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Compare and contrast the Eastern and Western halves of the Roman Empire and examine the development of the unique Byzantine culture. Discuss this in terms of social, political and economic structures.
Your response should be at least 200 words in length. You are required to use at least your textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Levack, B., Muir, E., & Veldman, M. (2011). The west encounters & transformations. (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 222-227, 230-231 & 232-244). Upper Saddle: Pearson. DOI: www.pearsonhighered.com
(Levack, Muir & Veldman, 2011)
No wiki, dictionary.com or plagarism
222 CHAPTER 7 Late Antiquity: The Age of New Boundaries, 250-600
Greek East and Augustine i n the L a t i n West were
on ly t w o of the many churchmen w h o incorpo-
rated N e o p l a t o n i s m into their o w n w o r k s i n the
later f o u r t h century. Af ter Chris t ian and n o n –
Chris t ian Neoplatonists argued over whether the
ident i ty of ” the O n e ” could be equated w i t h the
Chr is t ian G o d , the Emperor Justinian closed
Plato’s Academy in Athens i n 529 and forbade
non-Christ ians to teach phi losophy.
Nevertheless, Neoplatonic thought helped
shape the Christ ian doctrine of the i m m o r t a l i t y of
the human soul. I t also reinforced the ascetic ideal
practiced by monks and nuns. Thus, contempt for
the material , temporal w o r l d and the physical
body t o o k deep r o o t i n Christ ian culture.
THE BREAKUP OF THE
ROMAN EMPIRE
• H o w a n d w h y d i d the R o m a n E m p i r e
i n the West disintegrate?
D u r i n g the f i f t h century, the R o m a n Empire split
i n t o t w o parts: the Lat in-speaking provinces
i n western Europe, and the largely Greek- and
Syriac-speaking provinces i n the East. As the
R o m a n government lost c o n t r o l of its western
domains , independent Germanic k ingdoms
emerged. The eastern provinces remained under
the c o n t r o l of the R o m a n emperor, whose capital
c i ty was not Rome, but Constant inople . The
def ini t ive spht of the R o m a n Empire marked
the end o f late ant iqui ty . I n future centuries the
legacy of the R o m a n Empire survived i n the West
t h r o u g h L a t i n culture and L a t i n Chris t iani ty . I n
the East i t survived as a po l i t i ca l real i ty u n t i l its
f i n a l collapse 1,000 years later i n 1453.
The Fali of Rome’s Western Provinces
W h y R o m a n rule remained s t r o n g i n the east-
ern M e d i t e r r a n e a n w h i l e co l laps ing i n western
Europe is one of the most h o t l y debated sub-
jects i n his tory . M o s t Chr is t ians o f the t ime
a t t r i b u t e d the collapse o f R o m a n rule to God’s
anger at the s t u b b o r n persistence o f po ly the is t
w o r s h i p . Polytheists , for their par t , b lamed
Chr is t ians for des t roy ing the temples o f the
gods w h o had protected Rome i n the past.
I n later centuries, the explanat ions v a r i e d .
E d w a r d G i b b o n , an eighteenth-century w r i t e r
whose Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
has inf luenced a l l h is tor ians of R o m e and
remains one o f the most w i d e l y read h is tory
books of al l t i m e , cr i t ic ized the Catho l i c
C h u r c h f o r d i v e r t i n g able men away f r o m
p u b l i c service and i n t o rel igious l i f e . O t h e r
his tor ians a t t r i b u t e d Rome’s collapse i n the
West to enormous waves of savage b a r b a r i a n
invasions. The reason the Romans lost their
western provinces is, however, more c o m p l i –
cated and less dramat i c t h a n any of these one-
d i m e n s i o n a l explanat ions .
Loss OP IMPERIAL POWER IN THE W E S T The end o f
R o m a n rule i n western Europe came i n a haphaz-
ard and gradual fashion as the cumulat ive result
of unwise decisions, weak leadership, and m i l i –
tary fai lure. D u r i n g the f irst century, the Romans
established the nor thern hmits of their empire in
Europe along the Rhine and Danube Rivers.
F r o m that t ime f o r w a r d , R o m a n generals and
emperors w i t h s t o o d invasions of many different
nor thern tribes l o o k i n g for plunder and new
lands. The R o m a n legions maintained a rela-
tively stable nor thern f ront ier t h r o u g h d i p l o –
macy as wel l as m i l i t a r y m i g h t . Since the t ime o f
Augustus, R o m a n emperors had permit ted new-
comers to settle o n R o m a n lands. U n t i l the
foiu-th century, the empire had always been able
to absorb the settlers.
I n the f o u r t h century, the sudden appearance
in southern Russia of the H u n s , a fierce nomadic
people f r o m central Asia, set in m o t i o n events
that helped br ing about the collapse of R o m a n
rule in western Europe. UnUke the settled f a r m –
ers w h o lived i n Europe, the H u n s were nomads
w h o herded their flocks over the plains (or
steppes) that stretched f r o m southern Russia to
central Asia . Able to travel vast distances quick ly
o n their rugged horses, the h ighly mobi le H u n s
overran adversaries f r o m settled agr icul tural
communit ies . The H u n s also earned a reputat ion
i
for ferocity. L i v i
t i o n , they lusted
lifestyles they ob
o f Rome and Pei
I n 376 , i n ‘
a r m y o f H u n s d
their fa rmlands ,
permiss ion f r o m
cross the D a n u l
r e t u r n for sup]
army. I n the pas
made this sort
of f ic ia ls i n charg
exp lo i ted the ref
tant fees f o r fc
Vis igoths revolt(
i n Thrace they 1
entire R o m a n ar
The Visigoth
the empire, but n
disaster, however
imperial power i
new emperor, T l
Visigothic soldiei
under their o w i
a l l o w i n g indepen
loyalty t o operati
terrible mistake,
sius’s decision hi
390s when Alaric
to plunder R o n
Greece. As discus
ter, i n 4 0 1 Alar ic
three days. Senate
as the Visigoths r;
T h e Vis igoth
a psychological
tants, i t also led i
Rome’s western
Rome’s armies
nor thwestern de
B r i t a i n and alo
B r i t a i n , Rome a
after an a m b i t i o i
stantine I I I , led 1
English Channe
at tempt to grab
The Breakup of the Roman Empire 2 2 3
f o r f e r o c i t y . L i v i n g u n d e r the specter o f s t a r v a –
t i o n , they l usted after the great riches a n d easy
lifestyles they observed i n the u r b a n i z e d e m p i r e s
o f R o m e a n d Persia.
I n 3 7 6 , i n w h a t is n o w s o u t h R u s s i a , a n
a r m y o f H u n s d r o v e a g r o u p o f V i s i g o t h s f r o m
t h e i r f a r m l a n d s . T h e V i s i g o t h refugees g a i n e d
p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r V a l e n s t o
cross t h e D a n u b e a n d settle i n t h e B a l k a n s i n
r e t u r n f o r s u p p l y i n g t r o o p s t o t h e R o m a n
a r m y . I n t h e p a s t , R o m a n r u l e r s h a d f r e q u e n t l y
m a d e t h i s s o r t o f a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e R o m a n
o f f i c i a l s i n c h a r g e o f t h i s r e s e t t l e m e n t , h o w e v e r ,
e x p l o i t e d the refugees b y c h a r g i n g them, e x o r b i –
t a n t fees f o r f o o d a n d s u p p l i e s . I n 3 7 8 t h e
V i s i g o t h s r e v o l t e d . A t t h e B a t t l e o f A d r i a n o p l e
i n T h r a c e t h e y k i l l e d Val ens a n d d e s t r o y e d a n
e n t i r e R o m a n a r m y .
T h e V i s i g o t h s ‘ successful rebeUion w o u n d e d
the e m p i r e , b u t n o t f a r a l l y . Rome’s response t o the
disaster, h o w e v e r , s o w e d the seeds f o r a loss o f
i m p e r i a l p o w e r i n d i e west. Necessity f o r c e d the
n e w emperor, T h e o d o s i u s the G r e a t , t o p e r m i t
V i s i g o t h i c soldiers t o serve i n the R o m a n a r m y
u n d e r t h e i r o w n V i s i g o t h i c c o m m a n d e r s . B u t
a l l o w i n g i n d e p e n d e n t m i l i t a r y forces o f d u b i o u s
l o y a l t y t o operate freely w i t h i n the e m p i r e was a
t e r r i b l e m i s t a k e . T h e consequences o f T h e o d o –
sius’s d e c i s i o n became a l l t o o clear i n the m i d –
390s w h e n A l a r i c , the n e w V i s i g o t h i c k i n g , began
t o p l u n d e r R o m a n cities i n the Balkans a n d
Greece. A s discussed at the b e g i n n i n g o f this chap-
ter, i n 4 0 1 A l a r i c a n d his t r o o p s sacked R o m e f o r
rhree days. Senators a n d citizens c o u l d o n l y w a t c h
as the V i s i g o t h s r a m p a g e d t h r o u g h their streets.
T h e V i s i g o t h s ‘ sack o f R o m e n o t o n l y d e a l t
a p s y c h o l o g i c a l b l o w t o the e m p i r e ‘ s i n h a b i –
t a n t s , i t also l e d i n d i r e c t l y t o t h e loss o f m a n y o f
R o m e ‘ s w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s . T o f i g h t A l a r i c ,
R o m e ‘ s a r m i e s w i t h d r e w f r o m the e m p i r e ‘ s
n o r t h w e s t e r n defenses, l e a v i n g t h e f r o n t i e r i n
B r i t a i n a n d a l o n g the R h i n e v u l n e r a b l e . I n
B r i t a i n , R o m e a b a n d o n e d its c o n t r o l e n t i r e l y
a f t e r a n a m b i t i o u s g e n e r a l , s t y l i n g h i m s e l f C o n –
s t a n t i n e I I I , l e d B r i t a i n ‘ s last l e g i o n s across the
E n g l i s h C h a n n e l i n 4 0 7 i n a n u n s u c c e s s f u l
a t t e m p t t o g r a b the i m p e r i a l t h r o n e . T h i s l e f t
B r i t a i n defenseless, v u l n e r a b l e ro g r o u p s o f Ger-
m a n i c t r i b e s m e n k n o w n as t h e Saxons a l r e a d y
settled o n B r i t i s h s o i l .
Elsewhere the chaos s p r e a d . A l t h o u g h t h e
i n v a d i n g bands w e r e s m a l l , the i m p e r i a l g o v e r n –
m e n t i n the West n o l o n g e r possessed the a d m i n –
i s t r a t i v e c a p a c i t y t o m a r s h a l its m i l i t a r y
resources a n d p u s h the i n v a d e r s o u t . I n D e c e m –
ber 4 0 6 , t h e R h i n e R i v e r f r o z e , e n a b l i n g m i g r a t –
i n g G e r m a n i c t r i b e s t o enter the e m p i r e w i t h
l i t t l e o p p o s i t i o n . S m a l l bands o f these m a r a u d i n g
tribes r o a m e d t h r o u g h G a u l , w h i l e t h e V a n d a l s
a n d t h e i r allies r a i d e d t h e i r w a y t h r o u g h S p a i n .
I n 4 2 9 the V a n d a l s crossed t o N o r t h A f r i c a ,
w h e r e t h e y s o o n established a n i n d e p e n d e n t
k i n g d o m . By 4 5 0 the V i s i g o t h s h a d f o r m e d a
k i n g d o m o f t h e i r o w n i n G a u l a n d S p a i n .
O v e r w h e l m i n g n u m b e r s o f savage t r i b e s m e n
d i d n o t i n v a d e the e m p i r e . I n fact, t h e i r n u m b e r s
were p u n y . For e x a m p l e , o n l y 4 0 , 0 0 0 V a n d a l s
c o n t r o l l e d N o r t h A f r i c a , w l i i c h h a d a p o p u l a t i o n
o f several m i l l i o n R o m a n s . A n d a l t h o u g h the Ger-
mans p l u n d e r e d a n d p i l l a g e d , they c o u l d n o t h o l d
o n t o i m p e r i a l lands a n d settle there w i t h o u t the
active c o o p e r a t i o n o f R o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w h o
t h o u g h t they c o u l d b a r g a i n w i t h the t r i b e s m e n .
O n c e t h e y p u t d o w n r o o t s , however, the Ger-
m a n i c invaders c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r s t r e n g t h a n d
estabhshed t h e i r r u l e . By t h e n , R o m a n a u t h o r i r i e s
l a c k e d b o t h the o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d the s t r e n g t h t o
e x p e l t h e m .
E v e n t h o u g h m o s t o f the w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s
h a d f a l l e n t o i n v a d e r s b y 4 5 0 , the R o m a n s h e l d
o n t o I t a l y f o r a w h i l e longer. T h e c i t y o f R o m e
r e m a i n e d the h o m e o f the Senate, w h i l e the
e m p e r o r o f the w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s resided i n
R a v e n n a , a t o w n o n I t a l y ‘ s n o r t h e a s t coast. W a r –
l o r d s , h o w e v e r , h e l d the r e a l p o w e r i n I t a l y ,
a l t h o u g h they w e r e f o r m a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e
emperor. These soldiers w e r e u s u a l l y n o t R o m a n s
by b i r t h , b u t t h e y a d o p t e d R o m a n c u l t u r e a n d
f o u g h t f o r R o m e . I n 4 7 6 one o f these w a r l o r d s , a
G e r m a n i c general n a m e d O d o v a c a r , deposed the
last e m p e r o r i n the w e s t , a b o y n a m e d R o m u l u s
A u g u s t u l u s , a n d n a m e d h i m s e l f k i n g o f I t a l y . F o r
m a n y h i s t o r i a n s the year 4 7 6 used t o s y m b o l i z e
the e n d o f the R o m a n E m p i r e i n the w e s t . I n f a c t ,
2 2 4 C H A P T E R 7 Late Antiquity: The Age of New Boundaries, 2 5 0 – 6 0 0
M A P 7.2
E m p i r e o f the H u n s
During late antiquity, the
Huns established a powerful
empire based in the Hungar-
ian plain. These fierce horse-
m e n terrified the settled
peoples of the Roman world,
but their empire broke up
within a generation.
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
5–British Angles Anglgjjj-
and Saxons – j ‘ “~W-”
Bretqns’
•>
VisigbtWe
-Kingdom
and Saxons
Franks^
WESTERUt.ROMANiEMPlRt:
EMPIRE OF THE HUNS
Empire of tlie Huns, ca. 450
Western Roman Empire
L Zl Eastern Roman Empire
Hunnic Empire
Seat ?
BERBERS
-̂ —̂ , , l E A y E I ^ R O M A N E M P W E
I
“kingdom !•, /
PERSIAN
EMPIRE
Mediterranean
Sea
500 knn
h o w e v e r , 4 7 6 is a date o f l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e
R o m a n s ‘ c o n t r o l o f t h e i r w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s h a d
s l i p p e d a w a y decades earlier (see M a p 7.2).
C U L T U R A L EHCOUWTERS AFTER THE Zm OH R O M A N
R U L E B y the m i d – f i f t h c e n t u r y , w h e n m o s t f i g h t –
i n g b e t w e e n G e r m a n i c i n v a d e r s a n d R o m a n s h a d
e n d e d , t h e t w o sides, as r u l e r s a n d r u l e d , began
a n era o f intense e n c o u n t e r s . I n B r i t a i n the Ger-
m a n i c invaders w e r e p o l y t h e i s t s w h o s n u f f e d o u t
the C h r i s t i a n s . Yet legends h i n t a t a fierce resist-
ance agai n s t t h e i n v a d e r s . T h e stories a b o u t K i n g
A r t h u r t h a t have c a p t i v a t e d E n g l i s h – s p e a k i n g
audiences since t h e M i d d l e Ages are based o n
m e m o r i e s o f v a h a n t resistance t o the S a x o n
i n v a d e r s i n the i n i d – f i f t h c e n t u r y .
