Division

 

During the 16th century, The Age of Confessional Division produced religious wars in France, Spain, and the Netherlands. Choose one of these conflicts and discuss the events, causes, and outcomes.

 

Your response should be at least 200 words in length. You are required to use at least your textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.

 

Levack, B., Muir, E., & Veldman, M. (2011). The west encounters & transformations. (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. ). Upper Saddle: Pearson. DOI: www.pearsonhighered.com

 

(Levack, Muir & Veldman, 2011)

 

No wiki, dictionary.com or plagarism

 

The Age o

f

Confessional
Division

T h e Peoples o f Ear ly M o d e r n E u r o p e s D i s c i p l i n i n g the People H u n t i n g W i t c h e s
• T h e Confess ional Stares H States and Confessions i n Eastern E u r o p e

O N |ULY 1 0 , 1 5 8 4 , CATHOLIC EXTREMIST FRAN^OIS GUION,
WITH A brace of pistols hidden under his cloak, sur­
prised William the Silent, the Prince of Orange, as
he was leaving the dining hall of his palace and
shot him at point-blank range. William led the
Protestant nobility in the Netherlands, which was
in revolt against the Catholic king of Spain. Guion
masqueraded as a Protestant for seven years in
order to ingratiate himself with William’s party, and
before the assassination he consulted three
Catholic priests who confirmed the religious meri

t

of his plan. Spain’s representative in the Nether­
lands, the Duke of Parma, had offered a reward of
2 5 , 0 0 0 crowns to anyone who killed William; at the
moment of the assassination four other potential
assassins were in Delft trying to gain access to the
Prince of Orange.

The murder of William the Silent exemplified an
ominous figure in Western civilization—the reli­
giously motivated assassin. There had been many
assassinations before the late sixteenth century, but
those assassins tended to be motivated by the desire
to gain political power or to avenge a personal or
family injury. Religion hardly ever supplied a motive.
In the wake of the Reformation, killing a political
leader of the opposing faith to serve God’s plan
became all too common. The assassination of
William illustrated patterns of violence that have
since become the modus operandi of the political

assassin—the use of deception to gain access to the
victim, the vulnerability of leaders who wish to min­
gle with the public, the lethal potential of easily con­
cealed pistols (a new weapon at that time), the
corruption of politics through vast sums of money,
and the obsessive hostility of zealots against their
perceived enemies. The widespread acrimony
among the varieties of Christian faith created a cli­
mate of religious extremism during the late six­
teenth and early seventeenth centuries.

Religious extremism was just one manifesta­
tion of an anxiety that pervaded European society
at the time—a fear of hidden forces controlling
human events. In an attempt to curb that anxiety,
the European monarchs formulated their politics
based on the confessions of faith, or statements
of religious doctrine, peculiar to Catholics or the
various forms of Protestantism. During this age of
confessional division, European countries polarized
along confessional lines, and governments perse­
cuted followers of minority religions, whom they
saw as threats to public security. Anxious believers
everywhere were consumed with pleasing an
angry Cod, but when they tried to find God within
themselves, many Christians seemed only to find
the Devil in others.

The religious controversies of the age of con­
fessional division redefined the West. During the
Middle Ages, the West came to be identified with

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I

PROCESSION OF THE CATHOLIC LEAGUE
During the last half of the sixteenth century, Catholics and Protestants in France formed armed militias or
leagues. Bloody confrontations between these militias led to prolonged civil wars. In this 1590 procession of the
French Catholic League, armed monks joined soldiers and common citizens in a demonstration of force.

4

the practice of Roman Catholic Christianity. The
Renaissance added to that identity an apprecia­
tion of pre-Christian history going back to Creek
and Roman Antiquity. The Reformation of the
early sixteenth century eroded the unity of
Christian Europe by dividing the West into
Catholic and Protestant camps. This division was
especially pronounced in western Europe, but less

so in eastern Europe because it did not create
confessional states. During the late sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, governments reinforced
religious divisions and attempted to unify their
peoples around a common set of beliefs. How did
the encounter between the confessions and the
state transform Europe into religiously driven
camps?

457

3rv^ – y

The Peoples of Early Modern Europe 461

jegged for alms i n
faced churches,
ies exh ib i ted dra –
r i ch and poor , w h o
.1 of ten i n d i f f e r e n t
o u n d 1580 C h r i s t –

N a t i v e A m e r i c a n
-ouen. T h r o u g h an
hat impressed h i m
ities, so un l ike the
He repl ied that he
ig -c lad , emaciated
dad the streets d i d
ssed r i c h people by

i the social p r o b ­
es i n w e a l t h . Every
o f g r a i n and regu-
;he size of a loaf so
“he impulse to feed

the p o o r was less the result of h u m a n i t a r i a n
motives t h a n fear of a h u n g r y m o b . Cities
guarded careful ly against revolts and cr ime.
Even f o r pet ty c r ime , punishment was s w i f t ,
sure, and gruesome. The beggar w h o stole a
loaf of bread f r o m a baker’s cart had his h a n d
amputated o n a c h o p p i n g block i n the marke t
square. A shabbi ly dressed g i r l w h o grabbed a
lady’s g h t t e r i n g t r i n k e t had her nose cut o f f so
that she cou ld never at tract a m a n . A burglar
was t o r t u r e d , d r a w n , and quartered, w i t h his
severed head impaled o n an i r o n spike at the
t o w n gate as a w a r n i n g t o others.

H o w e v e r talented or enterprising, new
arrivals to the c i ty had very l imi ted o p p o r t u n i ­
ties. They could hardly start up their o w n busi­
ness because a l l p r o d u c t i o n was str ict ly
contro l led by the guilds, w h i c h were associations
of merchants or artisans organized to protect
their interests. Guilds r i g i d l y regulated their
membership and required an apprenticeship of
many years. Gui lds also proh ib i ted technological
innovat ions , guaranteed certain standards of
w o r k m a n s h i p , and d i d not a l l o w branching out
in t o new lines. Given the l imi ted opportuni t ies
for new arrivals , i m m i g r a n t men and w o m e n
begged on the streets or t o o k chari ty f r o m the
publ ic dole. The men picked up any heavy-labor
jobs they cou ld f i n d . Both men and w o m e n
became servants, a j o b that pa id p o o r l y but at
least guaranteed regular meals.

A m o n g the i m p o r t a n t social achievements
o f b o t h Protestant and Catho l i c R e f o r m a t i o n s
were ef forts t o address the problems of the des­
t i tu te u r b a n poor, w h o cons t i tu ted at least a
quar ter of the p o p u l a t i o n , even in the best of
t imes. I n Cathol i c countr ies such as I ta ly ,
Spain, southern Germany, and France, there
was an enormous expansion of credi t banks,
w h i c h were f inanced by char i table c o n t r i b u ­
t ions i n order to p r o v i d e small loans to the
poor. Cathol i c cities established convents for
p o o r y o u n g w o m e n w h o were at r isk o f f a l l i n g
i n t o p r o s t i t u t i o n and for w o m e n w h o had
ret i red f r o m the sex t rade . Ca tho l i c and Protes­
tant cities established orphanages, hospitals for
the sick, hospices f o r the d y i n g , and p u b l i c

housing . B o t h Catho l i c and Protestant cities
a t tempted to d is t inguish between the “h o n es r ”
p o o r — t h o s e w h o were disabled and t r u l y
deserving—and the ” d i s h o n e s t ” p o o r w h o were
t h o u g h t to be mal ingerers . Protestant cities
established poorhouses, w h i c h segregated the
poor, subjected t h e m to p r i s o n l ike disc ipl ine ,
and forced the able-bodied t o w o r k .

