USA: +1(669)289-8683 
Sign in
“One discussion question due by 8pm today – in 6 hours. Attached are the instructions on how to do this question and things to help you with answering. The photo of the object cannot come off of the internet. MAKE SURE YOU ATTACH PHOTO OF OBJECT. Please cite all sources and no plagiarism.”
2/1/18,1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 1 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
Module 1: Introduction to Art Analysis in Art History
Topics
Introduction
Traditional Subjects of Western Art
What to Consider When Looking at and Analyzing Art
Visual/Formal Elements of Art
Introduction
Until the late-twentieth century, the study of art concentrated on Western art, with the exception of
art from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Scholars of Western pictorial traditions took a linear view
of art history, holding that art has undergone a steady process of progression and advancement. In
this view, Western artists moved from perfecting the realistic depiction of the natural world, as
demonstrated by the High Renaissance artists of the sixteenth century, to expanding upon and
experimenting with new techniques and philosophical ideas, as demonstrated by the modernists of
the twentieth century. This approach to art history focused on painting, sculpture, and architecture,
and the artists studied were largely male.
Art history is now veering away from this linear model and expanding to include non-Western art,
such as Asian art; other categories of art, such as design; and the creative production of women.
The process of inclusion is a slow and pedagogically disputed one. Art historians wrestle with how to
incorporate neglected art into the canon. Most art history surveys still devote the majority of their
discussions to Western art while respecting other traditions. As we proceed in this course, we must
keep in mind that many cultures, artists, and art forms are still not adequately covered.
In this module, we will go over the main subjects of traditional Western art (these subjects can also
be found in non-Western art, as you will see). We will then discuss the basic tools and techniques
with which to analyze Western pictorial depictions, and how to apply them.
Traditional Subjects of Western Art
In the world of art, you will find representations of every aspect of life and even of some aspects
that lie outside the earthly realm (for example, in Antonio Allegri da Correggio’s Assumption of the
Virgin [1526–1530]). This diversity of subject matter has caused art historians to establish some
basic categories with which to classify artworks. These categories are by no means absolute or
perfect, but they nonetheless give us a systematic and organized way in which to discuss the
plethora of subjects found in art.
It is important to note that, starting from the beginning of the twentieth century, these subject
categories have become less and less relevant. This is due in part to the fact that the subject in art
is now often entirely eliminated, as in the case of nonrepresentational art. As we are studying art
from the Paleolithic period to the fourteenth century, the majority of the works we will look at fall
into the categories listed in table 1.1. Some of the works shown in the example pop-ups are non-
Western; we want to give you a feel for different cultures even as we focus on Western art
categories.
Table 1.1
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 2 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
Traditional Subjects of Western Art
Subject
Category
Description Example
Work of Art
Religious The subject is a person or scene from
a sacred tradition, text, or story. In
the West, religious subjects are
generally taken from the Bible.
Unknown
Aztec artist,
sculpture of
the goddess
Coatlicue
(1487–1520)
Mythological The subject is taken from a
mythological story (such as a Greek or
Roman myth).
Antonio
Pollaiuolo,
Apollo and
Daphne
(1470–1480)
Historical The subject is an event in history,
from either the past or the present.
Unknown
French
artist, The
Coronation
of
Charlemagne
(fourteenth
century C.E.)
Portrait The subject is an actual person.
Historically, subjects of portraits had
to be wealthy or socially important to
have their likenesses reproduced.
Most of the time, the sitter (subject of
the portrait) was alive; however,
portraits were also executed
posthumously.
Unknown
Egyptian
artist, Queen
Nefertari
(thirteenth
century
B.C.E.)
Genre The subject is a scene of people
engaged in everyday life.
Marc
Chagall, The
Smolensk
Newspaper
(1914)
Landscape The subject is a natural or contrived
scene of the outdoor environment.
Figures may be included, but if so,
they are small in scale compared with
the setting.
Ando
Hiroshige,
Plum Estate,
Kameido
(1857)
Still life The subject is an object or
arrangement of objects such as fruits.
Unknown
Roman
artist, Fish
and
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 3 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
Vegetables
in a
Cupboard
(second
century
B.C.E.)