I n G a u l , N o r t h A f r i c a , I t a l y , a n d Spain, the
n e w settlers f o l l o w e d A r i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e
R o m a n i n h a b i t a n t s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , f o l l o w e d
C h a l c e d o n i a n ( C a t h o l i c ) C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d thus saw
the invaders as heretics. A l t h o u g h this religious
difference caused f r i c t i o n between the t w o peoples,
i t also w o r k e d t o their m u t u a l advantage. R o m a n
l a w f o r b a d e m a r r i a g e w i t h A r i a n C h r i s t i a n s , so the
c o n q u e r o r s r e m a i n e d a d i s t i n c t i v e m i n o r i t y i n t h e i r
n e w d o m a i n s . T h i s enabled t h e m t o m a i n t a i n a
separate A r i a n clergy a n d separate churches.
O f a l l the f o r m e r empire’s w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s ,
I t a l y pro spe re d the m o s t u n d e r G e r m a n i c r u l e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e r the l o n g r e i g n o f T h e o d o r i c the
O s t r o g o t h (r. 4 9 3 – 5 2 6 ) . T h e o d o r i c m u r d e r e d
O d o v a c a r , the G e r m a n w a r r i o r w h o h a d deposed
the last R o m a n e m p e r o r i n the West, t o o b t a i n the
t h r o n e o f I t a l y . I n p o l i t i c s , T h e o d o r i c s o u g h t t o
creare m u t u a l respect b e t w e e n O s t r o g o t h s a n d
R o m a n s by m a i n t a i n i n g t w o separate a d m i n i s t r a –
t i o n s — o n e f o r his O s t r o g o t h s , the o t h e r f o r the
R o m a n s — s o t h a t b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s c o u l d m a n –
age t h e i r o w n a f f a i r s u n d e r his s u p e r v i s i o n . H e
also i n c l u d e d a r i s t o c r a r i c R o m a n s a m o n g his clos-
est advisers a n d m o s t t r u s t e d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . Even
i n his r e l i g i o u s pohcies T h e o d o r i c p u r s u e d m u t u a l
to le ranc e . A s a n A r i a n C h r i s t i a n , he s u p p o r t e d the
separate A r i a n clergy, b u t he also m a i n t a i n e d
excellent ties w i t h the p o p e , leader o f the R o m a n
C h r i s t i a n s . T h e o d o r i c u n i t e d V i s i g o t h i c k i n g d o m s
i n G a u l w i t h his o w n i n I t a l y , u l t i m a t e l y w i e l d i n g
great influence t h r o u g h o u t western E u r o p e . I t a l y
p r o s p e r e d u n d e r his r u l e , a n d the c o m m u n i t i e s o f
O s t r o g o t h s a n d R o m a n s l i v e d together a m i c a b l y .
i
2 3 5 – 2 8
4
2 8 4
2 9 3
3 1 2
3 2 4
3 7 8
4 0 6
4 1 0
4 1 8
4 2 9 – 4 3 9
4 7 6
4 9 3 – 5 2 6
A l t h o u g h
age t o the e m j
r u l e the weste
E m p i r e i n the
i n v a d e r s , i n c h
t i n n e d t h e i r t i
dience t o a Ic
t o erode l o y a l
C o n s t a n t i n o p
G e r m a n i c k i n
o f t h e i r n e w c
R o m a n c
last vestiges (
presence i n i
f o r m s i n the
ers. I n B r i t a i i
w o r s t a n d i i
T h e r e t h e (
invaders and
began deveic
I n G a u l , I t a l
q u i c k l y lean
based ” R o m
languages gr
I t a l i a n , Cata
c o n t i n u e d as
tiers b o r r o
\
f o r m s . W r i t i
o f t h e i r t r i b
The Breakup of the Roman Empire 2 2 5
C H R O N O L O G Y : R O M A N E M P I R E , E A S T A N D W E S
2 3 5 – 2 8 4 C r i s i s in R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t
2 8 4 D i o c l e t i a n b e g i n s imperial reforms
2 9 3 T e t r a r c h y e s t a b l i s h e d
3 1 2 C o n s t a n t i n e w i n s c o n t r o l of w e s t e r n e m p i r e
3 2 4 C o n s t a n t i n o p l e f o u n d e d
3 7 8 Battle of A d r i a n o p l e ; V i s i g o t h s I n v a d e e m p i r e
4 0 6 V a n d a l s a n d o t h e r tribes cross t h e Rhine
4 1 0 R o m a n s w i t h d r a w f r o m Britain; V i s i g o t h s p l u n d e r R o m e
4 1 8 V i s i g o t h s settle in Caul
4 2 9 – 4 3 9 V a n d a l s take N o r t h Africa
4 7 6 R o m u l u s A u g u s t u l u s , last w e s t e r n e m p e r o r , deposed
4 9 3 – 5 2 6 T h e o d o r i c the O s t r o g o t h rules Italy
A l t h o u g h T h e o d o r i c h a d p a i d f o r m a l h o m –
age t o t h e e m p e r o r i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , d u r i n g his
r u l e the w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s ‘ l i n k s t o the R o m a n
E m p i r e i n the East began t o w e a k e n . M o s t o f the
i n v a d e r s , i n c l u d i n g T h e o d o r i c ‘ s O s t r o g o t h s , c o n –
t i n u e d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e o f p l e d g i n g obe-
dience t o a l o c a l c h i e f t a i n . T h i s t r a d i t i o n began
t o erode l o y a l t y t o t h e f a r – o f f R o m a n e m p e r o r i n
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . By p l e d g i n g themselves t o a
G e r m a n i c k i n g , m e n g a i n e d a place i n the ” t r i b e ”
o f t h e i r n e w c h i e f t a i n .
R o m a n c u l t u r e d i d n o t a b r u p t l y end w i t h the
last vestiges o f R o m a n r u l e . I t r e m a i n e d a v i t a l
presence i n m o s t r e g i o n s , b u t i t t o o k d i f f e r e n t
f o r m s i n the lands n o w r u l e d b y G e r m a n i c l e a d –
ers. I n B r i t a i n , R o m a n c u l t u r e p e r h a p s f a r e d the
w o r s t a n d l i t t l e o f i t s u r v i v e d i n t o l a t e r ages.
T h e r e the G e r m a n i c language o f the Saxon
invaders a n d t h e i r A n g l o allies t o o k h o l d a n d
began d e v e l o p i n g i n t o the E n g l i s h s p o k e n t o d a y .
I n G a u l , I t a l y , a n d Spai n, the G e r m a n i c settlers
q u i c k l y learned L a t i n . O v e r t i m e these L a t i n –
based ” R o m a n c e ” (based o n t h e R o m a n speech)
languages g r e w i n t o t h e early versions o f F r e n c h ,
I t a h a n , C a t a l a n , Spanish, a n d Portuguese. L a t i n
c o n t i n u e d as the language o f literacy, a n d rhe set-
tlers b o r r o w e d h e a v i l y f r o m R o m a n l i t e r a r y
f o r m s . W r i t i n g i n L a t i n , t h e y p r o d u c e d histories
o f t h e i r t r i b a l k i n g d o m s i n i m i t a t i o n o f R o m a n
h i s t o r i a n s . T h e y also d e v e l o p e d l a w codes c o m –
posed i n L a t i n i n f l u e n c e d b y R o m a n m o d e l s .
The Survival of Rome’s Eastern
Provinces
D e s p i t e the p r o f o u n d a l t e r a t i o n s w r o u g h t b y
C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d Rome’s loss o f t h e w e s t e r n
p r o v i n c e s , the R o m a n E m p i r e e n d u r e d i n the
eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n .
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , the i m p e r i a l c i t y f o u n d e d b y
C o n s t a n t i n e i n 3 2 4 , became t h e center o f a
r e m o d e l e d e m p i r e t h a t m e r g e d C h r i s t i a n a n d
R o m a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . H i s t o r i a n s c a l l the
r e m o d e l e d R o m a n E m p i r e i n t h e East the
B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , a f t e r B y z a n t i u m , the o r i g i n a l
G r e e k n a m e o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .
CHRiSTlANiT” AND I.AW UNDER lUSTlMlAN T h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t a m a l g a m a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n a n d
R o m a n t r a d i t i o n s t o o k place d u r i n g the r e i g n o f
the E m p e r o r J u s t i n i a n (r. 5 2 7 – 5 6 5 ) . B o r n i n the
B a l k a n s , J u s t i n i a n w a s t h e last e m p e r o r i n C o n –
s t a n t i n o p l e t o speak L a t i n as his n a t i v e l a n g u a g e .
H e c o m b i n e d a p o w e r f u l i n t e l l e c t , a n u n s h a k a b l e
C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , a n d a d r i v i n g a m b i t i o n t o r e f o r m
the e m p i r e . H e d e f i e d c o n v e n t i o n by m a r r y i n g
T h e o d o r a , a s t r o n g – w i l l e d f o r m e r actress, a n d
2 2 6 C H A P T E R 7 Late Antiquity: The Age of New Boundaries, 2 5 0 – 6 0 0
i n c l u d e d her i n i m p e r i a l d e c i s i o n m a k i n g once he
became e m p e r o r .
J u s t i n i a n i n a u g u r a t e d changes t h a t h i g h –
h g h t e d his r o l e as a C h r i s t i a n e m p e r o r F i r s t , he
e m p h a s i z e d the p o s i t i o n o f the e m p e r o r at the
center o f society i n e x p h c i t l y C h r i s t i a n t e r m s . H e
w a s t h e f i r s t e m p e r o r t o use the t i t l e ” B e l o v e d o f
C h r i s t , ” a n d he a m p h f i e d the emperor’ s r o l e i n
C h u r c h a f f a i r s . J u s t i n i a n c o n s i d e r e d i t his d u t y as
e m p e r o r t o i m p o s e u n i f o r m r e l i g i o u s behef
t h r o u g h o u t the e m p i r e b y e n f o r c i n g the decrees
o f the C o u n c i l o f C h a l c e d o n as he i n t e r p r e t e d
t h e m . I n t h e East t h i s m e a n t s t a m p i n g o u t t h e sur-
v i v a l s o f p o l y t h e i s t w o r s h i p a n d s t r u g g l i n g t o f i n d
a c o m m o n g r o u n d w i t h the a n t i – C h a l c e d o n i a n s .
A f t e r J u s t i n i a n r e c o n q u e r e d some o f the w e s t e r n
d o m a i n s o f the e m p i r e , he h a d t o deal w i t h the
A r i a n V a n d a l s a n d O s t r o g o t h s l i v i n g there. I n the
East J u s t i n i a n suppressed p o l y t h e i s m , b u t he
never reached a n agreement w i t h the a n t i – C h a l –
c e d o n i a n c o m m u n i t i e s i n Syria a n d E g y p t . A f t e r
the a r m i e s o f I s l a m c o n q u e r e d these regions i n the
f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r y , the C h r i s t i a n churches there
f e l l o u t o f i m p e r i a l c o n t r o l (see C h a p t e r 8 ) . I n the
W e s t t h e bishops o f N o r t h A f r i c a a n d I t a l y
resented Justinian’s a t t e m p t s t o d e t e r m i n e d o c –
t r i n e . As a r e s u l t , a b i t t e r d i v i s i o n arose b e t w e e n
C h r i s t i a n churches i n the eastern a n d w e s t e r n
M e d i t e r r a n e a n over the r i g h t s o f bishops t o resist
i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y o n r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s .
J u s t i n i a n a t t e m p t e d t o create a C h r i s t i a n
society b y u s i n g R o m a n l a w c o u p l e d w i t h m i l i –
t a r y f o r c e . U n l i k e rulers o f Rome’s e a r l y e m p i r e ,
w h o p e r m i r t e d subject peoples t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r
o w n c u s t o m a r y l a w s , J u s t i n i a n suppressed l o c a l
l a w s t h r o u g h o u t his r e a l m . H e e n v i s i o n e d a l l o f
his subjects o b e y i n g o n l y R o m a n l a w — l a w t h a t
he d e f i n e d a n d t h a t G o d a p p r o v e d . ( J u s t i n i a n
w a s sure t h a t i f G o d d i d n o t a p p r o v e o f his leg-
i s l a t i v e changes, G o d w o u l d n o t a l l o w h i m t o
c o n t i n u e as e m p e r o r . )
T h u s , i n h i s G o d – g i v e n m i s s i o n as e m p e r o r –
l e g i s l a t o r , J u s t i n i a n r e f o r m e d R o m a n l a w . T o
s i m p l i f y the v a s t b o d y o f c i v i l l a w , he o r d e r e d
h i s l a w y e r s r o s o r t t h r o u g h a l l t h e l a w s t h a t
h a d a c c u m u l a t e d o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s a n d d e t e r –
m i n e w h i c h o f t h e m s h o u l d s t i l l be e n f o r c e d .
D I P T Y C H OF A C O N S U L
This ivory panel celebrates a Roman consul at C o n –
stantinople in the sixth century. In his right h a n d he
holds the mappa, a ceremonial cloth that symbolizes
his office. Behind him stand personifications of Rome
(on his left) and Constantinople (on his right). Such
panels were given as gifts w h e n consuls took office.
This one demonstrates Roman traditions continuing
in the new world of Byzantium.
J u s t i n i a n ‘ s c o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e l a w , w h i c h w a s
c o m p l e t e d i n 5 3 4 , a n d a s s o c i a t e d l e g a l t e x t s
are n o w c o l l e c t i v e l y c a l l e d t h e Corpus Juris
Civilis. T h e b o d y o f R o m a n l a w passed d o w n
t o l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h i s
c o m p i l a t i o n . A t t h e e n d o f t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y .
s c h o l a r s i n
J u s t i n i a n ‘ s 1
i n t e r e s t i n
Corpus Juri
s p e a k i n g E u
R E C O N Q U E R I N
h a d r e o r g a n i
i a n t u r n e d h i
p r o v i n c e s . E
c o n t r o l o v e r
m a n i c k i n g s ,
f o r m e r g l o r y ,
v e r s i o n o f CI
V a n d a l s a n d
H e w o u l d als
sion o f R o m a
I n 5 3 3 , J
a n d 5 , 0 0 0 a
general Belisaj
N o r t h A f r i c a .
Belisarius cele
E n c o u r a g e d b
sights o n I t a l y
i l y w a s e m b r o
J u s t i n i a n unc
O s t r o g o t h s , V
R o m a n p o p u i
resistance t o B
f a i l e d t o supp’
a n d soldiers. 1
decades. Justij
I t a l y back unc
r r a c t c d r e c o n q
The years o f
-financial b u r d (
•See M a p 7 . 3 . )
O n e o f the
I t a l y t o o k dec^
p l a g u e t h a t s
m i g r a t e d s w i f i
G a u l . T h e f i r s t
2 5 0 , 0 0 0 peo]
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
empire’s i n h a b
i e v a s t a t e d . Jus
“ne s o l d i e r s i t i
T h e B r e a k u p o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e 2 2 7
s c h o l a r s i n I t a l y d i s c o v e r e d m a n u s c r i p t s o f
J u s t i n i a n ‘ s l e g a l w o r k s i n c h u r c h l i b r a r i e s , a n d
i n t e r e s t i n R o m a n l a w r e v i v e d . T h u s , t h e
Corpus Juris Civilis b e c a m e a p i l l a r o f L a t i n –
s p e a k i n g E u r o p e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n .