The m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e classes o f the cities
enjoyed large palaces and l u x u r i o u s lifesr>ie>.
T h e y h i r e d extensive staffs o f servants, feasted
o n meat and f ine wines , and purchased exot ic
i m p o r t s such as s i lk c l o t h , spices f r o m the
East, a n d , in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n cities, s’a’.es
f r o m eastern E u r o p e , the M i d d l e East, or
A f r i c a . R i c h merchants m a i n t a i n e d the i r siatus
by m a r r y i n g w i t h i n their o w n class, m o n o p o ­
l i z i n g m u n i c i p a l off ices, and educat ing the i r
c h i l d r e n i n the n e w l y fashionable h u m a n i s t
schools. T h e w e a l t h y of the cities were the bas­
t ions o f social s tab i l i ty . They possessed the
f i n a n c i a l resources and economic ski l ls to p r o ­
tect themselves f r o m the w o r s t consequences
o f economic i n s t a b i l i t y , especially the corrosive
wave o f price i n f l a t i o n t h a t s t ruck the “^’esr
after a b o u t 1540 .

The Price Revolution
Price i n f l a t i o n became so pervasive d u r i n g the
last half of the sixteenth century that i t con­
t r ibuted to the widespread fear that h idden
forces contro l led events. Af te r a long per iod of
fa l l ing or stable prices that stretched back to the
fourteenth century, Europe experienced sus­
tained price increases, beginning a r o u n d 1540. in
w h a t historians called the Price R e v o l u t i o n . The
i n f l a t i o n lasted a century, fo r c in g major eco­
nomic and social changes that permanently
altered the face o f Western society. D u r i n g this
per iod overal l prices across Europe m u l t i p l i e d
f ive- or s i x f o l d .

W h a t caused the i n f l a t i o n ? T h e basic p r i n ­
ciple is s imple . The price p a i d for goods and
services is f u n d a m e n t a l l y the result o f the rela­
t i o n s h i p between supply and demand. I f the
number of c h i l d r e n w h o need t o be fed grows

4 6 2 CHAPTER IS The Age of Confessional Division

faster t h a n the supply of g r a i n , the price o f
bread goes u p . Th is happens s i m p l y because
mothers w h o can a f f o r d i t w i l l be w i l l i n g to
pay a higher price to save their c h i l d r e n f r o m
hunger. I f g o o d harvests a l l o w the supply o f
gra in to increase at a greater rate t h a n the
d e m a n d f o r bread, t h e n prices go d o w n . T w o
other factors inf luence pr ice . One is the
amount of money in circulation. I f the a m o u n t
o f g o l d or silver avai lable to make coins
increases, there is m ore money in c i r c u l a t i o n .
W h e n more money is c i r c u l a t i n g , people can
buy m o r e th ings , w h i c h creates the same effect
as an increase in d e m a n d — p r i c e s go u p . The
other fac tor is called the velocity of money in
circulation, w h i c h refers to the n u m b e r o f
t imes m o n e y changes hands to buy th ings .
W h e n people buy c o m m o d i t i e s w i t h greater
frequency, i t has the same effect as increasing
the a m o u n t o f m o n e y i n c i r c u l a t i o n or o f
increasing d e m a n d — a g a i n , prices go u p .

The precise c o m b i n a t i o n of these factors i n
causing the great Price R e v o l u t i o n of the six­
teenth century has l o n g been a mat ter o f con­
siderable debate. M o s t h is tor ians w o u l d n o w
agree that the p r i m a r y cause o f i n f l a t i o n was
p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , w h i c h increased demand
f o r all k inds of basic c o m m o d i t i e s , such as
bread and w o o l e n c l o t h for c l o t h i n g . As
Europe’s p o p u l a t i o n f i n a l l y began to recover, i t
meant that more people needed and desired to
buy more th ings . Th is e x p l a n a t i o n is most
obvious f o r c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t people need to
survive , such as g r a i n to make bread. These
c o m m o d i t i e s have w h a t economists call
inelastic demand, tha t is, consumers do not
have a great deal of d iscre t ion i n purchas ing
t h e m . Everybody has to eat. The c o m m o d i t i e s
tha t people c o u l d survive w i t h o u t i f the price is
t o o h i g h are said t o have elastic demand, such
as d a n c i n g shoes and lace col lars . I n England
between 1540 and 1640 overa l l prices rose by
490 percent. M o r e t e l l i n g , however, is t h a t the
price of g r a i n (inelastic demand) rose by a s tun­
n i n g 670 percent, whereas the price of l u x u r y
goods (elastic demand) rose m u c h less, by 204

percent. T h u s , i n f l a t i o n h u r t the poor , w h o
needed to feed their c h i l d r e n , m o r e t h a n the
r i c h , whose desires were more elastic.

M o n e t a r y factors also c o n t r i b u t e d to i n f l a ­
t i o n . The Portuguese b r o u g h t i n s igni f icant
amounts of g o l d f r o m A f r i c a , and n e w l y
opened mines i n centra l Europe increased the
a m o u n t o f silver by f i v e f o l d as early as the
1520s. The discovery i n 1545 o f the fabulous
silver mine o f Potosi ( in present-day Bol iv ia )
b r o u g h t to Europe a f l o o d of silver, w h i c h
Spain used to f inance its costly w a r s . As i n f l a ­
t i o n began to eat away at r o y a l incomes, f i n a n ­
c ia l ly s trapped monarchs al l across western
Europe debased their currency because they
believed, mistakenly , tha t p r o d u c i n g more
coins c o n t a i n i n g less silver w o u l d b u y m o r e . I n
fact, the m i n t i n g o f more coins meant each c o i n
was w o r t h less and w o u l d buy less. In E n g l a n d ,
f o r example , debasement was a m a j o r source of
i n f l a t i o n d u r i n g the 1540s and 1550s.

The Price Revolut ion severely weakened gov­
ernments. M o s t monarchs derived their incomes
f r o m their o w n private lands and taxes o n p r o p ­
erty. As inf la t ion t o o k h o l d , property taxes
proved dangerously inadequate to cover roya l
expenses. Even frugal monarchs such as Eng­
land’s Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) were forced to
take extraordinary measures, i n her case to sell
off r o y a l lands. Spendthrift monarchs faced disas­
ter. Spain was involved m the costly enterprise of
nearly continuous war d u r i n g the sixteenth cen­
tury. To pay for the wars, Charles V resorted to a
f o r m of deficit f inancing i n w h i c h he b o r r o w e d
money by issuing juros, w h i c h provided lenders
an annuity yie lding between three and seven per­
cent o n the amount of the pr inc ipal . By the
1550s, however, the annuit ) ‘ payments of the
juros consumed half of the royal revenues.
Charles’s son, Phi l ip I I , inherited such an a larm­
ing s i tuat ion that i n 1557, the year after he
assumed the throne, he was forced to declare
bankruptcy. Phihp continued to f ight expensive
wars and b o r r o w w i l d l y , and thus failed to get his
f inancial house i n order. H e declared bankruptcy
again i n 1575 and 1596. Phil ip squandered

Spain’s

•

t h r o u g h
inf la t ion
and deb
m i l i t a r y
sowed t l
borrowe

Prol
the Price
in f la t ion
D u r i n g
centurie;
they d i d
ined all
cially s
religious
providec
w h a t h
Protesta
both sus
witches,
spread
places—
witches,
opposite

