Fourth Lateran Council

fourth_lateran_council x

HISTORY: THE FOURTH LATERAN COUNCIL

 

                                                                                     

  

Name:

Due date:

School Affiliation:

      

Table of Contents

CHAPTER ONE

– 3

1.1 History of Church in the Medieval Period

– 3

1.2 History of the earlier Lateran Councils

– 4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

— 6

2.1 The Fourth Lateran Council

6

2.2 The Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council 8

CHAPTER THREE: SUMMARY- 16

3.0 Summary and Conclusion- 16

Bibliography- 17

  CHAPTER ONE1.1 History of Church in the Medieval Period

In the Medieval ages the medieval church had a far greater role to play than the churches in the current world. The church of the medieval age, which is said to have dominated the life of everyone – from birth to death –, believed staunchly that Heaven, Hell and God existed. Due to the terrific state that the church had depicted about hell to the people, there existed unquestionable abidance to the church rules and regulations. This made the church to become so influential and superior in the medieval period (Chazan 1980, 12). The church in this period became very rich because every person gave taxes known as tithes as an annual ten percentage of what they had gained. Most people ended up being monks, nuns or priests as a way of survival in this period because they were not imposed these taxes. Although some of these taxes were used on helping the poor, most it was spent on beautiful churches and cathedrals.

The Catholic Church[1] became very powerful in the medieval period because it was the only religious institution found in Europe in this period. This is because Christianity was the only accepted religion in the medieval period (Lynch 2009, 21). This factor made the church an indispensable sector of the feudal system that organized itself in a government-like body with laws. Christianity – which played a huge part in the lives of individuals of this period – was only practiced through the church thus making it very influential and powerful. The pope in religious matters was superior to a king or a queen. This influential characteristic led to the rise of some religious leaders[2] who wanted to take over the papal leadership so that they could take control of the wealth and power of the church. The Pope had the power to violate or infringe the canons or rules of the church (Vidmar 2005, 17). These are the same regulations that guided the previous pope but the next pope had the power to change or eradicating them. Contrary to these popes, who were not bound to the laws they created, is what Jesus Christ[3] who strictly observed the law did. The religious observances of the church shaped the calendar of individuals by marking important ritualistic moments such as marriage, confirmation, holy orders and baptism (Rosamund mckitterick 2001, 14).

1.2 History of the earlier Lateran Councils

The first Lateran council was conducted in the reign of pope Calixtus II. This ninth ecumenical council was held on December 1123. The first Lateran council, which has no contemporary accounts or acts currently surviving, promulgated a number of twenty two canons (Logan 2012, 22). These canons indiscriminately entailed the general matters, local matters and the permanent regulations combined with the temporary issues. These canons, which mostly restated declarations of earlier councils, constituted quasi-political and disciplinary decisions such as condemning of simony and prohibiting laymen from disposing church property. This Lateran council had no specific dogmatic declarations.

The second Lateran council also known as the tenth ecumenical council was brought about by Pope Innocent II in 1139. This council was convoked to condemn the followers of a dynamic opponent and reformer of the historical powers of the pope known as Arnold of Brescia (Chazan 1980, 19). This council also aimed at putting an end to the schism formed by the election of a rival pope known as Anacletus II. Innocent II was declared the legitimate pope with the support of St. Bernard of Clairvaux. This council did not only declare all the marriages of nuns, monks and lay brothers invalid but also repudiated the 12th century heresies that concerned infant baptism, matrimony, and Eucharist and the holy orders.

The eleventh ecumenical council, also identified as the third Lateran council, was held by Pope Alexander III in 1179 (David Abulafia 2002, 36). This council was joined by 291 bishops who were elites of the study on the peace of Venice in 1177 (Rosamund mckitterick 2001, 14). It was during this period that the council manifested a vital stage in the advancement of papal legislative powers.  It was during this period that Frederick I Barbarossa, the Holy Roman emperor, agreed to forfeit his antipope support and restore the property he had grabbed from the church.

 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 The Fourth Lateran Council

After Alexander III’s long reign of seventeen years, the cardinals appointed a thirty seven years old son of the Count of Segni called Lothar on eighth of January, 1198 (Turner 2000, 24). Lothar got the name Innocent III[4]. In the medieval church, much of importance is not perceived to have happened but the convening of the fourth Lateran council by pope Innocent III changed the course of history and the Latin Church (Evans 2010, 35). This great initiative by Pope Innocent III was first summoned on the nineteenth of April, 1213 to have a meeting on November 1215.