RiiCONQUESING PROVINCES IM THE WEST O n c e he
h a d r e o r g a n i z e d t h e empire’s legal system, J u s t i n –
i a n t u r n e d his a t t e n t i o n t o Rome’s f a l l e n w e s t e r n
p r o v i n c e s . H e w a n t e d t o reestabhsh i m p e r i a l
c o n t r o l o v e r these t e r r i t o r i e s , n o w r u l e d b y Ger-
m a n i c k i n g s . O n c e the e m p i r e w a s r e s t o r e d t o its
f o r m e r g l o r y , J u s t i n i a n ‘ s p l a n w a s t o i m p o s e his
v e r s i o n o f C h r i s t i a n o r t h o d o x y u p o n the A r i a n
V a n d a l s a n d O s t r o g o t h s i n his w e s t e r n d o m a i n s .
H e w o u l d also f o r c e t h e m t o l i v e u n d e r his ver-
s i o n o f R o m a n l a w a n d g o v e r n m e n t .
I n 5 3 3 , J u s t i n i a n sent a fleet o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 m e n
a n d 5 , 0 0 0 c a v a l r y u n d e r the c o m m a n d o f his
general Belisarius t o a t t a c k the V a n d a l k i n g d o m i n
N o r t h A f r i c a . I t f e l l q u i c k l y , a n d w i t h i n a year
Belisarius celebrated a t r i u m p h i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .
E n c o u r a g e d b y this easy v i c t o r y , J u s t i n i a n set his
sights o n I t a l y , w h e r e the O s t r o g o t h i c r u l i n g f a m –
i l y was e m b r o i l e d i n p o l i t i c a l i n f i g h t i n g . T h i s t i m e
J u s t i n i a n u n d e r e s t i m a t e d his o p p o n e n t s . T h e
O s t r o g o t h s , w h o h a d w o n the s u p p o r t o f the
R o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n I t a l y , m o u n t e d a fierce
resistance t o Belisarius’s i n v a s i o n i n 5 3 7 . J u s t i n i a n
f a i l e d t o s u p p o r t Belisarius w i t h adequate f u n d s
a n d soldiers. B i t t e r f i g h t i n g dragged o n f o r t w o
decades. Justinian’s armies e v e n t u a l l y w r e s t l e d
I t a l y back u n d e r i m p e r i a l c o n t r o l , b u t the p r o –
t r a c t e d reconquest h a d disastrous consequences.
T h e years o f f i g h t i n g devastated I t a l y , a n d the
f i n a n c i a l b u r d e n d r a i n e d the empire’s resources.
(See JMap 7.3.)
O n e o f t h e reasons J u s t i n i a n ‘ s r e c o n q u e s t o f
I t a l y t o o k decades w a s the v i s i t a t i o n o f a l e t h a l
p l a g u e t h a t s t r u c k the e m p i r e i n 5 4 2 a n d
m i g r a t e d s w i f t l y t o I t a l y , N o r t h A f r i c a , a n d
G a u l . T h e f i r s t o n s l a u g h t t o o k t h e lives o f a b o u t
2 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e , h a l f the p o p u l a t i o n o f
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . A n e s t i m a t e d o n e – t h i r d o f the
empire’s i n h a b i t a n t s d i e d . W i t h the p o p u l a t i o n
d e v a s t a t e d , J u s t i n i a n ‘ s a r m y c o u l d n o t r e c r u i t
the s o l d i e r s i t needed t o f i g h t o n several f r o n t s .
T h e p l a g u e also w e a k e n e d t h e e c o n o m y . I n
m a n y p r o v i n c e s , f a r m s lay deserted a n d c i t y
p o p u l a t i o n s s h r i v e l e d . C o m m e r c i a l ties b e t w e e n
the eastern a n d w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n d e c l i n e d .
I n t h e w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s , e c o n o m i e s became
m o r e ” l o c a l ” a n d s e l f – s u f f i c i e n t .
T H E STRUGGLE W I T H PERSIA A l t h o u g h J u s t i n –
i a n ‘ s g r e a t e s t m i l i t a r y successes w e r e i n t h e
w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , h i s m o s t d a n g e r o u s
e n e m y w a s t h e P e r s i a n E m p i r e ( f o r m e r l y
P a r t h i a ) o n his e a s t e r n f l a n k . T h i s h u g e , m u l t i –
e t h n i c e m p i r e , u n d e r t h e r u l e o f t h e S a s a n i a n
d y n a s t y (ca. 2 2 0 – 6 3 3 ) , h a d been R o m e ‘ s m a i n
r i v a l t h r o u g h o u t late a n t i q u i t y . T h e t e n s i o n
s t e m m e d c h i e f l y f r o m c o m p e t i t i o n o v e r A r m e –
n i a , w h i c h w a s a r i c h s o u r c e o f t r o o p s , a n d
S y r i a , w h i c h possessed e n o r m o u s w e a l t h .
T h o u g h w a r s b e t w e e n R o m a n s a n d Persians
w e r e f r e q u e n t , n e i t h e r side c o u l d w i n p e r m a –
n e n t s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e o t h e r .
J u s t i n i a n f o u g h t several b r u t a l w a r s w i t h
Persia. H e gave t o p p r i o r i t y t o t h i s s t r u g g l e by
s u p p l y i n g i t w i t h m o r e t h a n h a l f o f h i s t r o o p s ,
led by his best generals. H e also p r o v i d e d m o r e
f i n a n c i a l resources t o t h e s t r u g g l e i n t h e East
t h a n t o t h e w a r s o f r e c o n q u e s t i n t h e W e s t .
C h o s r o e s I (r. 5 3 1 – 5 7 9 ) , the aggressive a n d
a m b i t i o u s G r e a t K i n g o f Persia, p r o v e d a w o r –
t h y a d v e r s a r y f o r J u s t i n i a n . C h o s r o e s r e p e a t –
e d l y i n v a d e d t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , c a u s i n g
g r e a t d a m a g e . I n 5 4 0 , f o r e x a m p l e , he s a c k e d
A n t i o c h , the w e a l t h i e s t c i t y i n S y r i a . Because
w a r w i t h Persia w a s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y e x p e n s i v e ,
J u s t i n i a n b o u g h t peace b y p a y i n g t h o u s a n d s o f
p o u n d s o f g o l d t o t h e P e r s i a n m o n a r c h . E v e n
t h i s cost less t h a n c o n t i n u i n g t o f i g h t e v e r y year.
B y the t i m e o f J u s t i n i a n ‘ s d e a t h , t h e t w o
e m p i r e s h a d established an uneasy coexistence,
b u t the basic a n i m o s i t y b e t w e e n t h e m r e m a i n e d
u n r e s o l v e d . F o r t h e n e x t h a l f c e n t u r y , J u s t i n i a n ‘ s
successors engaged i n i n t e r m i t t e n t w a r f a r e
w i t h the Persians. By f i g h t i n g e x p e n s i v e w a r s o n
the w e s t e r n a n d eastern f l a n k s o f his e m p i r e ,
J u s t i n i a n hastened the d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f R o m a n
i m p e r i a l r u l e o u t s i d e t h e eastern p r o v i n c e s .
T h e o v e r e x t e n s i o n o f resources e n s u r e d t h a t
2 3 0 C H A P T E R 7 Late A n t i q u i t y : T h e A g e o f N e w B o u n d a r i e s , 2 5 0 – 6 0 0
ANGLO-SAXON / f t ” ” ”
KINGDOMS: “‘ ‘
ATLANTIC
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•̂•̂ – ^ > S , :
Cyprus ; s
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Sea ;iJ«n«piem
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The Byzantine Empire at the Death of Justinian, 565
Roman Empire in 527 at Justinian’s accession ;, ” Kngdom of the Visigoths (ruled by Arians) : Monophysites 500 mi
MAP 7,3 C o n s t a n t i n o p l e c o u l d n o t m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l o f CONCLUSION b e t w e e n t h e T h e R o m W h e n I s l a i Conclusion 231
b e t w e e n t h e c i v i h z a t i o n o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e T h e R o m a n E m p i r e i t s e l f w a s i r r e p a r a b l y W h e n I s l a m e m e r g e d as a p o w e r f u l r e U – t h e M u s l i m a n d C h r i s t i a n e m p i r e s became ene- KEY TERMS asceticism Civilis
CHAPTER QUESTIONS instability of the t h i r d century? (page 2 0 3 ) gion in rlie R o m a n E m p i r e , and h o w d i d that 3. H o w did C h r i s t i a n i t y t r a n s f o r m c o m m u n i t i e s , 4. H o w and w h y did the R o m a n E m p i r e in the West TAKING IT FURTHER ences on early C h r i s t i a n i t y ? G e r m a n i c ideas of rulership in late antiquity? a n d not the West in late antiquity?
•(.^•-[practice on WiyHistoryLab Medieval Empires Byzantium and Islam H T h e N e w W o r l d o f I s l a m
In 8 6 0 FIERCE Rus TRIBESMEN ABOARD A FLEET OF SLEEK SHIPS a n d t h e n a d v a n c e d to t h e gates of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ,
ready for pillage a n d r a p e . Panic g r i p p e d t h e i n h a b i –
tants of t h e city. T h e Patriarch of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
c a l l e d o n t h e p e o p l e to r e p e n t of their sins to a v o i d
G o d ‘ s w r a t h , a n d w h e n t h e Rus u n e x p e c t e d l y
d e p a r t e d , t h e p e o p l e of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e interpreted it
as an a c t of divine i n t e r v e n t i o n .
Strategically l o c a t e d w h e r e the Black Sea m e e t s
t h e Sea of M a r m a r a , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e w a s the s h i n i n g
capital of t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e — a n d t h e largest a n d
richest city in t h e w o d d . Its C r e e k – s p e a k i n g i n h a b i –
tants c o n s i d e r e d the Rus s a v a g e s , p r o n e to t h e w o r s t
kinds of v i o l e n c e . Like so m a n y o t h e r b a r b a r i a n p e o –
ples, t h e Rus w h o w e r e V i k i n g s living in w h a t is n o w
U k r a i n e a n d Russia c o u l d n o t spe a k G r e e k , w e r e not
C h r i s t i a n s , a n d d i d not r e c o g n i z e the authority of the
B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r , w h i c h the C r e e k s b e l i e v e d c a m e
directly f r o m G o d . T h e leaders of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
tried to k e e p these b a r b a r i a n s u n d e r c o n t r o l by s i g n –
i n g treaties, w h i c h s t i p u l a t e d that n o m o r e t h a n 5 0
Rus c o u l d e n t e r the city at o n e t i m e a n d they all h a d
to leave by a u t u m n . In e x c h a n g e for civilized b e h a v –
ior, t h e Rus r e c e i v e d free ba ths, f o o d , provisions for a
m o n t h , a n d e q u i p m e n t for their return to their
h o m e l a n d . By the n i n t h c e n t u r y t h e Rus h a d estab-
lished a regular p a t t e r n . E a c h s p r i n g after s p e n d i n g
t h e w i n t e r s a l o n g t h e river valleys of t h e n o r t h c o l –
lec ting tribute f r o m t h e Slavic tribes, t h e Rus set off in
their boats, risking d a n g e r o u s rapids a n d waterfalls
o n t h e D n i e p e r River a n d a m b u s h f r o m hostile tribes,
to r e a c h the Black Sea a n d the s p l e n d i d e m p o r i u m of
t h e w o d d , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , w h i c h they c a l l e d s i m p l y
the ” G r e a t C i t y . ”
A c c u s t o m e d to w i n t e r treks, g r u b b y villages,
a n d c o n s t a n t d a n g e r , t h e y w e r e d a z z l e d by the s i g h t
of the G r e a t City, w i t h its half million i n h a b i t a n t s a n d
t w e l v e miles of fortifications. T h e g i l d e d c u p o l a s of its
c h u r c h e s , t h e m a r b l e p a l a c e s of t h e aristocrats a n d
e m p e r o r , a n d t h e c a v e r n o u s w h a r v e s a n d w a r e –
h o u s e s of its m e r c h a n t s a m a z e d t h e s e t r i b e s m e n . T h e
p e o p l e of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e w e r e e q u a l l y a s t o n i s h e d —
a n d f r i g h t e n e d — b y t h e s u n – w o r n , f u r – c l a d Rus.
T h e Rus c a m e to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e to t r a d e . T h e
m e r c h a n t s of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t r a d e d B y z a n t i n e a n d
C h i n e s e silks, Persian glass, A r a b i c silver c o i n s ( h i g h l y
p r i z e d b y t h e R u s ) , a n d I n d i a n s p i c e s for h o n e y , w a x ,
slaves, a n d m u s t y bales of furs f r o m S c a n d i n a v i a a n d
w h a t is n o w n o r t h e r n Russia. D e s p i t e their s e n s e of
superiority, t h e B y z a n t i n e s n e e d e d the b a r b a r i a n s . In
T H E CATH Source: Dagli C t h e m e r c h a
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a b o u t t h e
culture rest
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2 3 2 t u r n t o t h e i r J b b y v i l l a g e s ,
d b y t h e s i g h t
h a b i t a n t s a n d c u p o l a s o f i t s a s t o n i s h e d — c o i n s ( h i g h l y T H E C A T H E D R A L OF HOLY Source: Dagli Orti/Picture Desl<, Inc./Kobal
Collection
t h e m e r c h a n t s t a l l s o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , t r a d e r s f r o m T h e t e r m Middle Ages r e f e r s t o t h e p e r i o d I t h e A r a b i c – s p e a k i n g I s l a m i c c a l i p h a t e s o f t h e M i d d l e 2 3 3 2 3 4 C H A P T E R 8 M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s a n d B o r d e r l a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d i s l a m
p r o d u c e d i m p o r t a n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d scientific
w o r k , a n d s u p p o r t e d a t h r i v i n g e c o n o m y .
T h e m o s t distinctive feature of the m e d i e v a l
p e r i o d w a s t h a t all t h e s e civilizations rested o n
m o n o t h e i s t i c religions t h a t s h a r e d b a s i c beliefs
a b o u t C o d . All s t r u g g l e d to e l i m i n a t e p o l y t h e i s m
e i t h e r by p e r s u a s i o n or f o r c e . H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e
e a c h of t h e s e m e d i e v a l civilizations d e f i n e d itself as
an e x c l u s i v e c o m m u n i t y of f a i t h , cultural b o u n d a r i e s
d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n t h e m t h a t are still visible today.
T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t w o of t h e s e civilizations,
B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m . C h a p t e r 9 d i s c u s s e s the Latin
C h r i s t i a n k i n g d o m s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n
raised by t h e t w o civilizations d i s c u s s e d h e r e is t h i s :
H o w d i d their different v e r s i o n s of m o n o t h e i s m s u s –
tain t h e m as e m p i r e s ?
BYZANTIUM: THE SURVIVAL p r o v i n c e s e v o l v e i n t o t h e B y z a n t i n e I n late a n t i q u i t y C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n d R o m e h a d E a s t e r n E u r o p e became a n u n s t a b l e b o r d e r – Slavs
even a f t e r the collapse o f B y z a n t i u m itself.