DISCIl

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The first
Reforma
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authorit)
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tions ths
Cathohc
confessic
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commun
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cipline n
secular a

Disciplining the People 4 6 3

e poor , w h o
ore t h a n the
; t ic .
uted to i n f l a –
n s igni f i cant

and n e w l y
increased the
eatly as the
the fabulous

-day Bol iv ia )
silver, w h i c h
ars. As i n f l a –
comes, f i n a n –
:ross western
because they
j u c i n g more
buy more . I n
ant each c o i n
i. I n E n g l a n d ,
ajor source of
50s.
veakened gov-
their incomes
axes o n p r o p –
roperty taxes
3 cover roya l
such as Eng-
vere forced to
er case to sell
hs faced disas-
y enterprise of
sixteenth cen-
/ resorted to a

he b o r r o w e d
)vided lenders
and seven per-
c ipal . By the
ments of the
yal revenues,
uch an a larm-
year after he
ed to declare
ight expensive
ailed to get his
zd bankruptcy
p squandered

Spain’s weal th , impoverishing his o w n subjects
t h r o u g h biu-densome taxes and c o n t r i b u t i n g to
in f la t ion by b o r r o w i n g at high rates of interest
and debasing the coinage. A l t h o u g h the greatest
mi l i ta ry power of the sixteenth century, Spain
sowed the seeds of its o w n decline by f ight ing on
b o r r o w e d money.

Probably the most serious consequence of
the Price R e v o l u t i o n was that the hidden force of
i n f l a t i o n caused widespread h u m a n suffering.
D u r i n g the late sixteenth and early seventeenth
centuries, people felt their lives threatened, but
they d i d n o t k n o w the soiurce and so they imag­
ined al l k inds of secret powers at w o r k , espe­
cially supernatural ones. The suspicion of
religious differences created by the R e f o r m a t i o n
provided handy, i f ut ter ly false, explanations for
w h a t had gone w r o n g . Catholics suspected
Protestants, Protestants suspected Catholics ,
both suspected Jews, and they all w o r r i e d about
witches. Author i t ies sought to relieve this wide­
spread anxiety by l o o k i n g in a l l the w r o n g
places—discipl ining the populace, h u n t i n g for
witches, and bat t l ing against enemies f r o m the
opposite side of the confessional divide .

DISCIPUNSNG THE PEOPLE

• H o w d i d re l ig ious a n d p o l i t i c a l au thor i t i e s
a t t e m p t t o d i sc ip l ine the people?

The first generation of the Protestant and Catholic
Reformations had been devoted to doctrinal dis­
putes and to either rejecting or defending papal
authority. Subsequent generations of reformers
faced the formidable task of bui lding the insntu-
tions that w o u l d f i r m l y establish a Protestant or
Catholic religious culture. Leaders of ail religious
confessions, whether Lutheran, Calvinist, Catholic,
or Anglican, attempted to revitalize the Christian
communit ) ‘ by disciplining nonconformists, enforc­
ing moral rigor, and attacking popular culture. Dis­
cipline required cooperation between church and
secular authorities, but i t was not entirely imposed

f r o m above. M a n y people wholeheartedly cooper­
ated w i t h moral correction and even encouraged
reformers to go further. Others actively or resent­
fu l ly resisted i t .

Establishing Confessional Identities
Between 1560 and 1650 religious confessions
reshaped European cul ture . A confession con­
sisted of the adherents to a part icular statement
of religious doctr ine—the Confession of Augs­
b u r g for Lutherans, the Helvetic Confessions for
Calvinists, the T h i r t y – N i n e Art ic les for A n g l i ­
cans, and the decrees of the C o u n c i l of Trent for
Catholics.

The process o f estabhshing confessional
ident i t ies d i d n o t happen o v e r n i g h t . D u r i n g
the second hal f o f the s ix teenth century ,
Lutherans t u r n e d f r o m the struggle t o survive
w i t h i n the host i le H o l y R o m a n E m p i r e to
b u i l d i n g L u t h e r a n i s m wherever i t was the cho­
sen r e l i g i o n o f the loca l pr ince . T h e y h a d to
r e c r u i t clergy a n d p r o v i d e each c l e r g y m a n w i t h
a univers i ty e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h was made possi­
ble by scholarship e n d o w m e n t s f r o m the
L u t h e r a n princes of the empire . Once estab­
l i shed, the L u t h e r a n clergy became a branch o f
the c i v i l bureaucracy, received a g o v e r n m e n t
s t ipend, and enforced the w i l l o f the pr ince .
C a l v i n i s t states f o l l o w e d a s imi lar process, b u t
w h e r e they were i n a m i n o r i t y , as i n France,
Calv inis ts had to go i t a lone, and the state
o f ten d i s c r i m i n a t e d against t h e m . I n those
places confessional ident i t ies were established
i n o p p o s i t i o n to the state and the d o m i n a n t
confession. Cathol ics responded w i t h the i r
o w n aggressive p l a n o f t r a i n i n g new clergy­
m e n , educat ing the la i ty , and r e i n f o r c i n g the
b o n d between church a n d state. Just as w i t h
the L u t h e r a n princes, Ca tho l i c princes i n the
H o l y R o m a n E m p i r e associated c o n f o r m i t y to
C a t h o l i c i s m w i t h l o y a l t y to themselves, m a k ­
i n g r e l i g i o n a p i l l a r of the state.

Everywhere i n western Europe (except for
I re land, the Netherlands, a few places i n the
H o l y R o m a n Empire , and for a t ime France) the

4 7 2 CHAPTER I S The Age of Confessional Division

‘ i F E R E N T V O I C E S WERE THERE REALLY WITCHES?

Even during the height of the witch-hunt the existence
of witches was controversial. Most authorities assumed
that the devil worked evil on earth and that hunting
witches, therefore, was an effective means of defending
Christians. These authorities used the church and secu­
lar courts to interrogate alleged witches, sometimes
supplemented by torture, to obtain confessions and the
identities of other confederate witches. These authori­
ties considered the hunting of witches part of their duty
to protect the public from harm. Others accepted the
reality of witchcraft but doubted the capacity of judges
to determine who was a witch. A few doubted the real­
ity of witchcraft altogether.

johann Weyer (15157-1588) was a physician
who argued that most witches were deluded old
women who suffered from depression and need med­
ical help rather than legal punishment The devil
deceived them into thinking they had magical pow­
ers, but because Weyer had a strong belief that only
Cod had power over nature, he did not credit the
devil or witches with any special powers. No one else
during the sixteenth century disputed the reality of
the powers of witches as systematically as he. jean
Bodin (15297-1596) was one of the greatest legal
philosophers of the sixteenth century. Although he
was once skeptical of the reality of witchcraft, he
changed his mind after witnessing several cases in
which women voluntarily confessed to performing evil
acts under the guidance of Satan. He considered
witchcraft a threat to society and condemned Weyer’s
soft-hearted view.

lohan Weyer’s letter to Johann Brenz (1565)
Witches have no power to make hail, storms,
and other evil things, but they are deceived
by the devil. For when the devil, with the

permission and decree of God, can make hail
and storms, he goes to his witches and urges
them to use their magic and charms, so that
when the trouble and punishment come, the
witches are convinced that they and the devil
have caused it. Thus, the witches cannot
make hail and other things, but they are
deluded and blinded by the devil himself to
whom they have given themselves. In this way
they think that they have made hail and
storms. Not on that account but for their
godless lives should they be punished
severely

Our witches have been corrupted in their
phantasy by the devil and imagine often that
they have done evil things that didn’t even hap­
pen or caused natural occurrences that actually
did not take place. In their confessions, espe­
cially under torture, they admit to doing and
causing many things which are impossible for
them and for anyone. One should not believe
them when they confess that they have bound
themselves to the devil, given themselves to his
will, promised to follow his evil goals, just as we
do not believe their confession that they make
hail and storms, disturb and poison the air, and
Other impossible deeds

Even if an old woman, in deep depression,
gives herself to the devil, one should not imme­
diately condemn her to the fire but instead
have regard for her confused, burdened, and
depressed spirits and use all possible energy to
convert her that she may avoid evil, and give
herself to Christ. In this way we may bring her
to her senses again, win her soul, and save her
from death. . . .

