Part 2

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Plant Term Project, Part 2: Faulty Arguments in the Field of Herbalism, “Natural” Cures and Plant Medicine (40 points) No specific word count and TurnItIn score is disabled

Note that there is no word limit for this section because you will be quoting from articles.

There are two aspects to this assignment: 1) identifying faulty arguments in the literature, and 2) Creating faulty arguments to sell your product”

First: You will be re-using your references from your research in Part 1.  You will be searching for examples of the faulty arguments and poor reasoning types you studied in the Faulty Arguments  PowerPoint.

Introduction: Make sure you write an introductory paragraph to explain what you are doing with citing faulty arguments including an explanation of what constitutes a faulty argument.

Find four different examples of faulty arguments from four different references you used in Part 1. Cite the original source in quotations and state exactly WHY you think the reasoning is poor. All the citations should be about the same plant you studied in Part 1. Label them 1-4 like the example below:

Example: Research by Exegesis: I found passages in the  Bible verses urging people to use the holy herb ‘senna’. “Cassia (senna) Exodus 30:23-24 “The bark ofthis tree from the laurel family is ground to produce a fine spice. The LORD gave Moses a recipefor creating an aromatic oil to be used in anointing the tabernacle and priests.”

 See further examples in this Module.

Second

Part 2: Now write a short advertisement for your herb using at least two faulty arguments. Label them in parentheses in red text.

Example: Please try my peppermint tea. It will work wonders for your stomach ache. Everyone I know has tried it (bandwagon) and they are all satisfied. Besides, it is really true that phamacies are too expensive (non sequiter). Even my chemistry professor says it works! (appeal to authority)

Important Note: There has been a growing tendency among students to share work with friends who take the same class after them. Please do not give your work to others! I do keep student papers and it is likely I will recognize the work which can result in a F in the class for you and your friend. Besides the grade issue, you are also depriving your friends of the learning experience. Thank you for your honesty!

Format for Plant Project, Part 2: This section will include the following and each of these should have headings bolded and underlined

· Title Page including your name, date, chosen herb, and word count

· Short introduction about faulty argumentation

· 4 identified arguments, labeled, explained and referenced

· Created advertisement

Calendula

Calendula is my chosen plant, and this research will focus on the basic information, functions, and uses of calendula.

Brief introduction

The calendula plants are short and dense, with bright flowers and long flowering periods, We could see the calendula from April until September, and the fruiting period for Calendula begins in June. It will end in October. It is annual herb and flowers are yellow or orange which about 5 centimeters in diameter and about 20～75 cm high. Calendula can stand the cold, but it can’t stand the heat, and like really hot environment. Also, calendula could not survive in the during the winter and cultivation of seedling. Therefore calendula needs sufficient sunshine because the sunshine is good for plants, seedling growth. Seedling is stocky and neat. When there exists too much water around the calendula or the light is insufficient, the base leaves of the calendula are prone to yellowing. As a result, the roots of calendula will become rot and die.

Besides, the calendula is a rich multivitamins plant. The flowers of calendula contain carotenoids, malic acid, seeds contain glyceride, wax, alkaloids and bitter taste in the roots, The leaves of and petals the calendula can be eaten by the human beings so that we could cook them as a side dish for dinner. Calendula used as a medicinal and cosmetic ingredient.

basic information

Calendula is known as marigolds, and in China Changchun, the name of the Calendula means the flower that can bloom for a whole year. The most commonly known flower of the Calendula is the pot marigold. It belongs to Plantae, Dicotyledoneae, Carduoideae. When people first know this flower, this flower was grown in western Europe, Macaronesia, southwestern Asia, and the Mediterranean. It has a long history of cultivation in Europe. It is widely used in the garden and potted plants.

Growth habitats

It grows in mild and cold climate, is afraid of heat, but can stand the cold. It is required to have light or light shade, loose, good drainage, soil rich and moderate soil, with certain drought resistance. The southern part of Europe and the Mediterranean coast are the place of origin of calendula. The soil pH should be kept at 6 ~ 7 so that the plants have a lot of branches and it’s more large and dense. 7 ~ 20 ℃ is the most suitable temperature for Marigold growth, the seedling in the winter can withstand the low temperature of 9 ℃ below zero which can raise the ability to resist cold. And 0 ℃ is the best temperature for adult plants. If the temperature is very cold, the calendula could not survive, because the leaves of the calendula might be frozen. During the winter, if the temperature is above ten ℃, calendula will grow not good as usual, on the contrary, temperature rises in the summer, stem leaf grows too much, the flower could be unhealthy, and the petals of the flower decrease observably.

Common uses

Calendula, a magical flower, like many ancient plants, is of great use. It is mainly reflected in the pharmacological effect, medicinal use, edible value, and be used as a raw material for cosmetics and prevent multiple skin problems.

