripts: Zilbergeld
Men should not have or express certain feelings
Performance is the only thing that counts
The man is in charge
A man always wants sex and is ready for it
All physical contact leads to sex
Sex equals intercourse
Sexual intercourse leads to orgasm
Traditional
Female Gender Role
There are striking ethnic differences in female role
American middle-class Whites: women as wives and mothers. Recently includes work outside the home
African Americans: more egalitarian roles for men and women
Latinas: women subordinate to men out of respect; Gender role affected by age
Traditional Female Sexual Scripts: Barbach
Sex is good and bad
It’s not okay to touch yourself “down there”
Sex is for men
Men should know what women want
Women shouldn’t talk about sex
Women should look like models
Women are nurturers: they give, men receive
There is only one right way to have an orgasm
Changing Gender Roles
Egalitarian position
Androgyny: flexibility in gender roles, combining elements of each traditional role
Contemporary Sexual Scripts
Sexual expression is positive
Sexual activities involve a mutual exchange of erotic pleasure
Sexuality is equally involving, and both partners are equally responsible
Legitimate sexual activities are not limited to intercourse but also include masturbation and oral-genital sex
Sexual activities may be initiated by either partner
Both partners have a right to experience orgasm, whether through intercourse, oral-genital sex, or manual stimulation
Non-marital sex is acceptable within a relationship context
Androgyny
Unique combination
Combination or instrumental and expressive traits
Difficulties with expression and expectation
When Sex is Ambiguous
Intersexuality
Tran sexuality
Transgenderism
5
Intersexuality
Describes people who possess mixtures of male and female genitalia or reproductive physiology
Prevalence ranges from .0128% to 1.7% of population. Known until recently as “hermaphrodites”
Shrouded in secrecy by families and medical establishments in the past
Intersexuality
Hermaphrodites: Old terminology
Ambiguous genitals: 1/2000 births
Blended gonads or both gonads
One ovary and one testis, or testes containing ovarian tissue
Known until recently as “hermaphrodites”
Chromosomal Anomalies: Turner Syndrome
Females who lack a chromosome: XO rather than XX
Occurs in 1/1666 live births
Female external appearance
No ovaries
Hormonal therapy
Assisted fertility
Chromosomal Anomalies: Klinefelter Syndrome
Males who have extra X chromosomes: XXY, XXXY, or XXXXY rather than XY
Occurs in 1/1000 live births
Variable effects; many men never diagnosed.
Small firm testes; some female physical traits
Lower testosterone levels
Hormonal Disorders: Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome
Inherited condition occurring in 1/13,000 individuals
Genetic males whose tissues to not respond to testosterone
Female genitals, no female internal organs
At puberty, develops hips and breasts, no pubic hair and no menstruation
Many experience female gender identity
Hormonal Disorders: Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
A genetic female with ovaries and a vagina develops externally as a male
Due to malfunctioning of adrenal gland
Occurs in 1/13,000 live births
At birth, child has ambiguous genitalia
In the past, doctors and families choose to assign female gender at birth
Hormonal Disorders: DHT Deficiency
Internal male organs
Clitoris-like penis at birth
Undescended testes at birth
Testes descend at puberty and penis grows
Socialization
A Related Condition: Hypospadias
Urethral opening located at non traditional location
Urethra exists on underside of glans midway through the underside of the shaft or at the base of the scrotum
Occurs in 1/770 male births
Repair is possible
Gender Identity
Disorder
Defined by the APA as a strong and persistent cross-gender identification and persistent discomfort about one’s assigned sex (2000)
Diagnosis not associated as hormonal or physiological
Requires experience of distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning
6
Gender Identity Disorder
The goal of treatment for people with GID is “lasting personal comfort with the gendered self”
Treatment is individual and multifaceted; can affirm cross-gender identification through:
Psychotherapy
Real-life experience living externally as desired gender
Hormonal therapy
Sex-reassignment surgery
Transsexuality
Gender identity and sexual anatomy are not congruent
Prevalence of transsexuality unknown: estimated 1/50,000 people over 15 yrs
May occur with heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual orientations
Gender reassignment
Transsexual Phenomenon
Transgender community embraces possibility of numerous genders and multiple social identities
Other cultures recognize more than 2 genders
Paradigm shift of gender dichotomy
Employment protection
Summary
Gender
Gender role learning
Contemporary gender roles
Ambiguity and gender