Jean I
of Wi
The JL
witch
day 0
my p(
witch’
drous
witch
lier, a
was a’
and b
questi
stubb
story I
preser
devil,
most I
told h
she hi
the de
and tc
had n
devil,
copuli
tinuec
she w,
preser
a I way:
boote
and hi
but hi
out h€
her sic

No
are po
and tl-

THE CONFESSIONAL STATES

• H o w d i d re l ig ious differences p r o v o k e
vio lence a n d start wars?

The Religious Peace o f Augsburg of 1555 pro­
vided the model for a solution to the religious

divisions produced by the Reformat ion . A c c o r d ­
ing to the principle of cuius regio, eius religio (he
w h o rules determines the rel igion of the land),
each prince i n the H o l y R o m a n Empire deter­
mined the rehgion to be fo l lowed by his subjects;
those w h o disagreed were obliged to convert or
emigrate. Certainly, forced exile was economically

and per;
grated, b
sally beli
successfu
I n other
church. I
a few sr

The Confessional States 473

lake hail
id urges
so that
me, the
:he devil
not
are
iself to
I this way
nd
heir
I

1 their
en that
even hap-
t actually
;, espe-
ig and
iible for
believe
e bound
ves to his
just as we
ey make
e air, and

ression,
lot imme-
stead
;d , and
inergy to
nd give
)ring her
save her

lean Bodin, On the Demonic Madness
of Witches (1580)
The judgment which was passed against a
witch in a case to which I was called on the last
day of April, 1578, gave me occasion to take up
my pen In order to clarify the subject of
witches—persons who seem strange and won­
drous to everyone and incredible to many. The
witch whom I refer to was named Jeanne Harvil-
lier, a native of Verbery near Compiegne. She
was accused of having murdered many men
and beasts, as she herself confessed without
questioning or torture, although she at first
stubbornly denied the charges and changed her
story often. She also confessed that her mother
presented her at the age of twelve years to the
devil, disguised as a tall black man, larger than
most men and clothed in black. The mother
told him that as soon as her daughter was born
she had promised her to him, whom she called
the devil. He in turn promised to treat her well
and to make her happy. And from then on she
had renounced Cod and promised to serve the
devil. And at that instant she had had carnal
copulation with the devil, which she had con­
tinued to the age of 50, or thereabouts, when
she was captured. She said also that [the] devil
presented himself to her when she wished,
always dressed as he had been the first time,
booted and spurred, with a sword at his side
and his horse at the door. And no one saw him
but her. He even fornicated with her often with­
out her husband noticing although he lay at

her side
Now we have shown that ordinarily women

are possessed by demons more often than men
and that witches are often transported bodily

but also often ravished in an ecstasy, the soul
having separated itself from the body, by dia­
bolical means, leaving the body insensible and
stupid. Thus, it is completely ridiculous to say
that the illness of the witches originates in
melancholy, especially because the diseases
coming from melancholy are always
dangerous…. Thus, Weyer must admit that
there is a remarkable incongruity for one who is
a doctor, and a gross example of ignorance
(but it is not ignorance) to attribute to women
melancholy diseases which are as little appro­
priate for them as are the praiseworthy effects
of a tempered melancholy humor. This humor
makes a man wise, sober, and contemplative
(as all of the ancient philosophers and physi­
cians remark), which are qualities as incompati­
ble with women as fire with water. And even
Solomon, who as a man of the world knew well
the humor of women, said that he had seen a
wise man for every 1,000 men, but that he had
never seen a wise woman. Let us therefore
abandon the fanatic error of those who make
women into melancholies.

Source: Robert M. Kingdon (ed.). Transition and Revolution:
Problems and Issues of European Renaissance and Reforma­
tion History (Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company,
1974), 221-232. Reprinted by permission.

For Discussion

1. How can the uncoerced confessions of
women to witchcraft be explained?

2. Why would an otherwise intelligent
observer such as Jean Bodin be so willing
to believe in the reality of the power of
witches?

ion . Accord-
us religio (he
j f the land),
mpire deter-
his subjects;

o convert or
economically

and personally traumatic for those w h o emi­
grated, but i t preserved w h a t was almost univer­
sally believed to be the fundamental principle of
successful rulership—one k i n g , one f a i t h , one law.
la other words , each state should have only one
church. Except in the states of eastern Europe and
a few small t roubled principalities in the H o l y

Ro m a n Empire, few thought i t desirable to a l low
more than one confession i n the same state.

The p r o b l e m w i t h this po l i t i ca l theory o f
religious u n i t y was the reality of religious d i v i ­
sions created by the R e f o r m a t i o n . I n some places
there were as m a n y as three active confessions—
Cathol ic , Eutheran, and C a l v i n i s t — i n a d d i t i o n

4 7 4 CHAPTER I S The Age of Confessional Division T
to the m i n o r i t y sects, such as the Anabaptists and
the Jewish communit ies . The alternative to re l i ­
gious u n i t y w o u l d have been rehgious to lera t ion ,
but hardly anyone i n a posi t ion of author i ty was
w i l l i n g to advocate that . John C a l v i n expelled
advocates of religious to lerat ion , and M a r t i n
Luther was aggressively hostile to those w h o dis­
agreed w i t h h i m on seemingly m i n o r theological
points . Af ter 1542 w i t h the establishment of the
Universal I n q u i s i t i o n , the Cathol ic Church was
c o m m i t t e d to exposing and punishing anyone
w h o professed a dif ferent f a i t h , w i t h the excep­
t i o n of Jews i n Italy, w h o were under papal p r o ­
tect ion. Geneva and Rome became compet ing
missionary centers, each f l o o d i n g the w o r l d w i t h
polemical tracts and specially trained missionar­
ies w i l l i n g to risk their lives by going behind the
enemy lines to console their co-religionists and
evangelize for converts.

Religious passions ran so high that d u r i n g
the late sixteenth century a new w o r d appeared
t o describe a personality type that may not have
been entirely new but was certainly m u c h more
c o m m o n — t h e fanatic . O r i g i n a l l y referring to
someone possessed by a demon, fanatic came to
mean a person w h o expressed immoderate
enthusiasm i n religious matters, a person w h o
pursued a supposedly divine mission, of ten to
v io lent ends. Fanatics f r o m al l sides o f the reh­
gious divide in i t ia ted waves o f pol i t i ca l assassi­
nations and massacred their opponents . Francois
G u i o n , the assassin of W i l l i a m the Silent, whose
story began this chapter, was in many ways t y p i ­
cal of fanatics i n his steadfast pursui t of his vic­
t i m and his will ingness to masquerade for years
under a false identity. D u r i n g the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, no religious c o m m u n i t y
h a d a m o n o p o l y o n fanatics. They served the
pope as w e l l as the Protestant churches.

