Age, Gender, and Status

cmc260_week5_reading2_2-1.txt

Resources: Ch. 8 of Intercultural Business Communication and Appendix B  Due Date: Day 7 [Individual forum]  Compare in 750 to 1,050 words the relationship of status to age and gender in the U.S. with the relationship of status to age and gender in another country.  Use APA formatting guidelines.  Post your paper as a Microsoft® Word attachment

CHAPTER

8 GLOBAL ETIQUETTE
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will
¦
understand cultural differences in making introductions as well as customs
related to business card exchange.
¦
understand how position and status affect cultural interaction.
¦
be familiar with rules of etiquette that apply to communicating by telephone and
electronically with persons of other cultures.
¦
understand how cultural differences in dining practices may affect intercultural
communication.
¦
be familiar with the cultural nuances of tipping.
¦
understand how practices of giving gifts vary from culture to culture and the role
of gift giving in establishing favorable intercultural relations.
¦
learn the importance of travel etiquette in conveying a positive image of a
person’s firm and country.
W
W
hen conducting business abroad or in the United States with someone of
another culture, a knowledge of certain rules of business and social etiquette
is important. Etiquette refers to manners and behavior considered acceptable
in social and business situations. Protocol refers to customs and regulations
dealing with diplomatic etiquette and courtesies expected in official dealings (such as
negotiations) with persons in various cultures. Protocol during negotiations is
discussed in greater detail in chapters 10 and 11.
President Clinton, during his first state dinner abroad on a visit to Korea, confused
his translator and embarrassed South Korean officials when he stepped to
the microphone to give his dinner speech and invited a translator to stand
between himself and President Kim Young Sam. Because in South Korea it is an
insult for anyone to stand between two heads of state, President Clinton had
committed a serious faux pas. (Kim, 1993, p. A5)
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162 Intercultural Business Communication
Proper social behavior includes learning cultural variations in making introductions,
exchanging business cards, recognizing position and status, communicating
interculturally, dining practices, tipping etiquette, giving gifts, and traveling.
INTRODUCTIONS
Being sensitive to cultural variations when making introductions will ensure that your
first encounter with a person from another country leaves a positive impression. First
impressions are made only once but are remembered for a long time.
The procedure for making introductions varies from culture to culture. First
names are used almost immediately by people from the United States and England,
however, introductions are more formal in some other cultures. Titles are used
when introducing people in Germany and Italy; they often indicate the person’s
profession or educational level. Germans always address each other as “Herr
Guenther” or “Frau Kurr” in and out of the office, reserving first names for close
friends and family.
Remember that in some cultures, such as the Chinese, the surname comes first and
the given name last. Ching Lo Chang would be addressed as Mr. Ching.
President Clinton, in a meeting in Korea, addressed South Korean President Kim
Young Sam’s wife, Mrs. Sohn Myong-suk, as Mrs. Kim. He should have
addressed her as Mrs. Sohn because in Korea, it is the custom for women to
maintain their maiden name when they marry. (Kim, 1993, p. A5)
Men and women from the Latin American countries often add their mother’s
maiden name to their surname, so you should use the next-to-last name when
addressing them. Thus, Evelyn Rodrigues Castillo would be addressed as Señorita
Rodrigues. When women marry, they drop their mother’s surname and add their
husband’s father’s surname. When in doubt, ask what name is to be used. Egyptians
use the title plus the first name when making introductions. In some cases, the
French form of address is used for women, for example, Madame Susan. In Iraq and
in India, titles such as Professor and Doctor, used with the last name, are used as part
of the introduction. In African countries, such as Nigeria and Kenya, titles are used
with last names until you get to know them well and they ask you to call them by
their first name (Devine & Braganti, 1991, 1995, 2000). Because of such widely
diverse customs in the use of titles, it is wise to research the customs of the particular
culture involved.
Introductions are accompanied by a handshake, an embrace, or a bow, depending
on the culture. Handshakes may vary from the soft handshake of the British to the firm
handshake of U.S. persons. Hugging or embracing when being introduced is considered
inappropriate in business situations in the United States but is common in many
South American countries. The bow, common in China and Japan, is uncommon in
many other cultures. Additional information on greeting customs, including handshakes,
is included in chapter 9.
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CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 163
BUSINESS CARD EXCHANGE
An important aspect of business protocol is knowing the proper procedure for exchanging
business cards. Because all business contacts require a business card, the admonition
of a well-known credit card company, “Don’t leave home without it,” applies.
Although most U.S. businesspeople carry business cards, they do not always
exchange them when meeting unless there is a reason to contact the person later.
Rank, title, and profession are taken seriously in some cultures, so it is important to
include your position and titles or degrees in addition to your company name on your
card. Include foreign headquarters as appropriate as well as your fax number and perhaps
e-mail address. Avoid colored type and paper. Be conservative by choosing white
paper with black ink.
Presentation of the card varies with the culture. The practice in the United States of
glancing at the business card and promptly putting it in the pocket is considered rude in
countries like Japan. The Japanese examine the business card carefully and make some
comment while accepting it. During meetings, place the business cards of others attending
in front of you on the conference table to properly refer to names, ranks, and titles.
Use both hands when presenting your card in Japan or South Korea; position the card so
that the person can read it (Axtell, 1993; Baldrige, 1993) (see Figure 8-1).

FIGURE 8-1 Business
card presentation in Japan
is completed by presenting
your card with both hands,
positioned so that the
person can read it, and
bowing
An exchange of business cards is an expected part of all business introductions and
most personal ones in Europe, including the Scandinavian countries. Because
Scandinavians are respectful of age, include your company’s date of establishment on
your business cards when the company’s history is a long one (Turkington, 1999). Other
parts of the world in which an exchange of business cards is the norm include the Middle
East, the Pacific, Asia, and the Caribbean. Australian businesspersons do not usually
carry business cards; thus, when you offer them your card, you may not receive one in
return. In Latin American countries, business titles are important, so be sure to include
them on your business cards (Harris, Moran, & Moran, 2004). In most of the Southeast
Asia, Africa, and the Middle East (with the exception of Israel), avoid presenting the
card with your left hand, as the left hand is reserved for taking care of bodily functions
(Axtell, 1993). In non-English speaking countries, have the information on your card
printed in English on one side and in the local language on the other.