A n E m b a t t l e d Empire T h e B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r s a f t e r J u s t i n i a n t r i e d t e r r i t o r i e s — a T h i s a d n : T h e Byza T h e n o m T h e A v a B y z a n t i u m : T h e S u r v i v a l o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e 2 3 5
t e r r i t o r i e s — a breaic f r o m R o m a n p r a c t i c e , w h i c h T h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o v e r h a u l d i d n o t save T h e B y z a n t i n e h o l d o n eastern E u r o p e also T h e n o m a d i c A v a r s , w h o s u d d e n l y a p p e a r e d T h e A v a r s c r e a t e d an e m p i r e b y f o r c i n g m a n a g e d t o o v e r t h r o w A v a r r u l e . I n t h e s e c o n d By the n i n t h century, these tribes began t o c o n – Fast o n t h e heels o f the A v a r s a n d Slavs f r o m I n 8 6 5 , h o w e v e r , K h a n B o r i s I (r. 8 5 2 – 8 8 9 ) 2 3 6 C H A P T E R 8 M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s a n d B o r d e r i a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m
a l l u r e a m o n g the p o l y t h e i s t i c t r i b e s . T h e i r T h e a u t o n o m y o f the B u l g a r i a n C h u r c h was As w e saw a t the b e g i r m i n g o f this chapter, K i e v a n R u s reached its z e n i t h u n d e r f a r n o r t h t h a t h a d g r o w n r i c h f r o m the f u r t r a d e . B y z a n t i n e C i v i l i z a t i o n 3!VIPER!AL A . D M i N i S T R A T I O N A N D E C O N O M Y Based ATLANTIC -rW
Exarchate(
Byzantine Empire, ca. 600
i… Byzantine Empire — – f Slavs and Avars MAP 8.1 H i g h d i g n i t a r i e s w o t B y z a n t i u m : T h e S u r v i v a l o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e 2 3 7
ATLANTIC WESSEX ‘Sutton Hoo
• NEUSTRIA AUSTRASIA Slavs KIEVAN .Kiev
AOUITAINE VISIGOTHIC Exarchate of Ravenna f Black Sea ^
^ : i : i l s , – y . ANATOLIA -: ” – ‘ ‘ ^
S V * * ‘•Aatioch
‘^’ranean Sea
AFGHANISTAN
\ ARABIA
Byzantine Empire, ca. 600 ‘• ‘ Byzantine Empire Slavs and Avars CO • Sea M A P 8 . 1 B y 6 0 0 t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e c o n s i s t e d o f A n a t o l i a , G r e e c e , p a r t o f t h e B a l k a n s , S y r i a , E g y p t , a n d s o m e H i g h d i g n i t a r i e s w o r e s i l k g a r m e n t s o f d i s t i n c t i v e i n d i c a t e d the p o l i t i c s o f the c o u r t as f a v o r e d M e n f o r t u n a t e o r t a l e n t e d e n o u g h t o o b t a i n 2 3 8 C H A P T E R 8 M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s a n d B o r d e r l a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m
KING DAVID PLATE Source: Byzantine, early seventh century. Dish: David and Goliath. Silver, of). Pierpont Morgan, 1917
regions o f the e m p i r e . T h i s system gave p r o v i n – F r o m his p o s i t i o n at the head o f this elaborate s p u r r e d a f l o u r i s h i n g cash-based economy. By the end o f the seventh century, h o w – T H E IvIiLiTARV SYSTEM OF THE ] ‘ H t M t s I n ors a b a n d o n e d the late R o m a n system o f r e l y i n g By 7 5 0 t h e O v e r tiiTie t l T h e B y z a n O n e o f the B y z a n t i u m : T h e S u r v i v a l o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e 2 3 9
By 7 5 0 the themes h a d d e v e l o p e d c o n s i d e r – O v e r t i m e the f o u r o r i g i n a l themes w e r e sub- T h e B y z a n t i n e b o r d e r s w e r e especially O n e o f the l a s t i n g c u l t u r a l f r u i t s o f these p o e m w a s a n A r a b c o m m a n d e r w h o a b d u c t e d T H E C H U R C H A H D fltLiGiOus LIFE C o n s t a n t i n o p l e O n e o f the i n s t i t u t i o n a l p i l l a r s o f the O r t h o – M o n a s t e r i e s , p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n the 2 4 0 C H A P T E R 8 M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s a n d B o r d e r l a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m
w h o needed h e l p , such as o r p h a n s , the elderly, D u r i n g the seventh a n d e i g h t h c e n t u r i e s . fCONS AND T H E i C O N O C L A , S I i C C O N T R O V E R S Y T h e C e n t u r i e s b e f o r e , the f i r s t C h r i s t i a n s h a d pagans d o the r e s t , ” w r o r e o ne c h u r c h leader i n
the f o u r t h c e n t u r y .
D e s p i t e such w a r n i n g s , m a n y C h r i s t i a n s B y z a n t i n e t h e o l o g i a n s defended icons as H o w e v e r , by the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , some B y z a n – imperial pal
r i o t e d . F o u r ; T h e venei H T i > i i . , » . i
BYZANTINE ICON B y z a n t i u m : T h e S u r v i v a l o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e 241
c h u r c h leader i n m a n y C h r i s t i a n s 1 e n t r a n c e t o t h e ; n d e d icons as ers t o r e m o v e i m p e r i a l palace, t h e p e o p l e o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e T h e v e n e r a t i o n o f icons w a s such a v i t a l p a r t : «iV:̂ «’t>iv4”t*’̂ *̂*.»[“‘.4*j>->oA” y:
B Y Z A N T I N E I C O N O C L A S M s o u t h e r n I t a l y , Sicily, a n d the B a l k a n coast o f the A f t e r years o f r u r m o i l , t w o B y z a n t i n e t h e Empress Irene c a l l e d a general c h u r c h The Macedonian Renaissance B y z a n t i u m ‘ s losses t o e x t e r n a l enemies w e r e f r o m the Balkans t h a t lasted six generadons. I ized the B y z a n t i n e i m p e r i a l system because 242 C H A P T E R 8 M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s a n d B o r d e r l a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m
t h r o n e , his f a m i l y retained p o w e r by n a m i n g U n d e r t h e M a c e d o n i a n e m p e r o r s , B y z a n t i n e T h e e c o n o m y o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t h r i v e d . T h e M a c e d o n i a n d y n a s t y released c r e a t i v e T h e P a t r i a r c h P h o t i u s (ca. 8 1 0 – c a . 893) w a s THE BYZANTINE PORTRAIT r e l i g i o u s a n d secular. Photius’s s u m m a r i e s a n d M i c h a e l I I I i n U n d e r the E v e n u n d e CHRONOLO 6 3 0 s c a . 8 1 0 – < a . 8
8 6 7 - 1 0 5 6
ft T h e N e w W o r l d o f I s l a m 2 4 3
M i c h a e l I I I i n 858 w h i l e s t i l l a l a y m a n m e t w i t h U n d e r the M a c e d o n i a n d y n a s t y elaborate Even u n d e r the M a c e d o n i a n s , B y z a n t i u m the e a r l y e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y , h o w e v e r , the d y n a s t y W h e n E m p e r o r Basil I I (r. 9 7 6 – 1 0 2 5 ) d i e d , T h e early M a c e d o n i a n e m p e r o r s ‘ success i n r 5 2 7 – 5 6 5 Reign of )ustinian 1 6 4 2 M u s l i m s take E g y p t
6 9 8 M u s l i m s c o n q u e r C a r t h a g e
7 1 6 – 7 1 8 M u s l i m s b e s i e g e C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
7 2 6 – 8 4 2 I c o n o c l a s m c o n t r o v e r s y c a . 8 1 0 – c a . 8 9 3 Life of Photius, patriarch of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
8 6 7 – 1 0 5 6 M a c e d o n i a n d y n a s t y 2 4 4 C H A P T E R 8 M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s a n d B o r d e r l a n d s : B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m
Atlas Mountains
BERBERS Jaxa • STEPPE NOMADS
Carthage ‘”^^ Sea “̂™”‘< i^Dama5cuT*'
SASANIAN EMPIRE .Ctesiphon Fustat* ^Mt Sinai
The Expansion of Islam: Lombards ARABIA , Medina ,
‘ a Mecca
Arabian 500 km 500 mi MAP 8.2 w h o o f f e r e d t h e m f o o d . As these great l a n d o w n – T h e late J U a c e d o n i a n e m p e r o r s l a c k e d the l a n d w a s the o n l y p r o f i t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m o f T H E mVM W O R L D OF iSLASVl
• H o w d i d islam develop i n A r a b i a , and T h e M u s l i m I s l a m orig THE KA’ABA IN
Conquests under Justinian (ruled by Arians prior to reconquest)
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T h e Byzantine E m p i r e at the Death o f Justinian, 565
W h e n Justinian died in 5 6 5 , Italy, North Africa, and part of Spain that had been lost in the fifth century had been
restored, temporarily to imperial rule. Under the dynamic Sasanian dynasty, the Persian Empire fought many wars
with the Romans. Neither empire had an advantage because they were roughly the same size and possessed
equivalent resources of wealth and manpower.
t h e w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . W h e n n e w i n v a d e r s
descended o n I t a l y a n d t h e B a l k a n s i n t h e late
s i x t h c e n t u r y , t h e e m p i r e d i d n o t have the
s t r e n g t h t o resist t h e m . I n t h e seventh c e n t u r y
the r e m a i n i n g R o m a n p r o v i n c e s i n N o r t h
A f r i c a , E g y p t , a n d Syria w e r e l o s t . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
i n w h a t r e m a i n e d o f the R o m a n E m p i r e , J u s t i n –
i a n succeeded i n c r e a t i n g a C h r i s t i a n – R o m a n
society, u n i t e d u n d e r one G o d , one e m p e r o r , a n d
one l a w .
T h e A g e of N e w B o u n d a r i e s
D u r i n g l a t e a n t i q u i t y t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
R o m a n w o r l d i n t o n e w p o l i t i c a l c o n f i g u r a –
t i o n s w i t h n e w b o u n d a r i e s h e l p e d create a n e w
c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e W e s t . H e n c e f o r t h , t h e
W e s t w a s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e legacy o f
R o m a n c i v i l i z a t i o n f i l t e r e d t h r o u g h t h e lens
o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e m o s t l a s t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t
o f t h e p e r i o d c a m e f r o m t h e e n c o u n t e r
a n d C h r i s t i
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s p l i t i n t o t w o
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c e n t u r y h a d been t h e f a i t h o f a p e r s e c u t e d
m i n o r i t y . A s C h r i s t i a n i t y became t h e d o m i n a n t
r e l i g i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , i t w a s
i t s e l f t r a n s f o r m e d , n o t t h e least t h r o u g h t h e
a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n c i l e C h r i s t i a n r e v e l a t i o n w i t h
c l a s s i c a l l e a r n i n g . C h r i s t i a n t h i n k e r s a s s i m i –
l a t e d m u c h o f c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e , a n d w i t h t h e
s u p p o r t o f t h e R o m a n e m p e r o r s , C h r i s t i a n i t y
became t h e o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n . D u r i n g t h i s
process o f a s s i m i l a t i o n . C h r i s t i a n s d i s a g r e e d
a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s o v e r h o w t h e y e x p l a i n e d t h e
d i v i n i t y o f Jesus C h r i s t , a n d these d i s a g r e e –
m e n t s led t o d i s t i n c t i v e s t r a i n s o f C h r i s t i a n
b e l i e f .
s p l i t i n t o t w o p a r t s , w h i c h became t h e f o u n d a –
t i o n s f o r t w o d i s t i n c t i v e C h r i s t i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n s .
A f t e r R o m a n r u l e i n t h e W e s t c o l l a p s e d ,
G e r m a n i c r u l e r s e s t a b l i s h e d n e w k i n g d o m s i n
t h e o l d R o m a n p r o v i n c e s . Some o f these
k i n g d o m s s p o k e R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s d e r i v e d
f r o m L a t i n , a n d a l l o f t h e m used L a t i n f o r
r e l i g i o u s w o r s h i p , l e a r n i n g , a n d t h e l a w . F r o m
t h e w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e
d u r i n g l a t e a n t i q u i t y , L a t i n c i v i l i z a t i o n s p r e a d
t o p a r t s o f c e n t r a l , e a s t e r n , a n d n o r t h e r n
E u r o p e t h a t h a d n e v e r been p a r t o f t h e R o m a n
E m p i r e . I n t h e e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , t h e
R o m a n E m p i r e s u r v i v e d as t h e B y z a n t i n e
E m p i r e (discussed i n t h e n e x t C h a p t e r 8) a n d
b e c a m e t h e h o m e o f O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y . I n
B y z a n t i u m , G r e e k r e m a i n e d t h e d o m i n a n t
t o n g u e o f d a i l y l i f e , l e a r n i n g , a n d C h r i s t i a n
w o r s h i p .
g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y at t h e e n d o f t h e . l a t e
a n t i q u e p e r i o d , as w e w i l l discuss i n the n e x t
C h a p t e r 8, c l a s s i c a l l e a r n i n g a n d R o m a n
i n s t i t u t i o n s also i n f l u e n c e d i t s a d h e r e n t s . B u t
m i e s , a t e n d e n c y t h a t c r e a t e d t h e m o s t l a s t i n g
d i v i s i o n s a m o n g t h e p e o p l e s w h o h a d o n c e
been c i t i z e n s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e .
late a n t i q u i t y
t e t r a r c h y
G r e a t Persecution
p a p a c y
p a g a n
A r i a n s
C h a l c e d o n i a n s
V u l g a t e
L a t i n C h r i s t e n d o m
M o n o p h y s i t e s
m o n a s t i c m o v e m e n t
T a l m u d
p i l g r i m a g e s
relics
C h u r c h Fathers
N e o p l a t o n i s m
B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e
Corpus Juris
1. H o w did the R o m a n E m p i r e reorganize after the
2 . H o w d i d C h r i s t i a n i t y become the d o m i n a n t reli-
affect R o m a n society? (page 2 0 7 )
religious experience, a n d intellectual traditions
inside and outside the empire? (page 2 1 2 )
disintegrate? (page 2 2 2 )
1. Besides the Bible w h a t were the significant i n f l u –
2. W h a t were the differences between R o m a n a n d
3. W h y d i d the R o m a n E m p i r e survive in the E a s t
and Borderlands:
s B y z a n t i u m : T h e S u r v i v a l o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e
WITH PROWS SHAPED LIKE DRACONS’ HEADS RAIDED t h e
B y z a n t i n e villages a l o n g t h e shores of the Black S e a
W I S D O M I
W h e n Justini
completed c
d o m (Haghi.
tinople in 52
” S o l o m o n , I
He meant th
bigger and r
lerusalem Te
cal King Sole
Haghia Sopf
building in E
church beca
Collection
u s h a d e s t a b –
i f t e r s p e n d i n g
: h e n o r t h c o l –
= R u s s e t o f f i n
a n d w a t e r f a l l s
h o s t i l e t r i b e s ,
e m p o r i u m o f
c a l l e d s i m p l y
r i s t o c r a t s a n d
‘S a n d w a r e –
i b e s m e n . T h e
l a d R u s .
t o t r a d e . T h e
y z a n t i n e a n d
r h o n e y , w a x ,
i n d i n a v i a a n d
i h e i r s e n s e o f
D a r b a r i a n s . I n
W I S D O M (HAGHIA SOPHIA)
W h e n J u s t i n i a n e n t e r e d h i s n e w l y
c o m p l e t e d c a t h e d r a l o f H o l y W i s –
d o m ( H a g h i a S o p h i a ) i n C o n s t a n –
t i n o p l e i n 5 3 7 , h e b o a s t e d ,
” S o l o m o n , I h a v e o u t d o n e y o u ! ”
H e m e a n t t h a t h i s c h u r c h w a s
b i g g e r a n d m o r e s p l e n d i d t h a n t h e
J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e b u i l t b y t h e b i b l i –
c a l K i n g S o l o m o n . F o r c e n t u r i e s ,
H a g h i a S o p h i a w a s t h e l a r g e s t
b u i l d i n g i n E u r o p e . I n 1 4 5 3 t h e
c h u r c h b e c a m e a m o s q u e .