Wherever there were significant religious
minorities w i t h i n a state, the best that could be
hoped for was a condit ion of anxious tension,
omnipresent suspicion, and periodic hysteria (see
M a p 15.1). The wors t possibiUty was c ivi l war i n
which religious affil iations and poli t ical rivalries
intertwined i n such complicated ways that f inding
peaceful solutions was especially di f f i cul t . Between

1560 and 1648 several religious c iv i l wars broke
out, including the French Wars of Religion, the
Dutch revolt against Spain, the T h i r t y Years’ War
i n Germany, and the English Civi l War. (The latter
t w o w i l l be discussed i n Chapter 16.)

The French Wars of Religion
W h e n K i n g H e n r y U (r. 1547-1559) of France
died unexpectedly f r o m a joust ing accident, he
left behind his w i d o w , the formidable Catherine
de’ M e d i c i (1519-1589) , and a b r o o d of y o u n g
c h i l d r e n — i n c l u d i n g his heir, Francis I I (r.
1559-1560) , w h o was only 15. H e n r y I I had
been a peacemaker. I n contrast , Catherine and
her ch i ldren , i n c l u d i n g three sons w h o succes­
sively ascended to the throne, utter ly fai led to
keep the peace, and for some 40 years France
was t o r n apart by a series of desperate c i v i l wars .

THE HUGUENOTS: THE FRENCH CALViWiST C o M M U N i i Y

By 1560 Calvinism had made significant inroads
into predominant ly Catholic France. Pastors sent
f r o m Geneva had been especially successful i n the
larger provinc ia l towns, where their evangelical
message appealed to enterprising merchants, p r o ­
fessionals, and skilled artisans. One in ten of the
French had become Calvinists, or Huguenots as
French Protestants were called. The poli t ical
strength of the Huguenots was greater than their
numbers m i g h t indicate, because between one-
t h i r d and one-half of the lower nobi l i ty professed
Calvinism. Calvinism was popular among the
French nobi l i ty for t w o reasons. One involved the
i m i t a t i o n of social superiors. The f inancial w e l l –
being of any noble depended on his p a t r o n , an
aristocrat of higher rank w h o had access to the
k i n g and w h o could distribute jobs and lands to
his clients. W h e n a h igh aristocrat converted to
Protestantism, he tended to br ing into the new
fa i th his noble clientele, w h o converted through
loyalty to their pat ron or through the patron’s
abi l i ty to persuade those w h o were f inancial ly
dependent o n h i m . As a result of a few aristocratic
conversions i n southwest France, Calvinism
spread through “a veritable religious spider’s
web , “^ as one contemporary p u t i t .

S t

ATLA
Oct

MAP
Relig:
After •
tions I

A s .
was the
ter of t
Margue
the K i n
situated
a haven
theolog:
ladies D
Huguen
Rehgior
early f(
Jeanne

The Confessional States

civil wars broke
of Religion, the
huty Years’ War
War. (The latter
6.)

559) of France
n g accident, he
dable Catherine
brood of y o u n g
Francis 11 (r.
. H e n r y I I had

Catherine and
ns w h o succes-
it terly failed to
0 years France
erate c iv i l wars .

MIST COiViMUNITY

nificant inroads
ce. Pastors sent
successful i n the
heir evangelical
merchants, pro­
ne i n ten of the
r Huguenots as

The pol i t i ca l
eater than their
; between one-
ibi l i ty professed
lar among the
ine involved the

f inancial w e l l –
his patron, a n

d access to the
3S and lands to
at converted to
g into the new
verted through
; h the patron’s
/ere f inancially
few aristocratic
i ce , Calvinism
ligious spider’s

475

4
NORWAY

i “f .SCOTLAND.
t +

IRELAND^

Dublin

– t t

.Edinburgh

t

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ENGLAND

I- *

London –

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Amsterdam;,- a

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NETHERUNDS a

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FRANCE XiJi^ ‘ AUSTRIA * ,
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SPAIN .

fVlediterranean Sea

Black Sea

Religious Divisions in Europe About 1600

I ‘ – . .^ Reliqious divisions

* ^ > . ‘ i – r ^ – ^ : Lutheran
Religious minorities

* Lutheran
Calvinist • Calvinist
Anglican ^ Anabaptist
Roman Catholic t Roman Cathoii;

” Islamic

M A P 15.1

Religious Divisions in Europe About 1600

After 1555 the religious borders of Europe became relatively fixed, with only minor changes in confessional affilia­
tions to this day.

A second reason for the spread of Calvinism
was the influence of aristocratic w o m e n . The sis­
ter of K i n g Francis I of France (r. 1515-1547) ,
Marguer i t e of Angouleme (1492-1549) , marr ied
the K i n g of Navarre (an independent k i n g d o m
situated between France and Spain) and created
a haven in N a v a r r e for H u g u e n o t preachers and
theologians. H e r example drew other aristocratic
ladies to the H u g u e n o t cause, and many of the
H u g u e n o t leaders d u r i n g the French Wars of
Religion were the sons and grandsons of these
early female converts. Margueri te ‘s daughter,
Jeanne d ‘ A l b r e t , sponsored Calvinist preachers

for several years before she publ i c ly announced
her o w n conversion in 1560. H e r son, H e n r y
B o u r b o n (Henry of Navarre ) , became the p r i n c i ­
p a l leader of the H u g u e n o t cause d u r i n g the
French Wars of Rel ig ion and the person respon­
sible for eventually br inging the wars to an end.

T H E O W C I N S o f T H E R E U G I O U S W A R S L i k e all c i v i l

wars, the French Wars of Rel ig ion exhibi ted a
bewi lder ing pat tern of intr igue , betrayal , and
treachery. Three dist inct groups consti tuted the
pr inc ipa l players. The f irst group was the royal
fami ly , consisting of Queen Catherine de’ M e d i c i

476 CHAPTER 15 The Age of Confessional Division

and her f o u r sons by H e n r y 11—King Francis I I
(r. 1559-1560) , K i n g Charles I X (r. 1560-1574) ,
K i n g H e n r y 111 (r. 1574-1589) , and D u k e Francis
of Alen^on ( 1 5 5 4 – 1 5 8 4 ) — a n d her daughter.
Marguer i t e Valois (1553-1615) . The royal f a m ­
i l y remained Cathol ic but o n occasion reconciled
themselves w i t h the H u g u e n o t oppos i t ion , and
Marguer i te marr ied into i t . The second group
was the H u g u e n o t fact ion of nobles led by the
B o u r b o n fami ly w h o ruled Navarre . The t h i r d
g r o u p was the hard-l ine Cathol ic fac t ion led by
the Guise family. These three groups vied for
supremacy d u r i n g the successive reigns of
Catherine de’ Medic i ‘ s three sons.