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164 Intercultural Business Communication
POSITION AND STATUS
Position and status may have an impact on the success of intercultural communication
encounters. No standard definition of social class exists that applies to all countries
because people in different cultures have their own way of identifying the classes.
Some cultures believe that people should occupy their proper places and that some are
entitled to more respect than others. Most people of the United States show limited
respect for rank and authority, although many other cultures are very conscious of
position and power.
Although the United States is not considered a nation of classes, distinctions in
position and status do exist. Because class distinctions in the United States are subtle,
visitors from other cultures may not be able to spot the existence of a class structure
and may believe the official propaganda of social equality. Visitors to New York,
Washington, DC, and other cities, however, may see both the homeless and more
affluent persons in public places. Although a system of inherited titles and ranks does
not exist in the United States, certain factors distinguish between the top class, the
upper-middle class, the mid-middle class, and the lower-middle class. As was discussed
in chapter 3, money is one factor associated with class. Further distinctions are made
between those who have inherited money but are not currently employed and those
who have inherited money and are employed. Style, taste, and awareness are equally
important. Social class is also associated with educational opportunities and a person’s
occupation or profession (Fussell, 1983).
Status is associated with education in a number of cultures. Educational titles are
used in introductions as a sign of respect and acknowledgment of the person’s educational
achievement. In Germany and Italy, executives and other professionals are
proud of titles preceding their names, as they often reflect their education or profession.
People with a college degree are entitled to be called Doctor (Dottore in Italian);
the same rule applies to architects and lawyers. In Germany, the U.S. equivalent of
president or managing director of a company is called Herr Direktor; a medical doctor,
if a woman, is called Frau Doktor; and a female engineer is addressed as Frau
Ingenieur. In Mexico, a lawyer is addressed as Licenciado, a title that is considered
very important. In England, special protocol exists for addressing royalty, peers,
clergy, and others. The managing director in a British firm is usually the top official
and equivalent to a U.S. corporate president (U.S. corporate vice presidents do not
carry much clout abroad) (Axtell, 1990). In some cultures, such as India, a very rigid
class system exists with a society divided into castes. The particular caste a person
belongs to is determined at birth; each caste system has its status, rights, and duties.
Although discrimination based on caste has been outlawed, in many areas, particularly
rural ones, it is still a major influence on life in India. In India’s rigid caste system,
interaction between members of different castes is often limited, as in the case of
India’s untouchables (Samovar & Porter, 2002).
Cultural differences also exist concerning the status of women in a society.
Women in some cultures play a less prominent role in business than do men. In South
Korea, women are considered inferior to men and thus have lower social status.
Women, even those with college degrees, are rarely employed as executives; they usually
hold jobs as teachers or secretaries. Social and economic inequality between men
and women is also apparent in China, Malaysia, and Singapore; men are clearly the
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CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 165
ones in positions of authority (Turkington, 1999). The Arabs are becoming more
accustomed to women executives, and they are beginning to accept women executives
from other countries. U.S. women doing business with the Arabs should understand
this difference in cultural attitude and should make a special effort to conduct themselves
appropriately, including dressing very modestly. In some Middle Eastern countries,
men may refuse to work with women; women executives in Latin America may
not receive the same respect given to men executives. Women in the United States are
being given increased opportunities for business travel, management positions in overseas
operations, and transfers to overseas assignments. The progress U.S. women have
made in the workplace is viewed by many as setting a precedent for other countries
because the United States is often a catalyst for international change.
In some cultures, such as the Chinese, people are very aware of age and hierarchy.
Age is viewed as an indication of seniority. In addition to the Asian culture, the
Arabian world has a great respect for age. Advanced years represent wisdom and
respect. Age takes precedence over rank, but rank is still important. In the Japanese
society, knowing the rank of the people with whom you come in contact is important.
The middle-level manager in a large company outranks a department head from a
smaller company. The higher the rank of the person you are introduced to, the lower
you bow. The person of lower rank bows first and lowest. Status is also shown by who
goes first when entering a room or an elevator. Those of lower rank wait for those of
higher rank to precede them. If you are the foreign guest, you may be expected to
enter a room ahead of others, so if you are motioned to enter the room, do so quickly.
When the Chinese or Japanese enter a room, they generally enter in protocol order
with the highest-ranking person entering first. They will also assume that the first
member of your negotiating team to enter the room is the head of your group and has
the higher rank. Sitting in rank order from highest to lowest during a meeting is helpful
(Axtell, 1998; Turkington, 1999).
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION ETIQUETTE
Aspects of protocol related to successful intercultural communication include
telephone manners and cyberspace etiquette, sometimes referred to as netiquette
(network etiquette).
Many intercultural encounters are via the telephone. When talking on the telephone,
the initial impression is formed mainly by vocal quality (70%) rather than on
the words spoken (30%). Thus, opinions are formed more on how something is said
and the voice tone rather than on what the person actually says (Mitchell, 2000).
Good telephone manners include answering the phone promptly (first or second
ring), identifying yourself properly by giving your department and your name, and being
courteous at all times, including the frequent use of “please” and “thank you.” Successful
telephone communication involves recognizing and avoiding behaviors that typically
irritate others. Being put on hold has been identified as the single most irritating behavior.
When the telephone call is to another country, being put on hold can go beyond irritation.
Other negative behaviors that should be avoided include making mouth noises,
not paying attention, and having a negative or rude attitude. A positive behavior appreciated
by callers is “the voice with a smile.” Callers also appreciate a cheerful attitude.
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166 Intercultural Business Communication
When voice mail is used, be brief but complete when leaving a message. Include
your name, company, the date, and the time of the message. Give your phone number
slowly and include a brief summary of what the call concerns.
Because more companies are communicating by e-mail, certain rules of etiquette
should be observed. E-mail is more informal than a letter or memorandum and is inappropriate
for conveying certain types of messages. Negative information, such as a person’s
failure to get a promotion, and personal information, such as announcing the birth
of a baby, are not appropriate uses of e-mail. Proper “netiquette” avoids the following:
•
shouting—typing the message in all capital letters.
•
dissing—speaking ill of someone.
•
flaming—sending vicious, insulting messages.
•
spamming—mass mailings of commercial advertisements or material cross
posted to numerous news groups. (Segaloff, 1998)
In addition to these suggestions, avoid the use of humor and sarcasm. Remember
that cultural variations exist in what is perceived as humorous. Also avoid a tone that is
even slightly critical (Miller, 2001). Additional suggestions were included in chapter 7.