m a n y c u l t u r e s m e t , h a g g l e d , a n d c a m e t o k n o w
s o m e t h i n g o f o n e a n o t h e r . N o n e p e r h a p s w e r e
m o r e u n l i k e t h e o t h e r t h a n t h e r o u g h R u s a n d t h e
r e f i n e d B y z a n t i n e s , b u t t h e i r m u t u a l d e s i r e s f o r
p r o f i t k e p t t h e m i n a p e r s i s t e n t , i f t e n t a t i v e ,
e m b r a c e . T h e s e r e p e a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n s a m o n g
d i v e r s e p e o p l e s w h o t r a d e d , c o m p e t e d , a n d f o u g h t
w i t h o n e a n o t h e r o f f e r c l u e s f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e
m e d i e v a l w o r l d , a l s o k n o w n as t h e M i d d l e A g e s .
b e t w e e n t h e a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n s f r o m
a b o u t t h e f i f t h t o f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . M e d i e v a l
c u l t u r e r e s t e d o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h r e e g r e a t
c i v i l i z a t i o n s : t h e G r e e k C h r i s t i a n i t y o f B y z a n t i u m ;
4
E a s t , N o r t h A f r i c a , a n d S p a i n ; a n d t h e L a t i n C h r i s t –
i a n k i n g d o m s o f w e s t e r n a n d n o r t h e r n E u r o p e . T h e
d y n a m i c i n t e r a c t i o n s a m o n g t h e s e t h r e e c i v i l i z a –
t i o n s , d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y r e l i g i o n a n d l a n g u a g e , l a y a t
t h e h e a r t o f m e d i e v a l c u l t u r e . F r o m t h e s e v e n t h t o
t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e m o s t e n e r g e t i c a n d c r e –
a t i v e o f t h e s e t h r e e c i v i l i z a t i o n s w a s t h e I s l a m i c
w o r l d , w h o s e a r m i e s t h r e a t e n e d b o t h B y z a n t i u m
a n d t h e L a t i n C h r i s t i a n k i n g d o m s . I n t h e c e n t u r y
a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f i t s f o u n d e r , t h e p r o p h e t M u h a m –
m a d , i n 6 3 2 , I s l a m ‘ s f o l l o w e r s b u r s t f r o m t h e i r
h o m e i n A r a b i a t o c o n q u e r a n e m p i r e s t r e t c h i n g
f r o m S p a i n t o c e n t r a l A s i a . E s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e
t e n t h a n d e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h i s I s l a m i c e m p i r e
OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
• H o w d i d t h e R o m a n E m p i r e ‘ s e a s t e r n
E m p i r e ?
s y m b o l i z e d t h e t w o halves o f the R o m a n E m p i r e .
O n c e j o i n e d i n a c o m m o n C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e , east-
ern a n d w e s t e r n C h r i s t i a n s g r a d u a l l y g r e w a p a r t ,
so t h a t b y the late n i n t h c e n t u r y , t h e y b e g a n t o
c o n s t i t u t e separate c i v i U z a t i o n s , one B y z a n t i n e
a n d t h e o t h e r L a t i n . T h e r e w e r e s t i l l c u l t u r a l
exchanges b e t w e e n t h e m as m e r c h a n t s , p i l g r i m s ,
a n d scholars crossed back a n d f o r t h , b u t the t w o
c i v i l i z a t i o n s h a d ceased t o u n d e r s t a n d on e
a n o t h e r . T h e y h e l d d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n s a b o u t r e l i –
g i o u s m a t t e r s , such as the d a t i n g o f Easter, the
r i t u a l s o f the l i t u r g y , t h e r o l e o f images i n w o r –
s h i p , a n d t h e e x t e n t o f the a u t h o r i t y o f the
b i s h o p i n R o m e , the p o p e . T h e y also s p o k e d i f –
f e r e n t languages. I n the East, G r e e k w a s the l a n –
guage o f m o s t o f the p o p u l a t i o n , a n d L a t i n had
been l a r g e l y f o r g o t t e n by the e n d o f the s i x t h
c e n t u r y . I n the W e s t , L a t i n o r l o c a l dialects o f i t
p r e v a i l e d . E x c e p t i n s o u t h e r n I t a l y a n d Sicily,
f e w Westerners k n e w G r e e k .
l a n d o n t h e f l a n k s o f B y z a n t i u m i n h a b i t e d by
p o l y t h e i s t f a r m e r s a n d n o m a d s . R i v a l m i s s i o n a r –
ies p r a c t i c i n g G r e e k a n d L a t i n f o r m s o f C h r i s –
t i a n i t y c o m p e t e d t h e r e f o r c o n v e r t s a n d allies.
G r e e k m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e the m o s t successful i n
c o n v e r t i n g the Slavic peoples t o O r t h o d o x C h r i s –
t i a n i t y , a f a i t h t h a t s u r v i v e d a m o n g t h e
A f t e r the r e i g n o f E m p e r o r J u s t i n i a n
(r. 5 2 7 – 5 6 5 ) , the B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e w a s g r a d u –
a l l y r e d u c e d t o a r e g i o n a l p o w e r s t r u g g l i n g f o r
s u r v i v a l against m a n y enemies. I n the west the
B y z a n t i n e s faced the G e r m a n i c k i n g d o m o f the
L o m b a r d s w h o e r o d e d the i m p e r i a l r u l e o v e r
I t a l y t h a t J u s t i n i a n h a d reestablished. T h e t h r e a t s
i n t h e B a l k a n s came f r o m n o m a d i c t r i b e s f r o m
the E u r a s i a n steppes, such as the A v a r s , Slavs,
a n d B u l g a r s , w h o p e r m a n e n t l y settled there
w i t h i n the e m p i r e . These peoples became the
ancestors o f some o f the c u r r e n t i n h a b i t a n t s o f
the r e g i o n , such as m o d e r n B u l g a r i a n s , C r o a t s ,
a n d Serbs. T o the east the B y z a n t i n e s c o n f r o n t e d
t h e i r o l d r i v a l , t h e Persian E m p i r e . D e f e a t i n g Per-
sia i n a series o f w a r s f r o m 6 0 3 t o 6 2 9 t o o k such
a huge t o l l t h a t B y z a n t i u m w a s t o o e x h a u s t e d t o
resist a n e w t h r e a t o u t o f t h e A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a
f r o m the armies o f I s l a m . T h e encounters b e t w e e n
these diverse enemies a n d B y z a n t i u m w e r e u s u –
a l l y h o s t i l e , a n d t h e i r e n c i r c l e m e n t o f B y z a n t i u m
f o r c e d B y z a n t i n e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d m i l i t a r y
p o l i c y t o change a n d a d a p t .
t o h o l d o n t o the w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s b y r e o r g a n i z –
i n g the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f N o r t h A f r i c a a n d I t a l y
i n t o t w o n e w u n i t s c a l l e d exarchates—-the E x a r –
chate o f C a r t h a g e ( w h i c h also a d m i n i s t e r e d
s o u t h e r n Spain) a n d t h e E x a r c h a t e o f R a v e n n a .
Because o f t h e i r l o n g distance f r o m C o n s t a n t i n o –
ple a n d the i m m e d i a t e press o f the l o c a l p r o b –
lems t h e y c o n f r o n t e d , the t w o exarchates w e r e
s o m e w h a t i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m the rest o f the
B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e . T h e e x a r c h s (or g o v e r n o r s )
h e l d b o t h c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t y i n these
h a d k e p t thes
c o m m a n d sig
the e x a r c h s fa
B y z a n t i u m ‘ s \
f e l l t o t h e VJ
a r m i e s t o o k (
b a r d s c a p t u r e
e x a r c h a t e , a l l
s o u t h e r n I t a l y
p r o v e d f r a g i U
f r o m the lat
B y z a n t i n e w (
t h a t m a d e t
C h r i s t i a n s an
jects o f t h e R(
ist i n v a d e r s . L
t h e m , raiders
E u r a s i a n stej
spread some :
g a r y a n d U k
N o m a d s c o u
h o r s e b a c k . I i
B u l g a r s , a n d
o f B y z a n t i n e
i n t h e s i x t h c
H u n g a r y f r o r
h a d a bone-cl
H u n g a r y the
B a l k a n s . T h (
the r e g i o n t
t h r e a t e n e d B
t a k i n g shape
c o n q u e r e d p
Some o f th(
a b o u t 4 0 0 a i
f r o m a bier
g r o u p s . T h e
i n e a s t e r n E
t h e B a l k a n s
T h e i r A v a r
a n d m o s t Sb
p e n d e n c e . H
h a d k e p t these t w o spheres separate. T h i s j o i n t
c o m m a n d s i g n a l e d the g r a v i t y o f the p r o b l e m s
the exarchs f a c e d .
B y z a n t i u m ‘ s w e s t e r n t e r r i t o r i e s . S o u t h e r n Spain
f e l l t o the V i s i g o t h s i n the 6 3 0 s , a n d M u s l i m
a r m i e s t o o k C a r t h a g e i n 6 9 8 . I n 7 5 1 t h e L o m –
bards c a p t u r e d R a v e n n a a n d p u t an e n d t o the
e x a r c h a t e , a l t h o u g h B y z a n t i n e r u l e s u r v i v e d i n
s o u t h e r n I t a l y u n t i l the eleventh c e n t u r y .
p r o v e d f r a g i l e . I n m u c h o f the B a l k a n p e n i n s u l a
f r o m the late s i x t h t h r o u g h n i n t h c e n t u r i e s ,
B y z a n t i n e weakness created a p o w e r v a c u u m
t h a t m a d e the setded i n h a b i t a n t s w h o w e r e
C h r i s t i a n s a n d s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d themselves s u b –
jects o f the R o m a n E m p i r e v u l n e r a b l e t o p o l y t h e –
ist i n v a d e r s . L i k e so m a n y o t h e r s before a n d after
t h e m , r a i d e r s a n d m i g r a n t s p o u r e d o u t o f the
E u r a s i a n steppes, a b a n d o f grasslands t h a t
spread some 5 , 0 0 0 miles f r o m w h a t is n o w H u n –
g a r y a n d U k r a i n e i n E u r o p e i n t o c e n t r a l A s i a .
N o m a d s c o u l d easily cross the grasslands o n
h o r s e b a c k . I n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h the A v a r s , Slavs,
B u l g a r s , a n d R u s c o n t r i b u t e d t o the c o n t r a c t i o n
o f B y z a n t i n e t e r r i t o r y a n d i n f l u e n c e .
i n the s i x t h c e n t u r y o n the p l a i n s o f p r e s e n t – d a y
H u n g a r y f r o m the steppes n o r t h o f the B l a c k Sea,
h a d a b o n e – c h i l l i n g r e p u t a t i o n f o r f e r o c i t y . F r o m
H u n g a r y t h e y r a i d e d c e n t r a l E u r o p e a n d the
B a l k a n s . These t e n a c i o u s w a r r i o r s d o m i n a t e d
the r e g i o n u n t i l the early n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d
t h r e a t e n e d B y z a n t i u m a n d the n e w k i n g d o m s
t a k i n g shape i n I t a l y , G e r m a n y , a n d F r a n c e .
c o n q u e r e d p e o p l e s t o serve i n t h e i r a r m i e s .
Some o f these p e o p l e s w e r e Slavs. B e t w e e n
a b o u t 4 0 0 a n d 6 0 0 , Slavic societies h a d f o r m e d
f r o m a b l e n d o f m a n y c u l t u r e s a n d e t h n i c
g r o u p s . T h e Slavic c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t d e v e l o p e d
i n e a s t e r n E u r o p e b e t w e e n the B a l t i c Sea a n d
t h e B a l k a n s l a y o u t s i d e B y z a n t i u m ‘ s b o r d e r s .
T h e i r A v a r c o n q u e r o r s r u l e d b y b r u t e f o r c e ,
a n d m o s t Slavs c o u l d n o t w i n b a c k t h e i r i n d e –
p e n d e n c e . H o w e v e r , a f e w Slavic c o m m u n i t i e s
h a l f o f t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , b a n d s o f Slavs b e g a n
t o m i g r a t e s o u t h across t h e D a n u b e R i v e r i n t o
t h e B a l k a n s . C o l l a b o r a t i n g w i t h m a r a u d i n g
A v a r s , t h e Slavs s e t t l e d i n s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d
f r o n t i e r l a n d s i n w h a t is n o w C r o a t i a a n d Ser-
b i a . A s t h e Slavs p u s h e d s o u t h , m a n y B y z a n –
t i n e s a b a n d o n e d t h e i r c i t i e s t o t h e i n v a d e r s . By
6 0 0 , Slavic a n d A v a r g r o u p s h a d seized m o s t
B y z a n t i n e l a n d s f r o m t h e D a n u b e t o Greece.
v e r t t o one or a n o t h e r f o r m o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n d the
patterns o f those conversions have h a d l a s t i n g c o n –
sequences. T h e tribes i n eastern E u r o p e w e r e f r a g –
m e n t e d p o l i t i c a l l y , w h i c h m i r r o r e d the i n t r i c a t e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s n c g r o u p s . State-
b u i l d i n g was especially c o m p l i c a t e d because m u c h
o f the r e g i o n h a d never been u n d e r R o m a n r u l e
a n d lacked the legacies o f R o m a n cities, i n s t i t u –
t i o n s , a n d l a w t h a t m a d e the s u r v i v a l o f B y z a n d u m
possible a n d the G e r m a n i c k i n g d o m s o f w e s t e r n
E u r o p e v i a b l e . C o n v e r s i o n patterns exacerbated
eastern E u r o p e a n f r a g m e n t a t i o n because the r e l i –
gious d i v i d i n g line between those w h o adhered t o
R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m a n d those w h o f o l l o w e d
O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y c u t d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h the
r e g i o n . R e l i g i o n , l i k e e t h n i c i t y a n d language,
became a source o f d i s u n i t y r a t h e r t h a n cohesion.
t h e steppes came t h e n o m a d i c peoples c a l l e d the
B u l g a r s , w h o established r u l e over the l a r g e l y
Slavic i n h a b i t a n t s o f the B a l k a n s by the e i g h t h
c e n t u r y . T h e B u l g a r s d e s t r o y e d t h e s u r v i v i n g o l d
R o m a n cities t h e r e , e x p e l l e d w h a t C h r i s t i a n s
r e m a i n e d , a n d a t t a c k e d the B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e . I n
8 1 1 , after a n n i h i l a t i n g a B y z a n t i n e a r m y , the
B u l g a r i a n k h a n (the head o f a c o n f e d e r a t i o n o f
clans) K r u m (r. 8 0 3 – 8 1 4 ) I m e d the s k u l l o f the
s l a i n B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r w i t h silver a n d t u r n e d i t
i n t o a d r i n k i n g c u p . W i t h this s y m b o l i c act o f
debasement, the B u l g a r i a n s g a i n e d a fierce r e p u –
t a t i o n as enemies o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d B y z a n t i u m .
accepted the O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y o f his f o r m e r
enemies i n B y z a n t i u m . H i s c o n v e r s i o n i l l u s t r a t e s
the p o l i t i c s o f t h e p e r i o d . D u r i n g the n i n t h cen-
t u r y C h r i s t i a n i t y began t o a c q u i r e a p o w e r f u l
acceptance o f C h r i s t i a n i t y o p e n e d the p o s s i b i l i t y
f o r d i p l o m a t i c ties a n d alliances w i t h the C h r i s t –
i a n p o w e r s . F o r B o r i s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n v e r s i o n w a s
a w a y t o w a r d o f f B y z a n t i n e h o s t i l i t y a n d m a k e
peace. F o r f o u r years, B o r i s n e g o t i a t e d w i t h
R o m e , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , a n d G e r m a n m i s s i o n a r –
ies, a l l o f w h o m s o u g h t t o c o n v e r t the B u l g a r s . I n
t h e e n d , B o r i s g o t w h a t he w a n t e d — a B u l g a r i a n
O r t h o d o x C h u r c h t h a t r e c o g n i z e d the u l t i m a t e
a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p a t r i a r c h o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e b u t
w a s essentially a u t o n o m o u s .
f u r t h e r g u a r a n t e e d l a t e r i n the n i n t h c e n t u r y b y
the a d o p t i o n o f a Slavic l i t u r g y r a t h e r t h a n a
L a t i n o r Greek l i t u r g y . T h i s w a s made possible
b y t h e m i s s i o n a r y w o r k i n n e i g h b o r i n g M o r a v i a
o f C y r i l (ca. 8 2 6 – 8 6 9 ) a n d his b r o t h e r M e t h o d –
ius ( 8 1 5 – 8 8 5 ) , w h o had i n v e n t e d a n a l p h a b e t t o
w r i t e the Slavic language. T h e y t r a n s l a t e d a
G r e e k c h u r c h l i t u r g y i n t o a v e r s i o n o f the Slavic
l a n g u a g e n o w k n o w n as O l d C h u r c h S l a v o n i c .
