Work provides satisfaction to people in different ways. The Meaning of Work (MOW) International Research Team identifies six items that add value and satisfaction to one’s job. What are these six items? How are these six items different among people in different countries? Provide some examples. Your response should be at least 200 words in length. You are required to use at least your textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Herdesky, H. (2011). International management: Managing across the borders and cultures. (7 ed., pp. 384-386). Upper Saddle River: The Pearson Education Company.
(Herdesky, 2011)
384 Part 4 ‘ Clobal Human Resources Management
. High individualisrn suggests people would be motivatecl by opportunities for individual
advancement and autonomy; collectivism (low individualism) suggests that motivation
rvil1 more likely work through appeals to group goals and suppol’t’
. High masculinity suggests that most people would be tnore comfortable with the tradition
–
al division of work and roles; in a more feminine oulture, the boundaries could be looser
,
motivating people through more flexible roles and wot* netrvorks.
More recent research, repofied in 2008, and based on Hofstede’s dimensions of individual-
ism and masculinity was conducted by Gelade, Dobson, and Auer. They compared what 50,000
workers in a global pharinaceutical company in 29 nations valued most in their jobs and that
positively impacted their company. The results, based on Hofstede’s individualism dimension,
iho*eci that the higher the level of national individualism (such as is typicai in the United States
the more employees valued their autonomy, opportunities fbr per-sonal :’-l’::’-;:r”;- ” i!’li*
i
a worklif’e baiance. This compared with employees in the more collectivistic countries (sirch as
in China an6 Singapore) who apparently are more motivated when they felt that their jobs 1’u111
utilized their skills, and when they i’eit that the colnpany was providing them with good rt’ot’king
conditions, fringe benehts, and training.ta The findings based on the masculinity dimension were
that the higherihe ievel of “masculinity” (such as in Japan and Mexico), the more motivated
employees*were by being given opportunities for high pay, personal accomplishment, and iob
advancernent. This cornpar”a *ittl those from more “feminine” criltures (such as in Denmark
and Sweden), who ciaimed that factors relatecl to their reiationships with their managers and
co-workers provided more commitment to the organization. The authors conclude that:
The,se fincling,s show that the sources of organizational conwitnlent
are culturally
conclitioner| ctnd that their fficts are predictable fronz Hofstede’s value dimensions
JounNar- oF CRoss-CuLruRAL PsvcHol-ocv
39, uo’ 5 (2008).t5
Misjuclging the importance of these cultural variables in the workplace may result not only
in a failure to motivate but also in demotivation. Rieger and Wong-Rieger present the lbllowing
example:
In TlnilancJ, the infiocfitction of att indit,iductl rnerit borttts trtlan, u’hich runs counter to
the societal rrcrm of group cooperation, ntay reswlt in a tlecline rather thcm an inctectse
itt ptocluctitli4, fiom ettplol’ees |t,ha rcfuse-lo openl}| coftTpete with eaclt other.16
In considering what molivates people, we have to understand their needs, goals, value sys-
tems, ancl expectations, No matter what their nationality or cultural background, people are
driven to fulfiil needs and to achieve goals’ But what are those needso rvhat goais do they want to
achieve, and what can motivate that drive to sal.isfy their goals?
?’*te fdEeanEnfi *f W*rrlq
Because the tbcus in this text is on the needs that aft’ect the working environment, it is important
to understand first what work means to people from diflerent backgrounds. Fot’most people, the
basic meaning of work is tied to economic necessity (money for food, housing, and so forth)
for
the inrlividual and lbr society. However, the additional connotations of work are more subjective’
especially about what work provides other than money-achievement, honor, social contacts,
and so on.