Because a firm may be liable for information leaked into cyberspace, employees
should be very careful about the messages they send. A good rule to follow: If you
would not want your message posted on the company bulletin board, do not send it via
e-mail. Pressing the Delete key after sending a message does not mean that it cannot
be tracked back to you (Miller, 2001).
Care should be taken in deciding how a message should be sent. The advantages of
using e-mail include low preparation, fast delivery time, personal, and convenient for
the receiver. The disadvantages are lack of confidentiality and, of course, the lack of
nonverbal interaction (Kenton & Valentine, 1997). Of course, not all countries use e-
mail as frequently as people in the United States. In the United States, 68.8% of the
population have Internet access (third highest of top 20 countries, according to
Internet Penetration Statistics updated on September 30, 2004). Almost three-fourths
of residents in Sweden have Internet access, followed closely by Hong Kong with
72.5%. Iceland, the Netherlands, Australia, and Canada each have about two-thirds of
residents with Internet access; the United Kingdom has 58.5% and Japan has 52.2%.
When corresponding with international persons via e-mail, avoid addressing people by
their first names. Be sure to write out the name of the month when specifying a date,
include country codes for telephone numbers, and indicate which time zone is being
referred to when making such statements as “I will telephone you at 2 p.m. Friday.”
The use of fax messages is increasing as a quick method of communication
between countries. The basic guidelines for writing a fax are included in chapter 7;
points of etiquette regarding their transmission follow:
•
Call ahead to confirm the fax number and to alert the person that you are sending
a message (in case the fax machine shares a line with a person’s telephone).
The message should follow within 15 minutes.
•
Certain documents should not be faxed—documents of more than 10 to
15 pages, personal or confidential information, and negative news.
•
Avoid using the fax when impressions are important. Résumés and proposals
submitted on fax paper will not get the same attention as those submitted on
good-quality, linen finish paper (Ford, 2003; Glassman, 1998).
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CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 167
DINING PRACTICES
Cultural dining practices vary widely. In many parts of the world, the main meal is at
noon, although in the United States, the main meal is in the evening. In Mexico,
lunchtime is from 2 p.m. to 4 p.m. and is the main meal of the day. However, in places
near the U.S.–Mexican border, local businesses conform more to the U.S. lunchtime of
noon to 2 p.m. The dinner hour also varies. In the United States, the dinner hour varies
from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m., but in such countries as Spain, it may be as late as 10 p.m. In
some cultures, business meals are eaten in private homes, although in other cultures,
they are usually eaten at restaurants. When entertaining visitors from other countries,
be considerate and ask them whether they prefer the main meal at noon or in the
evening and take them to restaurants where they have a choice of a light or heavy meal
(Devine & Braganti, 2000).
Cultural variations exist in the number of courses typically served as well as when
the salad is served. A formal luncheon usually consists of two to three courses, and a
formal dinner consists of three to seven courses. In some countries, including those in
Latin America, even informal meals typically have numerous courses. In Italy and
France, salads are often served after the main course rather than before.
Dining practices are viewed differently in various cultures. A U.S. dining practice
that seems unusual to people of other cultures is the serving of a glass of iced water at
most restaurants. Other countries that serve water do so without ice or serve bottled
mineral water. Another dining practice that is viewed with astonishment is the habit of
offering coffee at the beginning of a meal; serving coffee at the end of the meal is common
in most cultures. The popularity of decaffeinated coffee in the United States has
not yet spread to other countries, so visitors are often surprised by a waiter’s question
of “Will you have regular coffee or decaf?” Another U.S. custom that sometimes
amazes people from other cultures is designating certain sections in restaurants as
smoking and nonsmoking. A practice that makes little sense in other cultures is the
U.S. custom of conducting business at breakfast. The French especially do not like
breakfast meetings; they prefer a leisurely breakfast with time to read the paper in the
morning. The French do conduct business over lunch; however, the meal may last two
hours or more. Another U.S. business custom questioned by people in other cultures is
the lengthy cocktail “hour” before dinner. Italians have commented that the endless
rounds of cocktails before ordering a meal is exhausting and may result in discussions
that make little sense (Baldrige, 1993).
The manner of eating is also diverse. The U.S. eating style uses the “zigzag” technique:
cutting the meat with the knife held in the right hand and the fork in the left,
then placing the knife on the plate, shifting the fork to the right hand, and eating.
Diners using the Continental eating style place the fork in the left hand and knife in
the right; they use the knife to push food onto the back of the fork, then move the
food into the mouth with the tines of the fork down. Asians use chopsticks especially
for eating rice but may use a spoon for soup. They appreciate foreigners’ attempting
to use chopsticks and are often willing to demonstrate correct usage. Chopsticks are
placed on the chopstick rest at the conclusion of the meal (or when pausing during
the meal); they should not be placed in an upright position in the rice bowl (Sabath,
2002) (see Figure 8-2).
Other cultural variations in dining also exist. Tahitian food is eaten with the fingers.
In the Middle East, be prepared to eat with your fingers if your host does but
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168 Intercultural Business Communication
FIGURE 8-2 Cultural Variations in Eating Style
use the right hand only. In Bolivia, you are expected to clean your plate; Egyptians
and Filipinos, however, consider it impolite to eat everything on your plate (Axtell,
1993; Turkington, 1999). In China, avoid taking the last item of food from the serving
platter unless you want to convey to the host that you are still hungry
(Turkington, 1999).
A dining practice in France that seems unusual to those in other cultures is the custom
of bringing pet dogs into restaurants where the waiter takes the dog into the kitchen
to be fed a treat. Dogs in most cultures are not allowed in public eating establishments.
They may, however, be on the menu in such Asian countries as South Korea.
A wealthy American couple toured Asia accompanied by their pet poodle. They
decided to dine one evening at a nice looking restaurant where, as it turned out,
restaurant employees could speak no English. Because the tourists could not
speak the local language, they ordered from the menu by pointing to certain
items. They also tried to order food for their poodle. After several attempts using
a type of sign language, the waiter seemed to understand. He pointed to the dog,
then pointed to the kitchen. The couple, thinking this meant that the dog could
eat in the kitchen but not the dining room, nodded their agreement. After a
lengthy wait, the waiter proudly entered and lifted the lid of one of the serving
platters to display a well-cooked poodle. (Ricks, 1999, p. 11)
Dining in Japan, especially in Japanese homes, requires sitting in a kneeling position
on a tatami mat. Men keep their knees three or four inches apart; women keep
their knees together. Being able to lower yourself to this position and rise from it
gracefully requires practice. If you have frequent contact with the Japanese, practicing
this art is warranted (Axtell, 1993).