T h e acceptance o f t h e S l a v o n i c l i t u r g y g r a d u a l l y
led the e t h n i c a l l y a n d l i n g u i s t i c a l l y m i x e d p e o –
ples o f B u l g a r i a t o i d e n t i f y w i t h Slavic c u l t u r e
a n d l a n g u a g e . F r o m a s t r i n g o f monasteries
established by the B u l g a r i a n s , t h e O l d C h u r c h
S l a v o n i c l i t u r g y spread a m o n g the Serbs, t h e
R o m a n i a n s , a n d e v e n t u a l l y t h e Russians, creat-
i n g c u l t u r a l ties a m o n g these w i d e s p r e a d peoples
t h a t have s u r v i v e d t o the present.
B y z a n t i u m also faced assault f r o m the n o r t h e r n
R u s . T h e Rus established a h e a d q u a r t e r s at K i e v
o n the D n i e p e r R i v e r a n d e x t e n d e d t h e i r d o m i n a –
t i o n o v e r the l o c a l Slav t r i b e s . F r o m a m o n g the
m e r c h a n t – w a r r i o r s o f the R u s arose the forebears
o f the p r i n c e s o f K i e v , w h o by the end o f the t e n t h
c e n t u r y r u l e d a vast steppe a n d forest d o m a i n
t h r o u g h a loose c o l l e c t i v e o f subject p r i n c i p a l i –
ties. T h e t e r m Rus (later Russian) came t o be
a p p l i e d t o a l l the lands the princes o f K i e v r u l e d .
V l a d i m i r the G r e a t (r. 9 7 8 – 1 0 1 5 ) a n d his s o n
l a r o s l a v t h e W i s e (r. 1 0 1 9 – 1 0 5 4 ) . A ruthless
f i g h t e r , V l a d i m i r c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o a single state
the p r o v i n c e s o f K i e v a n d N o v g o r o d , a c i t y i n the
B o r n a p o l y t h e i s t , V l a d i m i r h a d seven w i v e s a n d
t o o k p a r t i n h u m a n sacrifices. H o w e v e r , w h e n
o f f e r e d a m i U t a r y a l l i a n c e w i t h B y z a n t i u m i n
9 8 7 , he a b a n d o n e d his w i v e s , m a r r i e d t h e B y z a n –
t i n e e m p e r o r ‘ s sister, a n d c o n v e r t e d t o O r t h o d o x
C h r i s t i a n i t y . H e t h e n f o r c e d t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o t
K i e v a n d N o v g o r o d t o be b a p t i z e d a n d cast t h e i r
i d o l s i n t o the r i v e r s . T h e B y z a n t i n e C h u r c h
estabhshed a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l over the Rus
C h u r c h by a p p o i n t i n g an O r t h o d o x a r c h b i s h o p
f o r K i e v . T h e l i t u r g y w a s i n O l d C h u r c h
S l a v o n i c , w h i c h p r o v i d e d a w r i t t e n language a n d
the s t i m u l u s f o r t h e h t e r a t u r e , a r t , a n d m u s i c ar
the f o u n d a t i o n s o f R u s s i a n c u l t u r e . l a r o s l a v
e m p l o y e d scribes t o t r a n s l a t e G r e e k r e l i g i o u s
b o o k s i n t o O l d S l a v o n i c a n d f o u n d e d n e w
churches a n d m o n a s t e r i e s across the K i e v a n state
(see M a p 8 . 1 ) . T h e r e l i g i o u s a n d p o h t i c a l c o n –
n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e R u s a n d B y z a n t i u m shaped
Russian h i s t o r y a n d l i m i t e d t h e e a s t w a r d spread
o f L a t i n C h r i s t i a n i t y ( R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m ) .
I n a d d i t i o n t o assaults f r o m so m a n y d i r e c t i o n s , the
Byzantine E m p i r e faced t u r m o i l f r o m w i t h i n . T h e
loss o f territories caused economic s u f f e r i n g , a n d
religious controversies at times alienated the p o p u –
l a t i o n f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t . B u t despite t e r r i b l e
losses, B y z a n r i u m e n d u r e d . T h r e e i n s d t u t i o n s held
the empire together: the emperor, w h o set policies
and safeguarded his subjects’ w e l f a r e ; the army,
w h i c h defended the f r o n d e r s ; a n d the O r t h o d o x
C h u r c h , w h i c h p r o v i d e d s p i r i t u a l guidance.
at C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , the e m p e r o r s t o o d at the cen-
ter o f B y z a n t i n e society. H i s a u t h o r i t y reached t o
every c o r n e r o f t h e e m p i r e . T h i s supreme r u l e r
g o v e r n e d w i t h the assistance o f a large b u r e a u –
cracy t h a t he t i g h t l y c o n t r o l l e d . I n this h i e t a r c h i –
c a l b u r e a u c r a c y , e l a b o r a t e titles a n d d i f f e r e n t
c l o t h i n g i n d i c a t e d d i f f e r e n t r a n k s . O n l y the
e m p e r o r o r m e m b e r s o f his f a m i l y , f o r e x a m p l e ,
c o u l d w e a r the c o l o r p u r p l e , a s y m b o l o f r o y a l t y .
OCEAN
•*j Persians
Lombards
The Byzantine E m
B y 6 0 0 the B y z a n t i r
t e r r i t o r i e s i n N o r t h ,
g r e a t e s t e n e m y .
c o l o r s e n c r u s t e d w i d
c i a l , the m o r e gems
B u r e a u c r a t s a n d c
e m p e r o r ‘ s p e r s o n a l r
processions i n o r d e r
cated b y the c o l o r c
T h r o u g h these cerem
the g o v e r n m e n t t o t l
w e r e n o t j u s t p o l i t i c
the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t
the h i e r a r c h i c o r d e r (
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500 mi
T h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , ca. 6 0 0
t e r r i t o r i e s i n N o r t h A f r i c a a n d S p a i n . U n t i l t h e r i s e o f I s l a m , t h e P e r s i a n E m p i r e r e m a i n e d B y z a n t i u m ‘ s
g r e a t e s t e n e m y .
c o l o r s encrusted w i t h j e w e l s . T h e h i g h e r the o f f i –
c i a l , the m o r e gems he was p e r m i t t e d t o d i s p l a y .
B u r e a u c r a t s a n d c o u r t i e r s ( m e m b e r s o f the
e m p e r o r ‘ s p e r s o n a l r e t i n u e ) l i n e d u p i n e l a b o r a t e
processions i n o r d e r o f t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e , as i n d i –
cated by t h e c o l o r o f t h e i r c l o t h i n g a n d shoes.
T h r o u g h these ceremonies the e m p e r o r d i s p l a y e d
t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o the p e o p l e . Such processions
w e r e n o t j u s t p o l i t i c a l p r o p a g a n d a . T h e y m a d e
the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the e m p i r e e v i d e n t t h r o u g h
the h i e r a r c h i c o r d e r o f the p r o c e s s i o n . T h e y also
c o u r t i e r s m o v e d t o a h i g h e r – r a n k e d p o s i t i o n i n
the p r o c e s s i o n , a n d those o u t o f f a v o r m o v e d t o
a l o w e r – r a n k e d place o r d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e
procession altogether.
an o f f i c e i n the i m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t a c q u i r e d
w e a l t h a n d i n f l u e n c e . For this reason l e a d i n g
p r o v i n c i a l f a m i h e s sent t h e i r sons t o C o n s t a n –
t i n o p l e t o o b t a i n p o s i t i o n s i n the b u r e a u c r a c y .
T h r o u g h t h i s m e t h o d o f r e c r u i t m e n t , C o n s t a n –
t i n o p l e r e m a i n e d i n close t o u c h w i t h the o u t l y i n g
N i n e s i l v e r p l a t e s m a d e i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e about 6 3 0 i l l u s –
t r a t e s c e n e s f r o m t h e c a r e e r o f t h e b i b l i c a l K i n g D a v i d . T h e
l a r g e s t p l a t e ( a b o u t 2 0 i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r ) s h o w s D a v i d b a t –
t l i n g t h e g i a n t G o l i a t h . T h o u g h t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r is b i b l i c a l ,
t h e s t y l e o f r e p r e s e n t i n g c l o t h i n g , h u m a n b o d i e s , a n d s p a t i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o m e s d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n . T h e
s u b j e c t c o n n e c t e d B y z a n t i u m ‘ s s t r u g g l e s w i t h Persia t o t h e
B i b l e ‘ s h e r o i c k i n g .
Syrian worl
c i a l f a m i l i e s a stake i n the success o f the e m p i r e
a n d the p r o v i n c e s a voice i n the c a p i t a l . H o w e v e r ,
i t w a s also v u l n e r a b l e t o c o r r u p t i o n . M a n y m e n
o b t a i n e d t h e i r p o s i d o n s by b r i b i n g c o u r t o f f i c i a l s .
O t h e r o f f i c e h o l d e r s o w e d t h e i r j o b s t o f a m i l y
i n f l u e n c e r a t h e r t h a n t a l e n t . B u t even a c o r r u p t
system c a n be a n effective f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t
because o f f i c i a l c o r r u p t i o n m a d e l o y a l t y t o the
e m p e r o r m o r e r e w a r d i n g t h a n o p p o s i t i o n t o h i m .
hierarchy, the e m p e r o r also c o n t r o l l e d B y z a n –
t i u m ‘ s e c o n o m y . T h e stable i m p e r i a l coinage
O f f i c i a l m o n o p o l i e s c o n t r o l l e d the p r o d u c –
tion a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f specific c o m m o d i t i e s
such as s i l k . These m o n o p o l i e s p r o t e c t e d the
interests o f the e m p e r o r a n d those he f a v o r e d
by s t i f l i n g c o m p e t i t i o n . As l o n g as the
m o n o p o l i e s f l o u r i s h e d , the g o v e r n m e n t h a d
a source o f revenue t h r o u g h t a x a t i o n .
ever, w h e n the r i c h provinces o f E g y p t a n d
Syria a n d the w e a l t h y cities o f A l e x a n d r i a ,
A n t i o c h , Carthage, a n d others h a d f a l l e n t o
the A r a b s , the Byzantine e c o n o m y s t i m i b l e d .
T h o u s a n d s o f refugees f r o m lands c o n q u e r e d
by M u s l i m s streamed i n t o the empire a n d
strained its resources. I n conquered Byzantine
provinces, M u s l i m rulers set u p their o w n
m o n o p o l i e s and prevented Byzantine mer-
chants f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n long-distance
commerce. C u t o f f f r o m f o r e i g n markets,
Byzantines stopped m a n u f a c t u r i n g goods f o r
e x p o r t a n d b u i l d i n g new houses a n d churches.
By 7 5 0 , the standard o f l i v i n g i n m o s t Byzan-
tine cities except C o n s t a n t i n o p l e h a d f a l l e n .
response t o the m a n y e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s ,
B y z a n t i n e society w a s r e o r g a n i z e d f o r c o n –
stant w a r . E m p e r o r s reUed o n t h e i r armies t o
p r o t e c t C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , the nerve center o f
the s h r i n k i n g B y z a n t i n e srate, a n d t o d e f e n d
the b o r d e r s against i n v a d e r s . B y a b o u t
6 5 0 i n A n a t o l i a , w h i c h became the empire’s
m a i n source o f r e c r u i t s f o r t h e a r m y , e m p e r –
o n the p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r s t o p r o t e c t the f r o n –
tiers. T o replace the o l d p r o v i n c e s , e m p e r o r s
created f o u r m i l i t a r y d i s t r i c t s c a l l e d themes. E a c h
o f the themes h a d its o w n a r m y a n d a d m i n i s t r a –
t i o n c o m m a n d e d b y a general chosen by the
e m p e r o r . T h e t h e m e s ‘ armies d e v e l o p e d s t r o n g
l o c a l i d e n t i t i e s a n d p r i d e d themselves o n t h e i r
m i l i t a r y s k i l l s , a legacy the B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e h a d
i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e R o m a n legions. These m i l i t a r y
forces k e p t the e m p i r e f r o m c o l l a p s i n g despite
d e v a s t a t i n g losses t o I s l a m i c armies t h r o u g h o u t
the seventh c e n t u r y .
able a u t o n o m y
the basis o f f u r t
r u r a l e c o n o m y
Soldiers a n d sai
f r o m the emp(
g r a n t e d l a n d oi
F i g h t i n g i n e n hi
f r o m t h e i r i n c o r
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t i u m c o u l d at le;
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u n t i l by the em
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e m p i r e came t o
w h i c h free, t a x
v i l l a g e s u n d e r t l
m a n d e r w h o w£
s o l d i e r – f a r m e r s
t r i c t s , w h i c h m
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f o r m i d a b l e b u l w
harassed by M u
t h r u s t o f M u s i
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T u r k s i n 1 4 5 3 ,
the Persian E m j
630s, B y z a n t i u n
the m o s t i m p o r
B y z a n t i u m ‘ s m i l )
c o n f l i c t s w a s leg
ends began as s t
B y z a n t i n e arist
f o u g h t the A r a h
w e r e e v e n t u a l l y
p o e m s . O n e s
d e s c r i b e d the he
late e i g h t h c e n t i i
e m p i r e , w h e r e B
a n d c o o p e r a t e d .
able a u t o n o m y f r o m C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n d w e r e
the basis o f f u r t h e r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e a g r i c u l –
t u r a l e c o n o m y a n d p r o c e d u r e s f o r r e c r u i t m e n t .
Soldiers a n d sailors w h o w e r e once p a i d i n cash
f r o m the e m p e r o r ‘ s t a x revenues n o w w e r e
g r a n t e d l a n d o n w h i c h t o s u p p o r t themselves.