The Dark Ages[5] is referred to as the time when the council first met. This was around AD 476 when there was intellectual stagnation because the Roman Empire had been seized. It was the role of the Holy Roman Empire to intervene and intensify intellectual activities such as building of great universities, which later took control over the intellectual sphere (Rosamund mckitterick 2001, 29). These schools, which were linked to the medieval cathedrals, offered training to students in theology, biblical history and interpretation. This period also entailed intense theological debates that were piloted in relation to the Lord’s Supper or the nature of Eucharist. The making up of systems of theology referred to as the Cathedrals of the mind by Anselm of Canterbury and Peter Lombard, depicted theology as sterile arrangement of themes with little significance to one’s everyday problems. This was contrary to the existing concept of theology as the solicitation of biblical truths to one’s individual life. The main theme that most of the heretical groups, which came up with notions that taught on the dualistic interpretation of the universe and purity of the faith, had in mind that physical possessions were inherently evil whereas the spirit was pure (Vidmar 2005, 41). This left the Holy Land to remain in the hands of those who rejected the Christian faith.

[1] The Catholic Church was the first Christian religious dominion to be established in the Medieval Ages.[2] The leaders were all under the papal supervision and leadership.[3] The third person in the Holy Trinity – The Son of God [4] Pope innocent was anointed a cardinal by his uncle before being elected a Pope.[5] This period entailed economic and cultural deterioration in the first phase of the Medieval ages that happened in Europe.

1

6

TITLE

HISTORY: THE FOURTH LATERAN COUNCIL

Name:

Due date:

School Affiliation:

Table of Contents

CHAPTER ONE

3

1.1 History of Church in the Medieval Period

3

1.2 History of the earlier Lateran Councils

4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

6

2.1 The F

ourth Lateran Council

6

2.2 The Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council

8

CHAPTER THREE: SUMMARY

16

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

16

Bibliography

17

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 History of Church in the Medieval Period
In the Medieval ages the medieval church had a far greater role to play than the churches in the current world. The church of the medieval age, which is said to have dominated the life of everyone – from birth to death –, believed staunchly that Heaven, Hell and God existed. Due to the terrific state that the church had depicted about hell to the people, there existed unquestionable abidance to the church rules and regulations. This made the church to become so influential and superior in the medieval period (Chazan 1980, 12). The church in this period became very rich because every person gave taxes known as tithes as an annual ten percentage of what they had gained. Most people ended up being monks, nuns or priests as a way of survival in this period because they were not imposed these taxes. Although some of these taxes were used on helping the poor, most it was spent on beautiful churches and cathedrals.
The Catholic Church[footnoteRef:1] became very powerful in the medieval period because it was the only religious institution found in Europe in this period. This is because Christianity was the only accepted religion in the medieval period (Lynch 2009, 21). This factor made the church an indispensable sector of the feudal system that organized itself in a government-like body with laws. Christianity – which played a huge part in the lives of individuals of this period – was only practiced through the church thus making it very influential and powerful. The pope in religious matters was superior to a king or a queen. This influential characteristic led to the rise of some religious leaders[footnoteRef:2] who wanted to take over the papal leadership so that they could take control of the wealth and power of the church. The Pope had the power to violate or infringe the canons or rules of the church (Vidmar 2005, 17). These are the same regulations that guided the previous pope but the next pope had the power to change or eradicating them. Contrary to these popes, who were not bound to the laws they created, is what Jesus Christ[footnoteRef:3] who strictly observed the law did. The religious observances of the church shaped the calendar of individuals by marking important ritualistic moments such as marriage, confirmation, holy orders and baptism (Rosamund mckitterick 2001, 14). [1: The Catholic Church was the first Christian religious dominion to be established in the Medieval Ages.] [2: The leaders were all under the papal supervision and leadership. ] [3: The third person in the Holy Trinity – The Son of God ]