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CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 169
TIPPING
People communicate nonverbally by their tipping practices; those who are basically
miserly and those who are generous reveal these traits by their tipping behavior.
Although it is difficult to establish definite rules for tipping, generally when service has
been good or when service people go out of their way to do a favor, a tip is merited. If
the service is very bad, you are not expected to leave a tip but should report the situation
to the manager. “Insult tipping” (leaving a few coins) shows a lack of respect and
is inappropriate regardless of how poor the service.
Trends in tipping appear to have changed in the past few years. Although a tip of
15% of the bill was considered to be a generous tip in fine restaurants, 20% is now
closer to the norm when the service is excellent.
Traveling in the United States involves numerous situations in which tipping is
expected. When traveling, have a supply of $1 and $5 bills in your pocket for tipping
the cab driver, the bellhop, and other service personnel who may carry your luggage,
summon a cab, or perform other services, such as delivering food or small appliances
to your hotel room. Travel tipping needs to be included in anticipated travel
expenses; tipping service personnel at a resort or luxury hotel may add an additional
25% to your bill.
Tipping in a nontipping culture can offend or insult the people of that culture.
However, letters of thanks to people who have been especially helpful, including hotel
managers, are very much appreciated. Tipping in Japan is frowned on. People in this
culture consider helping you with your luggage a gesture of hospitality and would be
offended if you tipped them. If a hotel employee has performed an extra service that
you want to reward, place the yen in an envelope because the Japanese would consider
openly receiving money as embarrassing or as “losing face.” Likewise in Singapore and
South Korea, tipping is not expected, although this practice seems to be changing in
hotels where international businesspersons stay.
In many places, such as Europe, a service charge is added to your restaurant and
hotel bill. Although you are usually not expected to leave an additional tip, the trend is
to leave an extra amount, especially if the service was good. In the absence of a service
charge, leave the usual 15% to 20% that you would leave in the United States.
Observing cultural differences in tipping can communicate nonverbally that you have
researched the country and that you consider local customs to be important (Axtell,
1993; Sabath, 1999, 2000, 2002).
GIFT GIVING
Each country has its seasons and occasions for giving gifts. Gift giving in some cultures
is an art and is considered an integral part of building intercultural professional
and social relationships. The careful selection and wrapping of a gift and presenting it
at the proper time with panache (style) conveys to others your social sensitivity and
good manners.
Business gifts in the United States are very modest in price; the rule to follow
(because of tax regulations) is to limit the price to $25 or less. Business gifts are
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170 Intercultural Business Communication
sometimes given to members of your staff on such occasions as birthdays and
Christmas. In addition, secretaries are generally treated to flowers and/or lunch on
Secretaries’ Day. Remember that business gifts to staff members should be personal;
an electric pencil sharpener is inappropriate. However, they should not be too
personal—cologne or lingerie to a member of the opposite gender could be misinterpreted.
A gift certificate to the person’s favorite restaurant or specialty shop is in
good taste. Subordinates wait for their supervisors to set the tone on gift giving. If
you are new in an office, ask what tradition is usually followed in exchanging gifts.
Several years ago when the office Christmas party was popular, colleagues often
exchanged gifts as part of the occasion. The practice of exchanging gifts among colleagues,
even token gifts (the office grab bag), seems to have been discontinued in
many firms in favor of contributing the amount of money you would spend on such
gifts to a local food bank or pooling the amount to give gifts of food or money to
members of the custodial staff.
In the United States, gifts are opened in front of the giver. The gift is admired,
and appreciation is expressed verbally. The oral expression of thanks is followed by a
written note of appreciation unless the gift is small and is used as an advertisement
(e.g., a paperweight with the company logo). Business gifts to the office or department,
such as a basket of fruit or box of candy, are opened immediately and shared
by all. (The manager’s taking the gift home to share with his or her family is considered
to be in poor taste.) The manager writes a note of thanks to the company that
sent the gift and conveys expressions of appreciation from staff members (Samovar &
Porter, 2004). Gifts are also opened in the presence of the giver in Brazil and in
Belgium. In the Arabian countries, you must present a gift when others are present
so it will not be interpreted as a bribe. In some countries, however, gifts are not
opened in the presence of the giver. In Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Korea, you should
not open a gift in front of the giver, and you should accept the gift with both hands
(Bosrock, 1995, 1997a, 1997b).
Although flowers make appropriate gifts, learn cultural taboos related to color,
variety, and number. Red roses are associated with romance in some cultures. In
some countries, such as China, white is the color of mourning, and gladioli are often
used in funeral sprays; thus, a gift of white gladioli is inappropriate in China.
Although a gift of flowers in any color is considered appropriate by middle- and
upper-class Brazilians, purple flowers are associated with death by the lower class. In
most European countries, avoid a gift of carnations, which are for cemeteries only.
Chrysanthemums are inappropriate in Belgium, Japan, and Italy; they are associated
with funerals and mourning. Although flowers are not expected by a Mexican host,
they are appreciated; however, avoid sending yellow, red, or white flowers as these
colors have negative connotations for some Mexican people. In some cultures, the
number of flowers given has a special significance (Barnum & Wolniansky, 1989).
Armenians give an uneven number of flowers on happy occasions; even numbers of
flowers are associated with death. For the Chinese, four is the most negative number
(it sounds like their word for death), so gifts of four flowers—or four of anything
else—should be avoided (Dresser, 2005). Because in Thailand and Hong Kong three
is a lucky number, give gifts in threes in these countries (Bosrock, 1997a). A flower
shop in the host country is the best place to get information concerning local customs
about giving flowers (Sabath, 2002).
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Exhibitors at a trade show could not understand why Chinese visitors were not
stopping by their booth. Workers were wearing green hats and were using them
as giveaways as well. They later learned that for many Chinese, green hats are
associated with infidelity; the Chinese expression “He wears a green hat” indicates
that a man’s wife has been cheating on him. When they discarded the green
hats and gave out T-shirts and coffee mugs instead, they had a number of
Chinese visitors. (Dresser, 2005)
Gift giving is very much a part of conducting business in such countries as Japan.