Spotlight on Subject: Religious Art
Here, we will focus on one subject category. Look at this Christian sculpture:
Annunciation and Visitation
Source: Unknown French artist, ca. 1230–1255; Reims Cathedral, France
This relief depicts four figures in two pairs. The pair on the left shows the scene
known as the Annunciation, in which the angel Gabriel tells Mary that she will give
birth to the son of God; and the pair on the right depicts the scene known as the
Visitation, in which Mary goes to visit her cousin Elizabeth, who will give birth to John
the Baptist.
Both events are part of the Christian Biblical narrative: These four figures decorate
the doorway of one of the great Gothic cathedrals of Europe.
Art questions: Would you have figured out the subject of this sculptural grouping
without the title? Do you think the subject was recognizable to worshipers entering
the cathedral at its time of completion? Could the viewers have mistaken this group
as representing another type of subject, for example, genre?
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 4 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
What to Consider When Looking at and Analyzing Art
When we view an artwork, we naturally respond first to the subject. The subject provides the most
obvious visual clue as to the meaning of the artwork; however, other aspects of the work can give
us a fuller understanding of what it represents.
The analysis of any given piece of art involves the consideration of many factors, some of which will
be clearly evident, and others of which will require careful observation and research. Not all the
factors we list here will be relevant for every piece of art; however, our aim is to equip you with the
basic tools art historians use to examine, study, and analyze art.
In considering a work of art, pay attention to
subject
symbolism
style
visual/formal elements
size
media
patronage
location
context
We will explore these terms in greater detail:
Subject refers to what the artwork actually shows (see table 1.1 above).
Symbolism refers to the underlying meaning of the artwork and its elements. In Robert
Campin’s Merode Altarpiece (1425), we see the biblical scene of the Annunciation in the
center panel. Many objects in the scene carry symbolic meaning. For example, the white lily
placed on the table symbolizes the purity of the Virgin, and the urn in the background
symbolizes her womb.
Style refers to the individual stamp of the artist or of the art movement in which the artist
participated. Pablo Picasso had a distinct authorship that distinguishes his style from that of
other artists, as did Rembrandt van Rijn. Look at any two works by these artists and you will
see differences in subject matter, application of paint, color, brushstrokes, and overall
composition and treatment. Discerning the key characteristics of an artist’s style requires
careful scrutiny, and may take years to perfect.
Identifying the period during which an artwork was produced or the painter’s or sculptor’s
school of art may come more easily. For example, Abstract Expressionism, which arose during
the 1940s, has traits that distinguish it from other artistic movements, such as the High
Renaissance of the 1500s. Abstract Expressionism has no clear subject matter and few
recognizable objects or forms, in contrast with the High Renaissance, with its religious
subjects and clearly recognizable forms.
Visual/formal elements refers to the purely visual aspects of the artwork. These elements
include composition, space, line, light and dark, color, and texture. For sculpted works, visual
or formal aspects include form, mass, volume, and the way in which light interacts with the
carved images. The term formal refers to the forms in or the structure of the artwork and
does not indicate anything pertaining to propriety or function (see table 1.2 for a more
detailed discussion of visual/formal elements).
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 5 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
Size refers to the size of the artwork. The reproductions of artworks that you see in books or
online are often highly misleading in terms of size. Look at the dimensions provided in the
caption of an artwork, and you will probably be surprised by how large or how small the
artwork actually is.
Media refers to the materials the artist used to create the artwork. Media include oil paint on
canvas, marble, ink on paper, and bronze. The term also refers to the techniques that artists
employ. For example, carving in sculpture indicates the removal of a material such as marble,
usually with a chisel and hammer; whereas modeling in sculpture indicates the addition of a
material, such as clay.
Patronage refers to the individual or institution that ordered or commissioned the artwork.
Knowing the patron of an artwork will help you determine the intent of the artist and to
interpret the work itself. Did you know that, up until the mid-nineteenth century, most
Western works of art were commissioned? Michelangelo Buonarroti would never have painted
the Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508–1512) had it not been for the patronage of Pope Julius II.
Consider this: all architecture requires patronage and/or a commission, except in those rare
cases where the architect builds his or her own home with his or her own finances.