1.2 History of the earlier Lateran Councils
The first Lateran council was conducted in the reign of pope Calixtus II. This ninth ecumenical council was held on December 1123. The first Lateran council, which has no contemporary accounts or acts currently surviving, promulgated a number of twenty two canons (Logan 2012, 22). These canons indiscriminately entailed the general matters, local matters and the permanent regulations combined with the temporary issues. These canons, which mostly restated declarations of earlier councils, constituted quasi-political and disciplinary decisions such as condemning of simony and prohibiting laymen from disposing church property. This Lateran council had no specific dogmatic declarations.
The second Lateran council also known as the tenth ecumenical council was brought about by Pope Innocent II in 1139. This council was convoked to condemn the followers of a dynamic opponent and reformer of the historical powers of the pope known as Arnold of Brescia (Chazan 1980, 19). This council also aimed at putting an end to the schism formed by the election of a rival pope known as Anacletus II. Innocent II was declared the legitimate pope with the support of St. Bernard of Clairvaux. This council did not only declare all the marriages of nuns, monks and lay brothers invalid but also repudiated the 12th century heresies that concerned infant baptism, matrimony, and Eucharist and the holy orders.
The eleventh ecumenical council, also identified as the third Lateran council, was held by Pope Alexander III in 1179 (David Abulafia 2002, 36). This council was joined by 291 bishops who were elites of the study on the peace of Venice in 1177 (Rosamund mckitterick 2001, 14). It was during this period that the council manifested a vital stage in the advancement of papal legislative powers. It was during this period that Frederick I Barbarossa, the Holy Roman emperor, agreed to forfeit his antipope support and restore the property he had grabbed from the church.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Fourth Lateran Council
After Alexander III’s long reign of seventeen years, the cardinals appointed a thirty seven years old son of the Count of Segni called Lothar on eighth of January, 1198 (Turner 2000, 24). Lothar got the name Innocent III[footnoteRef:4]. In the medieval church, much of importance is not perceived to have happened but the convening of the fourth Lateran council by pope Innocent III changed the course of history and the Latin Church (Evans 2010, 35). This great initiative by Pope Innocent III was first summoned on the nineteenth of April, 1213 to have a meeting on November 1215. [4: Pope innocent was anointed a cardinal by his uncle before being elected a Pope.]
The Dark Ages[footnoteRef:5] is referred to as the time when the council first met. This was around AD 476 when there was intellectual stagnation because the Roman Empire had been seized. It was the role of the Holy Roman Empire to intervene and intensify intellectual activities such as building of great universities, which later took control over the intellectual sphere (Rosamund mckitterick 2001, 29). These schools, which were linked to the medieval cathedrals, offered training to students in theology, biblical history and interpretation. This period also entailed intense theological debates that were piloted in relation to the Lord’s Supper or the nature of Eucharist. The making up of systems of theology referred to as the Cathedrals of the mind by Anselm of Canterbury and Peter Lombard, depicted theology as sterile arrangement of themes with little significance to one’s everyday problems. This was contrary to the existing concept of theology as the solicitation of biblical truths to one’s individual life. The main theme that most of the heretical groups, which came up with notions that taught on the dualistic interpretation of the universe and purity of the faith, had in mind that physical possessions were inherently evil whereas the spirit was pure (Vidmar 2005, 41). This left the Holy Land to remain in the hands of those who rejected the Christian faith. [5: This period entailed economic and cultural deterioration in the first phase of the Medieval ages that happened in Europe. ]
It was during this time of these outrage conditions that it called for a resolute person to deal with these scenarios. Innocent III was appointed to the papal chair with the eagerness of eradicating the church of heresy, putting the church in a better spiritual foundation, and recovering the Holy lands that was in possession of the infidels (Turner 2000, 13). Although he may have reached these areas of interest with mixed results, he is best recalled for the part that he played in the twelfth ecumenical council that first met in November 1215.
This congregation was held in Lateran basilica[footnoteRef:6] thus the name Lateran council. According to Innocent the council had an objective of eradicating vices and planting virtues, removing of heresies and strengthening of faith, settling discords and establishing peace, correcting faults and reforming morals, eradicating oppression and fostering liberty, and inducing Christians to come to the help and comfort of the holy land (Evans 2010, 24). The Fourth Lateran council, which was a grandiose affair, had an attendance of one thousand three hundred and ninety delegates including the kings of England, France, Jerusalem, Hungary, Aragon, Cyprus and Emperor Fredrick II. Although there was the impressive attendance of ecclesiastical figures, only some improvements on the seventy decrees or canons that had been prepared by Innocent were made by the council members. [6: This was more of a palace in Europe.]