A.Traditional and ancient uses

Marigold species have been used traditionally for the medicine or the food because we could eat the petals of the Marigold. It can be used in salads or dried. Also, it can be used to color cheese. Moreover, it could replacement for the saffron. In Germany, the flowers are the common ingredient for the Germany soups and stews, which explains the why we call it “pot marigold.” The golden petals are one of material when we want to add color to butter.

B.Pharmacological effects

During the Middle Ages, calendula was used for healing and against plague. In Europe, European have their custom of internal medicine that use calendula to treat the duodenal ulcer and the stomach, gastritis and so on.

In herbalism, calendula is a powerful herb, which has the function of relieving pain and promoting wound healing. For external use, calendula could be one crucial plant when to treat the skin disease. It will bring sound bactericidal effects, such as staphylococcus and streptococcus. The antibacterial ingredients of the calendula are soluble in the alcohols and insoluble in the water, and results are better when the calendula met the alkaline. It can also be used to anti-inflammatory, anti-mildew and prevent fester and can reduce sunburn, burn, etc. If someone takes drugs containing marigold ingredients that can treat various inflammation, gastrointestinal ulcers, dysmenorrhea and abnormal menstruation.

Calendula suspensions or tinctures are topical for treating acne, reducing inflammation, controlling bleeding and soothing the tissue. There is evidence that calendula creams or ointments are useful in the treatment of radiation dermatitis. Calendula oil is still medicinal. Calendula oil is used as an anti-inflammatory drug, an antineoplastic drug, and drug for treating wounds.

Plant pharmacological studies have shown that marigold extract has anti-viral, anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, the extract of the calendula has sedative effects on the human central nervous system. Moreover, it can reduce the excitability of the human beings. Also, the intravenous injection can lower the blood pressure, increase heart activities and heartbeat amplitudes, promote blood circulation, and promote bile secretion to accelerate wound healing. The saponins in the marigold can lower the serum cholesterol and phosphatide, to reduce blood lipid. It is also helpful to treat stomach pain and stomach ulcer and hemorrhoids. Cinerarias polysaccharide composition has a robust immune stimulation

· Medicinal use

Ancient culture and marigold treatment characteristics. In some of the earliest medical books, marigolds are recommended for the treatment of digestive diseases. It is used to detoxify liver and gallbladder. Apply flowers to the wounds and wounds to stop bleeding, prevent infection and speed healing. Regular use of marigolds can improve appetite and improve sleep quality. Marigold is also used in a variety of female diseases and treats some skin diseases. Calendula is used as an open wound on the battlefield to prevent bleeding and preservatives during the American Civil War and to treat wounds to promote healing. Calendula was also used during World War I. Today is still important in alternative medicine.

· The value of consumption and health care

The calendula is widely regarded as the best food for both medicinal and edible, so it is often used as food to eat to boost immunity. Its flowers can also be made into salads or cooked with other foods to add color and flavor. The most common way to eat marigold is to make calendula tea, which can improve our health, and it is delicious.

When choosing marigolds, you should pay attention to don’t choose flowers that are too bright and too dark because the marigolds may have been stored for a long time and are harmful to the body. Should choose soft, smooth, the petals are not messy.

Calendula tea is the most common herbal tea in Europe, which can eliminate toxins and promote sleep in the long term. It can also prevent all kinds of diseases, and it has many functions such as protecting eyesight and liver, treating lymphadenitis and increasing the beauty and so on. Marigolds are suitable for drinking alone or with green tea. Golden petals float in golden tea, very fragrant, if you drink it feels a little bitter, can add some honey. Drinking marigold tea can effectively relieve your symptoms when you have a bad cold. In addition to, it can promote blood circulation and reduce alcoholism, but it’s well worth noting

· About cosmetics

Because marigold has many functions, including the medicinal value and edible value mentioned above, therefore, the anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and calming functions of marigold are also used in cosmetics.

Calendulas are made into cosmetic, such as creams, lotions, shampoos, etc. The advantages of using calendula products are as follows.

The addition of calendula can moisturize, guard against irritation and soothe the skin. It can effectively prevent the precipitation of melanin, improve skin luster and elasticity, and delay aging. Use calendula to evaporate face, medicinal herb bath or hand-foot bath, can make the skin clean and exquisite, and let the woman looked more natural after she makes up. Some young people like using shampoos that contain calendula ingredients to make hair lighter.

Products containing marigold are also suitable for children. If your baby’s skin is sore, inflamed and sensitive, zinc-based Calendula diaper care soothes and nourishes the skin. Calendula Face Cream protects and cares for the delicate facial skin of your baby and also serves as a gentle moisturizer for hands and body.

Other uses

The beautiful flowers of marigolds used to be the source of fabric dyes. By using different mordants, a variety of yellow, orange and brown colors are available.