Japan’s major gift giving times are Ochugen (July 15) and Oseibo (December).
Companies give gifts to their customers as an expression of appreciation for past and
future business. They also reward their employees at these times with large bonuses.
U.S. companies that have ongoing business relationships with the Japanese should
remember their associates with a gift at both of these times. Because Japan is one of
the United States’ largest trading partners, knowing the nuances associated with
Japanese gift giving is considered an important aspect of protocol with people in that
culture (Samovar & Porter, 2004).
The Japanese are a gracious people for whom gift giving seems to be an art. The
wrapping of the gift and the manner of presenting it are just as important as the gift
itself. Gifts are beautifully wrapped but without the ornate bows and other decorations
typically used on gifts in the United States. The color of the wrapping should be consistent
with the occasion: red, gold, and white for happy events; black and purple or
black and white for other occasions. The Japanese do not open a gift in front of the
giver, so you should avoid opening your gift in their presence. Also avoid giving a gift
when someone else is present. Do not surprise your Japanese host with a gift, as it
might cause the person to lose face. Let your host know ahead of time by mentioning,
for example, that you have found a special commemorative coin to add to his collection.
Favorite gifts with the Japanese are imported liquor, consumables of high quality,
and designer-made products with such names as Gucci, Tiffany & Co., or Mark Cross.
Musical tapes and CDs are also good choices. Avoid giving gifts manufactured elsewhere
in Asia, as this is an insult (Baldrige, 1993; Sabath, 2002).
A Japanese-American whose firm conducted business in Japan told how he once
averted a near disaster in United States–Japanese relations. His company selected
and addressed 500 Christmas cards to its Japanese joint-venture partner. The
cards were red (in Japan, funeral notices are red). The Japanese-American manager
stopped the mail just in time. He said, “We almost sent 500 funeral cards to
our Japanese partner!” (Engholm, 1991, p. 228)
These additional guidelines for gift giving in Asian countries should be observed
because of the importance placed on this aspect of developing and maintaining harmonious
business relationships:
• Take time to research the perfect gift; it could be related to the Asian counterpart’s
profession or hobby. Adding an item to a person’s collection is much
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172 Intercultural Business Communication
appreciated. Remember to buy gifts in the United States; avoid anything made
in an Asian country.
•
Always wrap gifts (no bows) and include an appropriate card. Although wrapping
the gift in red paper (the color of luck) is appropriate, using red ink when
addressing the card or writing the accompanying note is not; in China, using red
ink indicates a desire to sever a relationship forever.
•
Be aware of superstitions and taboos related to gifts. Avoid any gift depicting
white wolves because the wolf is symbolic of cruelty and greed. Also avoid a gift
of straw sandals in China.
•
Recognize the significance of numbers in gift giving: Three is a lucky number in
Thailand; eight and nine are lucky in Hong Kong (the word for eight sounds like
“prosperity”; the word for nine is a homonym for “eternity”).
•
Expect a gift to be declined out of politeness at least once in some Asian
countries; they will then accept. You are expected to decline once and then
accept with thanks (Engholm, 1991). Because gift giving is very important in
the Japanese culture, asking advice from a Japanese colleague or from someone
who has lived in Japan is recommended (Axtell, 1993; Yager, 2001).
Knowing when to present the business gift is also important. In Korea, business
gifts are usually given at the beginning of formal negotiations. In Germany, however,
business gifts are seldom exchanged at the beginning of negotiations but may be given
at their conclusion. In Latin American countries, present gifts only at the conclusion
of negotiations.
Other gift-giving practices and guidelines in various cultures include the following:
•
When dining in a person’s home in Western Europe, present your gift when you
arrive so that it does not appear to be intended as payment for the meal.
•
Avoid giving gifts to the French until a personal relationship has been
developed. Avoid gifts of perfume or wine; those are their specialties.
•
Gifts to Germans should not be wrapped in black, brown, or white.
•
Avoid gifts of a clock in the People’s Republic of China, as the clock is
considered a symbol of bad luck. (In Korea, however, the clock is considered
good luck and is an appropriate gift.)
•A striped tie is not an appropriate gift to a British man; it may represent a
British regiment other than his own.
•
Avoid gifts of a knife or handkerchief to persons in Latin America. The knife is
interpreted as a desire to cut off the relationship; the handkerchief is associated
with tears.
•
Avoid gifts of liquor or wine for an Arab. Because alcohol is illegal in Islamic
cultures, the gift would be confiscated by customs.
•
Because the cow is sacred in India, do not give any gifts made of cowhide.
•
In Islamic countries, exercise restraint in admiring personal possessions; you
will probably find yourself the recipient of the object you have admired
(Axtell, 1993; Stewart, 1997).
When people of the United States select business gifts for people in other countries,
they should remember that the gifts should be made in the United States, be
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CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 173
utilitarian, and have conversational value. Good choices include things that are representative
of the United States, such as Native American art or jewelry, DVDs of U.S.
movies, U.S.-made sports equipment, or food that is unique to the United States, such
as candy, nuts, and California wines. Avoid gag gifts; people of some other cultures do
not appreciate them (Stewart, 1997).
TRAVEL ETIQUETTE
Travel etiquette begins with a pleasant, positive attitude and a sense of adventure,
especially when it comes to international travel. People who approach international
travel with eager anticipation—who look forward to meeting new people, seeing new
places, and experiencing a new culture—seem to have more favorable experiences
than those who approach travel with a sense of foreboding. In other words, people
seem to get what they expect.
Because most international travel is by airplane, etiquette in this section concentrates
on air travel and covers such topics as dressing and packing for the trip, behaving
properly on the plane, and handling problem situations.
Travel dress is important because the people you meet, including ticket agents, will
be strangers who will judge you first on your appearance. Being well dressed makes a
favorable impression on others and in many cultures is associated with competency and
respect. You are a representative of your company and your country; dressing professionally
sends the message that you care about the impression you make on your
compatriots and on persons of other cultures. Another benefit of being well dressed
(wearing a suit or executive casual) when traveling is that you often get better service
from airline personnel and from hotel employees on your arrival. Women may want to
wear their business blouse and jacket with coordinating slacks and then carry a skirt in
the carry-on luggage and change in the plane lavatory just before landing. This is especially
important when a presentation is scheduled for that same day or when you are
being met at the airport by a business colleague from the host country.