F i g h t i n g m e n h a d t o p r o v i d e t h e i r o w n w e a p o n s
f r o m t h e i r i n c o m e as f a r m e r s , a n d the theme sys-
t e m e n a b l e d the p a r t s o f the e m p i r e t o f u n c t i o n
w i t h o u t d i r e c t s u p p o r t f r o m the i m p e r i a l treas-
u r y . T h e theme system created defensive f l e x i b i l –
i t y f o r the e m p i r e . W h i l e i t c o u l d n o l o n g e r
l a u n c h large-scale o f f e n s i v e conquests, B y z a n –
t i u m c o u l d at least a t t e m p t t o d e f e n d its b o r d e r s .
d i v i d e d a n d n e w ones a d d e d i n o t h e r regions
u n t i l by the end o f the eleventh c e n t u r y , there
w e r e 38 themes. T h e m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h o f t h e
e m p i r e came t o d e p e n d o n the theme system i n
w h i c h free, t a x – p a y i n g s o l d i e r – f a r m e r s l i v e d i n
villages u n d e r the s u p e r v i s i o n o f a m i l i t a r y c o m –
m a n d e r w h o w a s also c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t o r . These
s o l d i e r – f a r m e r s u s u a l l y f o u g h t i n t h e i r o w n dis-
t r i c t s , w h i c h m e a n t t h e y w e r e d e f e n d i n g t h e i r
h o m e s a n d f a m i l i e s . A s a a r e s u l t they p r o v i d e d a
f o r m i d a b l e b u l w a r k against i n v a d e r s .
harassed b y M u s l i m enemies, b u t f r o m the f i r s t
t h r u s t o f M u s l i m armies against B y z a n t i u m ‘ s
f r o n t i e r i n the seventh c e n t u r y u n t i l its f a l l t o t h e
T u r k s i n 1 4 5 3 , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e h e l d o n . W h i l e
t h e Persian E m p i r e f e l l t o A r a b armies by the
630s, B y z a n t i u m s u r v i v e d . T h a t fact is p e r h a p s
the m o s t i m p o r t a n t measure o f the success o f
B y z a n t i u m ‘ s m i l i t a r y r e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
c o n f l i c t s w a s legends o f great heroes. These leg-
ends began as stories r e c i t e d i n verse t o e n t e r t a i n
B y z a n t i n e a r i s t o c r a t s w h o s e ancestors h a d
f o u g h t the A r a b s . Several o f these o r a l legends
w e r e e v e n t u a l l y r e f a s h i o n e d i n t o p o p u l a r epic
p o e m s . O n e such p o e m , Digenes Akritas,
d e s c r i b e d the h e r o i c feats o f soldiers d u r i n g the
late e i g h t h c e n t u r y o n the eastern f r o n t i e r o f t h e
e m p i r e , w h e r e B y z a n t i n e s a n d A r a b s b o t h f o u g h t
a n d c o o p e r a t e d . T h e f a t h e r o f the h e r o o f the
the d a u g h t e r o f a B y z a n t i n e g e n e r a l , m a r r i e d her,
a n d c o n v e r t e d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e s o n o f t h i s
m i x e d m a r r i a g e w a s Digenes ( ” t w o – b l o o d e d ” ) , a
m a n o f t w o peoples a n d t w o r e l i g i o n s , w h o
became a b o r d e r f i g h t e r (an ” a k r i t a s ” ) . T h i s
greatest B y z a n t i n e h e r o , w h o l i v e d between t w o
c u l t u r e s , w a s the p o e t i c e m b o d i m e n t o f the
engagement b e t w e e n B y z a n t i u m a n d I s l a m . T h e
legends s u r r o u n d i n g Digenes Akritas h a d a p r o –
f o u n d i n f l u e n c e o n Greek l i t e r a t u r e . L a t e r w r i t –
ers r e t o l d its stories a g a i n a n d a g a i n .
boasted so m a n y churches a n d sacred relics t h a t
by 6 0 0 the B y z a n t i n e s h a d b e g u n t o t h i n k o f i t as
a h o l y c i t y , p r o t e c t e d by G o d a n d u n d e r the spe-
c i a l care o f the V i r g i n M a r y . C h u r c h m e n t a u g h t
t h a t C o n s t a n t i n o p l e w a s a ” N e w J e r u s a l e m ”
t h a t w o u l d be at the center o f events at the e n d o f
days w h e n G o d w o u l d b r i n g h i s t o r y t o a n e n d
a n d j u d g e h u m a n i t y .
d o x C h u r c h i n B y z a n t i u m was the clergy. T h e y
w e r e o r g a n i z e d h i e r a r c h i c a l l y l i k e the i m p e r i a l
b u r e a u c r a c y . T h e p a t r i a r c h , o r c h i e f b i s h o p , o f
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e headed several t h o u s a n d c l e r g y –
m e n i n the c a p i t a l a n d d i r e c t e d c h u r c h a f f a i r s
t h r o u g h o u t the e m p i r e . E m p e r o r s g e n e r a l l y c o n –
t r o l l e d the a p p o i n t m e n t o f p a t r i a r c h s , a n d o f t e n
the t w o w o r k e d closely together. T h e p a t r i a r c h
h e l p e d i m p o s e r e l i g i o u s u n i t y t h r o u g h o u t the
e m p i r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g the n e t w o r k o f b i s h o p s
based i n cities near a n d far. Each city’s b i s h o p
s u p e r v i s e d the v e n e r a t i o n o f the s a i n t s ‘ reUcs
housed i n its c h u r c h e s . (Byzantines believed t h a t
sacred relics p r o t e c t e d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s , j u s t as
t h e i r p o l y t h e i s t i c ancestors believed the gods h a d
p r o v i d e d p r o t e c t i o n i n the p r e – C h r i s t i a n past.)
Because bishops u s u a l l y came f r o m the city’s
ehte, t h e y w e r e i n f l u e n t i a l l o c a l leaders, r e s p o n s i –
ble f o r a d m i n i s t e r i n g m a n y p u b l i c p o l i c i e s , n o t
j u s t r e l i g i o u s ones.
empire’s l i f e . M e n a n d w o m e n w e n t t o separate
m o n a s t e r i e s t o l i v e a s p i r i t u a l l i f e , p r a y i n g f o r
t h e i r o w n s a l v a t i o n a n d t h a t o f o t h e r s . People
b a t t e r e d w i v e s , w i d o w s , a n d the p h y s i c a l l y a n d
m e n t a l l y i l l , f o u n d refuge i n m o n a s t e r i e s . M o n k s
a n d n u n s d i s t r i b u t e d f o o d a n d c l o t h i n g t o t h e
p o o r . D o n o r s gave l a v i s h l y t o f u n d these a c t i v i –
ties, a n d m a n y monasteries g r e w w e a l t h y
t h r o u g h these g i f t s .
C h r i s t i a n i n s t r u c t i o n u n d e r the s u p e r v i s i o n o f
the C h u r c h r e p l a c e d the t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n e d u –
c a t i o n a l system. Pious C h r i s t i a n s d e v e l o p e d a
s u s p i c i o n o f classical l e a r n i n g , w i t h its references
t o a n c i e n t gods a n d t o c u s t o m s t h e C h u r c h c o n –
d e m n e d . T h o s e f e w B y z a n t i n e s w h o l e a r n e d h o w
t o r e a d d i d so by s t u d y i n g the B i b l e , n o t the clas-
sics o f G r e e k a n t i q u i t y . A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s general
decline i n l e a r n i n g , the C h u r c h m o n o p o l i z e d c u l –
t u r e a n d t h o u g h t . K n o w l e d g e o f classical h t e r a –
t u r e , h i s t o r y , a n d science d i s a p p e a r e d except i n
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , a n d even there the academi c
c o m m u n i t y was t i n y .
O r t h o d o x C h u r c h created u n i t y o f f a i t h a n d c u l –
t u r e , b u t t h a t u n i t y w a s b r o k e n i n the e i g h t h cen-
t u r y by c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h i n the c h u r c h itself. A s
enemies t o r e at the b o r d e r s o f the e m p i r e , B y z a n –
tines w o n d e r e d w h y G o d was p u n i s h i n g t h e m .
T h e i r answer w a s t h a t s o m e h o w t h e y w e r e
a n g e r i n g G o d . C o n v i n c e d t h a t o n l y a p p e a s i n g
G o d c o u l d save t h e m , E m p e r o r L e o I I I (r.
7 1 7 – 7 4 1 ) t o o k a c t i o n . T o m a k e B y z a n t i u m a
c o m p l e t e l y C h r i s t i a n e m p i r e , he f o r c i b l y c o n –
v e r t e d c o m m u n i t i e s o f Jews. H i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t
m o v e , h o w e v e r , w a s t o challenge the use o f i c o n s ,
the images o f C h r i s t a n d saints f o u n d e v e r y w h e r e
i n B y z a n t i n e w o r s h i p .
r e f u s e d t o m a k e images o f C h r i s t a n d o t h e r h o l y
i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e y h a d t w o reasons f o r b a n n i n g
s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . F i r s t , the H e b r e w B i b l e f o r –
bids c r e a t i n g r e p r e s e n t a d o n s o f G o d , a n d t h e y
c o n s i d e r e d t h i s p r o h i b i t i o n s t i l l i n effect f o r
C h r i s t i a n s . Second, they t h o u g h t t h a t C h r i s t i a n s
m i g h t s t a r t t o w o r s h i p t h e i r images the w a y t h a t
p o l y t h e i s t s w o r s h i p e d statues i n t h e i r t e m p l e s .
” W h e n images are p u t u p , the c u s t o m s o f the
r e s p o n d e d a e s t h e t i c a l l y t o the b e a u t i f u l p o l y t h e –
ist statues a n d images t h a t f i l l e d t h e i r cities.
C h r i s t i a n s c i d p t o r s a n d p a i n t e r s s t a r t e d t o create
a d i s t i n c t i v e C h r i s t i a n a r t t h a t c o m b i n e d r e l i –
g i o u s images w i t h the styles a n d techniques o f
classical a r t . A f t e r C o n s t a n t i n e p u t a n e n d t o the
p e r s e c u t i o n s o f C h r i s t i a n s , t h i s n e w a r t f l o u r –
i s h e d . A r t i s t s r o u d n e l y p o r t r a y e d C h r i s t a n d the
saints i n chur ches. D u r i n g the s i x t h a n d se ve nt h
ce nt ur ie s, B y z a n t i n e s used r e l i g i o u s images w i t h
greater zeal t h a n ever b e f o r e . By 6 0 0 , f o r e x a m –
p l e , the e m p e r o r p l a c e d a large i m a g e o f C h r i s t
a b o v e the B r o n z e G a t e , the m a i n entrance t o the
i m p e r i a l palace i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . Smaller icons
became i n t e n s e l y p o p u l a r i n c h u r c h e s , ho m es,
a n d m o n a s t e r i e s .
d o o r w a y s t h r o u g h w h i c h the d i v i n e presence
c o u l d m a k e itself accessible t o believers. C h u r c h –
m e n c a u t i o n e d t h a t G o d o r saints d o n o t a c t u a l l y
reside w i t h i n the i c o n s , a n d so believers s h o u l d
n o t w o r s h i p t h e images themselves. Rather, t h e y
s h o u l d c o n s i d e r i c o n s as o p e n i n g s t o a s p i r i t u a l
w o r l d , e n a b l i n g believers t o e n c o u n t e r a h o l y
presence. T h u s , Byzant ines t r e a t e d i c o n s w i t h
l o v e a n d respect. M o n k s a n d n u n s w e r e p a r t i c u –
l a r l y zealous i n t h e i r v e n e r a t i o n o f i c o n s .
t i n e t h e o l o g i a n s t h o u g h t i c o n v e n e r a t i o n h a d
gone t o o f a r a n d s o u g h t t o revive the e a r l y C h r i s –
t i a n p r o h i b i t i o n s against r e l i g i o u s images. T h e y
a d v i s e d E m p e r o r L e o t h a t i c o n v e n e r a t i o n
s h o u l d be h a l t e d because u n e d u c a t e d believers
c o n f u s e d the i m a g e o f the i c o n w i t h w h a t i t r e p –
resented a n d w o r s h i p e d icons as p o l y t h e i s t s w o r –
s h i p e d i d o l s . W h e n a v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n d e s t r o y e d
the i s l a n d o f S a n t o r i n i i n the A e g e a n , L e o c o n –
c l u d e d t h a t these a d v i s o r s w e r e c o r r e c t a n d t h a t
G o d w a s angered b y i c o n v e n e r a t i o n . I n 7 2 6 L e o
o r d e r e d the d e s t r u c t i o n o f h o l y images (except
f o r c r u c i f i x e s ) t h r o u g h o u t the e m p i r e , b u t p u b l i c
resistance f o r c e d h i m t o m o v e c a r e f u l l y . F o r
e x a m p l e , w h e n he o r d e r e d w o r k e r s t o r e m o v e
the image o f C h r i s t f r o m the B r o n z e Gate at the
p r o h i b i t ! o n . ‘
i c o n o c l a s m (i
society u n t i l J
o f p o p u l a r reJ)
t o enforce ic,
R e v o l t s b r o k e
w h e n i m p e r i a
m a g e s . T h e ice
m t e r n a t i o n a J p
p r o h i b i d o n o f :
f ope G r e g o r y I
the West, e x c o n
d e p r i v e d the p j
I n t h i s n i n t h – c e n t u r y
w i t h a p o l e is s h o w n
) e a u t i f u l p o l y r h e –
i l l e d t h e i r cities,
i s t a r t e d t o create
t c o m b i n e d r e l i –
i d t e c h n i q u e s o f
p u t a n e n d t o t h e
) n e w a r t f l o u r –
d C h r i s t a n d the
i x t h a n d s e v e n t h
ous images w i t h
/ 6 0 0 , f o r e x a m –
i m a g e o f C h r i s t
le. S m a l l e r i c o n s
l u r c h e s , h o m e s ,
d i v i n e presence
:lievers. C h u r c h –
j d o n o t a c t u a l l y
believers s h o u l d
‘es. R a t h e r , t h e y
gs t o a s p i r i t u a l
c o u n t e r a h o l y
i t e d i c o n s w i t h
I S w e r e p a r t i c u –
)f i c o n s .
r y , some B y z a n –
v e n e r a t i o n h a d
t h e e a r l y C h r i s –
s images. T h e y
o n v e n e r a t i o n
:cated believers
i t h w h a t i t r e p –
l o l y t h e i s t s w o r –
3tion d e s t r o y e d
gean, L e o c o n –
o r r e c t a n d t h a t
o n . I n 7 2 6 L e o
images (except
Dire, b u t p u b l i c
c a r e f u l l y . F o r
ize G a t e a t t h e
r i o t e d . F o u r years later, L e o r e n e w e d the general
p r o h i b i d o n . T h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f i c o n s , k n o w n as
i c o n o c l a s m ( i m a g e b r e a k i n g ) , d i v i d e d B y z a n t i n e
society u n t i l 8 4 2 .
o f p o p u l a r rehgious life t h a t Leo f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t
t o enforce i c o n o c l a s m o u t s i d e C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .
R e v o l t s b r o k e o u t i n Greece a n d s o u t h e r n I t a l y
w h e n i m p e r i a l messengers s o u g h t t o d e s t r o y
images. T h e i c o n o c l a s t i c c o n t r o v e r s y also affected
i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . O u t r a g e d by the e m pe r o r ‘s
p r o h i b i t i o n o f icons, w h i c h he considered heresy.
Pope G r e g o r y I I I , the d o m i n a n t rehgious f i g u r e i n
the West, e x c o m m u n i c a t e d L e o . I n r e t a h a r i o n Leo
d e p r i v e d the p a p a c y o f r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t y over
I n t h i s n i n t h – c e n t u r y B y z a n t i n e m a n u s c r i p t , t h e f i g u r e
w i t h a p o l e is s h o w n w h i t i n g o u t a n i m a g e o f C h r i s t .