Another way to view work, however, is through its relationship to the rest of a person’s
lif’e. The Thais call work rtgan, which is the same as the Thai word for “play,” and they tend
to introduce periocls of piay in their workdays. On the other hand, most people in China,
Germany, uni th” United States have a more serious attitude toward work’ Especially in
work-
oriented China, seven-clay work weeks with long hours and ferv days off are common’
A study of
average work hours in various countries conducted by Steers i’ound that Koreans
worked longer
hours and took fewer vacation days than worket’s in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore’
India, Japan, and Indonesia.lT The study concluded that the Koreans’ hard work was attributable
to loyalty to the company, group-ot’iented achievefilent’ and enrphasis on gloup harmony and
business relationshiPs.
,
ri
ir
,
tr
ri
:i
i.
iiti
Chapter 1l ” Motivating and Leading 385
Studies on the meaning of work in eight counl.ries were caffied out by George
England
and a group of researchers who are calleci the It4eaning of Work (MOW) International
n”t””.!fr i”u*.ts Their research sought to determine a person’s idea of the relative impor-
tance of work compared to that of ieisure, community, religion, and family. They called this
concept of work work centrality, defined as “the degree of general importance that
working
has in the life of an inclividual at any given point in time.” The results showed, lbr example’
that the Japanese hold work tn be ulry important in their lives; the Brits, on the other hand
(in this uuihor’, birth country) seem io like their leisure tinte more than those in the other
countries surveyed. However, given the complexity of cultural and economic variables
involved in people’s attitude toward work, the results are difficult to generalize, in particular
as
concerns the implications of on-the-job rvork motivation. More relevant to manaSers
(as an aid
to understanding culture-based differences in motivation) are the specific reasons
for vaiuing
work. What kinds of needs does the working environment satisfy, and how does that psycho-
logical contract differ among populations?
The MOW research team provided some excellent insights into this question when it asked
people in the eight countries what they valued about work an joUr. fn”ir research resulis showed the reiative order of importance overall as follows:
1. A needed income Note the similarities of some of these functions with Masiow’s need categories and
Herzberg’s categories of motivators and maintenance factors. Clearly, these studies can international managers to aniicipate what attitudes peopie have toward their work, what of work in their lif’e context are meaningtul to them, and therefore what approach should take in setting up motivation and incentive pians’
In addition to the difTerences among countries within each category-such as the higher
levei of interest and satisfaction derived from work by the Israelis as compared with the
Germans-it is interesting to note the within-country dift’erences. Although income was the-most
important factor fgr all co=untries, it apparently has a far greater impofiance than any other in iapan. In other countries, such as the Netherlands, the relative importance of different was more evenly distributed’ from considering the total cultural context. The low rating given by the Japanese to the prestige founct in work, for instance, suggests that those needs arc more fully satisfied elsewhere
in tn”ir lives, such as within the family and community. In the Middle East, religion plays a major
role in all aspects of lif’e, including work. The Islamic work ethic is a commitment toward fu11j11-
ment, and so business motives are helcl in the highest regard.20 The origin of the Islamic work
ethic is in the Muslirn holy book, the Qur’an, ancl the words of the Prophet Mohammed:
On the da1,o! judgntent, the hone.st Muslint merclrcrtt x,ill stcnd ,sicle bv side tuitJt the
nrctt))rS’ Muslims feel that work is a virtue and an obligation to establish equilibrium in one’s indi-
vidual and social life. The Arab worker is definecl by his or her level of cotnmitment to family,
anr1 wort is perceived as lhe cletermining factor in the ability to enjoy social and family lif’e’2l
A study of 1 i ? managers in Saudi Arabia by Ali lbund that Arab managefs are hi.ghlv committed
to the Islamic work ethic ancl that there is a morierate tendency toward individualism'”
Exhibit l1-1 shows the results of the study and gives more insight into the Islamic work
ethic. Another stucly by Kuroda and Suzuki found that Arabs are serious about their work and
that favoritisrn, give-and-take, and paternalism have no place in the Arab workplace’ They con-
trasted this attitu gral part of tlte workpiace.23 – t{
385 Pan 4 . Globat Human Resources l\4anagement
fixt”tl*t? ‘t’r -t rhe rsrami< work Ethic: Responses by saudi Arabian Managersaa
ortem
Mean* 5.