2.2 The Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council

Canon 1 – Confession of Faith
This canon entailed the faith Christians should have on God. They should staunchly believe and confess that there is only one supreme and true God, who is almighty, incomprehensible, ineffable, unchangeable, eternal and immeasurable. The Almighty father, Son and the Holy Spirit, is three persons but with one absolute nature, essence and substance. This canon took into context that God is the creator of all things, both visible and invisible, co-omnipotent and co-eternal, consubstantial and coequal, spiritual and corporeal and who created everything by Hos mighty powers from nothing to corporeal creatures and spirits (David Abulafia 2002, 51).
All this is what entails the universal church of the faithful. Jesus is both the sacrifice and the priest who evangelized on salvation to the people and He suffered under the wrath of the people for the sins of the human race. His blood and body, which is symbolized by the bread and wine in the Holy Eucharist, is taken by Christians to create bondage between them and the Holy Trinity (Vidmar 2005, 36).
Canon 2-3 – Deal with Heretics and contain Dogmatic Statements
These canons condemn heretics and the work of Abbot Joachim[footnoteRef:7]. This canon reproved the small treatise wrote by Abbot Joachim that was published counter to Peter Lombard regarding the essence or the unity of the Holy Trinity. Abbot Joachim depicted Peter Lombard as mad man and a heretic because he ascribed God as a Trinity and not as a quaternity (Wilfried Hartmann 2008, 42). He believed it was a quaternity with or under the common interest of a fourth person. [7: He was a theologian, esoterist and a mystic from Fiore who founded the monastic order of San Giovanni.]
The fourth Lateran council came into counter attack of this treatise written by Abbot Joachim. This sacred universal council believed and confessed, in accordance with what peter Lombard stated, that there is the existence of a certain supreme reality ineffable and incomprehensible, which is the Father, Son and the Holy Ghost. The three together and every one of the persons separately makes the Trinity and not a quaternity as stated by Abbot Joachim (Wilfried Hartmann 2008, 57).
The fourth Lateran council also had to anathematize and excommunicate every heresy that had rose up against this orthodox, holy catholic faith (Stephan Kuttner 1995, 44). According to the council, anyone who happened to be condemned was supposed to be handed over to the present authorities for due punishment. This canon stated that those found guilty of heresy or by existing in excommunication for at least a year, were to be slain with the sword of anathema[footnoteRef:8] (Lynch 2009, 36). This punishment was for anyone who went against the ecclesiastical censure including the clerics, judges, notaries and advocates. [8: An Anathema denotes a thing presented to God. ]
Primarily, this canon was put into place in order to control the use of authority by some leaders and also maintain the strict adherence to the church laws, especially the confession of the Christian faith, by everyone that was in the boundaries of the Roman Empire. This is because there were rumors that some of the people and church leaders held to the religion but they denied its power (Logan 2012, 63). This is one of the canons invented by Pope Innocent III that duly kept the council elects of the twelfth ecumenical council under pressure. This is because they had to abide all the Christian laws and follow them without questioning or thus they would face persecution like any other person.
Canon 4 – Pride of Greeks toward Latin
This canon was established in the light of putting or curbing down the superiority the Greeks had built over the Latins (Chazan 1980, 33). The fourth Lateran council had to come with a way of controlling the relationship between the two communities as long as they continued to serve the same God in the same religion. The Greeks believed that the Latins were so inferior to them that they could not indulge or join them in activity they participated in. For instance, the Greeks could not offer their sacrifices until they cleansed their hands when a Latin priest celebrated a mass on their altars (Vidmar 2005, 54). The fourth Lateran council came up with this canon in order shun away scandals from the church of God with putting strict consequential punishment for Greeks who were caught in this act. According to the Christian faith, the flock of sheep should be herded by one shepherd but the Greeks tried to show a different picture of this in the Christian context (Turner 2000, 65). Thus, any individual found indulging in this demeaning act was slain using the sword of excommunication and dispossessed all benefice and authority in the ecclesiastical office (Evans 2010, 56).
Canon 5 – Dignity of Patriarchal Sees