Location refers to the spot where the artwork is placed. As you will notice, many artworks
are now in museums; however, it is important for us to consider where an artwork originally
stood (in situ), as this will help us to fully understand the intentions of the artist and the
meaning and relevance of the work. The Merode Altarpiece (linked above), currently on
display at The Cloisters of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, was originally created
for a fifteenth-century Flemish household to adorn an intimate and private space of worship.
Context refers to the time and place at which the artwork was created. What was happening
during that time in the artist’s life and in society? How might those events have borne on the
artwork, and how do they change the way in which we see and interpret it?
For example, in James Whistler’s The Peacock Room (1876–1877), a detail of two peacocks in
a combative posture symbolizes a struggle over money that took place between Whistler and
his patron. The peacocks are mostly rendered in gold leaf, but Whistler used silver to highlight
telling details—we can detect the patron based on coins at the dominant peacock’s feet and
silver feathers indicating a ruffled shirt, and we can detect the impoverished artist based on a
silver feather on the other peacock’s head suspiciously similar to a lock of Whistler’s hair.
Knowing the context in which Whistler painted the room helps us to interpret key scenes and
enhances our experience as a viewer.
Spotlight on Style: Discerning Style
Here, we will focus on style indicators. Consider how the artworks below differ in
terms of style.
Lohans Giving Alms to
Beggars
Carpet Page, Lindisfarne Gospels
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 6 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
Source: Zhou Jichang, ca. 1178;
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Source: Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, ca. 698–721;
The British Library, London
The twelfth-century Chinese painting on the left is an attempt at Realism, rendered
on a hanging silk scroll. Note how the artist tries to show proper proportions and
naturalistic stances and movements in the figures at the top of the scroll.
The medieval British illuminated manuscript page on the right, on the other hand,
does not depict an everyday scene or objects as they appear in the real world; it
features a flat, elaborately embellished Cross filled in and surrounded by linear
patterns that include the abstract shapes of animals.
Art questions: How do these artworks differ from one another in terms of media?
Line? Detail? Color? Texture? Form? Purpose? If you saw these works in a museum,
would you be able to tell which artistic movement or time period each is from? How?
Visual/Formal Elements of Art
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 7 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
As stated above, the visual or formal elements of art are the purely visual aspects of an artwork.
When we first look at an artwork, we often overlook important visual characteristics that can help
us to understand the intentions of the artist and the skills involved in executing the artwork. The
table below can help us to more fully appreciate and carefully examine art.
Table 1.2
Visual/Formal Elements of Art
Element Description Questions to Ask
Yourself
When Looking at an
Artwork
Composition This refers to how the forms
(figures and objects) and the
visual elements are placed in
the overall space of the
artwork.
Why did the
artist place
certain objects
on the right
side of the
painting, and
certain objects
on the left?
Did the artist
leave areas
where there are
no forms
whatsoever? If
so, why?
Is the artwork
balanced
(symmetrical)
or off-balance
(asymmetrical)?
Space This refers to the area the
forms occupy. Is the viewer
looking at the
composition
directly
forward, at an
angle, at a
distance, from
below, or from
a bird’s eye
view?
Line This delineates shape (for
flat, two-dimensional
objects) and mass (for solid
forms that occupy a three-
dimensional space). Lines
Do the lines in
the figures or
form move your
eye in a
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 8 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
define an object and can be
expressive (loose and free)
or classical (mathematically
controlled and organized).
Lines can also create the
illusion of depth.
particular
direction?
Do the objects
shown or
modeled convey
a sense of bulk,
or are they flat?
Light and
dark
The contrast between light
and dark can create the
illusion of depth, such as
when the artist uses
shading (the gradual
transition from light to dark,
also known as chiaroscuro).
Light and dark can also
denote expressive
characteristics. For example,
a figure in darkness may
indicate evil, contrasted with
a figure in luminous light that
may express goodness or
purity.
Why is an
object or figure
in the light, or
given more light
than other
objects or
figures?
Why is an
object or figure
in darkness?
Color Colors can balance a
composition, create tension,
or focus the viewer’s
attention on a certain form or
feature. Adding white to a
color creates a tint; adding
black to a color creates a
shade. Some colors
complement each other,
others blend with each other,
and others create
dissonance.
Did the artist
employ a wide
color palette,
limit the use of
color, or reduce
the color to one
main hue
(monotone)?
Texture This refers to the tactile
quality of a surface. How was the
paint or
medium
applied?