D u r i n g the reign of the sickly and i m m a t u r e
Francis I I , the Cathol ic Guise f a m i l y dominated
the government and raised the persecution of the
Huguenots to a new level. I n response to that
persecution, a group o f H u g u e n o t nobles p lot ted
i n 1560 to k i l l the Guises. The Guises got w i n d
of the conspiracy and surprised the plotters as
they arr ived i n small groups at the royal chateau
of Amboise . Some were ambushed, some
d r o w n e d in the Loi re River, and some hanged
f r o m the balconies of the chateau’s c o u r t y a r d . A
tense t w o years later in 1562, the D u k e of Guise
was passing t h r o u g h the village of Vassy just as a
large H u g u e n o t congregation was h o l d i n g serv­
ices i n a barn. The duke’s men attacked the w o r ­
shipers, k i l l i n g some 740 of them and w o u n d i n g
hundreds o f others.

F o l l o w i n g the massacre at Vassy, c iv i l war
broke out in earnest. For nearly 40 years re l i ­
gious wars sapped the strength of France. M o s t
of the battles were indecisive, w h i c h meant nei­
ther side sustained m i l i t a r y superior i ty for l o n g .
Both sides relied for support on their regional
bases: The Huguenots ‘ strength was in the south­
west; the Catholics ‘ , i n Paris and the n o r t h .
Besides m i l i t a r y engagements, the French Wars
of Rel igion spawned po l i t i ca l assassinations and
massacres.

MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW’S DAY Af ter a
decade of b loody yet inconclusive combat , the
royal f a m i l y tr ied to resolve the confUct by mak­
ing peace w i t h the Protestants, a shift of pol icy

signified by the announcement o f the engage­
ment of Marguer i t e Valois, daughter of H e n r y I I
and Catherine de’ M e d i c i , to H e n r y B o u r b o n ,
the son of the H u g u e n o t K i n g of Navarre . A t age
19, M a r g u e r i t e — o r Queen M a r g o t , as she was
k n o w n — w a s already renowned for her br i l l i an t
intel l igence—and for her w a n t o n morals . To
comphcate the s i tuat ion further, on the eve o f the
w e d d i n g Marguer i te was having an affair w i t h
another Henry , the young D u k e of Guise w h o
was the leader of the intransigent Cathol ic fac­
t i o n . The marriage between Marguer i t e and
H e n r y of N a v a r r e was to take place i n Paris i n
August 1572, an event that brought a l l the
H u g u e n o t leaders to the heavily armed Cathol ic
capital for the f irst t ime in many years. The gath­
ering of al l their enemies i n one place presented
too great a t empta t ion for the Guises, w h o
hatched a p l o t to assassinate the H u g u e n o t lead­
ers. Perhaps because she had become jealous o f
the Huguenots ‘ g r o w i n g influence o n her son.
K i n g Charles I X , Catherine suddenly switched
sides and became impl icated i n the p l o t .

Catherine somehow convinced the weak-
w i l l e d k i n g to order the massacre of the
H u g u e n o t nobles gathered in Paris. O n August
14, 1572, St. Bartholomew’s Day, the people of
Paris began a slaughter. Between 3,000 and
4,000 Huguenots were butchered i n Paris and
more than 20,000 were p u t to death t h r o u g h o u t
the rest of France. H e n r y of Navarre saved his
life by pretending to convert to Cathol ic ism,
w h i l e most of his companions were murdered.

Catherine’s attempted so lut ion for the
H u g u e n o t p r o b l e m failed to solve anythmg.
H e n r y of N a v a r r e escaped his v i r t u a l i m p r i s o n ­
ment i n the roya l household, set Marguer i t e up
i n an isolated castle, returned to Navarre and his
f a i t h , and reinvigorated H u g u e n o t resistance.

The wars of rehgion cont inued u n t i l the
assassination of K i n g H e n r y I I I , brother of the
late Charles I X . B o t h Charles I X and H e n r y I I I
had been childless, a s i tuat ion that made H e n r y
B o u r b o n of N a v a r r e the r i g h t f u l heir to the
throne, even t h o u g h he was a H u g u e n o t . H e n r y
B o u r b o n became K m g H e n r y I V (r. 1589-1610) .
H e recognized that predominant ly Cathol ic

The Confessional States 4 7 7

f the engage-
er of H e n r y I I
n r y B o u r b o n ,
avarre. A t age
It, as she was
r her br i l l i an t
1 morals . To
the eve of the

m affair w i t h
i f Guise w h o
Cathol ic fac-

irguerite and
ce in Paris in
)ught a l l the
med Cathol ic
ars. The gath-
ace presented
Guises, w h o

uguenot lead-
me jealous of

o n her son,
mly switched
p l o t .
d the weak-
acre of the
;. O n August
the people of
) 3,000 and
in Paris and

h t h r o u g h o u t
rre saved his
Cathohcism,
murdered,
on for the
ve anything,
lal i m p r i s o n –
targuerite up
varre and his
esistance.
ed u n t i l the
rother of the
nd H e n r y I I I
made H e n r y
heir to the

lenot . H e n r y
1589-1610) .
dy Cathol ic

} ST BARTHOLOMEW’S DAY MASSACRE
j A Protestant painter , F ranfo is Dubois , dep ic ted the
j merci less s laughter of Protestant m e n , w o m e n , and
i ch i ldren in the streets of Paris in 1 5 7 2 . T h e mas-
j sacre was the most bloody and infamous in the

French Wars of Religion and created a lasting m e m –
i ory of atrocity.

France w o u l d never accept a H u g u e n o t k i n g , and
so in 1593 w i t h his famous q u i p , “Paris is w o r t h
a mass,” H e n r y converted to Cathol ic ism. M o s t
Cathol ic oppos i t ion to h i m collapsed. Once
H e n r y became a Cathol ic he managed to have
the pope annul his childless marriage to M a r ­
guerite so that he could m a r r y M a r i e de’ M e d i c i

and obta in her huge d o w r y . Af fab le , w i t t y , gener­
ous, and exceedingly tolerant , ” H e n r y the
Grea t ” became the most popular k i n g i n French
history, reuni t ing the w a r – t o r n country by r u l i n g
w i t h a very f i r m hand. W i t h the Edict of Nantes
of 1598, he a l lowed the Huguenots to b u i l d a
quasi-state w i t h i n the state, g iv ing them the r i g h t
to have their o w n troops , church organizat ion ,
and pol i t i ca l a u t o n o m y w i t h i n their wal led
towns , but banning them f r o m the royal cour t
and the city of Paris.

Despite his enormous p o p u l a r i t y , H e n r y too
fell v i c t i m to fanat ic ism. A f t e r surv iv ing 18
attempts o n his l i fe , i n 1610 the k i n g was fa ta l ly
stabbed by a Cathol ic fanatic, w h o t o o k advan­
tage of the o p p o r t u n i t y presented w h e n the
r o y a l coach unexpectedly stopped behind a cart
loading hay. Catholics and Protestants al ike
m o u r n e d Henry ‘s death and considered the
assassin m a d . Henry ‘s b r i l l i a n t conc i l ia tory
nature and the horrors of the rel igious wars had
tempered publ ic o p i n i o n .