The fourth Lateran council stated this canon in the light of creating an order or hierarchy of patriarchal authority. According to this canon of patriarchal sees, the church of Constantinople had the first place after the sacred Roman church, the church of Alexandria came second, and the church of Antioch came into the third place while the church of Jerusalem took the fourth place (Wilfried Hartmann 2008, 48). The council made this canon so as to maintain the dignity of the patriarchal sees as every church level had been approved sacred universal synod differently (Stephan Kuttner 1995, 39).
Canon 6-13 – The Church’s Discipline
The main theme that was brought about by this canon is that of strict abidance and adherence to the rules and regulations of the church. The council had in mind that if these rules did not exist there would have been contradicting notions of the church from the religious leaders to the Christians themselves. The canon number six focused on the idea that the metropolitans, especially the clergy and their suffrages, should hold an annual council. In this meeting they were supposed to go through a reform of their morals, accept correction of excesses and recite the canonical rules thoroughly in the fear of God (Chazan 1980, 35). If by any case someone happens to neglect or assume this canon, he or she would be put on hold of his benefices and also deprived his official authority. This canon also gave the church the authority to offer corrections and reforms to offences pre-relating to the church without the interference of other authorities. This made the powers of the council to come into full force as it made its own constitution and enforced law by itself (Stephan Kuttner 1995, 67).
Also under these canons, the fourth Lateran council stated a procedure or method of dealing with the offences that the prelates committed. This was to specifically taken into consideration to ensure that the prelates were not unjustly accused. On the other hand, the fourth Lateran council came up with the ninth canon that was centered in making Christianity one body unlike the existence of different people with different customs and rites (Lynch 2009, 41). This canon ensured that the church rituals are carried out by suitable people who are neutral in terms of language and rites. These canons also entailed the qualities and reasons of appointing perfect[footnoteRef:9] preachers and not just anyone because they are to administer the word of God, which is the spiritual food that God offers us as Christians. Thus, they were supposed to be educated and clean from the wicked sins of man. The council also barred the bringing of new religious orders into Christianity because this would lead to intense confusion in God’s church (Logan 2012, 60). This was purposely initiated in order to counter fight any other religious orders that would arise from the already existing orders. [9: Perfect is the quality term that summarized the kind of evangelists needed to preach God’s word in terms of character and the faith in Christianity. ]

Canon 14-22 – The Reform of clerical morals
The fourth Lateran council had to commit their time in defining the roles and the general basics of the clerics. This was very important because the activities were acutely positioned in the church interests rather their personal interests (Wilfried Hartmann 2008, 47). These canons depicted things like their dressing codes, abstinence from things like drunkenness and gluttony, association with any form of shedding of blood[footnoteRef:10], restriction of storing their personal things in churches and maintaining an annual confession, communion and confessional seal to one’s own priest. Inability to abide in any of these canons led to either immediate sticking by the sword of excommunication, expulsion from office or deprival of official clerical authority (Logan 2012, 91). [10: This shedding entailed making or sacrifices or killing animals to committing of murder.]

Canon 23-32 – Episcopal elections and the administration of benefices
These canons were all about the administration and terms of length and acquiring these administrative powers in the church. These canons were initiated by the Fourth Lateran council in order to control the elections and maintain the church as a house of God and not a political forum where people brought their personal interests (David Abulafia 2002, 79). The council wanted to see a church led by well scrutinized and trained priest who were competent enough to administer the word God and not just anyone. It is stated by these canons that no one was supposed to be in possession of several ecclesiastical dignitaries. In instances of intentional errors in relation to these constitutions, one was subjected to grave canonical punishments (Evans 2010, 68).
Canon 33-34 – Exaction of taxes
The fourth Lateran council came into realization of the misconceptions of taxes that is why they came up with these canons. These canons were trying to differentiate between taxes and gifts or presents given to clerics without the indulgence of the church (Turner 2000, 88). They further stated the need for clerics to differentiate between preaching as calling from God and as a business.
Canon 35-49 Canonical Suits
The canons in this category were much focused on the canonical laws. They entailed the response to property possession and the authority of the clerics in general. This helped in settling of many cases that were associated with possession of things and the boundaries that clerics should not cross in the light of implementing their powers. These canons also stated the way taxes or tithes should be levied and the way excommunication should be tried. These reduced the chances of unjust[footnoteRef:11] or unfair trial on excommunication (Rosamund mckitterick 2001). These canons helped in depicting the penalties associated with excommunication and there corresponding judgments. [11: Some of the leaders would implement excommunication or other trials under the influence of their personal interests. ]