Was it applied
smoothly and
evenly, or
thickly?
Can the viewer
see the
brushwork or
toolwork?
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 9 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
Spotlight on Visual/Formal Elements: Light and Dark
Here, we will focus on light and dark. Look at the use of chiaroscuro in this fresco:
Portrait of Husband and Wife
Source: Unknown Pompeiian artist, ca. 70–79 C.E.; Museo Archeologico Nazionale Napoli, Italy
The painter of this wall fresco found at Pompeii was a master of chiaroscuro. You can
see here how he uses light and dark to model the faces and clothing of his subjects,
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 10 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
transitioning from areas of light to areas of shadow to create the illusion of
dimension.
Art questions: How does chiaroscuro convey a sense of depth? Why would an artist
use chiaroscuro instead of broad strokes and color? How might chiaroscuro help
highlight important elements of an artwork? Study the faces in the fresco above.
What does the artist do to emphasize their contours? How does he let us know where
the light source is?
Image Credits
Chagall, Marc. 1914. The Smolensk newspaper (painting). Philadelphia Museum of Art. In the public
domain. Accessed February 9, 2009. http://www.abcgallery.com/C/chagall/chagall82.html.
Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne. ca. 698–721. Carpet page, Lindesfarne Gospels (illuminated
manuscript page). The British Library, London. In the public domain. Accessed February 16,
2009. http://www.episcopalcafe.com/daily/2007/08/.
Hiroshige, Ando. 1857. Plum estate, Kameido (print). Brooklyn Museum. In the public domain.
Accessed February 27, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:30_-_Plum_Estate,_Kameido .
Pollaiuolo, Antonio. 1470–1480. Apollo and Daphne (painting). The National Gallery, London. In the
public domain. Accessed February 9, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_and_Daphne .
Unknown Aztec artist. 1487–1520. The goddess Coatlicue (sculpture). National Museum of
Anthropology, Mexico City. In the public domain. Accessed February 1, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coatlicue .
Unknown Egyptian artist. Thirteenth century B.C.E. Queen Nefertari (painting). Valley of the
Queens, Egypt. In the public domain. Accessed February 10, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_004 .
Unknown French artist. ca. 1230–1255. Annunciation and visitation (sculpture). Reims Cathedral,
France. In the public domain. Accessed February 20, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poor_Man%27s_Bible.
Unknown French artist. Fourteenth century C.E. The coronation of Charlemagne (painting). Grandes
Chroniques de France. In the public domain. Accessed February 17, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karl_den_store_krons_av_leo_III .
Unknown Pompeiian artist. ca. 70–79 C.E. Portrait of husband and wife (fresco). Pompeii. Museo
Archeologico Nazionale Napoli, Italy. In the public domain. Accessed February 4, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pompeii-couple .
Unknown Roman artist. Second century C.E. Fish and vegetables in a cupboard (mosaic). Tor
Marancia, Italy. In the public domain. Accessed February 9, 2009.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Still_life_Tor_Marancia_Vatican .
Zhou, Jichang. ca. 1178. Lohans giving alms to beggars (painting). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In
the public domain. Accessed February 12, 2009. http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/lohans-
bestowing-alms-on-suffering-human-beings-24137.
2/1/18, 1:35 PMModule 1 Commentary
Page 11 of 11https://content.umuc.edu/file/e0e02109-bc23-481c-98e3-e8c46385670b/1/ARTH372-1109.zip/Modules/M1-Module_1/S3-Commentary.html
Return to top of page
Report broken links or any other problems on this page.
Copyright © by University of Maryland University College.
Form+ Theme + Context… FTC Palette for Decoding and Encoding Visual Art
ART = FORM + THEME + CONTEXT
How the work “is” What the work is about When, where, by/for whom and
WHY the work was created/valued
How does a balance of formal, thematic, and contextual qualities reveal layers of meaning?
