Client

On a recent trip to India, Mr. Yang, a prominent Chinese executive, dined with his client Himanshu Jain. Mr. Yang commented that the food was spicy, which Mr. Jain interpreted as an opportunity to discuss Indian cuisine. After lengthy explanations, Mr. Yang commented again that the food was spicy. What happened? What barrier is likely getting in the way of clear communication and how could this barrier have been overcome.

Your response should be at least 200 words in length.

Lesikar, R., Flatley, M., & Rentz, K. (2008). Business communication. (11 ed., pp. 485-486, 493-498). The McGraw-Hill Companies.

(Lesikar, Flatley & Rentz, 2008)

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition

VI. Cross−Cultural
Communication,
Correctness, Technology,
Research

16. Techniques of
Cross−Cultural
Communication

c h a p t e r s i x t e e n

Techniques of Cross-Cultural
Communication

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to describe the
major barriers to cross-cultural communication and how to over-
come them. To reach this goal, you should be able to

1 Explain why communicating clearly across cultures is important to
business.

2 Defi ne culture and explain its effects on cross-cultural
communication.

3 Describe cultural differences in body positions and movements
and use this knowledge effectively in communicating.

4 Describe cultural differences in views and practices concerning
time, space, odors, and such and use this knowledge effectively in
communicating.

5 Explain the language equivalency problem as a cause of
miscommunication.

6 Describe what one can do to overcome the language equivalency
problem.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
VI. Cross−Cultural
Communication,
Correctness, Technology,
Research
16. Techniques of
Cross−Cultural
Communication
© The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 16 Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication 485

I N T R O D U C T O R Y S I T U A T I O N

Cross-Cultural Communication
To introduce yourself to this chapter, assume the position of assistant to the president of Thatcher-Stone and Com-
pany, a small manufacturer of computer components. Your boss, gregarious old Vernon Thatcher, invited you to join
him at a luncheon meeting with a group of Asian business executives in which negotiations for the sale of Thatcher-
Stone products would be opened. Because Thatcher-Stone’s domestic sales have been lagging, the company badly
needs these customers.
The Asian guests entered the room, bowing as introductions were made. Mr. Thatcher attempted to put them
at ease. “No need to do that,” he said. “I’m just plain Vernon Thatcher. Just relax and make yourself at home.” You
noticed that the Asians appeared bewildered. They appeared even more bewildered when early in the meeting
Mr. Thatcher made this statement: “We’ve only got the lunch hour, gents. I know you’ll appreciate getting right down
to business.”
Throughout the meeting Mr. Thatcher was in his best conversational mood—laughing, backslapping, telling jokes.
But none of this seemed to make an impression on the guests. They seemed confused to you. They smiled and were
extremely polite, but they seemed to understand little of what Mr. Thatcher was saying. Although he tried again and
again to move to business talk, they did not respond. The meeting ended pleasantly, but without a sale.
“They’re a strange people,” Mr. Thatcher commented when he got back to his offi ce. “They have a lot to learn
about doing business. It doesn’t look like they’re going to deal with us, does it?” Mr. Thatcher was right in his last
comment. They did not.
As you review the meeting, you cannot help but feel that Mr. Thatcher spoiled the deal, for he failed miserably
in communicating with the Asians. The fact is that there is much to know about communicating in cross-cultural
settings. The goal of this chapter is to introduce you to this issue.

Technological advances in communication, travel, and transportation have made
business increasingly global. This trend is expected to continue in the foreseeable
future. Thus, the chances are good that you will have to communicate with people
from other cultures.
Both large and small businesses want you to be able to communicate clearly with
those from other cultures for several reasons. A primary reason is that businesses sell
their products and services both domestically and internationally. Being able to com-
municate with others helps you be more successful in understanding customers’ needs,
communicating how your company can meet these needs, and winning their business.
Another reason is that in addition to being a more effective worker, you will be more
effi cient both within and outside your company. You will be able to work harmoniously
with those from other cultures, creating a more comfortable and productive workplace.
Furthermore, if cultural barriers are eliminated, you will be able to hire good people
despite their differences. Also, you will avoid problems stemming solely from misin-
terpretations. A fi nal reason is that your attention to communicating clearly with those
from other cultures will enrich your business and personal life.
In preparing to communicate with people from other cultures, you might well begin
by reviewing the instructions given in this book. Most of them fi t all people. But many
do not, especially those involving message writing. To determine which do not, you
must study the differences among cultures, for cultural differences are at the root of
the exceptions. In addition, you must look at the special problems that our language
presents to those who use it as a second language. It is around these two problem areas
that this review of cross-cultural communication is organized.

PROBLEMS OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
A study of the role of culture in international communication properly begins with two
qualifying statements. First, culture is often improperly assumed to be the cause of mis-
communication. Often it is confused with the other human elements involved. We must

• Business has become
more global.

• Communicating
across cultures
effectively improves
your productivity and
effi ciency and promotes
harmonious work
environments.

• Cross-cultural
communication involves
understanding cultural
differences and
overcoming language
problems.

• Two qualifying
statements begin this
study of culture: (1) It is
improperly blamed for
some miscommunication.

486 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

T E C H N O L O G Y I N B R I E F

Web Tools for Cross-Cultural Communication

remember that communication between people of different cultures involves the same
problems of human behavior that are involved when people of the same culture com-
municate. In either case, people can be belligerent, arrogant, prejudiced, insensitive, or
biased. The miscommunication these types of behavior cause is not a product of culture.
Second, one must take care not to overgeneralize the practices within a culture. We
say this even though some of the statements we make in the following paragraphs are
overgeneralized. But we have little choice. In covering the subject, it is necessary to
make generalizations such as “Latin Americans do this” or “Arabs do that” in order
to emphasize a point. But the truth of the matter is that in all cultures, subcultures are
present; and common practice in one segment of a culture may be unheard of by other
segments. Within a culture townspeople differ from country dwellers, the rich differ
from the poor, and the educated differ from the uneducated. Clearly, the subject of
culture is highly complex and should not be reduced to simple generalizations.
Culture has been defi ned in many ways. The classic defi nition most useful in this
discussion is one derived from anthropology: Culture is “a way of life of a group of

The Internet is a rich source of cross-cultural information
for business communicators. Not only can you fi nd infor-
mation about places where you might be doing business,
but you can use some interactive websites to help you
with information and tools for your communication. One
of these, shown below, is a currency converter, allowing
you to convert from one currency to another. In this ex-
ample, U.S. dollars are converted to Indian rupees. These
converters are set up to use regularly updated exchange
rates, so you can quote prices in both U.S. dollars and
other currency. The web page example at the bottom right
is part of a site that helps you learn some of the language
of your customers. This site shows a word or phrase in
English and the second language, as well as gives you
an audio pronunciation of it. Learning a few words in your
customers’ language is both helpful and courteous. The
other sites you see listed here include a site where you

can get world time, a resource desk that provides updated
site reviews regularly, and a site with helpful cultural infor-
mation and some discussion groups on doing business
in various countries. More links are available on the text
website.
Other good sites:

http://www.timeticker.com/

http://globaledge.msu.edu/ibrd/ibrd.asp

http://www.NationMaster.com

• (2) It is easy to
overgeneralize cultural
practices.

• Culture is the shared
ways groups of people
view the world.

CHAPTER 16 Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication 487

people . . . the stereotyped patterns of learning behavior, which are handed down from
one generation to the next through means of language and imitation.”1 Similarly, a
modern defi nition is that culture is “the shared ways in which groups of people under-
stand and interpret the world.”2

While we can all talk on wireless phones and drink Coca-Cola at McDonald’s, these
activities can be interpreted very differently in different cultures. A Coke at McDonald’s
in America and a conversation on a wireless phone in Israel may be common occur-
rences, but in Moscow a trip to McDonald’s is a status symbol, as is a wireless phone.
In other words, people living in different countries have developed not only different
ways to interpret events; they have different habits, values, and ways of relating to one
another.
These differences are a major source of problems when people of different cul-
tures try to communicate. Unfortunately, people tend to view the ways of their culture
as normal and the ways of other cultures as bad, wrong, peculiar, or such. This is
called ethnocentrism, and it can be disastrous to effective communication across cul-
tures. One way to overcome this tendency is to become more culturally intelligent by
developing a higher level of cultural sensitivity to many dimensions of culture. The
way one becomes more sensitive is to learn more about the culture and of be mindful
of the differences. Two of the dimensions that impact communications are the cultural
differences in (1) body positions and movements and (2) views and practices concern-
ing various factors of human relationships (time, space, intimacy, and so on).

Body Positions and Movements
One might think that the positions and movements of the body are much the same for
all people. But such is not the case. These positions and movements differ by culture,
and the differences can affect communication. For example, in our culture most people

A squatting position is quite natural for this woman as she conducts business.

1 V. Barnouw, Culture and Personality (Chicago: Dorsey Press, 1963) 4.
2 Fons Trompenaars and Peter Woolliams, Business across Cultures (London:Capstone, 2003) 53.

• Two major kinds of
cultural differences affect
communication.

• Body positions and
movements differ among
cultures. For example,
in some cultures, people
sit; in other cultures, they
squat.

488 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

sit when they wish to remain in one place for some time, but in much of the world peo-
ple squat. Because we do not squat, we tend to view squatting as primitive. This view
obviously affects our communication with people who squat, for what we see when we
communicate is a part of the message. But how correct is this view? Actually, squatting
is a very normal body position. Our children squat quite naturally—until their elders
teach them to sit. Who is to say that sitting is more advanced or better?
For another example, people from our culture who visit certain Asian countries
are likely to view the fast, short steps taken by the inhabitants as peculiar or funny
and to view our longer strides as normal. And when people from our culture see the
inhabitants of these countries bow on meeting and leaving each other, they are likely
to interpret the bowing as a sign of subservience or weakness. Similarly, people from
our culture see standing up as the appropriate thing to do on certain occasions (as when
someone enters the room), whereas people from some other cultures do not.
As you know, movements of certain body parts (especially the hands) are a vital form of
human communication. Some of these movements have no defi nite meaning even within
a culture. But some have clear meanings, and these meanings may differ by culture. To
us an up-and-down movement of the head means yes and a side-to-side movement of the
head means no. These movements may mean nothing at all or something quite different
to people from cultures in which thrusting the head forward, raising the eyebrows, jerking
the head to one side, or lifting the chin are used to convey similar meanings.
In addition, the two-fi ngered “victory” sign is as clear to us as any of our hand
gestures. To an Australian, whose culture is not vastly different from ours, the sign has
a most vulgar meaning. The “OK” sign is terribly rude and insulting in such diverse

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Carefully Present and Receive a Business Card in Japan

In Japan, it is considered bad manners to go to a business meeting without a business card, or meishi. There are a number
of ways to present the card, but receiving it is an art, too. If you want to make a good impression on the presenter, receive
it in both hands, especially when the other party is senior in age or status or a potential customer. Be careful not to fi ddle
with the card or put it in your rear pocket—that is considered crude. Put it in some distinctive case. Those who do business
in both countries often have their business cards translated on the back, as the examples here show.

• Manners of walking differ
among cultures.

• Communication with
body parts (hands, arms,
head, etc.) varies by
culture.

• Hand gestures differ by
culture.

CHAPTER 16 Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication 489

places as Russia, Germany, and Brazil.3 In Japan, a similar sign represents money. If
a businessperson completing a contract gave this sign, the Japanese might think they
needed to give more money, perhaps even a bribe. Even the widely used “thumbs up”
sign for “things are going well” could get you into trouble in countries from Nigeria
to Australia. In our culture a side-by-side hand movement can be interpreted to mean
“hello.” The same movement can be interpreted to mean “go away” or “no” in India.4

And so it is with many of our other body movements. They differ widely, even within
cultures.
The meanings that movements of our eyes convey also vary by culture. In North
America, we are taught not to look over the heads of our audience but to maintain eye
contact in giving formal speeches. In informal talking, we are encouraged to look at
others but not to stare. In Indonesia, looking directly at people, especially those in
higher positions and older, is considered to be disrespectful. On the other hand, our
practices of eye contact are less rigorous than those of the British and Germans. Un-
less one understands these cultural differences, how one uses eye movement can be
interpreted as being impolite on the one hand or being shy on the other.
Touching and particularly handshaking differences are important to understand in
cross-cultural communication. This is made diffi cult by other cultures adopting West-
ern greetings. However, some cultures, like the Chinese, do not like much touching.
They will give a handshake you might perceive as weak. Other cultures that like touch-
ing will give you greetings ranging from full embraces and kisses to nose rubbing. If
you can avoid judging others from different cultures on their greeting based on your
standards for others like you, you can seize the opportunity to access the cultural style
of another. Here are some types of handshakes by culture.