Canon 50-61 – Matrimony and Tithes
The first two canons in this category established the concepts of marriage of the fourth degree and the clandestine that was perpetually prohibited and forbidden respectively. These same canons made rules on the mode of presenting tithes and the different ways of acquiring those tithes. This was a great change by the council because there are some people who took advantage of others and exploited them by giving away their land in the light of avoiding paying of tithes (Chazan 1980, 76). Under these canons, severe canonical punishment faced those individuals who ventured into unfair or un-genuine modes of gaining or offering tithes. These regulations presented in these canons also involved the clerics as well as the general Christians.
Canon 62 – Regarding saint’s relics
This canon was much centered on the way people treated the relics[footnoteRef:12] of saints for their own selfish or economic interests whereas they did not believe in the Christian faith. The council had to come up with this canon so as to hinder those people who were not ready to be associated with Christianity from taking advantage of the relics of saints. These relics were supposed to be disbursed in an orderly manner that benefited the Roman church in general and not individuals. [12: These included artworks and other physical objects that were used in reference to saints in the medieval period. ]

Canon 63-71 – Simony, Jews and the crusade to recover the holy Land
These canons were based on the prevailing issues of Simony, Jews and the recovering of the holy land. Under sodomy, this was a way of curbing down the methods used by the clerics to obtain money and other payment methods unfairly from Christians (Wilfried Hartmann 2008, 101). These canons also stated the extent the Jews could go in the evangelism of the word of God. For instance, they happened not to be allowed to appear in certain dress codes in public and hold public offices as well as indulge in usurious practices (Evans 2010, 92). The last of all canons was a direct interpretation of what the sacred council wanted to be done on the trail of claiming of the faith of Christians and the holy trinity. These canons illustrated how clergies, Jews and Christian should live and interact with each other in terms of dress codes, language and relationships.

CHAPTER THREE: SUMMARY

3.0 Summary and Conclusion
This great council of Lateran hap a great in enhancing a peaceful amongst the Christians, religious leaders, the other religions and the overall authority. This is because the council project entailed political, ecclesiastical and doctrinal issues. These canons had the aim of establishing a planned new evangelism with rules and defined actions to be taken on defectors. Primarily, the council was geared to maintaining order in the church of God. This was attained by structuring defined church canons that were to be observed without questioning anything. The main idea of establishing this constitution was to avoid conflicts brought up leaders who wanted to run the church of God in their own ideas and biblical interpretations. The council succeeded in putting differentiating norms, doctrines and regulations that were to be observed by the Christians and the non-Christians.
Pope Innocent III, the convoker of the Fourth Lateran council, died in 1216 shortly after the council dismissed. Although he did not live to see much of the council canons take effect in the Christian community, he is considered as major figure in the contribution of ecclesiastical reform. The council canons have since been observed in the Christian life, especially Catholics, as well as playing a major role in guiding the Christian faith to the holy trinity.

Bibliography
Chazan. Church, State, and the Jew in the Middle Ages. London: Behrman House, Inc,, 1980.
David Abulafia, Rosamond MacKitterick. The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 5, C.1198-c.1300. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Evans, John. The statutes of the fourth general council of Lateran: recognized and established by subesquent councils and synods, down to the council of Trent. Boston: L. and G. Seeley, 2010.
Logan, F. Donald. A history of the church in the Middle Ages. New York: Routledge, 2012.
Lynch, Joseph H. The medieval church: a brief history. Michigan: Longman, 2009.
Rosamund mckitterick, ed. Bibliography: General Works on the Medieval Church. November 2001. camellia.shc.edu/theology/pdf/General%20Medieval (accessed April 25, 2013).
Stephan Kuttner, Antonio García y García. A New Eyewitness Account of the Fourt [i.e. Fourth] Lateran Council. London: Fordham University Press, 1995.
Turner, Victoria. Innocent III and the Fourth Lateran Council: His Contribution to the Medieval Reformation. Adelaide: University of Adelaide, Department of History, 2000.
Vidmar, John. The Catholic Church Through The Ages: A History. Manchester: Paulist Press, 2005.
Wilfried Hartmann, Kenneth Pennington. The History of Medieval Canon Law in the Classical Period, 1140-1234: From Gratian to the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX. Chicago: CUA Press, 2008.