Culture

The calendula has been historically significant in many cultures. Calendula has been called the “Poor Man’s Saffron.” The name of calendula is a modern Latin diminutive of a calendar; it means little calendar, little clock, or little weather-glass. According to legend, calendula has the function of predicting the weather, if it blooms before 7 a.m., it will be sunny, and it will rain. Ancient Egyptians believe that marigolds can delay old age, while Indians think of it as sacred flowers. European and American people like to cut the flower stalks of marigold flowers for viewing in bottles. Since the calendula is the flower that informs the Virgin Mary, its flower language is the relief.

Work Cited

“Calendula.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 5 Jan. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendula.

Price, Annie. “The Antiviral Herb That May Ward Off Cancer.” Dr. Axe, 4 Dec. 2017, draxe.com/calendula/.

“7 Impressive Calendula Benefits & Uses.” Organic Facts, 3 Nov. 2017,

www.organicfacts.net/health-benefits/other/calendula.html

.

“5 Things You Need To Know About Calendula.” Rodale’s Organic Life, 15 Sept. 2017,

www.rodalesorganiclife.com/garden/5-things-you-need-to-know-about-calendula

.

“Herbal Oil: Calendula Oil Benefits and Uses.” Mercola.com, articles.mercola.com/herbal-oils/calendula-oil.aspx.

Faulty Arguments,
Logical Fallacies
and
Poor Reasoning

Faulty Arguments
This PowerPoint contains some of the common errors people make in reasoning.
If you listen, you will hear many of these fallacies in everyday conversation.
The “natural” cure and herbal medicine literature is rife with glaring examples of poor argumentation.
Study these generic examples and you will be able to spot them in the assigned articles with ease.

Poor Logic

Emotional Appeal
This is an attempt to sway the listener by getting him emotionally involved.
Emotions shut down reason!
Sick or scared people are especially vulnerable.

Ad Hominem/ Personal Attack
Arguments of this kind focus on the character of the person advancing it; they seek to discredit positions by discrediting those who hold them.
They attack the arguers rather than the arguments.
Politicians are often subjected to ad hominem attacks

Bandwagon/ Ad Populum
The difference between the two is that the bandwagon fallacy places an emphasis on current fads and trends, whereas the ad populum suggests that an idea must be true simply because it is widely held.

Appeal to Authority
For example, an appeal to authority argument seeks to persuade by citing what someone else, a perceived authority, thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the question. The degree of support that such an appeal lends to a claim varies depending on the particular authority in question, the relevance of their expertise to the claim, and other factors, but in all cases is limited.

Appeal to Authority
An appeal to authority argument seeks to persuade by citing what someone else, a perceived authority, thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the question.
Celebrity endorsements sell products.
Even worse, celebrity endorsements of political figures win votes. Yikes!

Faulty Statistics
Misunderstanding or misusing statistics to shore up a weak argument.
Example: “We must fund our schools better! Half our children are below average on their math tests!”
People pull bogus statistics out of thin air to sound impressive.

Research by Exegesis
Research by exegesis is using a book as an infallible reference source.
Usually it refers to the supposedly infallible Bible, but not always.
People cite Bible verses to convince people that being gay is wrong.

Either/Or & Slippery Slope
Slippery slope arguments falsely assume that one thing must lead to another.
They begin by suggesting that if we do one thing then that will lead to another, and before we know it we’ll be doing something that we don’t want to do.
They conclude that we therefore shouldn’t do the first thing.
The problem with these arguments is that it is possible to do the first thing that they mention without going on to do the other things; restraint is possible.

Slippery Slope Example
“If you go out with that kind of guy, you will get pregnant and end up dropping out of college.”
Either you stay in school or you won’t get a good job.

Red Herring
The red herring is as much a debate tactic as it is a logical fallacy.
It is a fallacy of distraction, and is committed when a listener attempts to divert an arguer from his argument by introducing another topic.
This can be one of the most frustrating, and effective, fallacies to observe.
The fallacy gets its name from fox hunting, specifically from the practice of using smoked herrings, which are red, to distract hounds from the scent of their quarry.
Just as a hound may be prevented from catching a fox by distracting it with a red herring, so an arguer may be prevented from proving his point by distracting him with a tangential issue.

Red Herring Example
“You may think that he cheated on the test, but look at the poor man! How would he feel if you made him take it again?”
This red herring also includes an appeal to pity.

Straw Man
The straw man fallacy occurs when a statement misrepresents or invents an opponent’s view (sometimes even the opponent is invented) in order to easily discredit it.
The straw man argument is intended to give the appearance of successfully refuting the original argument, thus creating the impression that it has refuted a position that someone actually holds.
A straw man is constructed expressly for the purpose of knocking it down.