-lis IVlosv: Catliioiic yafes iy
France’s greatest rivals were the Habsburgs, w h o
possessed vast territories i n the H o l y R o m a n
Empire , control led the elections for emperor, and
had dynastic r ights to the throne of Spain. D u r ­
ing the late sixteenth century, H a b s b u r g Spain
t o o k advantage of French weakness to establish
itself as the d o m i n a n t power i n Europe. W h e n
Emperor Charles V ( w h o had been both H o l y
R o m a n Emperor and k i n g of Spain) abdicated
his thrones in 1556, the Habsburg possessions i n
the H o l y R o m a n Empire and the emperorship
went to his brother, Ferdinand I , and the balance
of his vast d o m a i n to his son, Phi l ip I I (r.
1556-1598) . Philip’s inheritance included Spain,

1560 Huguenot conspiracy of Amboise against Catholic Guise family
1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day, Catholics murder Huguenots
1598 Edict of Nantes granting Huguenots religious toleration

4 7 8 CHAPTER 15 The Age of Confessional Division

M i l a n , Naples , Sicily, the Netherlands, scattered
outposts o n the n o r t h coast of A f r i c a , colonies i n
the Caribbean, Central America , M e x i c o , Peru,
and the Phil ippines. I n 1580 Phihp also inherited
Portugal and its fa r – f lung overseas empire, w h i c h
included a line of t r a d i n g posts f r o m West Afr i ca
to the Spice Islands and the vast colony of unex­
plored Brazi l .

This grave, d is t rus t fu l , r i g i d man saw h i m ­
self as the great protector of the Cathol ic cause
and commit ted Spain to perpetual host i l i ty
t o w a r d M u s l i m s and Ptotestants. O n the M u s l i m
f r o n t he first bul l ied the Mor iscos , the descen­
dants of the Spanish M u s l i m s . The Moriscos had
received Christ ian baptism but were suspected of
secretly pract ic ing Is lam. I n 1568 Phi l ip issued
an edict that banned al l manifestations of M u s ­
l i m culture and ordered the Mor iscos to t u r n
over their ch i ldren to Chris t ian priests to edu­
cate. The remaining Mor iscos were eventually
expelled f r o m the country i n 1609.

Phil ip once said he w o u l d rather lose all his
possessions and die a hundred times than be the
k i n g of heretics. (See Justice in History in this
chapter.) H i s attitude t o w a r d Protestants showed
that he meant w h a t he said. T h r o u g h his marriage
to Queen M a r y I of England (r. 1553-1558) ,
Phi l ip encouraged her persecutions of Protestants,
but they got their revenge. After Mary ‘s death her
half-sister. Queen Elizabeth I , refused Philip’s mar­
riage proposal and in 1577 signed a treaty to
assist the Protestant provinces of the Netherlands,
w h i c h were in rebellion against Spain. To add
insult to injury, the English privateer Sir Erancis
Drake (ca. 1540-1596) conducted a personal w a r
against Catholic Spain by raiding the Spanish
convoys br inging silver f r o m the N e w W o r l d . I n
1587 Drake’s embarrassing successes culminated
w i t h a daring ra id o n the great Spanish por t city
of Cadiz, where, “singeing the k ing of Spain’s
beard, ” he destroyed the anchored Spanish fleet
and many thousands of tons of v i ta l supplies.

Phil ip retaliated by bui lding a huge fleet of
132 ships armed w i t h 3,165 cannons, w h i c h i n
1588 sailed f r o m Portugal to rendezvous w i t h the
Spanish army stationed in the Netherlands and
launch an invasion of England. As the Invincible

A r m a d a , as i t was called, passed t h r o u g h the
English Channel, i t was met by a much smaller
English fleet, assembled out of merchant ships
ref i t for battle. Unable to maneuver as effcctively
as the English i n the f l u k y winds of the channel
and mauled by the rap id- f i r ing English guns, the
Spanish A r m a d a suffered heavy losses and was
forced to retreat to the n o r t h , where i t sustamed
further losses i n storms o f f the coast of Scotland
and Ireland. Barely more than half of the fleet
f inal ly straggled home. The defeat severely shook
Philip’s sense of invincibihty.

The reign of Phil ip 11 i l lustrated better than
any other the contradictions and tensions of the
era. N o monarch had at his grasp as many
resources and territories as Phi l ip, and yet defend­
ing them proved extremely costly. The creaky gov-
ernmenral machinery of Spain put a tremendous
burden on a conscientious k i n g such as Phi l ip, but
even his unflagging energy and dedication to his
duties could not prevent mi l i tary defeat and f inan­
cial disaster. Historians remember Philip’s reign
for its series of state bankruptcies and for the loss
of the D u t c h provinces in the Netherlands, the
most precious jewel in the c r o w n of Spain.

The Dutch Revolt
The Netherlands boasted some of Europe’s r i ch­
est cities, situated amid a vast n e t w o r k of lakes,
rivers, channels, estuaries, and t ida l basins that
periodical ly replenished the exceptionally p r o ­
ductive soil t h r o u g h f l o o d i n g . The Netherlands
consisted of 17 provinces, each w i t h its o w n dis­
t inct ive identity, t radi t ions , and even language.
The southern provinces were p r i m a r i l y French-
speaking; those i n the n o r t h spoke a bewi lder ing
variety of Flemish and D u t c h dialects. W h e n
Phi l ip I I became k i n g of Spain he also inheri ted
al l o f the Netherlands. W i t h his characteristic
bureaucratic mentahty, Phi l ip treated D u t c h
affairs as a management p r o b l e m rather than a
pohtical sore spot, an at t i tude that subordinated
the Netherlands to Spanish interests. Foreign
rule i r r i ta ted the D u t c h , w h o had long enjoyed
ancient privileges inc luding the r ight to raise
their o w n taxes and muster their o w n troops.

Phi l i j
upset the
ZiihoUc.

c o m m u n i
refugees ;
1566 Cal
churches

I n re;
heretics ai
The Inqu
monarch)
formi ty , b
i t becamt
f inding , ii
ing Protes

Philip
under t h
(1508-15
i n N o r t h
princes i n
attacked i
over the r
w h i c h bee
people ca
example t
small v i l k
desecratin
every inh j
ing the c
18,000 pe
died i n ba
thousand
ula t ion , w

The 1
(1533-15
resist to A
the Silen-
provinces
then f l o o
southern j

H i s p
Spain in
kept contr
i n m u t i n o
Spain, inc
agely Ant^
lost 7,000

The Confessional States 479

t h r o u g h the
much smaller
erchant ships
• as effectively
)f the channel
;hsh guns, the
isses and was
re i t sustained
St of Scotland
If of the fleet
leverely shook

id better than
ens ions o f the
asp as many
nd yet defend-
he creaky gov-
a tremendous
1 as Phi l ip , but
l i ca t ion to his
feat and f inan-

Philip’s reign
nd for the loss
therlands, the
• Spain.

Europe’s r i ch-
A ‘ork of lakes,
lal basins that
pt ional ly p r o –
e Netherlands
th its o w n dis-
ven language,
nari ly French-
a bewi lder ing

iaiects. W h e n
also inheri ted
characteristic

reared D u t c h
rather than a

t subordinated
rests. Foreign

I l ong enjoyed
r ight to raise
i w n troops.

Philip’s harsh at t i tude t o w a r d Protestants
upset the Nether lands ‘ delicate balance among
Cathol ic , L u t h e r a n , Calvinist , and Anabapt is t
communit ies , as d i d the arr ival of H u g u e n o t
refugees f r o m the French Wars of Rel ig ion. I n
1566 Calvinist fanatics occupied many Cathol ic
churches and destroyed paintings and statues.

I n response Phihp issued edicts against the
heretics and strengthened the Spanish Inquis i t ion .
The Inquis i t ion i n Spain was an a r m of the
monarchy charged w i t h ensuring religious con­
f o r m i t y , but w h e n introduced in the Netherlands,
it became an invesrigating agency devoted to
f i n d i n g , interrogat ing, and, if necessary, punish­
ing Protestants.

Philip also dispatched 20,000 Spanish troops
under the c o m m a n d of the D u k e of A l b a
(1508-1582) , a veteran of the T u r k i s h campaigns
in N o r t h Afr ica and victories over the Lutheran
princes in the H o l y R o m a n Empire . A l b a directly
attacked the Protestants. H e personally presided
over the mi l i ta ry court , the Counci l of Troubles,
w h i c h became so notor iously tyrannical that the
people called i t the Counc i l of B lood . As an
example to others, he systematically razed several
small villages where there had been incidents of
desecrating Cathohc images and slaughtered
every inhabitant . Alba himself boasted that dur­
ing the campaign against the rebels, he had
18,000 people executed, in addi t ion to those w h o
died in battle or were massacred by soldiers. Sixty
thousand refugees, about t w o percent of the p o p ­
u l a t i o n , went in to exile.

The Prince of Orange, W i l l i a m the Silent
( 1 5 3 3 – 1 5 8 4 ) , organized the D u t c h Revolt to
resist to A l b a . W i t h i n a f e w short years, W i l l i a m
the Silent seized permanent c o n t r o l of the
provinces of H o l l a n d and Zea land, w h i c h were
then f looded by Calvinis t refugees f r o m the
southern provinces.

His policies a fai lure, xAlba was recalled to
Spain i n 1573. Af ter Alba’s departure, no one
kept cont ro l of the unpaid Spanish soldiers, w h o
i n mutinous rage turned against cities loyal to
Spain, inc luding Brussels, Ghent, and most sav­
agely A n t w e r p , the r i c h center of trade. A n t w e r p
lost 7,000 citizens and one-third of its houses to

the “Spanish f u r y , ” w h i c h permanently destroyed
irs prosperity.

Alba’s replacement, the shrewd statesman
and general the D u k e of Parma (r. 1578-1592) ,
ul t imately subdued the southern provinces, w h i c h
remained a Spanish colony. The seven northern
provinces, however, united i n 1579, declared
independence f r o m Spain i n 1581 , and f o r m a l l y
organized as a republic in 1588 (see M a p 15.2).
W i l l i a m the Silent became the stadholder (gover­
nor) of the new Uni ted Provinces, and after his
assassination i n 1584 his 17-year-old son, M a u ­
rice of Nassau, inheri ted the same ti t le .

The Nether lands ‘ struggle for independence
t ransformed the p o p u l a t i o n of the U n i t e d

The Netherlands During the Dutch Revolt

‘ • United Provinces
Spanish Netherlands
Bishopric of Liege

ENGLAND

North
Sea

Amsterdam » : ; ;•
•’HOLLAND

•utrectrt

lEELAND

“VH;,—^ ,An i
Ghen t ,

Flemish’
FLANDERS ‘^’f”^

50 mi
^^^^^^^_^?^^^Lu^bourg

M A P 1 5 . 2

The Netherlands D u r i n g the Dutch Revolt,
ca. 1580
During the late sixteenth century the northern
United Provinces separated from the Spanish Nether­
lands. The independence of the United Provinces
was not recognized by the other European powers
until 1648.

4 8 0 CHAPTER 15 The Age of Confessional Division

1568 Edict against Morisco culture
1580 King Philip II inherits Portugal and the Portuguese Ennpire
1584 Assassination of William the Silent
1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada, failed Spanish invasion of England; the seven northern

provinces of the Nethedands becomes a republic

1609 Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain
1648 Treaty of Westphalia recognizes independence of the Netherlands

Provinces f r o m m i x e d rel igions to staunch
C a l v i n i s m . The alliance w i t h England, w h i c h
p r o v i d e d much-needed f inancia l and m o r a l sup­
p o r t , re inforced the Protestant ident i ty of the
D u t c h , and the fa i lure o f the Spanish A r m a d a to
land Parma’s men i n England guaranteed the
surviva l of an independent Nether lands . The
D u t c h carried on a sporadic and inconclusive
w a r against Spain u n t i l the end of the T h i r t y
Years’ W a r i n 1648, w h e n the in ternat ional
c o m m u n i t y recognized the independent Uni ted
Provinces o f the Nether lands , k n o w n as the
D u t c h Republ ic .

Literafcyre in the Age
of Confessional Division
Churches and m o n a r c h s everywhere demanded
re l ig ious c o n f o r m i t y i n w o r d and deed, a s i tua­
t i o n that w o u l d seem t o st i f le c rea t iv i ty , and
yet the late s ix teenth and early seventeenth
centuries were one of the m o s t r e m a r k a b l e
per iods i n the h i s t o r y of creative l i t e r a t u r e .
Some l i t e r a r y f igures d i d f i n d the i r w o r k s
banned and some had p o l i t i c a l or personal
t roubles w i t h their m o n a r c h . B u t the c o n t r o ­
versies o f the day seemed t o have s t i m u l a t e d
rather than i n h i b i t e d great w r i t e r s . Po l i t i ca l
and rel igious t u r m o i l led t h e m to rise above
the pet ty re l ig ious squabbles t h a t preoccupied
so m a n y of the i r contemporar ies and t o ask
p e n e t r a t i n g questions a b o u t the m e a n i n g of
l i f e . A n d i m p o r t a n t l y , they d i d so i n their
nat ive languages. D u r i n g this p e r i o d the nat ive
or vernacular languages of western E u r o p e

became l i t e r a r y languages, rep lac ing L a t i n as
the d o m i n a n t f o r m of expression, even f o r the
educated elite.

FRENCH IJTERATURE DURSNC THE u t u o i o u s TusMOiL
I n France roya l decrees i n 1520 and 1539 substi­
tuted French for L a t i n i n of f ic ia l legal and gov­
ernment documents. A century later, w i t h the
f o u n d i n g of the Academic Frangaise, i t became
government pol icy to p r o m o t e , protect , and
refine the French language. The greatest masters
of French prose d u r i n g this crucial per iod were
Francois Rabelais (ca. 1483-1553) and M i c h e l
de M o n t a i g n e (1533-1592) .

Trained as a lawyer, Rabelais became a fr iar
and priest but left the Church under a c loud of
heresy to become a physician. Rabelais’s satirical
masterpiece, a series of novels recounting the fan­
tastic and grotesque adventures of the giants Gar-
gantua and Pantagruel, combined an encyclopedic
command of humanist thought w i t h stunning ver­
bal invent ion that has had a lasting influence o n
humorous writers to this day. Rabelais’s o p t i ­
mistic vision of h u m a n nature represented a star­
t l ing contrast to the g r o w i n g anxiety provoked by
the rehgious controversies of his t ime. Rabelais’s
controversial w o r k was banned, and he was
briefly forced i n t o exile.

I t is i r o n i c t h a t M o n t a i g n e became a mas­
ter of French prose. H i s m o t h e r was a Catho l i c
of Spanish-Jewish o r i g i n , and the y o u n g
M i c h e l spoke o n l y L a t i n f o r the f i r s t six years
of his l i fe because his G e r m a n t u t o r k n e w no
French. A f t e r a modest ly successful legal

career, h
to disco\
f o r m we
his essay
i n g gr ie f
tery o f ;
experiem
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French \
were a p
m e a n i n g
voice o f I
I n one es
s u m p t i o n
able a n d i
same t i n
t h o u g h t i
p i c k e d t h
tures. H o
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t h a n she i ,
r e l i g i o n in
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w h o condi
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m u r d e r of
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capaci ty t
and r e l i g i c

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