FORMAL +
THEMATIC +
CONTEXTUAL
Actual Composition:
Art Elements:
Design Principles:
2D&3D Qualities:
Size/Scale:
Media/ Materials:
Processes/Methods:
Skills:
Style:
Other:
Broad Subject/BIG IDEA:
Subject Matter:
“Viewpoint”/ Perspective:
Visual Sources:
Art Historical References:
Literary Sources:
Other Arts Connections:
Music:
Theater :
Dance :
Film :
Other Subjects:
Math:
Language Arts:
Science:
Social Studies:
Ph
ysical Education:
Vocational Education:
WHEN :
WHERE:
BY/FOR WHOM:
WHY: Intention/Purpose(s)
Significance/Relevance:
Personal:
Social:
Cultural:
Historical:
Artistic:
Educational:
Political:
Spiritual:
Other:
Notes on connectons and thesis development:
Form + Theme + Context… FTC Palette for Decoding and Encoding Visual Art
ART = FORM + THEME + CONTEXT
How the work “is” What the work is about When, where, by/for whom and
WHY the work was created/valued
The Great Wave Off Kanagawa, From the Series: “Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji”
How does a balance of formal, thematic, and contextual qualities reveal layers of meaning?
FORMAL + THEMATIC + CONTEXTUAL
Actual Composition:
Asymmetrical, horizontal
organization
Art Elements: Lines (curves,
dots), textures, values, warm/cool
colors
Design Principles: Dominance,
asymmetry, repetition, contrast,
patterns, rhythm, +/- space, unity,
variety, scale
2D&3D Qualities: 2D, break-up
of boats/waves, depth created by
distant mountain –white caps on
waves & mountain
Size/Scale: Approximately 12 x
15 inches
Media/ Materials: Color wood
block print
Processes/Methods: Relief
printing, multiple layers of color,
registration, collaborative approach
Skills: Drawing, wood engraving,
design
Style: Ukiyo-e “Pictures of the
Floating World”
Other: Part of series: “36 Views of Mt.
Fuji”; Created 15+ volumes/ thousands
of “random sketches,” called Manga in
Japanese
Broad Subject/BIG IDEA:
High Drama, Human Struggle/ Turbulence,
Man’s Power vs. Nature, Earth vs. Sea
Subject Matter:
Seascape (landscape)
“Viewpoint”/ Perspective:
dramatic scale: tiny humans vs. sea
Visual Sources:
Ocean, boats, mountains
Art Historical References:
Japanese woodblock prints,, U-kiyoe,
Gericault, Turner, Copley, Homer,
Kandinsky, Bartlett, Sugimoto, Maya Lin
Literary Sources:
Bible (Noah’s Ark, Jonah), Moby Dick, The
Odyssey, Old Man and the Sea…
Other Arts Connections:
Music: La Mer, Scheherezade, Handel’s
Water Music
Theater: Kabuki, Noh, Metamorphoses,
The Tempest
Dance: Cirque du Soleil “O”
Film: 20,000 Leagues under the Sea,
Poseidon Adventure, Jaws, Perfect Storm,
Endless Summer, Fantasia, Inconvenient
Truth
Other Subjects:
Math: balance
Language Arts: epic stories/ legends
Science: oceanography, global warming,
weather patterns
Social Studies: battles at sea,
collaboration against odds
Physical Education: endurance,
physical strength, surfing
Vocational Education: collaboration
WHEN: 1826-33
WHERE: Japan, a set of islands
BY/FOR WHOM:
Hokusai, painter and wood engraver who
at 83 wanted to be known as ‘The Old
Man Mad About Drawing”
WHY: Intention/Purpose(s)
Series for in-depth artistic exploration of
everyday life—multiple viewpoints
Significance/Relevance:
• Personal: turbulence in life, passion
for sustained problem solving, multiple
viewpoints
• Social: environmental disasters and
human survival: 12/04 Tsunami, 8/06
Hurricanes Katrina & Rita, Haiti earthquake,
Chile miners rescue
• Cultural: Japanese authority, values
and rituals reflected in its artforms
• Historical: Japonism–Japanese prints
imported to Paris, influence on Impressionism
• Artistic: intense study/series,
printmaking, contour lines, limited color,
Manga–comic narratives
• Educational: multicultural
understanding, Manga
• Political: global warming, overwhelm,
facelessness=powerlessness, political crises
• Spiritual: hope /stability (in the distance),
letting go, dealing with reality, “facing it”
• Other: icon in visual culture?
2011 Renee Sandell, Ph.D.
http://naea.digication.com/FTC/Home//
FTC Insights, Assessments and Questions:
