Forms

What is humanism and what different forms of humanism existed during the Renaissance period? Discuss humanist ideas, examples of humanist thinkers, and writers.

Your response should be at least 200 words in length. You are required to use at least your textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.

Levack, B., Muir, E., & Veldman, M. (2011).
The west encounters & transformations. (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 376-380). Upper Saddle: Pearson. DOI: www.pearsonhighered.com

(Levack, Muir & Veldman, 2011)

No wiki, dictionary.com or plagarism

The Medieval West in Crisis
A T i m e o f D e a t h • A C o l d W m d f r o m t h e East • E c o n o m i c D e p r e s s i o n

a n d S o c i a l T u r m o i l H A n A g e o f W a r f a r e H A T r o u b l e d C h u r c h
a n d t h e D e m a n d f o r R e l i g i o u s C o m f o r t B T h e C u l t u r e o f L o s s

THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY DAWNED WITH A CHILL. IN 1303
AND THEN again during 1 306-1307, the Baltic Sea froze
over. No one had ever heard of that happening
before, and the freezings foretold worse disasters. The
cold spread beyond its normal winter season, arriving
earlier in the autumn and staying later into the sum-
mer. Then it started to rain and did not let up. The
Caspian Sea began to rise, flooding villages along its
shores. In the summer of 1314 all across Europe, crops
rotted in sodden fields. The meager harvest came late,
precipitating a surge in prices for farm produce and
forcing King Edward I

I

of England to impose price
controls. But capping prices did not grow more food.

In 1315 the situation got worse. In England dur-
ing that year, the price of wheat rose 800 percent.
Preachers compared the ceaseless rains to the great
flood in the Bible, and floods did come, overwhelm-
ing dikes in the Netherlands and England, washing
away entire towns in Germany, turning fields into
lakes in France. Everywhere crops failed.

Things got much worse. Torrential rains fell again
in 1316, and for the third straight year the crops failed,
creating the most severe famine in recorded European
history. The effects were most dramatic in the far
north. In Scandinavia agriculture almost disappeared,
in Iceland peasants abandoned farming and turned to
fishing and herding sheep, and in Greenland the Euro-
pean settlers began to die out. Already malnourished,
the people of Europe became susceptible to disease
and famine. Desperate people resorted to desperate
options. They ate cats, rats, insects, reptiles, animal
dung, and tree leaves. Stories spread that some ate

330

their own children. In Poland the stal^’ing were said to
cut down criminals from the gallows for food.

By the 1340s, nearly all of Europe west of Poland
was gripped by a seemingly endless cycle of disease
and famine. Then came the deadliest epidemic in
European history, the Black Death, which killed at
least one-third of the total population. The economy
collapsed. Trade disappeared. Industry shriveled.
Hopeless peasants and urban workers revolted
against their masters, demanding relief for their farr-
lies. Neither state nor church could provide it. The
two great medieval kingdoms of France and England
became locked in a struggle that depleted royal treas-
uries and wasted the aristocracy in a series of clashes
that historians call the Hundred Years’ War. The popes
left the dangerous streets of Rome for Avignon,
France, where they were obliged to extort money to
survive. After the pope returned to Rome, a group of
French cardinals refused to go and elected a second
pope, leading to the Great Schism when Europe was
divided by allegiances to two different popes.

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the
West had asserted itself against Islam through the Cru-
sades and spread Catholic Christianity to the far cor-
ners of Europe. During the fourteenth and early
fifteenth centuries, however, the West drew into itself
due to war, epidemics, and conflicts with the Mongol
and Ottoman Empires. As an additional shock, the
Byzantine Empire, once the bastion of Orthodox Chris-
tianity, fell to the Muslim armies of the Ottomans. This
chapter explores these encounters with death and tur-
moil, and asks this question: How did the death and

THE C
In 147i
tile Bell
to pain
Mehmt
the By2
encoun
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the hist

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transfoi

ATI{
• W h

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evident
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ving were said to
for food.
le west of Poland
; cycle of disease
iest epidemic in

which killed at
•n. The economy
lustry shriveled,
/orkers revolted
ief for their fami-

provide it. The
ice and England
leted royal treas-
series of clashes

‘ War. The popes
le for Avignon,
extort money to
ome, a group of
elected a second
‘hen Europe was
it popes,
th centuries the
hrough the Cru-
y to the far cor-
enth and early
t drew into itself
vith the Mongol
onal shock, the
Orthodox Chris-
Ottomans. This

1 death and tur-
I the death and

THE OTTOMAN SULTAN
In 1478 the Venetian painter. Gen-
tile Bellini, went to Constantinople
to paint the portrait of Sultan
Mehmet II, who had conquered
the Byzantine Empire. Hence,
encounters between the Christian
Europe and the Turks became one
of the most important themes in
the history of West.

turmoil of fourteenth- and fifthteenth-century Europe
transform the identity of the West?

A TIME OF DEATH
• W h a t c a u s e d t h e d e a t h s o f so m a n y

E u r o p e a n s ?

T h e m a g n i t u d e o f Europe’s d e m o g r a p h i c crisis is
evident f r o m the r a w n u m b e r s . In 1300 the popu^
l a t i o n o f E u r o p e was a b o u t 74 m i l l i o n — r o u g h l y

15 percent o f its c u r r e n t p o p u l a t i o n . P o p u l a t i o n
size can be a n elementary measiure o f the success
o f a n e c o n o m y t o keep people alive, a n d by this
measure E u r o p e had been very successful up t o
a b o u t 1 3 0 0 . I t had a p p r o x i m a t e l y d o u b l e d its
p o p u l a t i o n over the previous 3 0 0 years. A f t e r the
1340s, however, Europe’s a b i l i t y to sustain its
p o p u l a t i o n evaporated. P o p u l a t i o n fell t o just 5 2
m i l l i o n . T h e d e m o g r a p h i c crisis o f the f o u r t e e n t h
century was the greatest n a t u r a l disaster i n West-
ern c i v i l i z a t i o n since the epidemics o f a n t i q u i t y .
H o w d i d i t happen?

331

332 CHAPTER 11 The Medieval West In Crisis

Famine
W i d e s p r e a d f a m i n e , caused b y a crisis i n a g r i c u l –
t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , began d u r i n g the decade o f
1 3 1 0 – 1 3 2 0 . T h e a g r i c u l t i u r a l r e v o l u t i o n o f the
e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y h a d m a d e a v a i l a b l e m o r e f o o d
a n d m o r e n u t r i t i o u s f o o d , t r i g g e r i n g the g r o w t h
o f the p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g the M i d d l e Ages. D u r –
i n g the t w e l f t h a n d t h i r t e e n t h centuries, vast
t r a c k s o f v i r g i n forests w e r e cleared f o r f a r m i n g ,
especially i n eastern E u r o p e . A f t e r a l l the g o o d
b o t t o m l a n d w a s cleared, f a r m e r s m o v e d t o clear
t h e m o r e m a r g i n a l l a n d o n h i l l s a n d m o u n t a i n –
sides. These clearings created s o i l e r o s i o n t h a t
c o n t r i b u t e d t o the d e v a s t a t i n g f l o o d s o f the
1 3 1 0 s . T h u s , h u m a n actions f a c i l i t a t e d the eco-
l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e . B y the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y n o
m o r e v i r g i n l a n d w a s a v a i l a b l e f o r c l e a r i n g ,
w h i c h m e a n t t h a t a s t i l l – g r o w i n g p o p u l a t i o n t r i e d
t o s u r v i v e o n a f i x e d a m o u n t o f f a r m i n g l a n d .
Because o f the l i m i t a t i o n s o f m e d i e v a l a g r i c u l –
t u r e , the a b i l i t y o f f a r m e r s t o p r o d u c e f o o d c o u l d
n o t keep u p w i t h u n c h e c k e d p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h .
T h e p r o p e n s i t y f o r f a m i n e w a s especially acute i n
h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d w e s t e r n E u r o p e . I n eastern
E u r o p e the l o w e r p o p u l a t i o n a n d better balance
b e t w e e n a g r i c u l t u r e , a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y , a n d f i s h –
i n g m e a n t the p o p u l a t i o n r e m a i n e d better fed a n d
less susceptible t o f a m i n e a n d disease.

A t t h e same t i m e there w a s p r o b a b l y a
change i n c l i m a t e , k n o w n as the ” L i t t l e Ice A g e . ”
T h e mean a n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e s d r o p p e d j u s t
e n o u g h t o m a k e i t i m p o s s i b l e t o g r o w c r o p s i n
the m o r e n o r t h e r l y p a r t s o f E u r o p e a n d at h i g h
elevations such as the A l p s . Before t h e f o u r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y , f o r e x a m p l e , grapes w e r e g r o w n i n E n g –
l a n d t o p r o d u c e w i n e , b u t w i t h the d e c l i n e i n
t e m p e r a t u r e s , the grape v i n e y a r d s ceased t o p r o –
d u c e . G r o w i n g grapes i n E n g l a n d became possi-
ble a g a i n o n l y w i t h g l o b a l w a r m i n g i n the
t w e n t y – f i r s t c e n t u r y . T h e result o f the L i t t l e Ice
A g e w a s t w o f o l d . F i r s t , there w a s less l a n d a v a i l –
able f o r c u l t i v a t i o n as i t became i m p o s s i b l e t o
g r o w c r o p s i n m a r g i n a l areas. Second, a harsher
c l i m a t e s h o r t e n e d the g r o w i n g season, w h i c h
m e a n t t h a t even w h e r e c r o p s c o u l d s t i l l g r o w ,
t h e y w e r e less a b u n d a n t .

T h e i m b a l a n c e between f o o d p r o d u c t i o n a n d
p o p u l a t i o n set o f f a d r e a d f u l cycle o f f a m i n e a n d
disease. I n s u f f i c i e n t f o o d resulted i n either m a l n u –
t r i t i o n o r s t a r v a t i o n . Those w h o suffered f r o m
p r o l o n g e d m a l n u t r i t i o n w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y .suscep-
t i b l e t o e p i d e m i c diseases, such as t y p h u s , c h o l e r a ,
a n d d y s e n t e r y B y 1 3 0 0 , c h i l d r e n o f the p o o r faced
the p r o b a b i l i t y o f extreme hunger once or r w i c e
d u r i n g the course o f t h e i r c h i l d h o o d . I n P i s t o i a ,
I t a l y , priests k e p t the Book of the Dead, w h i c h
r e c o r d e d the p a t t e r n : f a m i n e i n 1 3 1 3 , f a m i n e i n
1 3 2 8 – 1 3 2 9 , f a m i n e a n d e p i d e m i c i n 1 3 3 9 – 1 3 4 0
t h a t k i l l e d o n e – q u a r t e r o f the p o p u l a t i o n , f a m i n e
i n 1 3 4 6 , f a m i n e a n d e p i d e m i c i n 1 3 4 7 , a n d t h e n
the k i l l i n g h a m m e r b l o w — t h e B l a c k D e a t h i n
1348 (see M a p 1 1 . 1 ) .

The Black Death
F o l l o w i n g o n the heels o f the G r e a t F a m i n e , the
B l a c k D e a t h a r r i v e d in E u r o p e i n the s p r i n g o f
1348 w i t h b r u t a l f o r c e . I n the l o v e l y h i l l t o p c i t y o f
Siena, I t a l y , a l l i n d u s t r y s t o p p e d , carters refused t o
b r i n g p r o d u c e a n d c o o k i n g o i l i n f r o m the c o u n –
t r y s i d e , a n d o n June 2 the d a i l y records o f the c i t y
c o u n c i l a n d c i v i l c o u r t s a b r u p t l y ended, as i f the
c i t y fathers a n d judges h a d a l l d i e d o r rushed
h o m e i n p a n i c . A l o c a l c h r o n i c l e r , A g n o l o d i T u r a ,
w r o t e d o w n his m e m o r i e s o f those t e r r i b l e days:

Father a b a n d o n e d c h i l d , wife h u s b a n d , one
b r o t h e r a n o t h e r ; f o r this illness seemed t o
s t r i k e t h r o u g h the b r e a t h a n d s i g h t . A n d so
t h e y d i e d . A n d none c o u l d be f o u n d t o b u r y
t h e d e a d f o r m o n e y o r f r i e n d s h i p . M e m b e r s
o f a h o u s e h o l d b r o u g h t t h e i r dead t o a d i t c h
as best they c o u l d , w i t h o u t p r i e s t , w i t h o u t
d i v i n e offices. N o r d i d t h e [ d e a t h ] b e l l s o u n d .
A n d i n m a n y places i n Siena great p i t s were
d u g a n d p i l e d deep w i t h the m u l t i t u d e o f
d e a d — A n d I , A g n o l o d i T u r a , called the
Fat, b u r i e d m y f i v e c h i l d r e n w i t h m y o w n
h a n d s . A n d there w e r e also those w h o were
so sparsely c o v e r e d w i t h e a r t h t h a t the dogs
d r a g g e d t h e m f o r t h a n d d e v o u r e d m a n y b o d –
ies t h r o u g h o u t the city.^

Spread of the

134″,

134!

134?

135C
After

Area
totall

ATLANT
OCEAh

MAP 11.1
Spread o f t l
After the Blac
killing at leasi

D u r i n g t h
of the Sienese
great cathedrs
•vorld, stoppei
ack o f w o r k e

m o s t p r o s p e r !
r e c o v e r e d a n d

N o disease
signs o n the bo
ro one q u i t e tyj
the m a t t e r w h i

A Time of Death 333

r o d u c t i o n a n –
o f f a m i n e anc

I either m a l n u –
s u f f e r e d f r o m
: u ] a r l y suscep-
p h u s , c h o l e r a ,
the p o o r faced
once or t w i c e

3 d . I n Pistoia,
Dec3d, w h i c h

1 3 , f a m i n e i n
m 1 3 3 9 – 1 3 4 0
l a t i o n , f a m i n e
3 4 7 , a n d t h e n
ack D e a t h i n

t F a m i n e , the
the s p r i n g o f
h i l l t o p c i t y o f

ters refused to
o m the c o u n –
rds o f the c i t y
i d e d , as i f the
ed o r rushed
j n o l o d i T u r a ,
errible days:

h u s b a n d , one
ss seemed t o
sight. A n d so
o u n d t o b u r y
l i p . M e m b e r s
;ad t o a d i t c h
iest, w i t h o u t

tl] be ll s o u n d ,
eat p i t s w e r e
m u l t i t u d e o f
a, c a l l e d the
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ise w h o w e r e
t h a t the dogs
:d m a n y b o d –

• r
V
f

Spread of the Black Death

1347

1348

C'”‘:- 1349
1350

After 1350

L . ; Area partially or
totally spared

North
Sea r

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

f – > Paris,

?’•}’;• ‘ • ‘ T M o n t p e l l i e r i

0 400 km
I * – H 1
0 400 mi

MAP 11.1
Spread o f the Black Death
After the Black Death first appeared in the ports of Italy in 1348, it spread relentlessly throughout most of Europe,
killing at least 20 million people in Europe alone.

D u r i n g the s u m m e r o f 1 3 4 8 m o r e t h a n h a l f
o f t h e Sienese d i e d . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Siena’s
great c a t h e d r a l , p l a n n e d t o be the largest i n t h e
w o r l d , s t o p p e d a n d w a s never r e s u m e d d u e t o a
l a c k o f w o r k e r s . I n f a c t , Siena, once a m o n g t h e
m o s t p r o s p e r o u s cities i n E u r o p e , never f u l l y
r e c o v e r e d a n d lost its e c o n o m i c p r e e m i n e n c e .

N o disease left m o r e d i s t i n c t i v e a n d d i s t u r b i n g
signs o n the b o d y t h a n the Black D e a t h . A c c o r d i n g
t o one q u i t e t y p i c a l c o n t e m p o r a r y d e s c r i p t i o n : ” a l l
the m a t t e r w h i c h exuded f r o m t h e i r bodies let o f f

a n unbearable stench; sweat, excrement, s p i t t l e ,
b r e a t h , so f e t i d as t o be o v e r p o w e r i n g ; u r i n e t u r –
b i d , t h i c k , b l a c k o r r e d . . . . I n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o
The Decameron, G i o v a n n i Boccaccio described
w h a t he h a d witnessed o f the s y m p t o m s :

I n the year 1348 after the f r u i t f u l i n c a r n a t i o n
o f the Son o f G o d , t h a t m o s t b e a u t i f u l o f I t a l –
ian cities, n o b l e Florence, was attacked b y
deadly plague T h e s y m p t o m s . . . began b o t h
i n m e n a n d w o m e n w i t h certain swellings i n

334 CHAPTER 11 The Medieval West in Crisis

the g r o i n or under the a r m p i t . T h e y g r e w t o
the size o f a small apple or a n egg, m o r e or less,
a n d were v u l g a r l y called t u m o r s . I n a short
space o f t i m e these t u m o r s spread f r o m the
t w o parts named [ t o ] a l l over the body. Soon
after this the s y m p t o m s changed a n d black or
p u r p l e spots appeared o n the arms or thighs or
any other p a r t o f the body, sometimes a f e w
large ones, sometunes m a n y l i t t l e ones. These
spots were a c e r t a i n sign o f death, just as the
o r i g i n a l t u m o r h a d been a n d s t i l l remained.^

T h e fear o f the B l a c k D e a t h a n d t h e i n a b i l i t y
t o d i s c e r n its causes focused the a t t e n t i o n o f c o n –
t e m p o r a r i e s o n the bodies o f the sick. A l m o s t a n y
d i s c o l o r a t i o n o f the s k i n or g l a n d u l a r s w e l l i n g s
c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as a sign o f the B l a c k Death’s
presence. Physicians a n d surgeons, o f course,
w e r e t h e e x p e r t s i n r e a d i n g the signs o f the b o d y
f o r disease. A s v i c t i m s a n d t h e i r d i s t r a u g h t f a m i –
lies s o o n d i s c o v e r e d , h o w e v e r , p h y s i c i a n s d i d n o t
r e a l l y k n o w w h a t the g l a n d u l a r s w e l l i n g s a n d d i s –
c o l o r a t i o n s o f the s k i n m e a n t . Boccaccio r e p o r t e d
t h a t ” N o d o c t o r ‘ s a d v i c e , n o m e d i c i n e c o u l d

o v e r c o m e o r al l evi ate this disease E i t h e r the
disease w a s such t h a t n o t r e a t m e n t w a s possible
o r the d o c t o r s w e r e so i g n o r a n t t h a t they d i d n o t
k n o w w h a t caused i t , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y c o u l d n o t
a d m i n i s t e r the p r o p e r r e m e d y . ‘ ” *

I n the absence o f a n alternative, g o v e r n m e n t
officials resorted t o quarantines t o stop the spread
o f the disease. T h e y l o c k e d u p infected households
f o r 40 days, w h i c h was especially h a r d o n the p o o r
w h o needed t o w o r k t o eat. T o m a i n t a i n q u a r a n –
tines a n d b u r y the dead, c i t y councils created p u b l i c
health bureaucracies, complete w i t h their o w n staff
physicians, grave diggers, a n d police force. T h e
e x t r a o r d i n a r y p o w e r s g r a n t e d t o the p u b l i c h e a l t h
authorities helped e x p a n d the a u t h o r i t y o f the state
over its citizens i n the name o f p u r s u m g the c o m –
m o n g o o d . T h e expansion o f g o v e r n m e n t a l
bureaucracy t h a t di sti ngui shed m o d e r n f r o m
medieval states was p a r t l y the result o f the need t o
keep h u m a n bodies under surveillance a n d c o n –
t r o l — a need t h a t began w i t h the Black D e a t h .

E x p e r t s s t i l l d i s p u t e the cause o f the B l a c k
D e a t h , b u t there is g r o w i n g d o u b t a b o u t the

v a l i d i t y o f the t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y t h a t the b u b o n i c
p l a g u e w a s the m o s t l i k e l y c u l p r i t . T h e d i s p u t e
a b o u t t h e cause o f the B l a c k D e a t h is a r e v e a l i n g
e x a m p l e o f the d i f f i c u l t y o f i n t e r p r e t i n g evidence
f r o m the d i s t a n t past. A c c o r d i n g t o the t r a d i –
t i o n a l t h e o r y the b u b o n i c p l a g u e c a n appear i n
t w o f o r m s . I n the f i r s t f o r m i t is u s u a l l y t r a n s m i t –
ted t o h u m a n s by a flea t h a t has b i t t e n a r o d e n t
i n f e c t e d w i t h t h e Yersinia pestis b a c i l l u s , u s u a l l y
a r a t . T h e i n f e c t e d flea t h e n bites a h u m a n v i c –
t i m . T h e i n f e c t i o n enters the b l o o d s t r e a m , caus-
i n g i n f l a m e d s w e l l i n g s c a l l e d buboes (hence,
” b u b o n i c ” p l a g u e ) i n the g l a n d s o f the g r o i n o r
a r m p i t , i n t e r n a l b l e e d i n g , a n d d i s c o l o r a t i o n o f
the s k i n , s y m p t o m s s i m i l a r t o those B o c c a c c i o
d e s c r i b e d , w h i c h is w h y some h i s t o r i a n s have
t h o u g h t t h a t the ” B l a c k D e a t h ” w a s t h e b u b o n i c
p l a g u e . T h e second f o r m o f plague w a s the p n e u –
m o n i c t y p e , w h i c h i n f e c t e d the lungs a n d s p r e a d
by c o u g h i n g a n d sneezing. E i t h e r f o r m c o u l d be
l e t h a l , b u t the c o m p l e x e p i d e m i o l o g y o f b u b o n i c
p l a g u e m e a n t t h a t the f i r s t f o r m c o u l d n o t be
t r a n s m i t t e d d i r e c t l y f r o m one p e r s o n t o a n o t h e r .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y , a f t e r b e i n g
i n f e c t e d , m a n y v i c t i m s p r o b a b l y d e v e l o p e d p n e u –
m o n i a as a s e c o n d a r y s y m p t o m , w h i c h t h e n
spread q u i c k l y t o o t h e r s . A s one c o n t e m p o r a r y
p h y s i c i a n p u t i t , one p e r s o n c o u l d s e e m i n g l y
i n f e c t t h e e n t i r e w o r l d . I n some cases, the d o c t o r
c a u g h t the illness a n d d i e d before the p a t i e n t d i d .

T h e v i s i t a t i o n s o f the b u b o n i c p l a g u e i n the
late n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s , w h i c h
have been observed b y p h y s i c i a n s t r a i n e d i n
m o d e r n m e d i c i n e , f o r m e d t h a t basis f o r the t r a –
d i t i o n a l t h e o r y l i n k i n g the B l a c k D e a t h t o the
b u b o n i c p l a g u e . A l e x a n d r e Yersin d i s c o v e r e d t h e
b u b o n i c p l a g u e b a c i l l u s i n H o n g K o n g i n 1 8 9 4
a n d t r a c e d its spread t h r o u g h rats a n d fleas. F o r
m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y , m o s t h i s t o r i a n s a n d e p i –
d e m i o l o g i s t s have t h o u g h t t h a t s o m e t h i n g s i m i –
l a r t o t h i s m u s t have h a p p e n e d i n 1 3 4 8 .

H o w e v e r , there are problems w i t h this t r a d i –
t i o n a l theory. T h e Black D e a t h spread m u c h m o r e
r a p i d l y f r o m person t o person and place t o place
t h a n the b u b o n i c plague does i n m o d e r n epidemics.
For example, rats d o n o t travel very far very fast,
a n d in m o d e m examples the b u b o n i c plague has

he b u b o n i c
“he d i s p u t e
a r e v e a l i n g

i g evidence
the t r a d i –

I appear i n
y t r a n s m i t –
i n a r o d e n t
lus, u s u a l l y
l u m a n v i c –
e a m , caus-
les (hence,
le g r o i n o r
i o r a t i o n o f
B o c c a c c i o

r i a n s have
he b u b o n i c
s the p n e u –
and s p r e a d
n c o u l d be
o f b u b o n i c
a i d n o t be
to another,
after b e i n g
j p e d p n e u –
/hich t h e n
t e m p o r a r y
s e e m i n g l y

t h e d o c t o r
l a t i e n t d i d .
igue i n t h e
ies, w h i c h
t r a i n e d i n
o r the t r a –
a t h t o the
o v e r e d the
ig i n 1 8 9 4
i fleas. F o r
5 a n d e p i –
h i n g s i m i –

this t r a d i –
nuch m o r e
;e t o place
epidemics.

: very fast,
plague has

A Time of Death 335

rarely spread more t h a n twelve miles per year. I n
1348, however, the Black D e a t h traveled as far i n a
day as r a t – b o r n e b u b o n i c plague does i n a year.
M a n y o f the r e p o r t e d s y m p t o m s f r o m the f o u r –
teenth c e n t u r y d o n o t m a t c h the s y m p t o m s
observed i n m o d e r n plague v i c t i m s . M o r e o v e r , the
Black D e a t h , u n l i k e the b u b o n i c p l a g u e , seems t o
have h a d a l o n g i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d before the f i r s t
s y m p t o m s appeared. Because o f the l o n g i n c u b a –
t i o n , those w h o had the disease t r a n s m i t t e d i t t o
others before they k n e w they w e r e sick, w h i c h
helps e x p l a i n w h y the disease was so l e t h a l despite
a t t e m p t s t o q u a r a n t i n e those a f f l i c t e d w i t h i t . T h e
m o s t recent research suggests t h a t the Black D e a t h
m a y have been caused by a n u n i d e n t i f i e d v i r u s
t h a t p r o d u c e d bleeding s i m i l a r t o the E b o l a v i r u s
t h a t has appeared i n A f r i c a i n recent years.

I n E u r o p e a b o u t 2 0 m i U i o n p e o p l e d i e d ,
w i t h the deaths u s u a l l y c l u s t e r e d i n a m a t t e r o f a

f e w w e e k s o r m o n t h s a f t e r the disease f i r s t
a p p e a r e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l e . T h e d e a t h t o l l ,
h o w e v e r , v a r i e d e r r a t i c a l l y f r o m place t o place,
r a n g i n g f r o m a b o u t 2 0 t o 9 0 p e r c e n t . So g r e a t
w a s the t o l l i n s o u t h e r n a n d w e s t e r n E u r o p e t h a t
e n t i r e villages w e r e d e p o p u l a t e d o r a b a n d o n e d .
Paris l o s t h a l f its p o p u l a t i o n , F l o r e n c e as m u c h
as f o u r – f i f t h s , a n d Venice t w o – t h i r d s . I n t h e sea-
p o r t o f T r a p a n i , I t a l y , e v e r y o n e a p p a r e n t l y d i e d
o r l e f t . L i v i n g i n enclosed spaces, m o n k s a n d
n u n s w e r e especially h a r d h i t . A l l the Franciscans
o f Carcassonne a n d M a r s e i l l e i n France d i e d . I n
M o n t p e l l i e r , F r a n c e , o n l y 7 o f the 1 4 0 D o m i n i –
cans s u r v i v e d . I n isolated K i l k e n n y , I r e l a n d ,
B r o t h e r J o h n C l y n f o u n d h i m s e l f l e f t alone
a m o n g his dead b r o t h e r s , a n d he began t o w r i t e a
d i a r y o f w h a t he h a d w i t n e s s e d because he w a s
a f r a i d he m i g h t be the last p e r s o n l e f t a l i v e i n t h e
w o r l d . (See Different Voices i n t h i s chapter.)

THE TRIUMPH OF DEATH
A detail from Francesco Traini’s fresco. The Triumph of Death, in the Camposanto, Pisa,
ca. 1 350. Frescoes such as this reflect the horror of the Black Death.

Source: Cemetery, Pisa, Italy/Canali PhotoBank, Milan/SuperStock

3 3 6 CHAPTER 11 The Medieval West in Crisis

DIFFERENT VOICES T H E BLACK DEATH FORETELLS T H E E N D OF T H E W O R L D
Christianity had a long tradition, rooted in the Bible,
of prophecies about the end of the world. The most
common theology of the end is called millenarian-
ism, tlie belief that there would be definitive signs in
human events of the coming of the end. These
prophecies took various forms. One form predicted
the reign of Antichrist, who would rule for a 1,000
years before the second coming of Christ. The
prophetic tradition encouraged people to look for
signs of the Antichrist, and the appearance of the
Black Death seemed to be one of those signs.
Another form popular in Germany depicted the
return from the dead of the Emperor Frederick II,
who would cleanse the earth in preparation for
Christ’s return. The first document reports rumors
from Rome in 1349 sent to a friar in England.

There are various prophets in the regions
around Rome, whose identity is still secret, who
have been making up stories like this for years.
They say that this very year, 1349, Antichrist is
aged ten, and is a most beautiful child, so well
educated in all branches of knowledge that no
one now living can equal him. And they also say
that there is another boy, now aged twelve and
living beyond the land of the Tartars [Mongols],
who has been brought up as a Christian and that
this is the one who will destroy the Saracens
[Muslims] and become the greatest man in Chris-
tendom, but his power will be quickly brought to
an end by the coming of Antichrist.

These prophets also say, among a great deal
else, that the present pope will come to a violent
end, and that after his death there will be more
revolutions in the world than there have ever been
before. But after that another pope will arise, a

good and just man, who will appoint God-fearing
cardinals, and there will be almost total peace in
his time. And after him there will be no other
pope, but Antichrist will come and reveal himself.

Source; The Stack Death trans, and ed, Rosemary Horrox
(Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press,
1994), 154. Reprinted by permission.

The second source by johann von Winterthur, a
Franciscan friar, reports events from the time of the
Black Death in 1348. Winterthur is decidedly skepti-
cal of the millenarian prophecies.

In these times it was freely spread abroad
among men of various races, indeed of every
race, that the Emperor Fredenck I I . . .would return
in the full might of his power to reform the cor-
rupt church completely. The men who believed
this also added that it was inevitable that he
would return, even if he had been cut into a
thousand pieces, or burnt to ashes, because it had
been foretold that this would happen and it could
not possibly be otherwise… .After resuming a
power more just and a rule more glorious than
before, he will cross the seas with a large army
and will resign his power on the Mount of Olives
or at the dry tree [that is in Jerusalem].

I do not cease to be amazed by this false belief;
that anyone could hope for or believe in the
revival of a man dead 80 years, who was emperor
for 30 years. The men who hold this false belief
have been deceived just like the Jews, who believe
that King David will be raised up by the Lord to
reign again over Israel as he did in the past. They
believe it on the basis that the Lord, speaking
through the prophets, said: “I will raise up my

T h e B l a c k D e a t h k e p t c o m i n g b a c k . I n t h e
M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a s i n w h e r e t h e m a n y p o r t
c i t i e s f o r m e d a n e t w o r k o f c o n t a g i o n , t h e
p l a g u e r e a p p e a r e d b e t w e e n 1 3 4 8 a n d 1 7 2 1 i n
o n e p o r t o r a n o t h e r a b o u t e v e r y 2 0 y e a r s .
Some o f t h e l a t e r o u t b r e a k s w e r e j u s t as l e t h a l
as t h e i n i t i a l 1 3 4 8 c a t a s t r o p h e . F l o r e n c e l o s t
h a l f i t s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 4 0 0 ; V e n i c e l o s t a t h i r d
i n 1 5 7 5 – 1 5 7 7 a n d a t h i r d a g a i n i n 1 6 3 0 – 1 6 3 1 .

Less e x p o s e d t h a n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , n o r t h –
e r n E u r o p e s u f f e r e d less a n d s a w t h e l a s t o f t h e
d r e a d disease i n t h e G r e a t P l a g u e o f L o n d o n o f
1 6 6 5 – 1 6 6 6 . M o s t o f P o l a n d escaped w i t h o u t
a n y signs o f t h e disease, a n d e a s t – c e n t r a l
E u r o p e i n g e n e r a l w a s f a r less severely h i t t h a n
w e s t e r n E u r o p e , p r o b a b l y because t h e sparse
p o p u l a t i o n m a d e t h e s p r e a d o f c o n t a g i o n less
l i k e l y .

I

344 CHAPTER 11 The Medieval West in Crisis

ESBSiPl CONQUESTS OF THE OTTOMAN TURKS
1281-1326 Reign of Osman I
1308 Ottoman Empire advances into Europe
1389 Battle of Kosovo; Serbia becomes vassal state of the Ottomans
1451-1481 Reign of Mehmed II, “The Conqueror”
1453 Fall of Constantinople and death of last Byzantine emperor

t a k e place i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m the eastern pressures
a n d influences. T h e M o n g o l c o n q u e s t f i n i s h e d
o f f K i e v a n R u s . A l t h o u g h M o n g o l s b u r n e d d o w n
M o s c o w i n t h e w i n t e r o f 1 2 3 8 a n d p i l l a g e d i t i n
1 2 9 3 , its r e m o t e , f o r e s t e d l o c a t i o n o f f e r e d some
s e c u r i t y f r o m f u r t h e r a t t a c k s a n d o c c u p a t i o n . A s
a r e s u l t , M o s c o w a n d the R e p u b l i c o f N o v g o r o d ,
w h i c h escaped the M o n g o l a t t a c k s e n t i r e l y ,
r e p l a c e d K i e v as the centers o f p o w e r i n w h a t
w o u l d become Russia. T h e O t t o m a n conquests
also c r e a t e d a l a s t i n g M u s l i m presence w i t h i n the
b o r d e r s o f E u r o p e , especially i n Bosnia a n d
A l b a n i a . I n succeeding centuries C h r i s t i a n
E u r o p e a n d t h e M u s l i m O t t o m a n E m p i r e w o u l d
be l o c k e d i n a d e a d l y c o m p e t i t i v e e m b r a c e , b u t
t h e y also b e n e f i t e d f r o m i n n u m e r a b l e c u l t u r a l
exchanges a n d r e g u l a r t r a d e . H o s t i H t y b e t w e e n
the t w o sides w a s r e c u r r e n t b u t never i n e v i t a b l e
a n d w a s b r o k e n b y l o n g p e r i o d s o f p e a c e f u l
e n g a g e m e n t . I n fact, the C h r i s t i a n k i n g d o m s o f
w e s t e r n E u r o p e w e n t t o w a r f a r m o r e o f t e n w i t h
one a n o t h e r t h a n w i t h the T u r k s .

ECONOMIC DEPRESSION
AND SOCIAL TURMOIL
s H o w d i d d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e r u d i m e n t a r y

g l o b a l e c o n o m y o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s
p r e c i p i t a t e a l m o s t c o m p l e t e f i n a n c i a l
c o l l a p s e a n d w i d e s p r e a d s o c i a l d i s c o n t e n t
i n E u r o p e ?

A d d i n g i n s u l t t o i n j u r y i n t h i s t i m e o f f a m i n e ,
p l a g u e , a n d c o n q u e s t , the West began t o suffer a
m a j o r e c o n o m i c depression d u r i n g the f o u r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y . T h e e c o n o m i c b o o m f u e l e d b y the a g r i –
c u l t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n a n d the r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f E u r o –
pean cities d u r i n g the e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y a n d the
c o m m e r c i a l p r o s p e r i t y o f the t w e l f t h a n d t h i r –
t e e n t h centuries petered o u t i n the f o u r t e e n t h .
T h e causes o f t h i s e c o n o m i c c a t a s t r o p h e w e r e
c o m p l e x , b u t t h e consequences w e r e o b v i o u s .
Businesses w e n t bust, banks c o l l a p s e d , g u i l d s
were i n t u r m o i l , a n d w o r k e r s r e b e l l e d .

A t the same t i m e , the effects o f the depres-
s i o n w e r e u n e v e n l y f e l t . Eastern E u r o p e , w h i c h
w a s less f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
e c o n o m y , f a r e d better t h a n w e s t e r n E u r o p e . T h e
e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s f o r m a n y peasants a c t u a l l y
i m p r o v e d because there w a s a l a b o r s h o r t a g e i n
the c o u n t r y s i d e due t o t h e loss o f p o p u l a t i o n .
F o r c e d t o p a y t h e i r peasants m o r e f o r t h e i r l a b o r
a n d c r o p s , l a n d l o r d s s a w t h e i r o w n f o r t u n e s
decline. F i n d i n g i t h a r d e r t o pay the h i g h e r prices
f o r f o o d , u r b a n w o r k e r s p r o b a b l y s u f f e r e d t h e
m o s t because t h e i r wages d i d n o t keep u p w i t h
the cost o f l i v i n g .

The Collapse of Ssitsiinationai
Trade and Banking
A f t e r the b r e a k u p o f the M o n g o l E m p i r e a n d the
conquests o f T a m e r l a n e , t r a d e b e t w e e n E u r o p e
a n d A s i a d w i n d l e d . T h e e n t i r e f i n a n c i a l i n f r a –
s t r u c t u r e o f m e d i e v a l E u r o p e w a s t i e d t o t h i s
i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e i n l u x u r y g o o d s . T h e success-
f u l , e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l I t a l i a n m e r c h a n t s w h o d o m i –
n a t e d t h e l u x u r y t r a d e d e p o s i t e d t h e i r e n o r m o u s
p r o f i t s i n I t a l i a n b a n k s . T h e I t a h a n b a n k e r s l e n t
m o n e y t o the a r i s t o c r a c y a n d r o y a l t y o f n o r t h e r n
E u r o p e t o f i n a n c e the purchases o f e x o t i c l u x u –
ries a n d t o f i g h t w a r s . T h e w h o l e system w a s

m u t u a l l y n
W i t h the dis
g o o d s , the
l a p s e d , p r e
1 3 4 6 , a l l th(
ter o f E u r o p

T h e l u x
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m a t e r i a l s a i
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T h e p r o d u c i
sophisticatec
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T h e m a n u f a (
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such as car]
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g u i l d s w e r e d(
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U n d e r the m a
tices, w h o w o
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I n m a n y c;
;he e c o n o m i c i
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p o l i t i c s . T h e m
jf the u r b a n
; f r e n a p r e r e q i
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rect the i n t e r e j
helped stabilize
ence i n c i t y ha
and sports cor

ed b y the a g r i –
z a t i o n o f E u r o –
sntLiry a n d the
e l f t h a n d t h i r –
the f o u r t e e n t h ,
^astrophe w e r e
w e r e o b v i o u s ,
[lapsed, g u i l d s
l i e d .

o f the dep res-
E u r o p e , w h i c h
e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
: n E u r o p e . T h e
asants a c t u a l l y
3or s h o r t a g e i n
o f p o p u l a t i o n ,
f o r t h e i r l a b o r
o w n f o r t u n e s

l e h i g h e r prices
ly s u f f e r e d the
t keep u p w i t h

E m p i r e a n d i h ;
etween Euror.-
f i n a n c i a l i n f r ; . –
as t i e d t o thi.s
i s . T h e success-
m t s w h o d o m i –
t h e i r e n o r m o u s
an banke rs lent
i l t y o f n o r t h e r n
o f e x o t i c l u x u –
3le system w a s

m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g , b u t i t was v e r y f r a g i l e .
W i t h the d i s r u p t i o n o f s u p p l y sources f o r l u x u r y
g o o d s , t h e f i n a n c i a l n e t w o r k s o f E u r o p e c o l –
l a psed, p r e c i p i t a t i n g a m a j o r d e p r e s s i o n . B y
1 3 4 6 , a l l the b a n k s in F l o r e n c e , the b a n k i n g cen-
ter o f E u r o p e , h a d c r a s h e d .

T h e l u x u r y t r a d e t h a t b r o u g h t e x o t i c i t e m s
f r o m A s i a t o E u r o p e represented o n l y h a l f o f t h e
e c o n o m i c e q u a t i o n . T h e o t h e r h a l f w a s the r a w
m a t e r i a l s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s t h a t E u r o –
peans s o l d i n exchange, p r i n c i p a l l y w o o l e n c l o t h .
T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w o o l e n c l o t h d e p e n d e d o n a
s o p h i s t i c a t e d e c o n o m i c system t h a t c o n n e c t e d
shepherds i n E n g l a n d , the N e t h e r l a n d s , a n d
Spain w i t h w o o l e n c l o t h m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n cities.
T h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f c l o t h a n d o t h e r c o m m o d i t i e s
was o r g a n i z e d by g u i l d s , w h i c h w e r e p r o f e s –
s i o n a l associations d e v o t e d t o p r o t e c t i n g the spe-
c i a l interests o f a p a r t i c u l a r t r a d e o r c r a f t a n d t o
m o n o p o l i z i n g p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a d e i n the g o o d s
the g u i l d p r o d u c e d .

T h e r e were t w o types o f g u i l d s . T h e f i r s t t y p e ,
m e r c h a n t g u i l d s , a t t e m p t e d t o m o n o p o l i z e the
l o c a l m a r k e t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c o m m o d i t y . T h e r e
were spice g u i l d s , f r u i t a n d vegetable g u i l d s , a n d
a p o t h e c a r y g u i l d s . T h e second t y p e , c r a f t g u i l d s ,
regulated the m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes o f artisans
such as carpenters, b r i c k l a y e r s , w o o l e n – c l o t h
m a n u f a c t u r e r s , glass b l o w e r s , a n d painters. These
guilds were d o m i n a t e d b y master c r a f t s m e n , w h o
-m t h e i r o w n shops. W o r k i n g f o r wages i n these
•riOps w e r e the j o u r n e y m e n , w h o k n e w the c r a f t
– a t c o u l d n o t yet a f f o r d t o o p e n t h e i r o w n shops.
V n d e r the masters and j o u r n e y m e n w e r e a p p r e n –
r.ces, w h o w o r k e d usually w i t h o u t pay foe a spe-
:-:tic n u m b e r o f years t o l e a r n the t r a d e .

I n m a n y cities the g u i l d s e x p a n d e d f a r b e y o n d
die e c o n o m i c r e g u l a t i o n o f t r a d e a n d m a n u f a c t u r –
i n g t o become the b a c k b o n e o f u r b a n society a n d
p o l i t i c s . T h e masters o f the g u i l d s c o n s t i t u t e d p a r t
of the u r b a n elite, a n d g u i l d m e m b e r s h i p was
o f t e n a prerequisite f o r h o l d i n g p u b l i c o f f i c e . O n e
o f the o b l i g a t i o n s o f c i t y g o v e r n m e n t w a s t o p r o –
tect the interests o f the g u i l d s m e n , w h o i n t u r n
helped stabilize the e c o n o m y t h r o u g h t h e i r i n f l u –
ence i n c i t y h a l l . G u i l d s o f t e n o r g a n i z e d festivals
a n d sports c o m p e t i t i o n s , e n d o w e d chapels, a n d

Economic Depression and Social Turmoil 345

p r o v i d e d f u n e r a l insurance f o r t h e i r m e m b e r s a n d
w e l f a r e f o r the i n j u r e d a n d w i d o w s o f masters.

W h e n the e c o n o m y d e c l i n e d d u r i n g the f o u r –
teenth c e n t u r y , the u r b a n g u i l d s became l i g h t n i n g
r o d s f o r m o u n t i n g social t e n s i o n . G u i l d m o n o p o –
lies p r o d u c e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f l i c t , p r o v o k i n g
anger a m o n g those w h o w e r e b l o c k e d f r o m j o i n –
i n g g u i l d s , y o u n g j o u r n e y m e n w h o earned l o w
wages, a n d those w h o f o u n d themselves u n e m –
p l o y e d due t o the d e p r e s s i o n . These tensions
e x p l o d e d i n t o d a n g e r o u s r e v o l t s .

Workers’ Rebellions
E c o n o m i c pressures e r u p t e d i n t o r e b e l l i o n m o s t
d r a m a t i c a l l y a m o n g w o o l e n – c l o t h w o r k e r s i n the
u r b a n centers i n I t a l y , the N e t h e r l a n d s , a n d
France. T h e m o s t f a m o u s r e v o l t i n v o l v e d the
C i o m p i , the l a b o r e r s i n t h e w o o l e n – c l o t h i n d u s –
t r y o f Florence, I t a l y , w h e r e g u i l d s w e r e the m o s t
p o w e r f u l f o r c e i n c i t y g o v e r n m e n t . T h e C i o m p i ,
w h o p e r f o r m e d the heaviest jobs such as c a r t i n g
a n d the m o s t n o x i o u s tasks such as d y e i n g , h a d
n o t been a l l o w e d t o h a v e t h e i r o w n g u i l d a n d
w e r e t h e r e f o r e d e p r i v e d o f the p o l i t i c a l a n d eco-
n o m i c r i g h t s o f g u i l d m e m b e r s h i p .

F u e l i n g the C i o m p i ‘ s f r u s t r a t i o n was the f a c t
t h a t b y the m i d d l e o f the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y
w o o l e n – c l o t h p r o d u c t i o n i n Florence d r o p p e d by
r v v o – t h i r d s , l e a v i n g m a n y w o r k e r s u n e m p l o y e d .
I n 1378 the desperate C i o m p i r e b e l l e d . A c r o w d
c h a n t i n g , ” L o n g l i v e t h e pe o ple , l o n g live l i b –
e r t y , ” b r o k e i n t o t h e houses o f p r o m i n e n t c i t i –
zens, released p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s f r o m the c i t y
jails, a n d sacked the r i c h convents t h a t housed
the p a m p e r e d d a u g h t e r s o f t h e w e a l t h y . O v e r t h e
course o f a f e w m o n t h s , t h e rebels m a n a g e d t o
f o r c e t h e i r w a y o n t o the c i t y c o u n c i l , w h e r e t h e y
d e m a n d e d t a x a n d e c o n o m i c r e f o r m s a n d the
r i g h t t o f o r m t h e i r o w n g u i l d . T h e C i o m p i r e v o l t
is one o f the earliest cases o f w o r k e r s d e m a n d i n g
p o h t i c a l r i g h t s . T h e d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d w o r k e r s d i d
n o t w a n t t o e h m i n a t e the g u i l d s ‘ m o n o p o l y o n
p o l i t i c a l p o w e r . T h e y m e r e l y w a n t e d a g u i l d o f
t h e i r o w n so t h a t they c o u l d j o i n the r e g i m e . T h a t
was n o t t o be, h o w e v e r . A f t e r a f e w weeks o f suc-
cess, the C i o m p i w e r e d i v i d e d a n d defeated.

346 CHAPTER n The Medieval West in Crisis

S h o r t l y after the C i o m p i r e v o l t f a d e d , troubles
b r o k e o u t i n the w o o l e n – c l o t h centers o f G h e n t
a n d Bruges i n Flanders and i n Paris a n d R o u e n i n
France. I n these cases, however, the r e v o l t spread
b e y o n d w o o l e n – c l o t h w o r k e r s t o voice the m o r e
generahzed grievances o f u r b a n w o r k e r s . I n G h e n t
a n d Bruges the weavers a t t e m p t e d t o w r e s t c o n t r o l
o f their cities f r o m the l o c a l leaders w h o d o m i –
nated p o l i t i c s a n d the economy. I n Paris a n d
R o u e n i n 1 3 8 0 , social unrest e r u p t e d i n resistance
t o h i g h taxes a n d attacks by the p o o r o n the r i c h .

L i k e u r b a n w o r k e r s , m a n y r u r a l peasants
also r e b e l l e d d u r i n g t h e t r o u b l e d f o u r t e e n t h cen-
t u r y . I n France i n 1 3 5 8 a peasant r e v o l t b r o k e
o u t c a l l e d the Jacquerie. F i l l e d w i t h h a t r e d f o r
the a r i s t o c r a c y , the peasants i n d u l g e d i n p i l l a g –
i n g , m u r d e r , a n d r a p e , b u t t h e y o f f e r e d n o p l a n
f o r a n a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l system o r even f o r t h e i r
o w n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the p o l i t i c a l o r d e r , so t h e i r
m o v e m e n t h a d n o l a s t i n g effects. T h e y w e r e
q u i c k l y defeated b y a f o r c e o f n o b l e s .

U n h k e the F r e n c h Jacquerie, the peasants
w h o r e v o l t e d i n E n g l a n d i n 1 3 8 1 h a d a clear p o l i t –
i c a l v i s i o n f o r a n a l t e r n a t i v e society. T h e E n g l i s h
rebels d e m a n d e d the a b o l i t i o n o f n e w taxes, l o w e r
rents, higher wages, a n d the end o f s e r f d o m , b u t
t o these t h e y a d d e d a class-based a r g u m e n t
against the aristocracy. I n f l u e n c e d by p o p u l a r
preachers, w h o t o l d t h e m t h a t i n the G a r d e n o f
E d e n there h a d been n o aristocracy, the E n g l i s h
rebels i m a g i n e d a n e g a l i t a r i a n society w i t h o u t
r a n k s o r hierarchy. H o w e v e r , the greatest peasant
r e b e l l i o n i n m e d i e v a l E n g h s h h i s t o r y ended w i t h
b r o k e n promises a n d n o t a n g i b l e achievements.

CHRONOLOGY: ECONOMIC
DEPRESH^sli^ND SOCIAL TURM

1310-1320 Famines begin
1348 Arrival of Black Death in Europe
1358 Jacquerie revolt in France
1378 Ciompi revolt in Florence
1379-1385 Urban revolts in Flanders

and France
1381 Peasants revolt in England

N o n e o f the w o r k e r o r peasant r e v o l t s o f the
f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y m e t w i t h l a s t i n g success.
H o w e v e r , the r e b e l l i o n s revealed f o r t h e f i r s t
t i m e i n the W e s t a w i d e s p r e a d i m p u l s e a m o n g
the l o w e r classes t o q u e s t i o n a n d p r o t e s t the
e x i s t i n g social a n d e c o n o m i c order. T h e t r a d i t i o n
o f w o r k e r p r o t e s t became c o m m o n a n d r e c u r r e n t
d u r i n g subsequent c e n t u r i e s .

AN AGE OF WARFARE
Q H o w d i d i n c e s s a n t w a r f a r e t r a n s f o r m t h e

m o s t p o w e r f u l m e d i e v a l states?

P r o l o n g e d w a r b e t w e e n its t w o largest a n d p r e –
v i o u s l y m o s t stable k i n g d o m s , E n g l a n d a n d
F r a n c e , f u r t h e r w e a k e n e d w e s t e r n E u r o p e d u r –
i n g the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e H u n d r e d Y e a r s ‘
W a r ( 1 3 3 7 – 1 4 5 3 ) was a s t r u g g l e o v e r E n g l a n d ‘ s
a t t e m p t s t o assert its c l a i m s t o t e r r i t o r i e s i n
F r a n c e . T h e c o n f l i c t d r a i n e d resources f r o m the
F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h a r i s t o c r a c i e s , d e e p e n i n g a n d
l e n g t h e n i n g t h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n .

The Fragility of Monarchies
M e d i e v a l m o n a r c h i e s d e p e n d e d o n the k i n g t o
m a i n t a i n s t a b i l i t y . Despite the r e m a r k a b l e legal
r e f o r m s a n d b u r e a u c r a t i c c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f m o n a r –
chies i n E n g l a n d a n d France d u r i n g the t w e l f t h
a n d t h i r t e e n t h centuries (see C h a p t e r 10), w e a k or
i n c o m p e t e n t k i n g s w e r e a l l t o o c o m m o n d u r i n g
the f o u r t e e n t h . W e a k k i n g s created a p e r i l o u s s i t u –
a t i o n made w o r s e by d i s p u t e d successions. T h e
career o f E d w a r d I I (r. 1 3 0 7 – 1 3 2 7 ) o f E n g l a n d
illustrates the p e r i l . E d w a r d was u n a b l e t o c o n t r o l
t h e v i t a l j u d i c i a l a n d f i n a n c i a l mechanisms of
r o y a l p o w e r H e c o n t i n u e d the p o l i c y o f his father,
E d w a r d I , by i n t r o d u c i n g resident justices o f the
peace w h o h a d replaced the i n a d e q u a t e system o f
i t i n e r a n t judges w h o t r a v e l e d f r o m village t o v i l –
lage t o hear cases. I n theory, these justices o f the
peace s h o u l d have p r e v e n t e d the abuses o f justice
t y p i c a l o f a r i s t o c r a t i c j u r i s d i c t i o n s , b u t ever,
t h o u g h they w e r e r o y a l o f f i c i a l s w h o answered tc

the k i n g , n
l a n d o w n e r ;
o f the d i s p i
justice i n
a n d the ca
i n c o m p e t e r
r u p t e d just
w h i c h his c
mies t o dep

T h e F r
the F r e n c h
t i o n a l p o s i
France t h e
onJy a sm;
d u c h ies an
i n d e p e n d e n
allegiance t
w i t h i m p u r
t i o n o f just
r e c r u i t m e n t
o f l o c a l J o n
raxes, P h i l i ]
ated a repr< e r a l , w h i c h s t i l l h a d t o i n d i v i d u a l l y c u l t y o f r a i ; t o makeshiJ such as c o n Jewish a n d -ne c o i n a g e . 'he k i n g d o n :-ie k i n g l a c l

The Hund
i he H u n d n
3f t h e m e d i
o f t h e w a r i
A q u i t a i n e .
rirle o f d u k e
‘he F r e n c h i
ish k i n g s te

: o t h e F r e n c
A l o n g succ
: : ; r i t l y p a i d
• t r k i n g o f

3 7 6 CHAPTER 12 The Italian Renaissance and Beyond: The Politics of Culture

m o t h e r s h a d m u c h m o r e d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o n c h i l –
d r e n t h a n f a t h e r s . D e s p i t e the t h e o r y o f p a t r i –
a r c h y , the f a m i l i e s o f Renaissance I t a l y w e r e
m a t r i a r c h i e s i n w h i c h m o t h e r s r u l e d .

T h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f f a m i l y life a n d the tenu-
ous h o l d m a n y families h a d o n s u r v i v a l encouraged
e x a m i n a t i o n s o f f a m i l y life i n the c u l t u r e o f Renais-
sance Italy. M a k i n g f u n o f i m p o t e n t o l d husbands
m a r r i e d t o u n f u l f i l l e d y o u n g wives became a m a j o r
theme i n c o m i c d r a m a . G i v e n the d e m o g r a p h i c r a v –
ages o f the Black D e a t h , preachers s h o w e d p a r t i c u –
l a r concern f o r the care o f c h i l d r e n ; the c h u b b y
l i t t l e cherubs t h a t seem t o f a l l f r o m the sky i n many
Renaissance p a i n t i n g s s h o w the universal c r a v i n g
f o r healthy c h i l d r e n .

THE INFLUENCE OF
ANCIENT CULTURE
• H o w d i d a n c i e n t c u l t u r e i n f l u e n c e t h e

R e n a i s s a n c e ?

T h e need i n Renaissance I t a l y t o p r o v i d e effective
m o d e l s f o r h o w citizens, c o u r t i e r s , a n d f a m i l i e s
s h o u l d behave s t i m u l a t e d a r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f
a n c i e n t c u l t u r e . T h e c i v i l i z a t i o n s o f a n c i e n t
Greece a n d R o m e h a d l o n g f a s c i n a t e d the e d u –
cated classes i n the W e s t . I n I t a l y , w h e r e m o s t
cities w e r e b u i l t a m o n g t h e r u i n s o f the a n c i e n t
past, a n t i q u i t y w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y seductive. D u r i n g
the f o u r t e e n t h a n d f i f t e e n t h centuries I t a l i a n
t h i n k e r s a n d artists a t t e m p t e d t o foster a r e b i r t h
o f a n c i e n t c u l t u r e s . A t h r s t they m e r e l y t r i e d t o
i m i t a t e the L a t i n o f the best R o m a n w r i t e r s . T h e n
c o n t a c t w i t h G r e e k – s p e a k i n g refugees f r o m
B y z a n t i u m led scholars t o d o the same t h i n g w i t h
Greek. A r t i s t s t r e k k e d t o R o m e t o sketch a n c i e n t
r u i n s , s c u l p t u r e s , a n d m e d a l l i o n s . W e a l t h y collec-
t o r s h o a r d e d m a n u s c r i p t s o f a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h y ,
b u i l t l i b r a r i e s t o house t h e m , b o u g h t every
a n c i e n t s c u l p t u r e t h e y c o u l d f i n d , a n d d u g u p
r u i n s t o f i n d m o r e a n t i q u i t i e s t o a d o r n t h e i r
palaces. P a t r o n s d e m a n d e d t h a t artists i m i t a t e t h e
styles o f the ancients a n d d i s p l a y s i m i l a r c o n c e r n
f o r r e n d e r i n g n a t u r a l f o r m s . T h e y especially
p r i z e d l i f e l i k e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f the h u m a n b o d y .

P a t r o n s , a r t i s t s , a n d scholars d u r i n g the
Renaissance also began t o u n d e r s t a n d the e n o r –
m o u s c u l t u r a l distance b e t w e e n themselves a n d
the ancients, w h i c h gave t h e m a sense o f t h e i r
place i n h i s t o r y T h e leaders i n t h e r e e x a m i n a t i o n
o f a n c i e n t c u l t u r e s w e r e the h u m a n i s t s , scholars
w h o s t u d i e d a n c i e n t G r e e k a n d L a t i n t e x t s . T h e
h u m a n i s t s d e v e l o p e d t e c h n i q u e s o f l i t e r a r y
analysis t o d e t e r m i n e w h e n a t e x t h a d been w r i t –
ten a n d t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e a u t h e n t i c texts f r o m ones
t h a t c o p y i s t s ‘ mistakes h a d c o r r u p t e d . H u m a n –
ists d e v o t e d themselves t o g r a m m a r , r h e t o r i c ,
h i s t o r y , p o e t r y , a n d ethics. T h e m o d e r n u n i v e r –
s i t y d i s c i p l i n e s i n the H u m a n i t i e s are t h e descen-
d a n t s o f the Renaissance h u m a n i s t s .

The Humanists
T h e f i r s t h u m a n i s t was Francesco Petrarca
( 1 3 0 4 – 1 3 7 4 ) , k n o w n i n English as Petrarch.
Petrarch a n d his f o l l o w e r L o r e n z o Valla
( 1 4 0 7 – 1 4 5 7 ) developed c r i t i c a l methods by e d i t i n g
classical texts t o establish the o r i g i n a l w o r d s , a
m e t h o d d i f f e r e n t f r o m the medieval scribe’s t e m p –
t a t i o n t o alter or i m p r o v e a text as he saw f i t .
Petrarch’s m e t h o d was called p h i l o l o g y , the study
o f the m e a n i n g o f w o r d s i n a specific h i s t o r i c a l c o n –
t e x t . T h e m e a n i n g o f m a n y L a t i n w o r d s had
changed since the f a l l o f A n c i e n t R o m e , and
Petrarch a t t e m p t e d t o trace the changes i n mean-
i n g . H e strived t o get the w o r d s r i g h t because he
w a n t e d t o understand exacdy w h a t a n ancient
a u t h o r h a d meant. T h i s concern w i t h f i n d i n g o r i g i –
n a l texts a n d the m e a n i n g o f w o r d s gave Petrarch
a n d his f o l l o w e r s insight i n t o the i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f
w r i t e r s w h o l i v e d a n d w r o t e m a n y centuries before.

A n interest i n the m e a n i n g o f w o r d s led
Petrarch t o study r h e t o r i c , the a r t o f persuasive o r
e m o t i v e speaking a n d w r i t i n g . H e came t o t h i n k
t h a t r h e t o r i c was s u p e r i o r t o p h i l o s o p h y because
he preferred a g o o d m a n over a wise one, a n d rhet-
o r i c o f f e r e d examples w o r t h y o f i m i t a t i o n rather
t h a n abstract principles subject t o debate. Petrarch
w a n t e d people t o behave m o r a l l y . A n d he believed
t h a t the m o s t efficient w a y t o inspire his readers t o
d o the r i g h t t h i n g was t o w r i t e m o v i n g r h e t o r i c . (See
Encounters and Transformations i n this chapter.)

ENCOl

Encounte
? e t r a r c h

=̂ etrarch
native Itali

he v\
‘.Oman or;
-etrarch d
;:on of lett
Atticus.

As Petr,
rjffered a
‘he greate
style, phllc
standards,
l o t sage r
and crude
Ske a sche
ambition r
•visdom. >3
forgive Ci(
sophical k
human he
with him.

And a c
Petrarch ŝ
been deac
letter to h
gant Latin
going aga
others. Pe
asking ho\
long had I

R e n a i s
a f o r m o f
t h a n 1 , 0 0 (
l i v i n g L a t i
a n d u n i v e r
t o a n c i e n t
a c q u i r e d a
o p e n e d m ;
t h e m a n d

The Influence of Ancient Culture 3 7 7

ENCOUNTERS AND TRANSFORMATIONS

E n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e A n c i e n t W o r l d :
Peti-asxh W r i t e s a Lettes- t o Cicero’s G i i c s t

Petrarch was famous for his poetry, in both his
native Italian and Latin. To improve his Latin
style, he was always watching for anything by the
Roman orator Cicero ( 1 0 6 ^ 3 B.C.E.). In 1345
Petrarch discovered a previously unknown collec-
tion of letters Cicero had written to his friend
Atticus.

As Petrarch read the letters, however, he
suffered a shock. Cicero had a reputation as
the greatest Roman sage, a model of Latin
style, philosophical sophistication, and ethical
standards. But in the letters Petrarch found
not sage moral advice, but gossip, rumors,
and crude political calculations. Cicero looked
like a scheming politician, a man of crass
ambition rather than grand philosophical
wisdom. Although Petrarch could never
forgive Cicero for failing to live up to his philo-
sophical ideals, he had discovered a man so
human he could imagine having a conversation
with him.

And a conversation was precisely what
Petrarch set out to have. Cicero, however, had
been dead for 1,388 years. So Petrarch wrote a
letter to his ghost. Adopting Cicero’s own ele-
gant Latin, Petrarch attacked the Roman for
going against the moral advice he had given
others. Petrarch quoted Cicero back to Cicero,
asking how he could be such a hypocrite: “I
long had known how excellent a guide you

Renaissance h u m a n i s t s s o u g h t t o r e s u r r e c t
a f o r m o f L a t i n t h a t h a d been d e a d f o r m o r e
t h a n 1 , 0 0 0 years and was d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e
l i v i n g L a t i n used b y t h e C h u r c h , law c o u r t s ,
a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s — w h i c h t h e y t h o u g h t i n f e r i o r
t o a n c i e n t L a t i n . I n t h i s e f f o r t , h u m a n i s t s
a c q u i r e d a d i f f i c u l t b u t f u n c t i o n a l s k i l l t h a t
o p e n e d m a n y e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s to
t h e m a n d gave t h e m p u b l i c i n f l u e n c e . T h e y

have proved for others; at last I was to
learn what sort of guidance you gave
yourself Now it is your turn to be the
listener.'”‘

Petrarch lectured Cicero for his corruption and
moral failures. The point of the exercise of writing
a letter to a dead man was in part to practice
good Latin style, but also to compare the ideals
Cicero had avowed in his philosophical work and
the way he really lived. Making comparisons is an
elementary critical technique, and it became the
hallmark of Petrarch’s analysis. His letter made
the ancients seem like other men who made mis-
takes and told lies. No longer a repository of
timeless truths, the ancient woHd became a spe-
cific time and place. After his letter to Cicero,
Petrarch wrote letters to other Illustrious ancients
in which he revealed their human qualities and
shortcomings.

Petrarch’s encounter with the ancients
changed how he understood the past and
humanity. The ancients were history in the most
literal sense. They were long dead. But they were
also human, capable of brave deeds and vulnera-
ble to temptations, just the way Petrarch and his
contemporaries were.

For Discussion

How did Petrarch’s encounter with Cicero trans-
form his view of his own culture? How can an
encounter with another culture change how you
view your own?

w o r k e d as s c h o o l m a s t e r s , secretaries, b u r e a u –
c r a t s , o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i a n s , a n d a m b a s s a d o r s .
M a n y o t h e r h u m a n i s t s w e r e w e a l t h y m e n w h o
d i d n o t need a j o b b u t w e r e f a s c i n a t e d w i t h t h e
w a y t h e n e w l e a r n i n g c o u l d be used t o p e r –
suade o t h e r p e o p l e t o d o w h a t t h e y w a n t e d
t h e m t o d o .

Because h u m a n i s t s c o u l d be f o u n d o n
d i f f e r e n t sides o f a l m o s t a l l i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s ,

378 CHAPTER 12 The Italian Renaissance and Beyond: The Politics of Culture

t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i r w o r k Hes less i n w h a t
t h e y said t h a n i n h o w t h e y said i t . T h e y w r o t e
a b o u t p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y t h i n g : p a i n t i n g p i c t u r e s ,
d e s i g n i n g b u i l d i n g s , p l a n t i n g c r o p s , d r a i n i n g
s w a m p s , r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n , m a n a g i n g a house-
h o l d , a n d e d u c a t i n g w o m e n . T h e y d e b a t e d t h e
n a t u r e o f h u m a n l i b e r t y , t h e v i r t u e s o f f a m o u s
m e n , the vices o f w i c k e d ones, the m e a n i n g o f
E g y p t i a n h i e r o g l y p h i c s , a n d t h e c o s m o l o g y o f
the u n i v e r s e .

H o w d i d the h u m a n i s t s ‘ use o f L a t i n w o r d s
a n d g r a m m a r i n f l u e n c e the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f this
vast r a n g e o f subjects? E a c h l a n g u a g e organizes
experience a c c o r d i n g t o the needs o f the p e o p l e
w h o speak i t , a n d a l l languages m a k e a r b i t r a r y
d i s t i n c t i o n s , d i v i d i n g u p the w o r l d i n t o d i f f e r e n t
categories. People w h o s t u d y a f o r e i g n l anguage
r u n across these a r b i t r a r y d i s t i n c t i o n s w h e n t h e y
l e a r n t h a t some expressions can never be t r a n s –
l a t e d e x a c t l y . W h e n h u m a n i s t s r e a d classical
L a t i n t e x t s , t h e y e n c o u n t e r e d u n f a m i l i a r w o r d s ,
sentence p a t t e r n s , a n d r h e t o r i c a l m o d e l s — t h e
l i n g u i s t i c l e f t o v e r s o f a n c i e n t experience a n d c u l –
t u r e . H u m a n i s t s ‘ r e c o v e r y o f w h a t c a n be c a l l e d
t h e Latin point of view o f t e n a l t e r e d t h e i r o w n
p e r c e p t i o n s a n d shaped t h e i r o w n c u l t u r a l expe-
riences i n s u b t l e w a y s .

For e x a m p l e , w h e n a f i f t e e n t h – c e n t u r y
h u m a n i s t e x a m i n e d w h a t the ancient R o m a n s h a d
w r i t t e n a b o u t p a i n t i n g , he f o u n d the phrase ars et
ingenium. Ars r e f e r r e d t o skills t h a t c o u l d be
learned b y f o l l o w i n g established rules a n d adher-
i n g t o m o d e l s p r o v i d e d by the best p a i n t e r s . T h u s ,
the a b i l i t y o f a p a i n t e r t o d r a w a s t r a i g h t hne, t o
m i x c o l o r s p r o p e r l y , a n d t o i d e n t i f y a saint w i t h
the c o r r e c t s y m b o l w e r e examples o f ars o r w h a t
w e w o u l d c a l l c r a f t s m a n s h i p . T h e m e a n i n g o f
ingenium was m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o p i n d o w n , h o w –
ever I t referred t o the i n v e n t i v e capacity o f the
p a i n t e r , t o his o r her i n g e n u i t y . T h e h i m i a n i s t s dis-
covered t h a t the ancients h a d made a d i s t m c t i o n
between the c r a f t s m a n s h i p a n d the i n g e n u i t y o f a
painter. A s a result, w h e n h u m a n i s t s a n d t h e i r
p u p i l s l o o k e d at p a i n t i n g s , they began t o m a k e the
same d i s t i n c t i o n a n d began t o a d m i r e the genius
o f artists w h o s e w o r k s h o w e d i n g e n u i t y as w e l l as
c r a f t s m a n s h i p . I n g e n u i t y came t o refer t o the

a b i l i t y o f the p a i n t e r t o arrange figures i n a n o v e l
w a y , t o e m p l o y u n u s u a l c o l o r s , o r t o create e m o –
t i o n a l l y e x c i t i n g effects t h a t conveyed piety, sor-
r o w , o r j o y as the subject d e m a n d e d . So
w i d e s p r e a d w a s the influence o f the h u m a n i s t s
t h a t the m o s t ingenious artists d e m a n d e d h i g h e r
prices a n d became the m o s t s o u g h t after. I n this
w a y , creative i n n o v a t i o n w a s encour^aged i n the
arts, b u t i t a l l started v e r y s i m p l y w i t h the i n t r o –
d u c t i o n o f n e w w o r d s i n t o the L a t i n v o c a b u l a r y
o f the people w h o p a i d f o r p a i n t i n g s . A s i m i l a r
process o f establishing n e w categories a l t e r e d
every subject the h u m a n i s t s t o u c h e d .

T h e h u m a n i s t m o v e m e n t spread r a p i d l y d u r –
i n g the f i f t e e n t h century. L e o n a r d o B r u n i
(ca. 1 3 7 0 – 1 4 4 4 ) , w h o became the chancellor o f
Florence (the head o f the government’s bureau-
cracy), created civic h u m a n i s m t o defend the
r e p u b l i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d values o f the city. By
r e a d i n g the ancient w r i t e r s , B r u n i rediscovered the
ethics o f p u b l i c service. C i v i c humanists argued
t h a t the ethical m a n s h o u l d devote himself t o active
service t o his city rather t h a n to passive c o n t e m p l a –
t i o n i n scholarly retreat o r monastic seclusion.

L o r e n z o V a l l a e m p l o y e d h u m a n i s t scholar-
s h i p t o u n d e r m i n e p a p a l c l a i m s t o a u t h o r i t y over
secular r u l e r s . T h e pope’s t h e o r e t i c a l a u t h o r i t y
depended o n the so-called D o n a t i o n o f C o n s t a n –
t i n e , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h the E m p e r o r C o n s t a n –
t i n e h a d t r a n s f e r r e d his i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y i n I t a l y
t o the p o p e i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y . By u s i n g p h i l o l –
ogy, V a l l a d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t m a n y o f the L a t i n
w o r d s f o u n d i n the D o n a t i o n c o u l d n o t have been
w r i t t e n before the e i g h t h c e n t u r y . F o r e x a m p l e ,
the d o c u m e n t used the w o r d satrap, w h i c h V a l l a
was c o n f i d e n t a R o m a n at the t i m e o f C o n s t a n –
t i n e w o u l d n o t have k n o w n . T h u s , he p r o v e d t h a t
t h i s f a m o u s d o c u m e n t w a s a f o r g e r y . Valla’s
analysis o f the D o n a t i o n w a s one o f the f i r s t uses
o f p h i l o l o g y a n d h i s t o r i c a l analysis o f d o c u m e n t s
t o serve a p o l i t i c a l cause. As a r e s u l t , m a n y r u l e r s
a n d especially the popes saw the need t o h i r e a
h u m a n i s t t o defend t h e i r o w n interests.

T h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r i o s i t y o f the h u m a n i s t s led
t h e m t o master m a n y t o p i c s . T h i s b r e a d t h o f
a c c o m p l i s h m e n t c o n t r i b u t e d t o the ideal o f the
“Renaissance M a n (or “Renaissance W o m a n ” ) , a

p e r s o n w h c
she d i d . N .
L e o n Battis
m a n , A l b e r
w o r k s t h a t
b u t as he n
jects. A l t h o
n o t h i n g f i r s
the a n c i e n t
Renaissance
sections or
w i v e s , raisij
H e compose
guage. H e d
p a i n t i n g , la-
m a n s h i p , dc
the c i t y o f I
f i f t e e n t h – c e r
o f a r c h i t e c t t
over, w a s ne
o f his l i f e , .
t i m e t o b u l l
an a n c i e n t
sance fagade
a palace f o r
his last proje
m a k i n g a n d

T h e h u n
ence t h r o u g
H u m a n i s t ec
:sts o r p r o f
l a w y e r s , an
a i m e d t o ere
n o t u s u a l l y ;
– a l t h i n k e r s
:ife presente
i t u d y o f Gre^
those ancier
g r a m m a r , t h
t i v e l y , k n o w l
: o r v i r t u o u s I
e d u c a t i o n . I t
active l i f e o f
: h u r c h m e n .
n c u l u n i p e r s i
ments o f m c
r e q u i r e stude

res i n a novel
D create e m o –
ed piety, sor-
m a n d e d . So
le h u m a n i s t s
anded h i g h e r
a f t e r I n this
raged i n the
i t h the i n t r o –
a v o c a b u l a r y
IS. A s i m i l a r
3 r i e s altered

r a p i d l y d u r –
ardo B r u n i
hancellor o f
nt’s bureau-
defend the
the city. By

scovered the
aists argued
self t o active
• c o n t e m p l a –
; l u s i o n .
ist scholar-
la o r i t y over

I a u t h o r i t y
)f C o n s t a n –
r C o n s t a n –
r i t y i n I t a l y
sing p h i l o l –
f the L a t i n
t have been
r e x a m p l e ,
/hich V a l l a
f C o n s t a n –
i r o v e d t h a t
r y Valla’s
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f o c u m e n t s
lany rulers
I t o h i r e a

nanists led
-readth o f
eal o f the
Oman”), a

The Influence of Ancient Culture 3 7 9

person w h o s o u g h t excellence i n e v e r y t h i n g he or
she d i d . N o one came closer t o t h i s i d e a l t h a n
L e o n Battista A l b e r t ! ( 1 4 0 4 – 1 4 7 2 ) . A s a y o u n g
m a n , A l b e r t ! w r o t e L a t i n comedies a n d s a t i r i c a l
w o r k s t h a t d r e w o n G r e e k a n d R o m a n m o d e l s ,
b u t as he m a t u r e d he t a c k l e d m o r e serious sub-
jects. A l t h o u g h he w a s a b a c h e l o r a n d t h u s k n e w
n o t h i n g f i r s t h a n d a b o u t m a r r i a g e , he d r e w u p o n
the a n c i e n t w r i t e r s t o create the m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l
Renaissance b o o k o n the f a m i l y , w h i c h i n c l u d e d
sections o n relations between husbands a n d
w i v e s , r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n , a n d estate m a n a g e m e n t .
H e c o m p o s e d t h e f i r s t g r a m m a r o f the I t a l i a n l a n –
guage. H e d a b b l e d i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d w r o t e o n
p a i n t i n g , l a w , the duties o f b i s h o p s , l o v e , horse-
m a n s h i p , dogs, a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d fhes. H e m a p p e d
the c i t y o f R o m e a n d w r o t e the m o s t i m p o r t a n t
f i f t e e n t h – c e n t u r y w o r k o n the t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e
o f a r c h i t e c t u r e . H i s interest i n a r c h i t e c t u r e , m o r e –
over, was n o t j u s t t h e o r e t i c a l . I n the last decades
o f his l i f e , A l b e r t ! dedicated m u c h o f his spare
t i m e t o b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t s t h a t i n c l u d e d r e s t o r i n g
a n a n c i e n t c h u r c h i n R o m e , d e s i g n i n g Renais-
sance faqades f o r m e d i e v a l churches, a n d e r e c t i n g
a palace f o r his m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a t r o n . O n e o f
his last projects w a s the f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t w o r k f o r
m a k i n g a n d d e c i p h e r i n g secret codes i n the W e s t .

T h e h u m a n i s t s g u a r a n t e e d t h e i r l a s t i n g i n f l u –
ence t h r o u g h t h e i r i n n o v a t i o n s i n e d u c a t i o n .
H u m a n i s t e d u c a t i o n d i d n o t seek t o t r a i n special-
ists o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s , such as the t h e o l o g i a n s ,
l a w y e r s , a n d p h y s i c i a n s . I n s t e a d , h u m a n i s t s
a i m e d t o create w e l l – r o u n d e d m e n ( w o m e n w e r e
n o t u s u a l l y accepted i n h u m a n i s t schools), c r i t i –
c a l t h i n k e r s w h o c o u l d t a c k l e a n y p r o b l e m t h a t
l i f e p r e s e n t e d . T h e c u r r i c u l u m e m p h a s i z e d the
s t u d y o f G r e e k a n d L a t i n a n d the best a u t h o r s i n
those a n c i e n t languages. C o m m a n d o f g o o d
g r a m m a r , t h e a b i l i t y t o w r i t e a n d speak effec-
t i v e l y , k n o w l e d g e o f h i s t o r y , a n d a n a p p r e c i a t i o n
f o r v i r t u o u s b e h a v i o r w e r e the goals o f h u m a n i s t
e d u c a t i o n . I t w a s a c u r r i c u l u m w e l l s u i t e d f o r the
active l i f e o f c i v i c leaders, c o u r t i e r s , p r i n c e s , a n d
c h u r c h m e n . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f the h u m a n i s t c u r –
r i c u l u m persists i n t h e general e d u c a t i o n r e q u i r e –
m e n t s o f m o d e r n A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s , w h i c h
r e q u i r e s t u d e n t s , n o w o f b o t h sexes, t o o b t a i n

i n t e l l e c t u a l b r e a d t h before t h e y speciahze i n n a r –
r o w p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g .

H i s t o r i a n s have i d e n t i f i e d a f e w female
h u m a n i s t s f r o m the Renaissance. Because they
w e r e so u n u s u a l , learned h u m a n i s t w o m e n were
o f t e n r i d i c u l e d . Jealous m e n accused t h e h u m a n i s t
Isotta N o g a r o l a ( 1 4 1 8 – 1 4 6 6 ) o f p r o m i s c u i t y a n d
incest, a n d o t h e r w o m e n i n s u l t e d her i n p u b l i c .
A f a m o u s m a l e schoolmaster said t h a t I s o tta was
t o o f e m i n i n e i n her w r i t i n g s a n d s h o u l d l e a r n h o w
t o f i n d ” a m a n w i t h i n the w o m a n . L a u r a Cereta
( 1 4 7 5 – 1 5 0 6 ) , w h o k n e w G r e e k as w e l l as L a t i n
a n d was adept a t m a t h e m a t i c s , ans wer ed the
s c o r n o f a male c r i t i c w i t h r h e t o r i c a l i n s u l t :

I w o u l d have been silent, believe me, i f t h a t
savage o l d e n m i t y o f y o u r s h a d a t t a c k e d me
a l o n e . . . . B u t I c a n n o t tolerate y o u r h a v i n g
a t t a c k e d m y entire sex. For this reason m y
t h i r s t y soul seeks revenge, m y sleeping p e n is
aroused t o l i t e r a r y struggle, r a g i n g anger stirs
m e n t a l passions l o n g c h a i n e d by silence. W i t h
j u s t cause I a m m o v e d t o demonstrate h o w
great a r e p u t a t i o n f o r l e a r n i n g a n d v i r t u e
w o m e n have w o n by t h e i r i n b o r n excellence,
manifested i n every age as k n o w l e d g e , the
[ p u r v e y o r ] o f h o n o r . C e r t a i n , indeed, a n d
legitimate is o u r possession o f this in h er itan c e,
come t o us f r o m a l o n g e t e r n i t y o f ages past.^

These f e w h u m a n i s t w o m e n w e r e a m o n g the
f i r s t f e m i n i s t s . T h e y a d v o c a t e d female e q u a h t y
a n d f e m a l e e d u c a t i o n b u t also u r g e d w o m e n t o
t a k e c o n t r o l o f t h e i r lives. Cereta m a i n t a i n e d
t h a t i f w o m e n p a i d as m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o l e a r n i n g
as t h e y d i d t o t h e i r appearances, they w o u l d
achieve e q u a l i t y . B u t despite the e f f o r t s o f f e m a l e
h u m a n i s t s , progress i n w o m e n ‘ s e d u c a t i o n w a s
s l o w . T h e u n i v e r s i t i e s r e m a i n e d closed t o w o m e n
u n t i l l a t e i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e f i r s t
w o m a n t o e a r n a degree f r o m a u n i v e r s i t y o n l y
d i d so i n 1 6 7 8 . I t t o o k a n o t h e r 2 0 0 years b e f o r e
m a n y o t h e r s c o u l d f o l l o w her e x a m p l e . (See
Different Voices i n this chapter.)

T h e h u m a n i s t s e d u c a t e d g e n e r a t i o n s
o f w e a l t h y y o u n g g e n t l e m e n w h o s e a p p r e c i a t i o n
o f A n t i q u i t y l e d t h e m t o c o l l e c t m a n u s c r i p t s o f

3 8 0 CHAPTER 12 The Italian Renaissance and Beyond; The Politics of Culture

DIFFERENT VOICES THE BATTLE OF THE SEXES
Abusive writing about women was pervasive in
Western literature. However, during the Renaissance
the “women’s question” raised the issue of whether
education could improve women’s lot in life. What
distinguished this debate during the Renaissance
was the active role women took in defending their
own interests.

Although they wrote in the seventeenth century,
Ferrante Pallavicino (1618-1644) and Arcangela
Tarabotti (1604-1652) represented the culmination
of the Italian Renaissance debate about women.
Pallavicino pulled out the usual litany of the anti-
woman argument. Tarabotti answered Pallavicino
on every point.

Ferrante Pallavicino, Letter addressed
to “Ungrateful Woman”
I know how you mock my scorn: a woman never
grieves unless she weeps tears of blood, and her
normal tears are pure deceit in liquid form, the
holding back of pretense

Your ingratitude has reached the limit in bad
manners; It has taught me that there is nothing
human in a woman but her face, with which she

lies even when silent and warns how there is noth-
ing to expect but falsity from a being who deceives
at first sight. She shares the same genus of animal
with man, appropriating for herself, however, all
the bestial qualities that ensure, while differing from
man in that she simply has no reason whatsoever:
as a consequence, she acts like a brute animal….

Unfortunate women are those without men to
provide the support that remedies their own
weakness! Without men they could not avoid
being flung down at every moment, like the
blind and the mad, into a thousand chasms. The
women of Tartary (Mongolia and Turkey) under-
stood this well: it was their custom never to allow
their head to be covered by a more precious
headdress than the form of a human foot, to sig-
nify that woman, brainless and witless, finds her
greatest glory in her subjection to man. Repre-
senting themselves in the act of being trodden
underfoot, they paid homage to their noblest
part; they were not foolish like other women,
adorning their heads with treasures from robbed
tombs or weighed down with braided chains
dotted with gems.

a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e , p h i l o s o p h y , a n d science. These
p a t r o n s also e n c o u r a g e d artists t o i m i t a t e the
a n c i e n t s . W h a t began as a n a r r o w l i t e r a r y m o v e –
m e n t became the s t i m u l u s t o see h u m a n society
a n d n a t u r e t h r o u g h e n t i r e l y n e w eyes. Some
h u m a n i s t s , especially i n n o r t h e r n E u r o p e ,
a p p l i e d the t e c h n i q u e s o f h u m a n i s t s c h o l a r s h i p
w i t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y results t o t h e s t u d y o f the
B i b l e a n d the sources o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .

Understanding Nature: iVIoving
Beyond the Science of the Ancients
T h e h u m a n i s t s ‘ i n i t i a l c o n c e r n w a s t o i m i t a t e t h e
l a n g u a g e o f t h e a n c i e n t s . M o s t o f t h e m p r e f e r r e d
t o spend t i m e r e a d i n g r a t h e r t h a n o b s e r v i n g t h e
w o r l d . I n f a c t , t h e i r m e t h o d s w e r e i l l – s u i t e d t o

u n d e r s t a n d i n g n a t u r e : W h e n t h e y w a n t e d t o
e x p l a i n some n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n such as the
m o v e m e n t o f b l o o d t h r o u g h t h e b o d y o r the
a p p a r e n t m o v e m e n t s o f t h e p l a n e t s a n d stars,
t h e y l o o k e d t o a n c i e n t a u t h o r i t i e s f o r answers
r a t h e r t h a n t o n a t u r e i t s e l f . Renaissance scien-
tists searched f o r a n c i e n t texts a b o u t n a t u r e , a n d
t h e n d e b a t e d a b o u t w h i c h a n c i e n t a u t h o r h a d
been c o r r e c t . T h e h u m a n i s t s ‘ m o s t p r o m i n e n t
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o science c o n s i s t e d o f r e c o v e r i n g
classical t e x t s a n d t r a n s l a t i n g t h e w o r k o f
a n c i e n t G r e e k scientists i n t o the m o r e w i d e l y
u n d e r s t o o d L a t i n . T h e Renaissance a p p r o a c h
c o n t r a s t e d t o the s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d o f t o d a y , i n
w h i c h scientists f o r m a h y p o t h e s i s a n d t h e n
d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r i t is c o r r e c t b y e x p e r i m e n t i n g
a n d o b s e r v i n g t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d as d i r e c t l y as
p o s s i b l e .