Straw Man Examples

(1) Trinitarianism holds that three equals one.
(2) Three does not equal one.
Therefore:
(3) Trinitarianism is false.
(Trinitarianism does not actually say that 3 =1)

Can you find the straw man in this?:
Republicans attack Democrats for spending too much tax money.”

Testimonial
Personal statements and anecdotal stories are mistaken for scientific proof.
Example: “I lost 100 pounds on Diet drink and you can too!”

Circular Reasoning/ Begging the Question
An argument is circular if its conclusion is among its premises, if it assumes (either explicitly or not) what it is trying to prove. Such arguments are said to beg the question.
“We’re all good Christians here…”
(1) The Bible affirms that it is inerrant.
(2) Whatever the Bible says is true.
Therefore:
3) The Bible is inerrant.

More Examples of Circular Reasoning
Typical examples of circular arguments include rights or claims.
I have a right to choose whether to have an abortion or not, therefore abortion should be allowed
The unborn has a right to life, therefore abortion is immoral.
Having a right to X is the same as other people having an obligation to allow you to have X, so each of these arguments begs the question, assuming exactly what it is trying to prove.

Non Sequiter
Literally this means, “It does not follow”
Ex. Giving up our nuclear arsenal in the 1980’s weakened the United States’ military.
Giving up nuclear weaponry also weakened China in the 1990s.
For this reason, it is wrong to try to outlaw pistols and rifles in the United States today

Equivocation
1) Nothing is better than eternal happiness.
2) A ham sandwich is better than nothing.
Therefore:
3)A ham sandwich is better than eternal happiness.
(Nothing means different things.)
“I didn’t have sex with her” (She performed a sex act on me, but hey…)

False Dilemma
The bifurcation fallacy is committed when a false dilemma is presented, i.e. when someone is asked to choose between two options when there is at least one other option available.

(1) Either a Creator brought the universe into existence, or the universe came into existence out of nothing.
(2) The universe didn’t come into existence out of nothing (because nothing comes from nothing).
Therefore:
(3) A Creator brought the universe into existence.

False Dilemma Example
“Do I trust the word of a madman and forget the lessons of September the 11th, or take action to defend America? Given that choice, I will defend America every time.—
Bush 9/3/04

Hasty Generalization:
(Jumping to conclusions)
Ex. “Susan failed Biology 101.
Herman failed Biology 101.
Jose failed Biology 101.
I therefore conclude that most students who take Biology 101 will fail it.”

Glittering Generalities
Use attractive, but vague words that make speeches and other communications sound good, but in practice say nothing in particular.
Example: We are fighting for truth and freedom!

Prejudice & Stereotypes
Any statement that starts (or implies) with “All…” or “Most…” or implies
Asian women are such poor drivers!
Men are dogs.

Faulty Analogy
A faulty or weak analogy tries to relate two disparate things.
An expert suggests that a watch and the universe are similar (both display order and complexity), and therefore infers from the fact that watches are the product of intelligent design that the universe must be a product of intelligent design too.

Dogmatism
This is a tendency to express strongly held opinions in a way that suggests they should be accepted without question.
“I believe that women should stay at home and raise the children or else our moral values in this country will go to hell!”

Post Hoc
The Latin phrase post hoc ergo propter hoc means, literally, after this therefore because of this.
The post hoc fallacy is committed when it is assumed that because one thing occurred after another, it must have occurred as a result of it.
Mere temporal succession, however, does not entail causal succession.
Just because one thing follows another does not mean that it was caused by it.

Post Hoc Example
Nestle, the makers of the breakfast cereal Shredded Wheat, once ran an advertising campaign in which the key phrase was this: “People who eat Shredded Wheat tend to have healthy hearts.”

Another Post Hoc Example
(1) Most people who are read the last rites die shortly afterwards.
Therefore:
(2) Priests are going around killing people with magic words!

Tu Quoque
(Two Wrongs Don’t Make a Right)
The tu quoque fallacy is committed when it is assumed that because someone else has done a thing there is nothing wrong with doing it.
This fallacy is classically committed by children who, when scolded, respond with, “So and so did it too!” with the implied conclusion that there is nothing wrong with doing whatever it is that they have done.
Do you remember the A&F tee shirt that read, “Two Wongs don’t make a white” ?

Tu Quoque Example
(1) The Romans kept slaves.
Therefore:
(2) We can keep slaves too.
Ex. “But Susie did it….., why can’t I?”

Jargon
Technical and hard to understand language is often used to persuade unsuspecting people that a product is scientifically proven to be effective.
A good rule of thumb is that if you can’t understand it and it was written for the public, then you aren’t supposed to understand it! Someone is counting on you NOT understanding anything.

Occam’s Razor
William of Ockham was a medieval (ca 1300) English philosopher
He proposed that if 2 theories explain the same thing, always choose the simplest.
We know this today as K.I.S.S. (keep it simple, stupid)