Culture Handshakes

Americans Firm

Germans Brusque, fi rm, repeated upon arrival and departure

French Light, quick, not offered to superiors, repeated upon arrival and
departure

British Soft

Hispanics Moderate grasp, repeated frequently

Latin Americans Firm, long-lasting

Middle Easterners Gentle, repeated frequently

Asians Gentle; for some, shaking hands is unfamiliar and uncomfortable (an
exception to this is the Korean, who generally has a fi rm handshake)

Arabs Gentle, kisses on both cheeks

In our culture, smiles are viewed positively in most situations. But in some other
cultures (notably African cultures), a smile is regarded as a sign of weakness in cer-
tain situations (such as bargaining). Receiving a gift or touching with the left hand is
a serious breach of etiquette among Muslims, for they view the left hand as unclean.
We attach no such meaning to the left hand. And so it is with other body movements—
arching the eyebrows, positioning the fi ngers, raising the arms, and many more. All
cultures use body movements in communicating, but in different ways.

Views and Practices Concerning Factors
of Human Relationships
Probably causing even more miscommunication than differences in body positions
and movements are the different attitudes of different cultures toward various factors

• So do eye movements,

• touching, and
handshaking.

• A smile can be a sign of
weakness, and the left
hand may be taboo.

• Differing attitudes
toward various factors
of human relationships
cause communication
problems.

3 Roger E. Axtell, Gestures: The Dos and Taboos of Body Language around the World (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1998) 43.
4 Jane Lasky, “Watch Your Body Language in Asia,” Austin American-Statesman 17 Oct. 1999: D2.

490 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

of human relationships. For illustrative purposes, we will review seven major factors:
time, space, odors, frankness, intimacy of relationships, values, and expression of
emotions.

Time. In our culture, people tend to be monochronic. They regard time as something
that must be planned for the most effi cient use. They strive to meet deadlines, to be
punctual, to conduct business quickly, and to work on a schedule.
In some other cultures (especially those of the Middle East and some parts of Asia),
people are polychronic, viewing time in a more relaxed way. They see planning as
unwise and unnecessary. Being late to a meeting, a social function, or such is of little
consequence to them. In fact, some of them hold the view that important people should
be late to show that they are busy. In business negotiations, the people in these cultures
move at a deliberately slow pace, engaging in casual talk before getting to the main
issue. It is easy to see how such different views of time can cause people from different
cultures to have serious communication problems.

Space. People from different cultures often vary in their attitudes toward space. Even
people from the same culture may have different space preferences, as noted in Chap-
ter 14. North Americans tend to prefer about two feet or so of distance between them-
selves and those with whom they speak. But in some cultures (some Arabian and South
American cultures), people stand closer to each other; not following this practice is
considered impolite and bad etiquette. For another example, North Americans view
personal space as a right and tend to respect this right of others; thus, they stand in line
and wait their turn. People from some other cultures view space as belonging to all.
Thus, they jostle for space when boarding trains, standing at ticket counters, shopping
in stores, and such. In encounters between people whose cultures have such different
attitudes toward space, actions are likely to be misinterpreted.

Odors. People from different cultures may have different attitudes toward body
odors. To illustrate, Americans work hard to neutralize body odors or cover them up
and view those with body odors as dirty and unsanitary. On the other hand, in some
Asian cultures people view body odors not as something to be hidden but as something
that friends should experience. Some of the people from these cultures believe that it
is an act of friendship to “breathe the breath” of the person with whom they converse
and to feel their presence by smelling. Clearly, encounters between people with such
widely differing attitudes could lead to serious miscommunication.

Frankness. North Americans tend to be relatively frank or explicit in their relation-
ships with others, quickly getting to the point and perhaps being blunt and sharp in
doing so. Germans and Israelis are even more frank than Americans. Asians tend to

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

A Classic Defense of Cultural Difference

The classic “ugly American” was traveling in a faraway land. He had been critical of much of what he experienced—the
food, the hotels, the customs in general. One day he came upon a funeral. He observed that the mourners placed food on
the grave—and left it there.
“What a stupid practice!” he exclaimed to his native host. “Do your people actually think that the dead person will eat
the food?”
At this point, the host had taken all the insults he could handle for one day. So he replied, “Our dead will eat the food
as soon as your dead smell the fl owers you place on their graves.”

• Views about time differ
widely. Some cultures
stress punctuality; some
do not.

• Space is viewed
differently by different
cultures. In some
cultures, people want
to be far apart; in other
cultures, they want to be
close.

• Some cultures view body
odors as bad; others
view them as normal.

• Low-context cultures
are more frank and
explicit than high-context
cultures.

CHAPTER 16 Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication 491

be far more reticent or implicit and sometimes go to great lengths to save face or not
to offend. Americans belong to a low-context culture, a culture that explicitly shares
all relevant background information in our communication. Asians, on the other hand,
belong to a high-context culture, extracting limited background information and thus
communicating more implicitly.5 Thus, Asians may appear evasive, roundabout, and
indecisive to North Americans; and North Americans may appear harsh, impolite, and
aggressive to Asians. Phone customs may be an exception, especially among the Chi-
nese, who tend to end telephone calls abruptly after their purpose has been accom-
plished. North Americans, on the other hand, tend to move on to friendly talk and
clearly prepare the listener for the end of the call.

Intimacy of Relationships. In many cultures, strict social classes exist, and class
status determines how intimately people are addressed and treated in communication.
For this reason, a person from such a culture might quiz a person from another culture
to determine that person’s class status. Questions concerning occupation, income, title,
origin, and such might be asked. People from cultures that stress human equality are
apt to take offense at such questioning about class status. This difference in attitude
toward class status also is illustrated by differences in the familiarity of address. Some
Americans are quick to use fi rst names. This practice is offensive to people from some
other cultures, notably the English and the Germans, who expect such intimate address
only from long-standing acquaintances.
Similarly, how people view superior–subordinate relations can vary by culture. The
dominant view in Latin America, for example, is a strong boss with weak subordi-
nates doing as the boss directs. In sharp contrast is the somewhat democratic work

5 Iris Varner and Linda Beamer, Intercultural Communication in the Global Workplace, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-
Hill/Irwin, 2005) 27.

• Intimacy among people
varies in different
cultures.

• How people view
superior–subordinate
relations also differs.

Greetings vary among
cultures. Arabs often
use gentle handshakes
followed by kisses on
both cheeks.

492 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

arrangement of the Japanese in which much of the decision making is by consensus.
Most in our culture view as appropriate an order between these extremes. These widely
differing practices have led to major communication problems in joint business ven-
tures involving people from these cultures.
The role of women varies widely by culture. In North America, we continue to
move toward a generally recognized goal of equality. In many Islamic cultures, the
role of women is quite different. To many in our culture, the practices of the people
of these other cultures suggest severe restriction of human rights. In the view of the
people of these cultures, their practices are in accord with their religious convictions.
They see us as being the ones out of step.

Values. Also differing by culture are our values—how we evaluate the critical mat-
ters in life. Americans, for example, have been indoctrinated with the Protestant work
ethic. It is the belief that if one puts hard work ahead of pleasure, success will fol-
low. The product of this thinking is an emphasis on planning, working effi ciently,
and maximizing production. Of course, not all of us subscribe to this ethic, but it is a
strong force in the thinking of many in our culture. The prevailing view in some other
cultures is quite different. In India, for example, the major concern is for spiritual and
human well- being. The view of work is relaxed, and productivity is, at best, a second-
ary concern.
Views about the relationships of employers and employees also may differ by cul-
ture. North American workers expect to change companies in their career a number of
times; and they expect companies to fi re them from time to time. Employees expect to
move freely from job to job, and they expect employers to hire and fi re as their needs
change. Expectations are quite different in some other cultures. In Japan, for example,
employment tends to be for a lifetime. The company is viewed much like a family,
with loyalty expected from employees and employer. Such differences have caused
misunderstandings in American–Japanese joint ventures.
How employees view authority is yet another question that cultures view differ-
ently. We North Americans generally accept authority, yet we fi ercely maintain the
rights of the individual. In many Third World cultures, workers accept a subservient
role passively. Autocratic rule is expected—even wanted.

Expression of Emotions. From culture to culture, differences in social behavior
have developed. To illustrate, some Asian cultures strongly frown upon public displays
of affection—in fact, they consider them crude and offensive. Westerners, on the other

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Understanding East Meets West

While the 2008 Olympics in Beijing will bring the world’s best athletes together, it will also likely highlight many of the
cultural differences between Asians and Americans. One of the primary differences has already made headlines—the
endorsements and sponsorships of athletes. Most Americans view these deals as something the gold medalist athletes
have earned—even deserve. However, the Chinese view their athletes as part of a team of coaches, trainers, doctors, and
the state, all of whom are entitled to share in a part of any endorsement deals. In fact, in order to participate in the games,
one Chinese gold-medalist, Guo Jingjing, had to apologize to the public for her own fi nancial ambitions with “I belong to the
nation.” This collectivism value is one that shows up when Eastern businesses meet Western businesses, too.

Hannah Beech, “An Olympian Takes a Dive,” Time Asia 7 February 2005, 24 June 2006
.

• Each culture has different
values concerning such
matters as attitude
toward work,

• employee–employer
relations,

• and authority.

• Social behavior varies by
culture, such as practices
concerning affection,
laughter, and emotion.

• So does the role of
women.

CHAPTER 16 Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication 493

hand, accept at least a moderate display of affection. To Westerners, laughter is a spon-
taneous display of pleasure, but in some cultures (Japanese, for one), laughter also can
be a controlled behavior—to be used in certain social situations. Even such emotional
displays as sorrow are infl uenced by culture. In some Middle Eastern cultures, sorrow
is expressed with loud, seemingly uncontrolled wailing. In similar situations, Western-
ers typically respond with subdued and controlled emotions, which could be seen as
cold and uncaring by Middle Easterners.
We all have observed the emotion and animation that people of the Mediterranean
cultures display as they communicate. And we have seen the more subdued communi-
cation of others—notably northern Europeans. The fi rst group tends to see the second
as disinterested and lacking in friendliness. The second sees the fi rst as excitable, emo-
tional, perhaps even unstable.
Many more such practices exist. Some cultures combine business and social plea-
sure; others do not. Some expect to engage in aggressive bargaining in business
transactions; others prefer straightforward dealings. Some talk loudly and with emo-
tion; others communicate orally in a subdued manner. Some communicate with empha-
sis on economy of expression; others communicate with an abundance of verbiage.
The comparisons could go on and on, for there are countless differences in cultures.
But it is not necessary to review them all. What is important is that we recognize their
existence, that we are mindful of them, and that we understand them. We should guard
against ethnocentrism, the use of one’s own cultural values as standards for determin-
ing meaning in cross-cultural communication.

Effects on Business Communication Techniques
The foregoing examples illustrate only a few of the numerous differences that exist
among cultures. Books have been written on the subject. Our objective here is only to
establish the point that the differences among cultures affect communication between
people of different cultures.
The communication techniques presented in this book should be modifi ed to fi t
the culture involved. Keep in mind that this book was written for our culture. Much
of what we say does not apply to other cultures, especially our coverage of the basic
message situations—those concerning directness and indirectness. People in Asian
cultures, for example, generally favor a somewhat indirect approach for messages we
would treat directly. They begin with an identifi cation of context—that is, a description
of the situation the message concerns.6 They use what appears to us as exaggerated
politeness and slowness in moving the message. In fact, some of our direct messages
would be regarded as rude by people in these cultures.7

Our persuasive appeals may be rejected in India, where views of an older, more
highly developed morality lead to thinking different from ours.8 Even the British,
whose culture we think of as resembling our own, have message practices that differ
from ours. They especially differ in the treatment of negative situations. They prefer an
approach that we would regard as blunt and calloused. They would regard our good-
will strategies as insincere and evasive.
And so it is with the many other cultures of the world. Our practices just do not
fi t into them. What to do about this problem? You have no choice but to become a
student of culture. You must learn the cultures of those with whom you communicate.
Don’t expect them to understand your culture, although many of them do. With your
recipient’s culture in mind, you then modify your communication accordingly.

• Included is the degree of
animation displayed.

• Many more such
practices exist.

• We must recognize
them, look for them, and
understand them.

• Cultural differences affect
communication.

• Our communication
techniques are not
universally acceptable.

6 Varner and Beamer 145.
7 Richard M. Hodgetts, Fred Luthans, and Jonathan Doh, International Management: Culture, Strategy, and Behavior
(New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2006) 190.
8 Varner and Beamer 152.

• The Indians and even
the British have practices
different from ours.

• You must modify your
communications to fi t the
culture of your recipient.

494 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

PROBLEMS OF LANGUAGE
The people on earth use more than 3,000 languages. Because few of us can learn more
than one or two other languages well, problems of miscommunication are bound to
occur in international communication.

Lack of Language Equivalency
Unfortunately, wide differences among languages make precisely equivalent transla-
tions diffi cult. One reason for such differences is that languages are based on the con-
cepts, experiences, views, and such of the cultures that developed them. And different
cultures have different concepts, experiences, views, and such. For example, we think
of a fl orist as someone who sells fl owers and related items in a store. In some cultures,
however, fl owers are sold by street vendors, mainly women and children. Obviously,
our fl orist does not have a precise equivalent in the language of such cultures.
Similarly, our supermarket has no equivalent in some languages. The French have no
word to distinguish between house and home, mind and brain, and man and gentleman.
The Spanish have no word to distinguish between a chairman and a president, while
Italians have no word for wishful thinking. And Russians have no words for effi ciency,
challenge, and having fun. However, Italians have nearly 500 words for types of pasta.
And so it is with words for many other objects, actions, concepts, and such (for example,
roundup, interview, strike, tough, monopoly, domestic, feminine, responsible, aloof).
Another explanation for the lack of language equivalency is the grammatical and
syntactic differences among languages. Some languages (Urdu, for example) have no
gerunds, and some have no adverbs and/or adjectives. Not all languages deal with verb
mood, voice, and tense in the same way. The obvious result is that even the best trans-
lators often cannot fi nd literal equivalents between languages.
Adding to these equivalency problems is the problem of multiple word meanings.
Like English, other languages have more than one meaning for many words. Think,
for example, of our numerous meanings for the simple word run (to move fast, to com-
pete for offi ce, a score in baseball, a break in a stocking, a fading of colors, and many
more). Or consider the multiple meanings of such words as fast, cat, trip, gross, ring, and
make. The Oxford English Dictionary uses over 15,000 words to defi ne what. Unless one
knows a language well, it is diffi cult to know which of the meanings is intended.
Within a culture, certain manners of expression may be used in a way that their
dictionary translations and grammatical structures do not explain. Those within the
culture understand these expressions; those outside may not. For example, we might
say, “Business couldn’t be better,” meaning business is very good. One from another
culture might understand the sentence to mean “Business is bad” (impossible to im-
prove). Or we might say, “We could never be too nice to our customers,” meaning try
as we may, we couldn’t be overly nice. To one from another culture, the sentence might
mean “We cannot be nice to our customers.”9

Similarly, like-meaning words can be used in different ways in different cultures.
One example is the simple word yes, a word that has an equivalent in all languages.
“The Chinese yes, like the Japanese yes, can often be understood by Americans and
British as their English yes. But the Chinese yes often means ‘I am listening.’ Or it
may be understood in English as the opposite. For example, when an American says to
a Chinese counterpart, “I see you don’t agree with this clause,” the Chinese will usu-
ally reply, “Yes” meaning a polite agreement with the negative question: ‘Yes, you are
right. I do not agree with the clause.’ ”10

Overcoming such language problems is diffi cult. The best way, of course, is to
know more than one language well, but the competence required is beyond the reach
of many of us. Thus, your best course is fi rst to be aware that translation problems exist
and then to ask questions—to probe—to determine what the other person understands.

• Examples prove the
point.

• Grammar and syntax
differences add to the
diffi culty.

• So do the multiple
meanings of words.

• Certain of our
expressions don’t mean
what their dictionary and
grammatical structures
say they mean.

9 Jensen J. Zhao, “The Chinese Approach to International Business Negotiation,” Journal of Business Communication
37 (2000): 225.
10 Zhao 225.

• Even words with the
same meaning can differ
in usage by culture.

• Overcome such
language problems by
knowing languages well
and by questioning.

• Communication
problems are caused by
the existence of many
languages.

• Differences among
languages make
equivalent translations
diffi cult.

CHAPTER 16 Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication 495

• Use back translating
for important
communications.

• English is the primary
language of international
business.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Blundering with Words

Companies can make blunders in international business through their products, practices, and words. Here are some of
those where words were the culprit.

• When Coca-Cola fi rst attempted to market its drink in China, the characters representing it sounded like Coca-Cola
but translated to “a wax-fl attened mare.” Now the characters that represent it translate to “happiness in the mouth.”

• Olympia tried to introduce a copier in Chile under the name “Roto,” which is the Spanish word for broken.

• American Motor Company’s Matador translated into killer in Puerto Rico, clearly not a good name in a place with high
traffi c fatality rates.

• Toyota’s MR2 did well in most countries, but in France it is often pronounced merde, meaning human waste.

• Ford encountered problems when it introduced a low-cost truck it named “Fiera.” The name translates to “ugly old
woman.”

• Bacardi developed and launched a fruity drink, calling it Pavian. In German it means baboon.

• When Nike attempted to illustrate graphically fl ames on its shoes, it discovered that the illustration resembled the
Arabic script meaning Allah, the word for God. The Council on American-Islamic Relations demanded an apology and
withdrawal of the shoes from the market.

Selected from David A. Ricks, Blunders in International Business, 4th ed. (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006).

For very important oral messages, documents, or such, you might consider using a
procedure called back translating. This procedure involves using two translators, one
with fi rst-language skills in one of the languages involved and one with fi rst-language
skills in the other language. The fi rst translator translates the message into his or her
language, and the second translator then translates the message back into the original.
If the translations are good, the second translation matches the original.

Diffi culties in Using English
Fortunately for us, English is the primary language of international business. This is not
to say that other languages are not used in international business, for they are. When
business executives from different countries have a common language, whatever it
may be, they are likely to use it. For example, an executive from Iraq and an executive
from Saudi Arabia would communicate with each other in Arabic, for Arabic is their
common fi rst language. For the same reason, an executive from Venezuela would use
Spanish in dealing with an executive from Mexico. However, when executives have no
common language, they are likely to use English. The members of the European Free
Trade Association conduct all their business in English even though not one of them
is a native English speaker. In the words of one international authority, “English has
emerged as the lingua franca of world commerce in much the same way that Greek did
in the ancient world of the West and Chinese did in the East.”11

Although we can take comfort from knowing that English is the primary language
of international business, we must keep in mind that it is not the primary language of
many of those who use it. Since many of these users have had to learn English as a
second language, they are likely to use it less fl uently than we and to experience prob-
lems in understanding us. Some of their more troublesome problems are reviewed in
the following pages.

11 Naoki Kameda, Business Communication toward Transnationalism: The Signifi cance of Cross-Cultural Business
English and Its Role (Tokyo: Kindaibungeisha Co., 1996) 34.

• But many nonnatives
have problems using
English.

496 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

Two-Word Verbs. One of the most diffi cult problems for nonnative speakers of
English is the use of two-word verbs. By two-word verbs we mean a wording consisting
of (1) a verb and (2) a second element that, combined with the verb, produces a mean-
ing that the verb alone does not have. For example, take the verb break and the word
up. When combined, they have a meaning quite different from the meanings the words
have alone. And look how the meaning changes when the same verb is combined with
other words: break away, break out, break in, break down. Dictionaries are of little
help to nonnatives who are seeking the meanings of these word combinations.
There are many two-word verbs—so many, in fact, that a special dictionary of them
has been compiled.12 Figure 16–1 lists some of the more common words that combine
with verbs.
Of course, nonnatives studying English learn some of these word combinations, for
they are part of the English language. But many of them are not covered in language
textbooks or listed in dictionaries. It is apparent that we should use these word combi-
nations sparingly when communicating with nonnative speakers of English. Whenever

12 George A. Meyer, The Two-Word Verb (The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton, 1975).

• as in these combinations.

Figure 16–1

Some Two-Word Verbs
That Confuse Nonnative
Speakers

• Use two-word verbs
sparingly. Find
substitutes, as shown
here.

Verb Plus Away

give away

keep away

lay away

pass away

throw away

Verb Plus Back

cut back

feed back

keep back

play back

read back

take back

turn back

win back

Verb Plus Down

calm down

die down

hand down

keep down

let down

lie down

mark down

pin down

play down

put down

run down

shut down

sit down

wear down

Verb Plus In

cash in

cave in

close in

dig in

give in

run in

take in

throw in

Verb Plus Off

break off

brush off

buy off

check off

clear off

cool off

cut off

fi nish off

let off

mark off

pay off

run off

send off

slow off

shut off

sound off

start off

take off

write off

Verb Plus Out

blow out

clean out

crowd out

cut out

die out

dry out

even out

fi gure out

fi ll out

fi nd out

give out

hold out

lose out

pull out

rule out

tire out

wear out

work out

Verb Plus Over

check over

do over

hold over

pass over

put over

roll over

run over

stop over

take over

talk over

think over

win over

Verb Plus Up

blow up

build up

call up

catch up

cover up

dig up

end up

fi ll up

get up

hang up

hold up

keep up

look up

mix up

pick up

save up

shake up

shut up

slow up

wrap up

Verb Plus
Miscellaneous
Words

bring about

catch on

get across

pass on

put across

put forth

set forth

• Two-word verbs are
hard for nonnatives to
understand,

CHAPTER 16 Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication 497

possible, we should substitute for them words that appear in standard dictionaries.
Following are some two-word verbs and suggested substitutes:

Two-Word Verbs Suggested Substitutes

give up surrender

speed up, hurry up accelerate

go on, keep on continue

put off defer

take off depart, remove

come down descend

go in, come in, get in enter

go out, come out, get out exit, leave

blow up explode

think up imagine

fi gure out solve

take out, take away remove

go back, get back, be back return

Additional problems result from the fact that some two-word verbs have noun and
adjective forms. These also tend to confuse nonnatives using English. Examples of such
nouns are breakthrough, cover-up, drive-in, hookup, show-off, and sit-in. Examples of
such adjectives are going away (a going-away gift), cover-up (cover-up tactics), cleanup
(cleanup work), and turning-off (turning-off place). Fortunately, some nouns and adjec-
tives of this kind are commonly used and appear in standard dictionaries (words such as
hookup, feedback, breakthrough, lookout, and takeover). In writing to nonnative readers,
you will need to use sparingly those that do not appear in standard dictionaries.

Culturally Derived Words. Words derived from our culture also present problems.
The most apparent are the slang expressions that continually come into and go out of
use. Some slang expressions catch on and fi nd a place in our dictionaries (brunch,
hobo, blurb, bogus). But most are with us for a little while and then are gone. Exam-
ples of such short-lived slang expressions are the “twenty-three skiddoo” and “oh you
kid” of the 1920s and the ritzy, scram, natch, lousy, soused, all wet, hep, in the groove,
and tops of following decades. More recent slang words that are probably destined
for the same fate include nerd, wimp, earth pig, pig out, couch potato, squid, airhead,
and cool. Perhaps you are not aware of just how much slang we use. For an eye-
opener, you have only to visit ESL: Idioms and Slang Page, , for links to many lists.
Most slang words are not in dictionaries or on the word lists that non–English-
speaking people study to learn English. The obvious conclusion is that you should not
use slang in cross-cultural communication.
Similar to and in fact overlapping slang are the words and expressions that we
derive from our various activities—sports, social affairs, work, and the like. Sports
especially have contributed such words, many of which are so widely used that they
are part of our everyday vocabulary. From football we have kickoff, goal-line stand,
and over the top. Baseball has given us out in left fi eld, strike out, touch base, off base,
right off the bat, a steal, squeeze play, balk, and go to bat for. From boxing we have
knockout, down for the count, below the belt, answer the bell, and on the ropes. From
other sports and from sports in general we have jock, ace, par, stymie, from scratch,
ballpark fi gure, and get the ball rolling.
Similar to these words and expressions are words and expressions developed within
our culture (colloquialisms). Some of these have similar meanings in other cultures,
but most are diffi cult for nonnatives to understand. You will fi nd some examples in
Figure 16–2.

• Some two-word verbs
have noun and adjective
forms. Use these
sparingly.

• Culturally derived words,
especially slang, cause
problems.

• So avoid slang.

• Words derived from
sports, social activities,
and so on cause
problems.

• Colloquialisms also
cause problems.

498 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

If you are like most of us, many of these words and expressions are a part of your
vocabulary. You use them in your everyday communicating, which is all right. They
are colorful, and they can communicate clearly to those who understand them. Nonna-
tive English speakers are not likely to understand them, however; so you will need to
eliminate such words and expressions in communicating with them. You will need to
use words that are clearly defi ned in the dictionaries that these people are likely to use
in translating your message. Following are some examples:

Not This

That’s just off the top of my head.

He frequently shoots from the hip.

We would be up the creek without a paddle.

They couldn’t make heads or tails of the
report.

The sales campaign was a fl op.

I’ll touch base with you on this problem in
August.

Take an educated guess on this question.

Your sales report put us in orbit.

We will wind down manufacturing opera-
tions in November.

Your prediction was right on the beam.

Don’t let him get your goat.

But This

Here’s a quick idea.

He frequently acts before he thinks.

We would be in a helpless situation.

They couldn’t understand the report.

The sales campaign was a failure.

I’ll talk with you about this problem in
August.

Answer this question to the best of your
knowledge.

Your sales report pleased us very much.

We will end manufacturing operations in
November.

Your prediction was correct.

Don’t let him upset you.

A GENERAL SUGGESTION FOR
COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES
In addition to the specifi c suggestions for improving your communication in English
with nonnative English speakers, you should follow one general suggestion: Write or
talk simply and clearly. Talk slowly and enunciate each word. Remember that because
most nonnative speakers learned English in school, they are acquainted mainly with
primary dictionary meanings and are not likely to understand slang words or shades
of difference in the meanings we give words. They will understand you better if you
avoid these pitfalls. In the words of two highly regarded scholars in the fi eld, you
should “educate yourself in the use of Simplifi ed English.”13

head for home

have an itching palm

grasp at straws

fl at-footed

on the beam

out to pasture

sitting duck

in the groove

nuts (crazy)

circle the wagons

shoot from the hip

tuckered out

gumption

crying in his beer

in orbit

a honey

a fl op

dope (crazy)

hood (gangster)

up the creek without a paddle

a fi sh out of water

a chicken with its head cut off

tote (carry)

in a rut

priming the pump

make heads or tails of it

tearjerker

countdown

shortcut

educated guess

all ears

slower than molasses

break the ice

Figure 16–2

Examples of Colloquialisms
to Avoid with Nonnative
Speakers

• Use simple, basic
English.

13 Robert Sellers and Elaine Winters, Cultural Issues in Business Communication, 3 Nov. 2003 .

• We use such words in
everyday communication.
But avoid them in cross-
cultural correspondence.

CHAPTER 16 Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication 499

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Words of Wisdom

The lexical differences between American English and British English can be traced to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
when early settlers brought to North America the language of their homelands. British settlers found that their language was not
adequate for life on a different continent. The new things they encountered necessitated their adapting the meanings of existing
English words or fi nding new words.

James Calvert Scott, Utah State University

James Calvert Scott, “Differences in American and British Vocabulary: Implications for International Business Communication,” Business Communication
Quarterly 63. 4 2000: 28.

You also will communicate better if you carefully word your questions. Be sure
your questions are not double questions. Avoid “Do you want to go to dinner now
or wait until after the rush hour is over?” Also, avoid the yes/no question that some
cultures may have diffi culty answering directly. Use more open-ended questions such
as “When would you like to go to dinner?” Also, avoid negative questions such as
“Aren’t you going to dinner?” In some cultures a yes response confi rms whether the
questioner is correct; in other cultures the response is directed toward the question be-
ing asked.
Finally, try to check and clarify your communication through continuous confi r-
mation. Summarizing in writing also is a good idea, and today’s technology enables
parties to do this on the spot. It allows you to be certain you have conveyed your mes-
sage and received the response accurately. Even in Britain, whose culture similar to
ours, similar words can have vastly different meanings. For example, we use a billion
to mean 1,000,000,000 whereas the British use it to mean 1,000,000,000,000. If a
British English speaker asked to table another item, an American English speaker will
probably interpret that as a request to put it off when the real request was to bring it to
attention.14 Continually checking for meaning and using written summaries can help
ensure the accuracy of the communication process.

SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Businesses are becoming increasingly global in their operations.

• Being able to communicate across cultures is necessary in these operations.

• Specifi cally, it helps in gaining additional business, in hiring good people, and
generally in understanding and satisfying the needs of customers.

2. Culture may be defi ned as “the way of life of a group of people.”

• Cultures differ.

• People tend to view the practices of their culture as right and those of other
cultures as peculiar or wrong.

• These views cause miscommunication.

• Continually check
the accuracy of the
communication.

14 Danielle Medina Walker, Thomas Walker, and Joerg Schmitz, Doing Business Internationally: The Guide to Cross-
Cultural Success, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2003) 211.

1Explain why communicating clearly
across cultures is
important to business.

2Defi ne culture and explain its effects
on cross-cultural
communication.

• Word questions carefully
to elicit the response
intended.

3. Variations in how people of different cultures use body positions and body
movements is a cause of miscommunication.

• How people walk, gesture, smile, and such varies from culture to culture.

• When people from different cultures attempt to communicate, each may not
understand the other’s body movements.

4. People in different cultures differ in their ways of relating to people.

• Specifi cally, they differ in their practices and thinking concerning time, space,
odors, frankness, relationships, values, and social behavior.

• We should not use our culture’s practices as standards for determining meaning.

• Instead, we should try to understand the other culture.

5. Language equivalency problems are another major cause of miscommunication in
cross-cultural communication.

• About 3,000 languages are used on earth.

• They differ greatly in grammar and syntax.

• Like English, most have words with multiple meanings.

• As a result, equivalency in translation is diffi cult.

6. Overcoming the language equivalency problems involves hard and tedious work.

• The best advice is to master the language of the nonnative English speakers
with whom you communicate.

• Also, you should be aware of the problems caused by language differences.

• Ask questions carefully to make sure you are understood.

• For important communications, consider back translation—the technique of
using two translators, the fi rst to translate from one language to the other and
the second to translate back to the original.

• Check the accuracy of the communication with written summaries.

5Explain the language equivalency problem
as a cause of
miscommunication.

6Describe what one can do to overcome the
language equivalency
problem.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N S

1 “Just as our culture has advanced in its technological
sophistication, it has advanced in the sophistication of
its body signals, gestures, and attitudes toward time,
space, and such. Thus, the ways of our culture are sup-
erior to those of most other cultures.” Discuss this view.

2 What are the prevailing attitudes in our culture toward
the following, and how can those attitudes affect our
communication with nonnatives? Discuss.

a. Negotiation methods

b. Truth in advertising

c. Company–worker loyalty

d. Women’s place in society

e. The Protestant work ethic

3 Some of our message-writing techniques are said to be
unacceptable to people from such cultures as those of
Japan and England.

a. Which techniques in particular do you think would
be most inappropriate in these cultures?

b. Why?

4 Think of English words (other than text examples)
that probably do not have a precise equivalent in some
other culture. Tell how you would attempt to explain
each of these words to a person from that culture.

5 Select a word with at least fi ve meanings. List those
meanings and tell how you would communicate each
of them to a nonnative.

6 From newspapers or magazines, fi nd and bring to class
10 sentences containing words and expressions that a
nonnative English speaker would not be likely to un-
derstand. Rewrite the sentences for this reader.

7 Is conversational style appropriate in writing to nonna-
tive readers? Discuss.

500 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

3Describe cultural differences in body
positions and
movements and use this
knowledge effectively in
communicating.

4Describe cultural differences in views and
practices concerning
time, space, odors,
and such and use this
knowledge effectively in
communicating.

CHAPTER 16 Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication 501

8 Interview a nonnative speaker of English about com-
munication differences between cultures he or she has
experienced. Report your fi ndings to the class in a 10-
minute presentation.

9 Research a non–English-speaking country on the Inter-
net or in your library. Look for ways in which business
communication can vary by culture. Report your work
to the class in a short presentation.

10 Explain ethnocentrism in relation to the communica-
tion model in Chapter 1.

11 On a recent trip to India, Mr. Yang, a prominent
Chinese executive, dined with his client Himanshu Jain.
Mr. Yang commented that the food was spicy, which
Mr. Jain interpreted as an opportunity to discuss Indian
cuisine. After lengthy explanations, Mr. Yang com-
mented again that the food was spicy.

What happened here? What barrier is likely getting in
the way of clear communication? (Adapted from Danielle
Medina Walker, Thomas Walker, and Joerg Schmitz,
Doing Business Internationally: The Guide to Cross-
Cultural Success, [New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003] 237.)

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G E X E R C I S E S

Instructions: Rewrite the following sentences for a nonna-
tive English speaker.

1 Last year our laboratory made a breakthrough in design
that really put sales in orbit.

2 You will need to pin down Mr. Wang to put across the
need to tighten up expenses.

3 Recent losses have us on the ropes now, but we expect
to get out of the hole by the end of the year.

4 We will kick off the advertising campaign in February,
and in April we will bring out the new products.

5 Maryellen gave us a ballpark fi gure on the project, but
I think she is ready to back down from her estimate.

6 We will back up any of our products that are not up
to par.

7 Mr. Maghrabi managed to straighten out and become
our star salesperson.

8 Now that we have cut back on our telemarketing, we
will have to build up our radio advertising.

9 If you want to improve sales, you should stay with your
prospects until they see the light.

10 We should be able to bring about a savings of 8 or 10
grand.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition

VI. Cross−Cultural
Communication,
Correctness, Technology,
Research

17. Correctness of
Communication

c h a p t e r s e v e n t e e n

Correctness of Communication

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to use the accepted
standards of English grammar and punctuation in written business
communications. To reach this goal, you should be able to

1 Punctuate messages correctly.
2 Write complete, grammatically correct sentences, avoiding such

problems as awkward construction, dangling modifi ers, and
misuse of words.

3 Determine when to spell out numbers and when to express them
in numeral form according to standards of correctness.

4 Spell words correctly by applying spelling rules and using a
dictionary or spell checker.

5 Use capital letters for all proper names, fi rst words of sentences,
and fi rst words of complimentary closes.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
VI. Cross−Cultural
Communication,
Correctness, Technology,
Research
17. Correctness of
Communication
© The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 503

I N T R O D U C T O R Y S I T U A T I O N

The Effects of Correctness on Communication
Play the role of Mike Rook, a purchasing agent for Hewlett-Packard, and read through today’s mail. The fi rst letter
comes from Joe Spivey, sales manager, B and B Manufacturing Company. You have not met the writer, though you
talked to him on the phone a few days ago. At that time, you were favorably impressed with Spivey’s enthusiasm
and ability, and with B and B. In fact, you assumed that after he gave you the information you needed about B and
B’s products and services, you would begin buying from it.
As you read Spivey’s letter, however, you are startled. “Could this be the same person I talked with?” you ask
yourself. There in the fi rst paragraph is an it don’t, a clear error of subject–verb agreement. Farther down, an it’s is
used to show possession rather than its. Spivey apparently uses the sprinkle system for placing commas—that is,
he sprinkles them wherever his whims direct. His commas often fall in strange places. For example, he writes, “Our
salespeople, say the Rabb Company engineers, will verify the durability of Ironskin protective coating,” but you think
he means “Our salespeople say the Rabb Company engineers will verify the durability of Ironskin protective coat-
ing.” The two sentences, which differ only in their punctuation, have distinctly different meanings. Spivey’s message
is fi lled with such errors.
In general, you now have a lower opinion of Spivey and his company. Perhaps you’ll have to take a long look at
B and B’s products and services. After all, the products and services that a company provides are closely related to
the quality of its people.
The problem just described is a very real one in business. Image does infl uence the success of both companies
and people. And correctness in writing infl uences image. Thus, you will want to make certain that your writing is cor-
rect, so that it helps form a favorable image both of you and of your company. The material presented in the pages
that follow should help you in that effort.

The correctness of your communication will be important to you and your company. It
will be important to you because people will judge you by it, and how they judge you
will help determine your success in life. It will be important to your company because
it will help convey the image of competence that companies like. People judge a com-
pany by how its employees act, think, talk, and write. Company executives want such
judgments to be favorable.

THE NATURE OF CORRECTNESS
Not all people agree that there are standards for correct communication. In fact, some
people think there should be no general standards of this kind, that whatever com-
municates in a given case is all right. Businesspeople, however, generally accept the
standards for correct usage that educated people have developed over the years. These
are the standards that you have studied in your English composition classes and that
appear in textbooks. Businesspeople expect you to follow them.
These standards of correctness have one basic purpose: to assist in communicating.
To some people the standards of correctness appear arbitrary or unnecessary. But such
is not the case. They are designed to reduce misunderstanding—to make communi-
cation more precise. When you communicate precisely, you practice good ethics by
meeting your reader’s needs for understandable messages. It is only in this light that
we can justify studying them.
The practical value of these standards is easily illustrated. Take, for example, the
following two sentences. Their words are the same; only their punctuation differs. But
what a difference the punctuation makes!

“The teacher,” said the student, “is careless.”
The teacher said, “The student is careless.”

• People judge you and
your company by the
correctness of your
communication.

• Businesspeople
expect you to follow
the generally accepted
standards of English.

• These standards of
correctness assist in
communicating.

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Or what about the following pair of sentences? Who is speaking, the Democrats or
the Republicans? The commas make a difference.

The Democrats, say the Republicans, will win.
The Democrats say the Republicans will win.

Here are two more sentences. The difference here needs no explanation.

He looked at her stern.
He looked at her sternly.

Because the standards of correctness are important to your communication in busi-
ness, this chapter will review them. The review is not complete, for much more space
would be needed for complete coverage. But the major standards are covered, those
that most often present problems in your writing. For your convenience, the standards
are coded with symbols (letters and numbers). You should fi nd these symbols useful in
identifying the standards. Your instructor should fi nd them useful as grading marks to
identify errors in your writing.
You probably already know many of the standards of correctness, so the following
information will not all be new to you. To help you determine how much you know and
do not know, you should take the self-analysis test at the end of the chapter or on the
textbook website. This will enable you to study the standards selectively. Because the
self-analysis test covers only the more frequently used standards, however, you would
be wise to review the entire chapter.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Can You Detect the Differences in Meaning the Punctuation Makes?

What’s the latest dope?
What’s the latest, dope?

The groom was asked to call the guests names as they arrived.
The groom was asked to call the guests’ names as they arrived.

A clever dog knows it’s master.
A clever dog knows its master.

Everyone, I know, has a problem.
Everyone I know has a problem.

Do not break your bread or roll in your soup.
Do not break your bread, or roll in your soup.

She ate a half-fried chicken.
She ate a half fried chicken.

I left him convinced he was a fool.
I left him, convinced he was a fool.

In the parade will be several hundred children, carrying fl ags and many important offi cials.
In the parade will be several hundred children, carrying fl ags, and many important offi cials.

The play ended, happily.
The play ended happily.

Thirteen people knew the secret, all told.
Thirteen people knew the secret; all told.

• The following review
covers the major
standards. They
are coded for your
convenience.

• Take the self-analysis
test to determine your
present knowledge of the
standards.

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CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 505

STANDARDS FOR PUNCTUATION
The following explanations cover the most important standards for correctness in
punctuation. For reasons of accuracy, the explanations use some technical words. Even
so, the illustrations should make the standards clear.

Apostrophe: Apos 1
Use the apostrophe to show the possessive case of nouns and indefi nite pronouns. If
the word does not end in s, add an apostrophe and an s. If the word ends in s, add only
an apostrophe.

Nominative Form Possessive Form

company company’s

employee employee’s

someone someone’s

companies companies’

employees employees’

Proper names and singular nouns ending in s sounds are exceptions. To such words
you may add either an apostrophe and an s or just an apostrophe. Add only an apostro-
phe to the nominative plural.

Nominative Form Possessive Form

Texas (singular) Texas’s, Texas’

Jones (singular) Jones’s, Jones’

Joneses (plural) Joneses’

countess (singular) countess’s, countess’

boss (singular) boss’s

Apos 2
Use an apostrophe to mark the place in a contraction where letters are omitted. Do not
use it to make personal pronouns possessive (its, hers).

it is = it’s
has not = hasn’t
cannot = can’t

Brackets: Bkts
Set off in brackets words that you wish to insert in a quotation.

“The use of this type of mentor [the personal coach] may still be increasing.”
“Direct supervision has diminished in importance during the past decade [the
report was written in 2005], when 63 percent of the reporting business fi rms that
started programs used teams.”

Colon: Cln 1
Use the colon to introduce an enumeration, a formal quotation, or a statement of
explanation.

Enumeration: Working in this department are three classes of support: clerical
support, computer support, and customer support.
Formal quotation: President Hartung had this to say about the proposal: “Any
such movement that fails to get the support of the workers from all divisions fails
to get my support.”
Explanation: At this time the company was pioneering a new marketing idea: It was
attempting to sell customized products directly to consumers through its website.

• Use the apostrophe to
show possession.

• Mark omissions in
contractions with the
apostrophe.

• Use brackets to set off
words that you insert in a
quotation.

• Use the colon to
introduce formal
statements.

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Cln 2
Do not use the colon when the thought of the sentence should continue without inter-
ruption. If introducing a list by a colon, the colon should be preceded by a word that
explains or identifi es the list.

Not this: Cities in which new sales offi ces are in operation are: Fort Smith,
Texarkana, Lake Charles, Jackson, and Biloxi.
But this: Cities in which new sales offi ces are in operation are Fort Smith,
Texarkana, Lake Charles, Jackson, and Biloxi.
Or this: Cities with new sales offi ces are as follows: Fort Smith, Texarkana, Lake
Charles, Jackson, and Biloxi.

Comma: Cma 1
Use the comma to separate independent (main) clauses connected by a coordinating
conjunction. Some coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, and nor. (An indepen-
dent clause has a subject and a verb and stands by itself. A coordinating conjunction
connects clauses, words, or phrases of equal rank.)

Only two components of the index declined, and these two account for only 12
percent of the total weight of the index.
New hybrid automobiles are moving at record volumes, but used-car sales are
lagging behind the record pace set two years ago.

Make exceptions to this rule, however, in the case of compound sentences consist-
ing of short and closely connected clauses.

We sold and the price dropped.
Sometimes we win and sometimes we lose.

Cma 2–1
Separate the items listed in a series by commas. In order to avoid misinterpretation
of the rare instances in which some of the items listed have compound constructions,
it is always good to include the comma between the last two items (before the fi nal
conjunction).

Good copy must cover facts with accuracy, sincerity, honesty, and conviction.
Direct advertising can be used to introduce salespeople, fi ll in between
salespeople’s calls, cover territory where salespeople cannot be maintained, and
keep pertinent reference material in the hands of prospects.
The DuPont Color Popularity Report conducted in 2005 indicated that in North
America silver, white, blue, and black cars were the top fi ve colors favored by
the public.

• Do not use the colon
when it breaks the
thought fl ow.

• Use the comma to
separate clauses
connected by and, but,
or, and nor.

• Use the comma to
separate (1) items in a
series and

FOXTROT Bill Amend

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CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 507

Cma 2–2
Separate coordinate adjectives in a series by commas if they modify the same noun and
if no and connects them. A good test to determine whether adjectives are coordinate is
to insert an and between them. If the and does not change the meaning, the adjectives
are coordinate.

Miss Pratt has been a reliable, faithful, effi cient employee for 20 years.
We guarantee that this is a good, clean car.
Blue offi ce furniture is Mr. Orr’s recommendation for the new conference room.
(Offi ce furniture is practically a compound noun; blue modifi es both words.)
A big crescent wrench proved to be best for the task. (The and won’t fi t between
big and crescent.)

Cma 3
Set off nonrestrictive modifi ers by commas. By a nonrestrictive modifi er we mean a
modifi er that could be omitted from the sentence without changing its meaning. Re-
strictive modifi ers (those that restrict the words they modify to one particular object)
are not set off by commas. A restrictive modifi er cannot be left out of the sentence
without changing its meaning.

Restrictive: The salesperson who sells the most will get a bonus. (Who sells the
most restricts the meaning to a particular salesperson.)
Nonrestrictive: Diana Chan, who was the company’s top salesperson for
the year, was awarded a bonus. (If the clause who was the company’s top
salesperson for the year is omitted, the meaning of the sentence is not changed.)
Restrictive: J. Ward & Company is the fi rm that employs most of the physically
disabled in this area.
Nonrestrictive: J. Ward & Company, the fi rm that employs most of the physically
disabled in this area, has gained the admiration of the community.

Notice that some modifi ers can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive, depending on
the writer’s intended meaning.

Restrictive: All the cars that were damaged in the fl ood were sold at a discount.
(Implies that some of the cars were not damaged.)
Nonrestrictive: All the cars, which were damaged by the fl ood, were sold at a
discount. (Implies that the entire fl eet of cars was damaged.)

Cma 4–1
Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions. A parenthetic expression consists of
words that interrupt the normal fl ow of the sentence. In a sense, they appear to be “stuck
in.” In many instances, they are simply words out of normal order. For example, the
sentence “A full-page, black-and-white advertisement was run in the Daily Bulletin”
contains a parenthetical expression when the word order is altered: “An advertisement,
full-page and in black and white, was run in the Daily Bulletin.”

This practice, it is believed, will lead to fi nancial ruin.
Merck, as The Wall Street Journal reports, has sharply increased its alliance
activity.

Although in such cases you may use dashes or the parentheses in place of commas,
the three marks differ in the degree to which they separate the enclosed words from
the rest of the sentence. The comma is the weakest of the three, and it is best used
when the material set off is closely related to the surrounding words. Dashes are
stronger marks than commas and are used when the material set off tends to be long
or contains internal punctuation marks. Parentheses, the strongest of the three, are
primarily used to enclose material that helps explain or supplement the main words
of the sentence.

• (2) adjectives in a series.

• Use commas to set off
nonrestrictive modifi ers
(those that could be left
out without changing
the meaning of the
sentence).

• Use commas to set
off (1) parenthetical
expressions (comments
“stuck in”),

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Cma 4–2
Use commas to set off an appositive (a noun or a noun and its modifi ers inserted to
explain another noun) from the rest of the sentence. In a sense, appositives are paren-
thetical expressions, for they interrupt the normal fl ow of the sentence.

UPS, our primary shipper, is leasing a new distribution center in China.
St. Louis, home offi ce of our Midwest district, will be the permanent site of our
annual sales meeting.
President Cartwright, a self-educated woman, is the leading advocate of online
training for employees.

But appositives that are required for the sentence meaning are not set off by commas.

The word liabilities is not understood by most people.
Our next shipment will come on the ship Alberta.

Cma 4–3
Set off parenthetical words include such transitional expressions as however, in fact, of
course, for example, and consequently with commas.

It is apparent, therefore, that the buyers’ resistance was caused by an
overvigorous sales campaign.
After the fi rst experiment, for example, the traffi c fl ow increased 10 percent.
The company, however, will be forced to adopt a more competitive pricing
strategy.

Included in this group of parenthetical words may be introductory interjections (oh,
alas) and responsive expressions (yes, no, surely, indeed, well, and and so on). But if
the words are strongly exclamatory or are not closely connected with the rest of the
sentence, they may be punctuated as a sentence. (No. Yes. Indeed.)

Yes, the decision to increase product placement advertising has been made.
Oh, contribute whatever you think is appropriate.

Cma 4–4
When more than one unit appears in a date or an address, set off the units by commas.

One unit: December 30 is the date of our annual inventory.
One unit: The company has one outlet in Ohio.
More than one unit: December 30, 1906, is the date the Johnston Company fi rst
opened its doors.
More than one unit: Richmond, Virginia, is the headquarters of the new sales
district.

Cma 5–1
Use the comma after a subordinate clause that precedes the main clause.

Although it is durable, this package does not have eye appeal.
Since there was little store traffi c on aisle 13, the area was converted into
storage space.

Cma 5–2
Place a comma after an introductory verbal phrase. A verbal phrase is one that contains
some verb derivative: a gerund, a participle, or an infi nitive.

Gerund phrase: After gaining the advantage, we failed to press on to victory.
Participle phrase: Realizing his mistake, Ron instructed his direct reports to keep
a record of all salvaged equipment.

• (2) apposition words
(words explaining
another word),

• (3) certain paranthetical
words (in fact, however),
and

• (4) units in a date or
address.

• Use the comma after (1)
introductory subordinate
clauses and

• (2) introductory verbal
phrases.

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CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 509

Infi nitive phrase: To increase the turnover of automobile accessories, we must
fi rst improve their display area.

Cma 6–1
Use the comma only for good reason. It is not a mark to be inserted indiscriminately
at the writer’s whim. As a rule, the use of commas should be justifi ed by one of the
standard practices previously noted.
Do not be tricked into putting a comma between the subject and the verb.

The thought that he could not afford to fail spurred him on. (No comma after fail.)

Cma 6–2
Take exception to the preceding standards wherever the insertion of a comma will help
clarity of expression.

Not this: From the beginning inventory methods of Hill Company have been
haphazard.
But this: From the beginning, inventory methods of Hill Company have been
haphazard.

Not this: Ever since she has been a model worker.
But this: Ever since, she has been a model worker.

Dash: Dsh
Use the dash to set off an element for emphasis or to show interrupted thought. In par-
ticular, use it with long parenthetical expressions or parenthetical expressions contain-
ing internal punctuation (see Cma 4–1). Most word processing software will usually
allow you to insert a dash with a special character code. Depending on the software,
you either insert the code through a combination of keystrokes or by selecting the char-
acter from a character map. You can also make the dash by striking the hyphen twice,
without spacing before or after.

Budgets for some past years—2006, for example—were prepared without
consulting the department heads.
The test proved that the new process is simple, effective, accurate—and more
expensive.
Only one person—the supervisor in charge—has authority to approve a policy
exception.
If you want a voice in the government—vote.

Exclamation Mark: Ex
Use the exclamation mark at the end of a sentence or an exclamatory fragment to show
strong emotion. But use it sparingly; never use it with trivial ideas.

We’ve done it again!
Congratulations! Your outstanding performance review qualifi es you for merit pay.

Hyphen: Hpn 1
Use the hyphen to indicate the division of a word at the end of the line. You must divide
between syllables. It is generally impractical to leave a one-letter syllable at the end of
a line (a-bove) or to carry over a two-letter syllable to the next line (expens-es).
If you turn on the hyphenation feature of your word processing software, you can
let it automatically take care of hyphenating words. This feature permits you to set a
hyphenation range. The wider the range, the fewer words that will be hyphenated and
the more ragged your margin; the narrower the range, the more words that will be
hyphenated and the smoother your right margin. You also have the option of controlling

• Do not use the comma
without good reason,
such as between the
subject and the verb.

• Use the comma
wherever it helps clarity.

• Use the dash to show
interruption or emphasis.

• Use exclamation marks
to show strong feeling.

• Mark word divisions with
hyphens.

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the hyphenation you desire. You can accept what the program recommends, suggest a
different place to hyphenate, or tell it not to hyphenate.

Hpn 2–1
Place hyphens between the parts of some compound words. Generally, the hyphen is
used whenever its absence would confuse the meaning of the words.

Compound nouns: brother-in-law, cure-all, city-state, foreign-born
Compound numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine: fi fty-fi ve, eighty-one
Compound adjectives (two or more words used before a noun as a single
adjective): long-term contract, 50-gallon drum, fi ve-day grace period, end-of-
month clearance
Prefi xes (most have been absorbed into the word): co-organizer, ex-chairperson,
anti-infl ation, self-suffi cient

Hpn 2–2
A proper name used as a compound adjective needs no hyphen or hyphens to hold it
together as a visual unit for the reader. The capitals perform that function.

Correct: a Lamar High School student
Correct: a United Airlines pilot

Hpn 2–3
Two or more modifi ers in normal grammatical form and order need no hyphens. Par-
ticularly, a phrase consisting of an unmistakable adverb (one ending in ly) modifying
an adjective or participle that in turn modifi es a noun shows normal grammatical order
and is readily grasped by the reader without the benefi t of the hyphen. But an adverb
not ending in ly is joined to its adjective or participle by the hyphen.

No hyphen needed: a poorly drawn chart
Use the hyphen: a well-prepared chart

Italics: Ital 1
For the use of italics for book titles, see QM 4. Note that italics also are used for titles
of periodicals, works of art, long musical compositions, and names of naval vessels
and aircraft.

Ital 2
Italicize rarely used foreign words—if you must use them (wunderbar, keiretsu,
oobeya). After a foreign word is widely accepted, however, it does not need to be
italicized (carpe diem, faux pas, verboten). A current dictionary is a good source for
information on which foreign words are italicized.

Ital 3
Italicize a word, letter, or fi gure used as its own name. Without this device, we could
not write this set of rules. Note the use of italics throughout to label name words.

The little word sell is still in the dictionary.
The pronoun which should always have a noun as a clear antecedent. (Without
the italics, this one becomes a fragment.)

Parentheses: Parens
Use the parenthesis to set off words that are parenthetical or are inserted to explain or
supplement the principal message (see Cma 4–1).

• Place hyphens between
the parts of compound
words.

• Do not place hyphens
between (1) proper
names and

• (2) words that only follow
each other.

• Use italics for (1)
publication titles,

• (2) foreign words and
abbreviations, and

• (3) a word used as its
own name.

• Set off parenthetical
words with parentheses.

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CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 511

Electronic reference tools, like reference books, allow
writers to look up facts when they need them. All kinds
of reference materials are available electronically, from

T E C H N O L O G Y I N B R I E F

Software Enhances the Usefulness of Reference Tools

David Rick’s phenomenal illustrations (Blunders in International Business, 2006)
show readers that even large corporations make incredible mistakes.
As soon as Owen Smith was elected chairperson (the vote was almost 2 to 1),
he introduced his plan for reorganization.

Period: Pd 1
Use the period to indicate the end of a declarative sentence, an imperative statement,
or a courteous request.

Declarative sentence: The survey will be completed and returned by October 26.
Imperative statement: Complete and return the survey by October 26.
Courteous request: Will you please complete and return the survey by October 26?

• End a declarative
sentence, an imperative
statement, or a courteous
request with a period.

dictionaries to grammar and style guides, encyclopedias,
ZIP code directories, quotation databases, maps, and
much, much more. These programs vary widely in their
similarities to and differences from print reference books.

Often they enhance the printed form,
giving the user more ways to use them.
Electronic dictionaries let you search for
words the traditional way, with wildcards,
as soundalikes (homophones), by words
in their defi nition, and more. In the bottom
screen, you see a search on the Merriam-
Webster website for the word fuchsia in a
reverse dictionary by searching its defi ni-
tion for the words red and fl ower. As you
can see in the middle screen, the software
identifi ed 19 words with these search
terms. Sometime you may recognize the
word the minute you see it on the list; other
times you’ll need to review the defi nitions
and perhaps check any illustrations. If you
were unsure of the spelling, you could
search by its beginning or ending letters.
Also, you may know the word begins with

fu and ends with a, but not know the middle of the spell-
ing. You could use the asterisk (*) wildcard, searching
with fu*a to fi nd it.
Electronic dictionaries go beyond the printed diction-
ary by providing audio as well. The user here, looking up
the word fuchsia, would simply click on the sound icon
to hear the word pronounced. Additionally, electronic
dictionaries often link to other defi nitions to help users
understand the meaning when words in the defi nition
are unclear. Such dictionaries, as well as all reference
software, help writers to choose words that communi-
cate clearly and to be correct in their writing.

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Pd 2
Use periods after abbreviations or initials.

Ph.D., Co., Inc., a.m., etc.

But omit the periods and use all capitals in the initials or acronyms of agencies,
networks, associations, and such: IRS, NBC, OPEC, EEC.

Pd 3
Use ellipses (a series of periods) to indicate the omission of words from a quoted pas-
sage. If the omitted part consists of something less than a sentence, three periods are
customarily placed at the point of omission (a fourth period is added if the omission is
a sentence or more). If the omitted part is a paragraph or more, however, a full line of
periods is used. In all cases, the periods are separated by spaces.

Logical explanations, however, have been given by authorities in the fi eld. Some
attribute the decline . . . to recent changes in the state’s economy. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Added to the labor factor is the high cost of raw material, which has tended to elimi-
nate many marginal producers. Moreover, the rising cost of electric power in recent
years may have shifted the attention of many industry leaders to other forms of
production.

Question Mark: Q
Place a question mark at the end of sentences that are direct questions.

What are the latest quotations on Disney common stock?
Will this campaign help sell Microsoft products?

But do not use the question mark with indirect questions.

The president was asked whether this campaign would help sell Microsoft
products.
He asked me what the latest quotations on Disney common stock were.

Quotation Marks: QM 1
Use quotation marks to enclose the exact words of a speaker or, if the quotation is
short, the exact words of a writer.
Short written quotations are quotations of four lines or less, although authorities do
not agree on this point. Some suggest three lines—others up to eight. Longer written
quotations are best displayed without quotation marks and with an indented right and
left margin.

Short written quotation: Ben Bernanke sums up his presentation with this
statement: “The central bank will remain vigilant to ensure that recent increases
in infl ation do not become chronic.”
Oral quotation: “This really should bring on a production slowdown,” said Ms.
Kuntz.

If a quotation is broken by explanation or reference words, each part of the quota-
tion is enclosed in quotation marks.

“Will you be specifi c,” he asked, “in recommending a course of action?”

QM 2
Enclose a quotation within a quotation with single quotation marks.

Professor Dalbey said, “It has been a long time since I have heard a student say,
‘Prof, we need more writing assignments.’ ”

• Use a series of periods
to show omissions.

• End direct questions with
the question mark.

• Use quotation marks to
enclose a speaker’s or
writer’s exact words.

• Use single quotation
marks for a quotation
within a quotation.

• Use periods in
abbreviations.

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QM 3
Always place periods and commas inside quotation marks. Place semicolons and
colons outside the quotation marks. Place question marks and exclamation points
inside if they apply to the quoted passage only and outside if they apply to the whole
sentence.

“If we are patient,” he said, “we will reach this year’s goals.” (The comma and
the period are within the quotation marks.)
“Is there a quorum?” he asked. (The question mark belongs to the quoted
passage.)
Which of you said, “I know where the error lies”? (The question mark applies to
the entire sentence.
I conclude only this from the union’s promise to “force the hand of
management”: A strike will be its trump card.

QM 4
Enclose in quotation marks the titles of parts of publications (articles in a magazine,
chapters in a book). But italicize the titles of whole publications or underline if you
are handwriting.

The third chapter of the book Elementary Statistical Procedure is titled
“Concepts of Sampling.”
Anne Fisher’s timely article, “Fatal Mistakes When Starting a New Job,” appears
in the current issue of Fortune.

Semicolon: SC 1
Use the semicolon to separate independent clauses that are not connected by a
conjunction.

The new contract provides wage increases; the original contract emphasized
shorter hours.

Covered by this standard are independent clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs
(transitional expressions) such as however, nevertheless, therefore, then, moreover, and
besides.

The survey fi ndings indicated a need to revise the policy; nevertheless, the
president did not approve the proposed revision.
Small-town buyers favor the old model; therefore, the board concluded that both
models should be marketed.

SC 2
You may use the semicolon to separate independent clauses joined by and, but, or, or
nor (coordinating conjunctions) if the clauses are long or if they have other punctua-
tion in them. In such situations, you may also use the semicolon for special emphasis.

The OCAW and the NUPNG, rivals from the beginning of the new industry,
have shared almost equally in the growth of membership; but the OCAW
predominates among workers in the petroleum-products crafts, including
pipeline construction and operation, and the NUPNG leads in memberships of
chemical workers.
The market price was $6; but we paid $10.

SC 3
Separate by semicolons the items in a list when the items have commas in them.

The following gains were made in the February year-to-year comparison: Fort
Worth, 7,300; Dallas, 4,705; Lubbock, 2,610; San Antonio, 2,350; Waco, 2,240;
Port Arthur, 2,170; and Corpus Christi, 1,420.

• Periods and commas go
inside quotation marks;
semicolons and colons
go outside; question
marks and exclamation
points go inside when
they apply to the quoted
part and outside when
they apply to the entire
sentence.

• Use quotation marks to
enclose titles of parts of
a publication.

• Use the semicolon to
separate independent
clauses not connected by
a conjunction.

• You may choose
to separate with a
semicolon independent
clauses joined by a
conjunction.

• Use the semicolon to
separate items in a list
when the items contain
commas.

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Elected for the new term were Anna T. Zelnak, attorney from Cincinnati; Wilbur T.
Hoffmeister, stockbroker and president of Hoffmeister Associates of Baltimore;
and William P. Peabody, a member of the faculty of the University of Georgia.

SC 4
Use the semicolon between equal (coordinate) units only. Do not use it to attach a de-
pendent clause or phrase to an independent clause.

Not this: The fl ood damaged much of the equipment in Building 113; making it
necessary for management to close the area and suspend some employees.
But this: The fl ood damaged much of the equipment in Building 113, making it
necessary for management to close the area and suspend some employees.
Or this: The fl ood damaged much of the equipment in Building 113; thus, it was
necessary for management to close the area and suspend some employees.

STANDARDS FOR GRAMMAR
Like the review of punctuation standards, the following summary of grammatical stan-
dards is not intended as a complete handbook on the subject. Rather, it is a summary of
the major trouble spots that business writers encounter. If you learn these grammatical
principles, you should be able to write with the correctness expected in business.

Adjective–Adverb Confusion: AA
Do not use adjectives for adverbs or adverbs for adjectives. Adjectives modify only
nouns and pronouns; and adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Possibly the chief source of this confusion occurs in statements in which the modi-
fi er follows the verb. If the modifi er refers to the subject, an adjective should be used.
If it refers to the verb, an adverb is needed.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Spell Check

Eye halve a spelling chequer

It came with my pea sea

It plainly marques four my revue

Miss steaks eye kin knot sea.

Eye strike a key and type a word

And weight four it two say

Weather eye am wrong oar write

It shows me strait a weigh.

As soon as a mist aches is maid

It nose bee fore two long

And eye can put the error rite

Its rare lea ever wrong.

Eye have run this poem threw it

I am shore your pleased two no

Its letter perfect awl the weigh

My chequer tolled me sew.

—Sauce unknown

• Use the semicolon only
between equal units.

• Do not use adjectives for
adverbs.

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CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 515

Not this: She fi led the records quick.
But this: She fi led the records quickly. (Refers to the verb.)

Not this: John doesn’t feel badly.
But this: John doesn’t feel bad. (Refers to the noun.)

Not this: The new cars look beautifully.
But this: The new cars look beautiful. (Refers to the noun.)

It should be noted that many words are both adjective and adverb (little, well, fast,
much). And some adverbs have two forms, one the same as the adjective and the other
with ly (slow and slowly, cheap and cheaply, quick and quickly).

Acceptable: All our drivers are instructed to drive slow.
Acceptable: All our drivers are instructed to drive slowly.

Subject–Verb Agreement: Agmt SV
Nouns and their verbs must agree in number. A plural noun must have a plural verb
form; a singular noun must have a singular verb form.

Not this: Expenditures for miscellaneous equipment was expected to decline.
(Expenditures is plural, so its verb must be plural.)
But this: Expenditures for miscellaneous equipment were expected to decline.

Not this: The president, as well as the staff, were not able to attend. (President is
the subject, and the number is not changed by the modifying phrase.)
But this: The president, as well as the staff, was not able to attend.

Not this: There’s several reasons why we should act.
But this: There are several reasons why we should act.

Compound subjects (two or more nouns joined by and) require plural verbs.

Not this: The salespeople and their manager is in favor of the proposal.
(Salespeople and manager make a compound subject, but is is singular.)
But this: The salespeople and their manager are in favor of the proposal.

Not this: Received in the morning delivery was an ink cartridge and two reams of
copy paper. (Ink cartridge and reams are the subjects; the verb must be plural.)

But this: Received in the morning delivery were an ink cartridge and two reams
of copy paper.

Collective nouns may be either singular or plural, depending on the meaning
intended.

The committee have carefully studied the proposal. (Committee is thought of as
separate individuals.)
The committee has carefully studied the proposal. (The committee is thought of
as a unit.)

As a rule, the pronouns anybody, anyone, each, either, everyone, everybody, neither,
nobody, somebody, and someone take a singular verb. The word none may be either
singular or plural, depending on whether it is used to refer to one unit or to more than
one unit.

Either of the advertising campaigns is costly.
Nobody who watches the clock is successful.
None of the workers understands his assignment.
None of the workers understand their assignments.

Adverbial Noun Clause: AN
Do not use an adverbial clause as a noun clause. Clauses beginning with because,
when, where, if, and similar adverbial connections are not properly used as subjects,
objects, or complements of verbs.

• Verbs must agree
in number with their
subjects.

• Compound subjects
require plural verbs.

• Collective nouns may be
singular or plural.

• The pronouns listed here
are singular.

• Do not use an adverbial
clause as a noun clause.

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516 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

Not this: The reason was because he did not submit a report.
But this: The reason was that he did not submit a report.

Not this: A time-series graph is where (or when) changes in an index such as
wholesale prices are indicated.
But this: A time-series graph is the picturing of . . .

Awkward: Awk
Avoid awkward writing. By awkward writing we mean word arrangements that are
unconventional, uneconomical, or simply not the best for quick understanding.

Dangling Modifi ers: Dng
Avoid the use of modifi ers that do not clearly modify the right word in the sentence.
Such modifi ers are said to dangle. They are both illogical and confusing. You can usually
correct sentences containing dangling constructions by inserting the noun or pronoun
that the modifi er describes or by changing the dangling part to a complete clause.

Not this: Believing that credit customers should have advance notice of the sale,
special letters were mailed to them.
But this: Believing that credit customers should have advance notice of the
sale, we mailed special letters to them. (Improvement is made by inserting the
pronoun modifi ed.)
Or this: Because we believed that credit customers should have advance
notice of the sale, special letters were mailed to them. (Improvement is made by
changing the dangling element to a complete clause.)

Dangling modifi ers are of four principal types: participial phrases, elliptical clauses,
gerund phrases, and infi nitive phrases.

Not this: Believing that District 7 was not being thoroughly covered, an
additional salesperson was assigned to the area. (Dangling participial phrase.)
But this: Believing that District 7 was not being thoroughly covered, the sales
manager assigned an additional salesperson to the area.

Not this: By working hard, your goal can be reached. (Dangling gerund phrase.)
But this: By working hard, you can reach your goal.

Not this: To succeed at this job, long hours and hard work must not be shunned.
(Dangling infi nitive phrase.)
But this: To succeed at this job, one must not shun long hours and hard work.

Not this: While waiting on a customer, the watch was stolen. (Dangling elliptical
clause—a clause without a noun or verb.)
But this: While the salesperson was waiting on a customer, the watch was
stolen.

However, several generally accepted introductory phrases are permitted to dangle.
Included in this group are generally speaking, confi dentially speaking, taking all things
into consideration, and such expressions as in boxing, in welding, and in farming.

Generally speaking, business activity is at an all-time high.
In farming, the land must be prepared long before planting time.
Taking all things into consideration, this applicant is the best for the job.

Sentence Fragment: Frag
Avoid the sentence fragment. Although the sentence fragment may sometimes be used
to good effect, as in sales writing, it is best avoided by all but the most skilled writers.
The sentence fragment consists of any group of words that are used as if they were
a sentence but are not a sentence. Probably the most frequent cause of sentence frag-
ments is the use of a subordinate clause as a sentence.

• Avoid awkward writing.

• Avoid dangling modifi ers
(those that do not clearly
modify a specifi c word).

• Some introductory
phrases are permitted to
dangle.

• Avoid sentence
fragments (words used
as a sentence that are
not a sentence).

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
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17. Correctness of
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© The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 517

Not this: Believing that you will want an analysis of sales for November. We have
sent you the fi gures.
But this: Believing that you will want an analysis of sales for November, we have
sent you the fi gures.

Not this: He declared that such a procedure would not be practical. And that it
would be too expensive in the long run.
But this: He declared that such a procedure would not be practical and that it
would be too expensive in the long run.

Pronouns: Pn 1
Make certain that the word each pronoun refers to (its antecedent) is clear. Failure to
conform to this standard causes confusion, particularly in sentences in which two or
more nouns are possible antecedents or the antecedent is far away from the pronoun.

Not this: When the president objected to Mr. Carter, he told him to mind his own
business. (Who told whom?)
But this: When the president objected to Mr. Carter, Mr. Carter told him to mind
his own business.

Not this: The mixture should not be allowed to boil; so when you do it, watch the
temperature gauge. (It doesn’t have an antecedent.)
But this: The mixture should not be allowed to boil; so when conducting the
experiment, watch the temperature gauge.

Not this: The Model Q is being introduced this year. Ads in USA Today, The Wall
Street Journal, and big-city newspapers over the country are designed to get
sales off to a good start. It is especially designed for the business person who is
not willing to pay a big price.
But this: The Model Q is being introduced this year. Ads in USA Today, The Wall
Street Journal, and big-city newspapers over the country are designed to get
sales off to a good start. The new model is especially designed for the business
person who is not willing to pay a big price.

Confusion may sometimes result from using a pronoun with an implied antecedent.

Not this: Because of the disastrous freeze in the citrus belt, it is necessary that
most of them be replanted.
But this: Because of the disastrous freeze in the citrus belt, most of the citrus
orchards must be replanted.

Except when the reference of which, that, and this is perfectly clear, it is wise to
avoid using these pronouns to refer to the whole idea of a preceding clause. Many times
you can make the sentence clear by using a clarifying noun following the pronoun.

Not this (following a detailed presentation of the writer’s suggestion for
improving the company suggestion plan): This should be put into effect without
delay.
But this: This suggestion plan should be put into effect right away.

Confusion may also result when using a pronoun with a group noun as the antecedent.
For reference to the group as a singular entity:

Not this: The committee gave their decision on the new proposal they reviewed.
But this: The committee gave its decision on the new proposal it reviewed.

For reference to the group as individual units:

Not this: The presenter polled the audience for its interpretation on the data.
But this: The presenter polled the audience for their interpretation on the data.

Pn 2
The number of the pronoun should agree with the number of its antecedent (the word it
stands for). If the antecedent is singular, its pronoun must be singular. If the antecedent
is plural, its pronoun must be plural.

• A pronoun should refer
clearly to a preceding
word.

• Usually avoid using
which, that, and this to
refer to broad ideas.

• The number of a pronoun
should be the same as
that of the word to which
the pronoun refers.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
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518 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

Not this: Taxes and insurance are expenses in any business, and it must be
considered carefully in anticipating profi ts.
But this: Taxes and insurance are expenses in any business, and they must be
considered carefully in anticipating profi ts.

Not this: Everybody should plan for their retirement. (Such words as everyone,
everybody, and anybody are singular.)
But this: Everybody should plan for his or her retirement.

Pn 3
Take care to use the correct case of the pronoun. If the pronoun serves as the subject of
the verb, or if it follows a form of the infi nitive to be, use a pronoun in the nominative
case. (The nominative personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, and they).

He will record the minutes of the meeting.
I think it will be he.

If the pronoun is the object of a preposition or a verb, or if it is the subject of an
infi nitive, use the objective case. (The objective personal pronouns are me, you, him,
her, it, us, them.)

Not this: This transaction is between you and he. (He is nominative and cannot
be the object of the preposition between.)
But this: This transaction is between you and him.

Not this: Because the investigator praised Ms. Smith and I, we were promoted.
But this: Because the investigator praised Ms. Smith and me, we were promoted.

The case of a relative pronoun (who, whom) is determined by the pronoun’s use in
the clause it introduces. One good way of determining which case to use is to substitute
the personal pronoun for the relative pronoun. If the case of the personal pronoun that
fi ts is nominative, use who. If it is objective, use whom.

George Cutler is the salesperson who won the award. (He, nominative, could be
substituted for the relative pronoun; therefore, nominative who should be used.)
George Cutler is the salesperson whom you recommended. (Objective him could
be substituted; thus, objective whom is used.)

The possessive case is used for pronouns that immediately precede a gerund (a
verbal noun ending in ing).

Our selling of the stock frightened some of the conservative members of the board.
Her accepting the money ended her legal claim to the property.

Parallelism: Prl
Parts of a sentence that express equal thoughts should be parallel (the same) in gram-
matical form. Parallel constructions are logically connected by the coordinating con-
junctions and, but, and or. Care should be taken to see that the sentence elements
connected by these conjunctions are of the same grammatical type. That is, if one of
the parts is a noun, the other parts also should be nouns. If one of the parts is an infi ni-
tive phrase, the other parts also should be infi nitive phrases.

Not this: The company objectives for the coming year are to match last year’s
sales volume, higher earnings, and improving customer relations.
But this: The company objectives for the coming year are to match last year’s
sales volume, to increase earnings, and to improve customer relations.

Not this: Writing copy may be more valuable experience than to make layouts.
But this: Writing copy may be more valuable experience than making layouts.

Not this: The questionnaire asks for this information: number of employees, what
is our union status, and how much do we pay.
But this: The questionnaire asks for this information: number of employees,
union affi liation, and pay rate.

• Use the correct case of
pronoun.

• Express equal thoughts
in parallel (equal)
grammatical form.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
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CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 519

Tense: Tns
The tense of each verb, infi nitive, and participle should refl ect the logical time of
happening of the statement. Every statement has its place in time. To communicate that
place exactly, you must select your tenses carefully.

Tns 1
Use present tense for statements of fact that are true at the time of writing.

Not this: Boston was not selected as a site for the headquarters because it was
too near the coast. (Boston is still near the coast, isn’t it?)
But this: Boston was not selected as a site for the headquarters because it is too
near the coast.

Tns 2
Use past tense in statements covering a defi nite past event or action.

Not this: Mr. Burns says to me, “Bill, you’ll never become an auditor.”
But this: Mr. Burns said to me, “Bill, you’ll never become an auditor.”

Tns 3
The time period refl ected by the past participle (having been . . .) is earlier than that of
its governing verb. The present participle (being . . .) refl ects the same time period as
that of its governing verb.

Not this: These debentures are among the oldest on record, being issued in
early 1937.
But this: These debentures are among the oldest on record, having been issued
in early 1937.

Not this: Ms. Sloan, having been the top salesperson on the force, was made
sales manager. (Possible but illogical.)
But this: Ms. Sloan, being the top salesperson on the force, was made sales
manager.

Tns 4
Verbs in subordinate clauses are governed by the verb in the main clause. When the
main verb is in the past tense, you should usually also place the subordinate verb in a
past tense (past, past perfect, or present perfect).

I noticed [past tense] the discrepancy, and then I remembered [same time as main
verb] the incidents that had caused it.

If the time of the subordinate clause is earlier than that of the main verb in past
tense, use past perfect tense for the subordinate verb.

Not this: In early July, we noticed [past] that he exceeded [logically should be
previous to main verb] his quota three times.
But this: In early July, we noticed that he had exceeded his quota three times.

The present perfect tense is used for the subordinate clause when the time of this
clause is subsequent to the time of the main verb.

Not this: Before the war we contributed [past] generously, but lately we forget
[should be a time subsequent to the time of the main verb] our duties.
But this: Before the war we contributed generously, but lately we have forgotten
our duties.

Tns 5
The present perfect tense does not logically refer to a defi nite time in the past. Instead,
it indicates time somewhere in the indefi nite past.

• The tense of each verb
should show the logical
time of happening.

• Use present tense for
current happenings.

• Use past tense for past
happenings.

• The past participle
(having been . . .)
indicates a time
earlier than that of the
governing verb, and the
present participle (being
. . .) indicates the same
period as that of the
governing verb.

• Verbs in the principal
clause govern those in
subordinate clauses.

• Present perfect tense
(have . . .) refers to the
indefi nite past.

• Use of present perfect
tense indicates time
somewhere in the
indefi nite past.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
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520 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

Not this: We have audited your records on July 31 of 2005 and 2006.
But this: We audited your records on July 31 of 2005 and 2006.
Or this: We have audited your records twice in the past.

Word Use: WU
Misused words call attention to themselves and detract from the writing. The pos-
sibilities of error in word use are infi nite; the following list contains only a few of the
common errors of this kind.

Don’t Use Use

a long ways a long way

and etc. etc.

anywheres anywhere

continue on continue

different than different from

have got to must

in back of behind

in hopes of in hope of

in regards to in regard to

inside of within

kind of satisfi ed somewhat satisfi ed

nowhere near not nearly

nowheres nowhere

over with over

seldom ever seldom

try and come try to come

Wrong Word: WW
Wrong words refer to meaning one word and using another. Sometimes these words
are confused by their spelling and sometimes by their meanings. Since the spell check-
er won’t fi nd these errors, you need to proofread carefully to eliminate them. Here are
a few examples:

affect effect

among between

bow bough

capital capitol

cite sight, site

collision collusion

complement compliment

cooperation corporation

deferential differential

desert dessert

except accept

implicit explicit

imply infer

plane plain

principal principle

stationary stationery

• Use words correctly.

• Check the spelling and
meanings of words
carefully.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
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17. Correctness of
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CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 521

STANDARDS FOR THE USE OF NUMBERS: NO
Quantities may be spelled out or expressed as numerals. Whether to use one form or
the other is often a perplexing question. It is especially perplexing to business writers,
for much of their work deals with quantitative subjects. Because the proper expression
of quantities is vital to business writers, the following notes on the use of numbers are
presented.

No 1
Although authorities do not agree on number usage, business writers would do well to
follow the rule of nine. By this rule, you spell out numbers nine and below. You use
fi gures for numbers above nine.

The auditor found 13 discrepancies in the stock records.
The auditor found nine discrepancies in the stock records.

Apply the rule to both ordinal and cardinal numbers:

She was the seventh applicant.
She was the 31st applicant.

No 2
Make an exception to the rule of nine when a number begins a sentence. Spell out all
numbers in this position.

Seventy-three bonds and six debentures were destroyed.
Eighty-nine strikers picketed the north entrance.

No 3
In comparisons, keep all numbers in the same form. If any number requires numeral
form, use numerals for all the numbers.

We managed to salvage 3 printers, 1 scanner, and 13 monitors.

No 4
Use numerals for all percentages.

Sales increases over last year were 9 percent on automotive parts, 14 percent
on hardware, and 23 percent on appliances.

On whether to use the percent sign (%) or the word, authorities differ. One good rule
to follow is to use the percentage sign in papers that are scientifi c or technical and the
word in all others. Also, it is conventional to use the sign following numbers in graph-
ics. The trend in business appears to be toward using the sign. Consistent use of either
is correct.

No 5
Present days of the month in fi gure form when the month precedes the day.

June 29, 2008.

When days of the month appear alone or precede the month, they may be either
spelled out or expressed in numeral form according to the rule of nine.

I will be there on the 13th.
The union scheduled the strike vote for the eighth.
Ms. Millican signed the contract on the seventh of July.
Sales have declined since the 14th of August.

• Spell out numbers
nine and under, and
use fi gures for higher
numbers, except as
follows:

• Spell out numbers that
begin a sentence.

• Keep in the same form all
numbers in comparisons.

• Use numerals for
percentages.

• Use fi gures for days
of the month when the
month precedes the day.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
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522 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

No 6
Use either of the two orders for date information. One, preferred by The Chicago
Manual of Style, is day, month, and year:

On 29 June 2008 we introduced a new product line.

The other is the conventional sequence of month, day, and year. This order requires
that the year be set off by commas:

On June 29, 2008, we introduced a new product line.

No 7
Present money amounts as you would other numbers. If you spell out the number, also
spell out the unit of currency.

Twenty-seven dollars

If you present the number as a fi gure, use the $ with U.S. currency and the appropri-
ate abbreviation or symbol with other currencies.

U.S., Canada, and Mexico US $27.33, Can $27.33, Mex $27.33

Euro countries 202.61

Japan ¥2,178.61

Thailand B⁄ 7,489.91

No 8
Usually spell out indefi nite numbers and amounts.

Over a million people live there.
The current population is about four hundred thousand.
Bill Gates’s net worth is in the billions.

No 9
Spell out a fraction such as one-half that stands alone (without a whole number) or
begins a sentence. However, if this results in long and awkward wording or if the
context is technical, use the numeric form.

Two-thirds of all jobs in the United States are jobs in the information industry.
The median price of a home rose by 6½ percent this year.

No 10
Except in legal documents, do not express amounts in both fi gures and words.

For legal purposes: 25 (twenty-fi ve)
For business use: either the fi gure or the word, depending on circumstance

SPELLING: SP
Misspelling is probably the most frequently made error in writing. And it is the least
excusable. It is inexcusable because all one needs to do to virtually eliminate the error
is to use a dictionary and a spell checker. Unfortunately, spell checkers cannot detect a
correctly spelled, but misused, word.
We must memorize to spell. Thus, becoming a good speller involves long, hard
work. Even so, you can improve your spelling signifi cantly with relatively little effort.
Studies show that fewer than 100 words account for most spelling errors. So if you
will learn to spell these most troublesome words, you will go a long way toward solv-
ing your spelling problems. Eighty of these words appear in Figure 17–1. Although

• For dates, use either day,
month, year or month,
day, year sequence, the
latter with year set off by
commas.

• Present amounts like
other numbers, spelling
units when numbers
are spelled and using
appropriate symbols or
abbreviations when in
fi gures.

• Usually spell indefi nite
numbers and amounts.

• Spell out fractions that
stand alone or begin a
sentence. Use numerics
with whole numbers and
in technical contexts.

• Only use both words and
fi gures for legal reasons.

• Spell words correctly.
Use the dictionary.

• See Figure 17–1 for
the 80 most commonly
misspelled words.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz:
Business Communication:
Making Connections in a
Digital World, 11th Edition
VI. Cross−Cultural
Communication,
Correctness, Technology,
Research
17. Correctness of
Communication
© The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2008

CHAPTER 17 Correctness of Communication 523

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