Christopher Patterson, an MBA graduate student at a Mid-South university, was
invited for an interview in St. Louis for a much coveted managerial position
with an international air transport firm. Because his usual classroom attire was a
T-shirt, torn jeans, and a baseball cap worn backwards, his communication professor
gave him this advice: “Dress professionally on the flight; you never know who
you’ll meet.” He followed this advice on the flight over, felt very confident after
the interview with three of the company’s top-level executives, but relaxed and
reverted to his classroom attire on the return trip. To his surprise, one of the three
executives who had interviewed him was on the flight. The executive, with a
shocked look, said, “Well, I almost didn’t recognize you. You don’t look like the
same person we interviewed.” Christopher reported to the professor on his return,
“You were right; I blew it.” As it turned out, he did blow it—he didn’t get the job.
When packing for a trip, keep in mind that conservative business attire is usually
preferred in other countries. This means dark suits for men and women, classic leather
shoes, and good-quality accessories. Your luggage should also be of good quality to
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174 Intercultural Business Communication
create a positive impression. All belongings should be packed in the luggage; carrying
personal belongings in shopping bags does not convey a professional image. Checking
large suitcases and limiting carry-on luggage to the size and number specified by the
airline is important. Women should remember that they are responsible for their own
luggage, including lifting a suitcase to the overhead bin of the airplane. Luggage with
wheels is a good investment. With multiple bags, a porter or a cart may be used.
Travel etiquette also involves courteous treatment of airline personnel. When
flights are late or canceled, travelers should remain calm and be polite to travel clerks
who are anxious to get them to their destinations. Passengers who are courteous when
they are inconvenienced often receive better treatment, including free food and lodging,
than those who are rude and insensitive. Flight attendants should also be treated
with respect. Although they are not tipped, flight attendants should be thanked at the
end of the trip along with the captain/cocaptain.
A passenger standing in line at an airline ticket counter listened to a person
yelling and screaming at the ticket agent. After the mad, rude customer left, the
passenger complimented the ticket agent on his patience, attitude, and calm
demeanor. The clerk replied, “Thank you for your kind words, but don’t worry;
it’s all right.” The passenger asked, “How can it be all right?” The clerk
answered, “It’s all right because, you see, that man is going to Cleveland, but his
luggage is going to Singapore.” (Dosick, 2000, p. 50)
Proper behavior during the flight is especially important because of the close quarters.
Complete strangers are forced into another person’s intimate space. Therefore,
airline passengers should be especially considerate of those around them and careful
that their behavior does not offend anyone. Because of the limited space, passengers
should refrain from wearing strong fragrances. They should respect the preferences for
conversation of those seated next to them. Those who do not want to talk can take out
a book or papers to work on to discourage a conversation. Putting the seat back in a
reclining position when traveling coach without first asking permission of the person
seated behind you is very insensitive. Because of the limited space, it is difficult for the
person seated behind you to exit, to eat or drink, or to work with the seat in front of
him or her in a reclining position. Passengers should also remember to stay out of the
aisles as much as possible and limit their time on the telephone and in the bathroom. If
they are traveling with their family, passengers should make sure that their children do
not engage in such activities as kicking the seat back of the person in front of them or
standing up in the seat and staring at the person behind them.
Sometimes problem situations arise because other passengers do not know or
practice proper etiquette. When confronted with an incessant talker, you might say,
“I would like to talk more, but I must finish this report.” To the person in coach who
reclines his seat, you might respond, “Would you please pull your seat forward while
I am eating?” (Asking the flight attendant to make this request is also appropriate.)
If you are seated next to a crying baby or a loud, obnoxious person, ask the flight
attendant for another seat assignment.
A summary of rules for business and social etiquette for the 10 countries with
which the United States conducts most of its international trade follows.
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CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 175
Canada
Social and business etiquette in Canada is similar to that of the United States, but
Canadians are more conservative than people of the United States. As in the United
States, shaking hands when meeting and on departure is the usual form of greeting. Most
business entertaining is done in restaurants, and tipping is about the same as in the
United States. Because of the strong French influence in certain parts of Canada, French
cuisine is offered in many restaurants. If invited to someone’s home, take flowers (but
not white lilies, as they are associated with funerals) to the hostess (Axtell, 1993).
China
The Chinese bow or nod when greeting each other; when greeting Westerners, however,
they usually offer a handshake. Remember that rank is important in China, so
the senior person should be acknowledged first. In establishing business relationships,
dining plays an important role. Business entertaining is typically conducted in restaurants
at lunch or dinner. Because seating etiquette is important, waiting for your
Chinese host to indicate where you are to sit is recommended. Leaving a small amount
on your plate is a good idea to indicate your satisfaction with the food. Although the
Chinese do not tip, foreigners are expected to tip. A common practice when tipping
restaurant servers or taxicab drivers is to give them a handful of change. Giving gifts is
a common practice except at a first meeting. Recommended gifts (wrapped in red) are
pens of high quality or a paperweight. Gifts to avoid are clocks, white flowers, and
handkerchiefs because of their association with death. In addition, knives and other
cutlery should be avoided as they suggest a wish to sever ties (Sabath, 2002).
England
A soft handshake accompanied by “How do you do?” is the common greeting in
England. Avoid the typical U.S. greeting of “Hi” (too informal) and avoid saying “Have
a nice day” when departing (the British interpret it as a command). As in the United
States, first names are often used after knowing the person only a short time. When dining
in England, you might want to try some of their specialties: crumpets, steak and kidney
pie, or Scotch eggs, which are deep-fried hardboiled eggs with a coating of sausage
and breadcrumbs. Pubs and restaurants, rather than private homes, are used for most
business entertaining. If invited to dine in a British home, a flower bouquet (except for
white lilies) is an appropriate gift for the hostess (Axtell, 1993; Sabath, 1999).
France
The French customarily shake hands upon greeting and when they say goodbye. In
addition, people who work together shake hands when they arrive in the morning and
again when they leave in the afternoon. The handshake consists of a single, quick
shake. Women typically wait for a man to initiate the handshake. Women are kissed on
both cheeks as part of the greeting; however, men only kiss each other on the cheeks
when they are good friends or relatives. Business cards are exchanged at initial meetings;
they are presented first to the person of higher rank to show respect. In France, it
is customary to place wrists on the table and to use the Continental style when dining.
When visiting France, be sure to try some of their special foods, which vary according
to the region. These specialties range from lamproie a la bordelaise (eels cooked in red
wine) in Bordeaux to escargots a la bourguignonne (snails served with garlic butter) in
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176 Intercultural Business Communication
Burgundy. Wine is served with both lunch and dinner. Business gifts are given only
after a business relationship has been established. Appropriate gifts include flowers
(except chrysanthemums, carnations, or red roses), books, CDs, or gourmet food items
(Braganti & Devine, 1992; CultureGrams, 2004; Sabath, 1999).
Germany
When greeting people in Germany, remember to use last names and a firm handshake.
Status is recognized; men allow people of higher status or older women to precede
them when entering a door or elevator. When dining in a restaurant, a service charge
of 10% to 15% is generally added to the check, so you do not need to leave an extra
tip. Try some German specialties: beers, sausages, and potato pancakes. Eating everything
on your plate is considered polite. Gifts to your German host should be simple
and rather inexpensive, as Germans consider expensive gifts to be in bad taste. When
invited to a German home, bring the hostess a gift of flowers (an odd number except
13 and no red roses) (Braganti & Devine, 1992; Sabath, 1999).
Japan
In Japan, the usual form of greeting is a bow rather than a handshake; however, many
Japanese who regularly associate with persons of other cultures may use both a bow
and a handshake. Follow the lead of your Japanese host. The exchange of business
cards is common, so be sure you have a good supply. These should be printed on one
side in English and the other side in Japanese. Remember to address your Japanese
host by his last name; only family members and close friends use the first name. Most
business entertaining is done in Japanese restaurants. Some Japanese specialties
include sake (rice wine) and sashimi (sliced raw fish). Do not tip in restaurants; the
waiter will return the money if you do. Although being invited to a Japanese home is
not the norm, if invited, remember to remove your shoes at the entrance of the home. A
box of candy, rather than flowers, is an appropriate gift for the hostess. Because social
and business etiquette are very different in Japan, do a thorough study of the culture
and its customs before you go (Axtell, 1993; Devine & Braganti, 1998; Sabath, 2002).
A world traveler from Switzerland describes how he temporarily lost his fondness
for eating fish while dining at a lavish Tokyo restaurant. After he had sampled
numerous delicacies, the piéce de résistance was served: A live fish still
flopping on the platter was brought to the table; the maitre d’ then delicately
sliced the live fish and served it to the guests. (Axtell, 1993)
Mexico
Shaking hands is the usual greeting in Mexico, and people also shake hands when saying
good-bye. When introduced to a woman, a man will bow slightly and will shake
hands if the woman initiates it. Address the person by his or her last name, as first
names are not used during initial encounters. Business cards are exchanged at a first
meeting but remember to include the Spanish translation on your cards. Be sure to
indicate your position with your company and your university degrees. Deference is
shown to someone whose age, social status, or position warrants it. The altitude of
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CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 177
Mexico City may affect your digestion, so eat lightly and carefully. Always order bottled
water as tap water is not considered safe. Although Mexicans expect you to sample
the fare, they will understand if you decline dishes such as tripe (stomach of sheep).
Unlike many European cultures, they do not expect you to eat everything on your
plate. You might want to sample such national dishes as mole poblano de guajolote
(turkey in a sauce of spices, herbs, and chocolate), quesadillas (folded tortillas filled
with cheese), and frijoles refritos (mashed and fried cooked beans). If invited to a
Mexican home, send flowers ahead of time; avoid marigolds (used to decorate cemeteries)
and red flowers (used for casting spells). Appropriate gifts include gadgets such
as an electric can opener, U.S. cigarettes, a gold cigarette lighter, a gold pen, art books,
or a bottle of scotch (Devine & Braganti, 2000; Sabath, 2000).
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, both men and women shake hands when greeting each other.
Waving when greeting another person from a distance is acceptable, but shouting is
considered impolite. Although men do not kiss each other as part of the greeting,
women who are good friends may kiss on both cheeks. Business cards are typically
exchanged at initial meetings. Because English is spoken by most Dutch businesspeople,
business cards may be in English only. The Dutch expect you to clean your plate
and to rest both wrists on the table while dining. Visitors will want to try some Dutch
specialties, such as erwtensoep (a thick pea soup) and lamstongen met rozijnensaus
(lamb’s tongue with a white wine sauce). Dining in restaurants is expensive, so you
might want to try the numerous alternatives that are available: snack bars, cafes, street
stalls, and restaurants that sell only pancakes. When invited to your Dutch host’s
home, it is appropriate to bring flowers or to send them the following day. Business
gifts should be given only after a relationship has been developed with your Dutch
associate. Appropriate gifts include desk accessories or books (Bosrock, 1995;
Braganti & Devine, 1992; CultureGrams, 2004; Sabath, 1999).
South Korea
In South Korea, the usual greeting between men is a bow, accompanied by a handshake.
To show respect, the left hand is placed below the right forearm while shaking
hands. Women do not shake hands as frequently as men. Following the handshake,
business cards are exchanged between professionals during initial encounters; the
cards are presented and received with both hands. Both age and social standing are
taken into consideration when greeting someone. Because Koreans are proud of their
cuisine, you will want to sample some of their spicy foods and such delicacies as
pulkogi (strips of beef that are marinated and barbecued) as well as the alcoholic drink
soju, which is frequently served with meals. Those who conduct business in South
Korea should remember that meals are served and eaten, usually with periods of
silence, before socializing begins. When invited to a Korean home, it is appropriate to
bring a small gift, such as fruit, flowers, or candy. Business gifts, although not a necessity,
are appreciated and should be made in the giver’s country. Gifts should be of good
quality, yet inexpensive; they are opened in private rather than in the presence of the
giver (Bosrock, 1997a; CultureGrams, 2004; Sabath, 2002).
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178 Intercultural Business Communication
Taiwan
Although bowing is a common form of greeting in many Asian countries, in Taiwan it
is more common to shake hands. Rank is important, so be sure to acknowledge and
shake hands with the person of higher rank first. Following the handshake, business
cards are exchanged. Business cards are exchanged frequently in Taiwan, so carry an
ample supply with you. Not presenting your business card to your Taiwanese associates
is viewed as unprofessional. Having a translation of the information on your cards
printed in Mandarin on the back of the card is recommended. Business card presentation
is important to the Taiwanese: The card should be presented with both hands with
the card turned so the recipient can read it. Dining in Taiwan involves eating with
chopsticks and a spoon. Rice is served at most meals; not finishing your rice is impolite.
Numerous restaurants are available, which specialize in various types of cuisine:
Cantonese, Hunan, Peking, Shanghai, Szechuan, Taiwanese, and Mongolian. On the
rare occasions when you may be invited to your business associate’s home, be punctual
and bring a small gift. When food is served at your Taiwanese host’s home, it is important
to sample everything and to make positive comments about the various dishes.
Business gifts are presented and received with both hands. Visitors should remember
that the Taiwanese will refuse a gift initially, it should be offered until it is accepted;
gifts are opened in private (Bosrock, 1997a; Devine & Braganti, 1998; CultureGrams,
2004; Sabath, 2002).
A helpful rule to remember in most cultures is to follow the lead of the people in
the other culture. If they shake hands, so do you. Eat what they eat and when they eat.
If the other person gives you a gift, be prepared to reciprocate. Researching the country
before you travel is always good advice.
Terms
• Caste system • Flaming
• Spamming
• Continental eating style • Netiquette
• U.S. eating style
• Dissing
• Protocol
• Etiquette
• Shouting
Exercise 8.1
Instructions: Encircle T for true or F for false.
1. T F
In Japan, a business card should be presented with both hands.
2. T F
Throughout Latin America, the main meal of the day is in the evening.
3. T F
Flaming and dissing are terms associated with “netiquette.”
4. T F
Introductions are more formal in Germany than in the United States.
5. T F
Bolivians expect visitors to eat everything on their plate.
6. T F
Tipping is more common in the United States than in China and Japan.
7. T F
The practice of serving a glass of water with meals is universal.
8. T F
In China, the gift of a clock is considered a symbol of good luck.
9.
T F In Germany, business gifts are usually exchanged at the beginning of formal
negotiations.
10. T F When selecting travel attire, the main consideration is comfort.
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CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 179
Questions and Cases for Discussion
1. How do introductions vary between the United States and other cultures?
2. Describe cultural variations in business card exchange.
3. Explain class distinctions in the United States and India.
4. How are gender and age related to position and status in the United States?
5. Identify some guidelines for proper telephone etiquette.
6. Explain the difference between the terms “flaming” and “shouting” in relation to netiquette.
7. What are some advantages and disadvantages of using e-mail?
8. Identify some cultural differences in dining practices.
9. Explain the difference between the U.S. and Continental eating styles.
10.
What are some guidelines for tipping appropriately? How do tipping customs vary with
various cultures?
11.
What are some guidelines for effective business gift giving in the United States?
12.
What are some cultural differences in gift-giving practices? What gifts are considered
appropriate for a person from the United States to give to someone in another culture?
13.
Identify some cultural taboos concerning giving flowers as gifts.
14.
What are some guidelines for airline travel attire?
15.
List some suggestions for proper behavior during air travel.
Cases
The following procedure is recommended for facts, underlying assumptions, and critical issues
analyzing the cases: (a) read the case carefully of the case; (e) list possible answers to the quespaying
attention to details; (b) read the questions tions; and (f) select the most logical response to
at the end of the case; (c) reread the case, taking the question. Your professor may ask that you
notes on or highlighting the details needed for submit answers to the case questions in writing.
answering the questions; (d) identify relevant
Case 1
Mark was in charge of a negotiating team sent to pencil set marked “Made in Japan.” His secre-
Japan. On learning the importance of gift giving tary wrapped the gifts attractively in bright red
to a successful business relationship in this cul-paper and with matching bows and mailed them
ture, prior to departure he asked his secretary to to his Japanese hosts. What rules for appropriate
wrap these gifts: a clock with the company logo, a gift giving in this culture have been followed?
leather briefcase, a country ham, and a pen and Which have been violated?
Case 2
A U.S. executive was invited to dine in the home unwrapped bottle of Scotch for his host and a
of a Latin American businessman. The dinner dozen yellow and white chrysanthemums for the
invitation was for 9 p.m. The U.S. executive businessman’s wife. Discuss the appropriateness
arrived promptly at 9 p.m. bearing a gift of an of the U.S. executive’s behavior.
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180 Intercultural Business Communication
Case 3
Joe Anthony, a U.S. graduate student, was beginning
a semester-long internship in Mexico City
with an international health care products firm.
After he had been there about a week, some male
employees invited him out to a bar to sample the
local specialty, bull’s testicles. Joe had heard about
Case 4
When Sara Canton boarded her flight to
Barcelona in New York City, she was seated in
the middle with an unkempt person who apparently
had not bathed recently on one side and a
crying baby on the other. The person in front of
Activities
this practice considered a sign of young Mexican
machismo (male power). The idea did not appeal
to him because something he had eaten recently
had made him queasy. What are Joe’s options?
What are the possible implications or consequences
of each option? What would you do?
her immediately reclined his seat. Sara knew she
would not be pleased making a seven-hour trip
under these circumstances. What can Sara do to
make the trip more bearable?
1.
Practice introducing your U.S. manager to each of the following:
a. An Italian manager, John Giovanni, with a college degree
b. Chung Lo Wang, a manager from China
c. Marco Comerlato Velasquez, a business associate from Brazil
d. Thomas Edward Peacock, a British associate who has been knighted
2.
Role play to show how a business card is presented to someone from Japan.
3.
Review back issues of the Wall Street Journal or a news magazine such as Time and make a
copy of an article related to a cultural faux pas committed by either a person from the
United States when traveling abroad or someone from another culture when visiting the
United States. Share your information with the class.
4.
Research the dining practices of such countries as Zimbabwe, Samoa, and Tanzania; write
a one-page summary identifying major differences between dining practices in the United
States and these countries.
5.
Research the tipping practices of a European and an Asian country of your choice and make
a comparison with tipping practices in the United States. Report your findings to the class.
6.
Research the gift-giving practices of one of the following countries and make a brief report
to the class: Japan, Taiwan, Egypt, Argentina, or Germany. Include appropriate and inappropriate
gifts and other related information, such as gift presentation and reciprocation.
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