A d r i a t i c Sea, a u t h o r i t y the popes h a d exercised
since the f o u r t h c e n t u r y . T h e popes never f o r g a v e
the e m p e r o r because w i t h the loss o f r e l i g i o u s
a u t h o r i t y came the loss o f the p r i n c i p a l source o f
p a p a l revenues. T h i s c o n f l i c t c o n t r i b u t e d t o a
g r o w i n g r i f t b e t w e e n Greek O r t h o d o x a n d L a t i n
C h r i s t i a n i t y . I n the f u t u r e instead o f r e l y i n g o n
the B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r s f o r m i h t a r y p r o t e c t i o n ,
the R o m a n popes t u r n e d n o r t h t o t h e F r a n k s . T h e
I c o n o c l a s t i c C o n t r o v e r s y created a l a s t i n g s h i f t
t h a t alhed the R o m a n p o p e w i t h the k i n g d o m s o f
w e s t e r n E u r o p e .
empresses w h o w e r e i n f l u e n c e d b y m o n k s a n d
w h o s y m p a t h i z e d w i t h t h e i r subjects’ r e l i g i o u s
c o n v i c t i o n s r e s t o r e d icons t o c h u r c h e s . I n 7 8 7 ,
c o u n c i l t h a t reversed Leo’s c o n d e m n a t i o n o f
i c o n s . A f t e r Irene w a s deposed i n 8 0 2 i c o n o –
c l a s m r e v i v e d , b u r i n 8 4 3 the Empress
T h e o d o r a i n t r o d u c e d a r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n y
f o r c o m m e m o r a t i n g images, w h i c h O r t h o –
d o x C h r i s t i a n s s t i l l celebrate a n n u a l l y . T h e
i c o n o c l a s t i c c o n t r o v e r s y m a y have w i d e n e d
the g a p b e t w e e n G r e e k O r t h o d o x y a n d
L a t i n C h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t its r e s o l u t i o n c r e a t e d
even greater r e l i g i o u s u n i t y w i t h i n t h e
B y z a n t i n e w o r l d . A c o m m o n r e h g i o u s c u l –
t u r e also p r o v i d e d solace a n d a s p i r i t u a l c o n –
n e c t i o n t o B y z a n t i u m f o r m a n y C h r i s t i a n s
w h o f o u n d themselves i n the f o r m e r B y z a n –
t i n e t e r r i t o r i e s t h a t I s l a m i c r u l e r s h a d c o n –
q u e r e d .
i
j reversed d u r i n g the M a c e d o n i a n d y n a s t y
”- ( 8 6 7 – 1 0 5 6 ) , the t e r m f o r a line o f emperors
Before the M a c e d o n i a n s , i n s t a b i l i t y character-
w h e n a n e m p e r o r d i e d , p o w e r f u l families
struggled over w h o w o u l d become the n e w
emperor. B u t after Basil I (r. 8 6 7 – 8 8 6 ) , the
f i r s t M a c e d o n i a n , m u r d e r e d his w a y t o the
e m p e r o r s ‘ sons as co-emperors a n d e n c o u r a g i n g
the p r i n c i p l e o f dynastic succession.
a r m i e s a n d fleets f o u g h t M u s l i m s o n several
f r o n t s . I n the east the B y z a n t i n e s p u s h e d i n t o
Syria a n d Palestine a l m o s t t o J e r u s a l e m . A large
p a r t o f the M e s o p o t a m i a n r i v e r v a l l e y f e l l i n t o
t h e i r h a n d s . T h e y a n n e x e d the k i n g d o m o f G e o r –
gia a n d p a r t o f A r m e n i a . I n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n
the B y z a n t i n e s r e t o o k the islands o f Crete a n d
C y p r u s a n d k e p t the M u s l i m s f r o m s o u t h e r n
I t a l y , a l t h o u g h t h e y w e r e u n a b l e t o p r e v e n t t h e
c o n q u e s t o f Sicily, w h i c h became a center o f
M u s l i m c u l t u r e .
H o m e t o m o r e t h a n h a l f a m i l l i o n p e o p l e b y the
t e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e c i t y became a g r e a t m a r k e t –
p l a c e w h e r e t r a d e r s e x c h a n g e d g o o d s f r o m as
f a r a w a y as C h i n a a n d the B r i t i s h Isles. I t w a s
also a center f o r the p r o d u c t i o n o f l u x u r y
g o o d s , especially the h i g h l y – p r i z e d s i l k c l o t h
a n d b r o c a d e s t r a d e d t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e , A s i a ,
a n d N o r t h A f r i c a . A r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s , the
C h u r c h , a n d m o n a s t e r i e s became i m m e n s e l y
r i c h , a n d e m b e l l i s h e d the c i t y w i t h m a g n i f i c e n t
b u i l d i n g s , m o s a i c s , a n d i c o n s , c r e a t i n g the
M a c e d o n i a n Re nai ssa n ce.
energies b y r e s t o r i n g the r e l i g i o u s u n i t y t h a t the
i c o n o c l a s t i c c o n t r o v e r s y h a d c o m p r o m i s e d . T h e
m o s t o r i g i n a l w o r k w a s r e l i g i o u s , e m b o d i e d i n
s e r m o n s , t h e o l o g i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p , a n d especially
h y m n s , b u t t h a n k s t o generous i m p e r i a l p a t r o n –
age, C o n s t a n t i n o p l e also became a center f o r
p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t u d y a n d the w r i t i n g o f h i s t o r y f o r
the f i r s t t i m e since the seventh c e n t u r y . T h e accu-
m u l a t i o n a n d s t u d y o f a n c i e n t Greek m a n u –
scripts created a n i m p o r t a n t c u l t u r a l l i n k
b e t w e e n the a n c i e n t a n d m e d i e v a l w o r l d s .
one o f the m o s t e m i n e n t scholars i n the h i s t o r y o f
B y z a n t i u m . P h o t i u s m a i n t a i n e d a huge l i b r a r y ,
w h i c h became a center f o r the s t u d y o f ancient
Greek l i t e r a t u r e . H e w r o t e i m p o r t a n t w o r k s ,
i n c l u d i n g the Library, a n encyclopedic c o m –
p e n d i u m o f classical a n d B y z a n t i n e w r i t e r s b o t h
T h i s i v o r y p l a q u e s h o w s t h e E m p e r o r C o n s t a n t i n e V I I
P o r p h y r o g e n e t u s (r. 9 1 3 – 9 5 9 ) b e i n g c r o w n e d b y
C h r i s t . I t w a s p r o b a b l y m a d e i n 9 4 4 t o c o m m e m o r a t e
P o r p h y r o g e n e t u s ‘ b e c o m i n g t h e s o l e r u l e r o f t h e
e m p i r e . U n d e r t h e e m p e r o r ‘ s l e f t h a n d t h e i n s c r i p t i o n
r e a d s , ” E m p e r o r o f t h e R o m a n s . ”
analyses o f these w r i t e r s have r e m a i n e d especially
v i t a l because m a n y o f these b o o k s have subse-
q u e n t l y been lost. P h o u u s was also deeply
i n v o l v e d i n c h u r c h p o h t i c s a n d was t w i c e deposed
f r o m o f f i c e because o f p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e i n C o n –
s t a n t i n o p l e . H i s selection as p a t r i a r c h b y E m p e r o r
s t r o n g o p p o s i t
c r i r i c o f the I
p o p e each exec
o f t e n b l a m e d
t w o m a i n b r a n
c o L u – t c e r e m o n i
o f the e m p e r o i
tine V I I P o r p h ;
Book of Ceren
r o y a l ceremony
T h e Book of C
concepts o f r u
emperor, l i k e (
these natures ^
other was deriv.
e r l y consecrate,
subjects. H e n
a n o i n t e d w i t h h
ilar to the o r d i n
ity o f m o n a r c h ;
king’s a n o i n t m i
p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h
r e m a i n e d unde
empire’s succe
d e p e n d e d o n tv
g u a r a n t e e d by t
o r g a n i z a t i o n a
t h r o u g h the m i
5 2 7 – 5 6 5
6 3 6
6 4 2
6 9 8
7 1 6 – 7 1 8
7 2 6 – 8 4 2
7 4 0
7 5 1
s t r o n g o p p o s i t i o n f r o m the R o m a n p o p e . A b i t t e r
c r i t i c o f the L a t i n C h r i s t i a n s — P h o t i u s a n d the
p o p e each e x c o m m u n i c a t e d the o t h e r — P h o t i u s is
o f t e n b l a m e d f o r w i d e n i n g the gap b e t w e e n the
t w o m a i n branches o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
c o u r t ceremonies m a g n i f i e d the quasi-sacred office
o f the e m p e r o r T h e h i s t o r i a n E m p e r o r C o n s t a n –
tine V n P o r p h y r o g e n e u i s ( r 9 1 2 – 9 5 9 ) w r o t e the
Book of Ceremonies, w h i c h became a m o d e l f o r
r o y a l ceremony i n k i n g d o m s f r o m Spain t o Russia.
T h e Book of Ceremonies disseminated Byzantine
concepts o f r u l e r s h i p , w h i c h suggested t h a t the
emperor, l i k e C h r i s t , h a d t w o natures. O n e o f
these natures was h u m a n a n d f a l l i b l e , b u t the
other was derived f r o m G o d , w h i c h gave the p r o p –
erly consecrated ruler d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y over his
subjects. H e n c e , Byzantine emperors were
a n o i n t e d w i t h h o l y o i l i n a ceremony t h a t w a s s i m –
i l a r t o the o r d i n a t i o n o f priests. T h e d i v i n e a u t h o r –
i t y o f m o n a r c h s represented by the emperor’s or
king’s a n o i n t m e n t became a central feature o f
p o l i t i c a l r h o u g h t d u r i n g the M i d d l e Ages.
r e m a i n e d u n d e r the t h r e a t o f i n v a s i o n s . T h e
empire’s success i n m e e t i n g these threats
d e p e n d e d o n t w o f a c t o r s — t h e p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y
g u a r a n t e e d b y the M a c e d o n i a n d y n a s t y , a n d the
o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d r e c r u i t m e n t o f the a r m y
t h r o u g h the m i l i t a r y d i s t r i c t s o f the themes. I n
w e a k e n e d a n d the a r m y d e t e r i o r a t e d .
B y z a n t i n e p o w e r a n d p r o s p e r i t y w e r e at t h e i r
p e a k , b u t he l e f t n o d i r e c t m a l e heirs. H i s nieces
a n d t h e i r h u s b a n d s r u l e d u n t i l 1 0 5 6 , l a r g e l y
because B y z a n t i n e s believed t h a t the peace a n d
p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e e m p i r e d e p e n d e d o n t h e
d y n a s t y . Basil’s successors, h o w e v e r , w e r e n o t
s t r o n g leaders. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e e m p i r e w a s
h i g h l y c e n t r a l i z e d , w i t h a t a n g l e d b u r e a u c r a c y
t h a t supervised e v e r y t h i n g f r o m d i p l o m a t i c cere-
m o n y t o the t r a i n i n g o f artisans. W i t h o u t ener-
getic l e a d e r s h i p , the B y z a n t i n e b u r e a u c r a c y
degenerated i n t o r o u t i n e a n d f a i l e d t o r e s p o n d t o
n e w challenges.
c h e c k i n g invasions h a d been largely the result o f
B y z a n t i u m ‘ s s u p e r i o r m i h t a r y capacities, g u a r a n –
reed b y the systematic o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the a r m y
i n the themes a n d the s t r e n g t h o f the e c o n o m y .
As discussed earlier, the success o f the themes
depended o n a system i n w h i c h free, t a x – p a y i n g
s o l d i e r – f a r m e r s f o u g h t i n t h e i r o w n d i s t r i c t s ,
d e f e n d i n g t h e i r homes a n d f a m i l i e s . H o w e v e r , b y
the eleventh c e n t u r y d e t e r i o r a t i n g e c o n o m i c
c o n d i t i o n s threatened the independence o f these
s o l d i e r – f a r m e r s . E v e r y time a c r o p f a i l e d o r
d r o u g h t o r f a m i n e s t r u c k , s t a r v i n g s o l d i e r – f a r m e r s
i n rhe themes w e r e f o r c e d t o surrender t h e i r l a n d
a n d t h e i r independence t o one o f the aristocrats
L
6 3 0 s Loss of S p a i n to Visigoths
6 3 6 A r a b s take Syria f r o m B y z a n t i u m
7 4 0 B y z a n t i n e s defeat A r a b s
7 5 1 L o m b a r d s c o n q u e r R a v e n n a a n d e n d t h e E x a r c h a t e of Italy
TalasX
Kairouan*
{637-643)
IRAN
(Cairo)
The Umayyad Caliphate, ca. 750
i ‘”,_J Islamic Caliphate
[rZ„.] Byzantine Empire
X Major battle
Sea
– YEMEN
T h e E x p a n s i o n o f I s l a m : T h e U m a y y a d C a l i p h a t e , ca. 750
B y a b o u t 7 5 0 t h e U m a y y a d c a l i p h a t e h a d r e a c h e d its g r e a t e s t e x t e n t . I t p r o v i d e d p o l i t i c a l u n i t y t o t e r r i t o r i e s s t r e t c h –
i n g f r o m c e n t r a l A s i a t o S p a i n . I s l a m b e c a m e t h e d o m i n a n t r e l i g i o n i n t h i s v a s t e m p i r e .
ers a c q u i r e d m o r e l a n d , the s m a l l farmers w h o
w e r e the b a c k b o n e o f the a r m y began t o disap-
pear o r lose t h e i r f r e e d o m . Because o n l y free l a n d –
holders c o u l d p e r f o r m m i l i t a r y service, the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l a n d i n the hands o f a f e w w a s
disastrous for the a r m y . Q u a l i f i e d soldiers w i t h
the l a n d t o s u p p o r t t h e m became r a r e .
w i l l t o p r e v e n t t h i s t r e n d , a n d the a r m y increas-
i n g l y d e p e n d e d o n f o r e i g n mercenaries. These
e m p e r o r s f o u n d themselves i n a b i n d . T h e i r
i n c o m e l a r g e l y d e p e n d e d o n t h e i r m o n o p o l y over
i n d u s t r y a n d t r a d e , b u t t h a t c o n t r o l m e a n t t h a t
i n v e s t m e n t f o r a r i s t o c r a t s . O p e n i n g u p the econ-
o m y m i g h t have h u r t t h e i r o w n i n c o m e s , a n d so
the e m p e r o r s f a i l e d t o d o w h a t w a s necessary t o
p r o t e c t the e m p i r e . T h e s i t u a t i o n w a s b l e a k , a n d
over succeeding c e n t u r i e s , enemies ate a w a y at
B y z a n t i u m u n t i l its f i n a l collapse i n 1 4 5 3 .
h o w d i d its f o l l o w e r s create a vast empire
so quickly?
c r e a t e d a new
M e d i t e r r a n e a
t h a t srretchec
M a p 8 . 2 ) . T o
l i o n M u s l i m s
f a i t h has l e f t
t h e W e s t , b u t
t u r y a m o n g
p e n i n s u l a . A r ;
t h e m w e r e no,
sheep. (See En
t h i s c h a p t e r . )
f a r m e d , l i v e d i
c o m m e r c i a l r
descent f r o m i
chiefs led b y t h
the c o m m o n c
I n p r e – l s l a m i c t i m e
o f M e c c a . W h e n N
p a s t a n d t r a n s f o r n
H o u s e o f G o d . M u
n e y s f o s t e r a s h a r e .