2. Dedication to work is a virtue. for society’s welfare. 8. Life has no meaning without work. 10. Human relations in organizations should be emphasized I 1. Work enables man to control nature. rather than its results.
4.66 4.59
3.71
4.70
3.97 3.89 3.16
6.
7,
-On other variables affect the perceived meaning of wort and how it satisfies various needs, “*lluin Specifically, the tesearchers fbund that young people in Far East and Middle Eastern countriesteporfed the highest cornpetitiveness and u”quiriiiu”n”ss for monef, while those from NorthAmerica and south America scored highest on work ethics and “*ori”ry’, (that is, continuing toslruggle to master something).2s such ltudies show the complexity of the underlying reasons fordifferences in attitudes toward work-cultural, economic, and so on-which must be taken intcr People’s opinions of how best to satisfy their needs vary across culturcs also. one ciearconclusion is that tnanagers around the world have similar needs but show differing levels ofsatisfaction of those needs derived from theirjobs. Variables other than culture may be at play,however’ one of these variables may be the country’s stage of economic development. Withregard to the transitioning economy in Russia, fo.-“xarnile, a ,tuay by Elenkov foun4 thatRussian managel’s to*$ and belongingness needs as oppor”d to higher-order needs, 392 Part 4 , Global Human Resources Management
d,eadfng DDI, This section on leadership (and the above quote) prompts consideration of the following ques- The task of helping employees realize their highest potential in the workplace is the essence T!”I€ G!.SFAL LEADER’s RCILE AIUD ETSVIRCIN&!Er{T
The greatest competitive advantage global companies in the twenty-first century can have is eff’ective The critical factors necessary for successful leadership abroad have come to be known as One successful leader with a “global mindset” is Carlos Ghosn, a French businessman and Cotnpanies are going global, but the te6ms are divided and scattered all over the EXH|tslT 1’t-4 The Global Mindset of Succesrful Leaders56
Personal work style High “cultural quotient” (CQ) goals and practices.
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$t 394 Parl4 ‘ Global Human Resources Management
in motivation and leadership around the world. More and more often, companies like Italtel using technology such as the intranet to share knowledge and product information throughout glob-al operations. In the case of Italtel, this required wide delegation and empoweffnent of their
employees so that they could decentralize.
Individual manage1s are rcalizing that the Internet is changing their leadership styles and
interactions with employees, as well as their strategic leadership of their organizations. They
have to adapt to the hyplrspeed environment of e-business, as well as to the need for visionaty
leadership in a whole new set of competitive industry dynamics. Some of these new-age leader-
ship issues are discussed in the Management Focus: Leadership in a Digital World’
What does leadership mean in a digital world in which organizations are flexible and fluid and the
pace of change is extremely rapidl Whatt it like to lead in an e-business organization? Jomei
if’ang of VitrL Technology iescribes it as fqllows: “Thereb no place to hide. [The lnternet] forces ‘ls ierent from tiaditional organizations? Managers who’ve worked in both think it is’ How? Three
differences seemio be mJst evident: the speed at which decisions must be made, the importance
of being flexible, and the need to create a vision of the future’
triaking Decisions Fast. Managers in all organizations never have all the data they want
when makinf decisions, but the problem is multiplied in e-business..The situation is changing
rapidly and tie competition is intense. For example, Meg Whitman, then president and CEO of the’leadeiship chaiienge. Every three months we become a different company. ln one wentfrom:b employeesto 140, and from 100,000 registered usersto 2’2 million’ At Hasbro
[where she was pievibusiy an executive], we would set i yearlong strategy, and then we would Leaders in e-businesses seb themselves as sprinters and their contemporaries in traditional
businesses as long-distance runners. They frequenily use the term “lnternet time,” which erence to a rapid-ly speeded-up working environment. “Every [e-business] leader today has unlearn one lesson that was drilled into each one of them: You gather data so that considered decisions. You can’t do that on lnternet time’ ”
Maintaining RexiUility. ln addition to speed, leaders in e-businesses need to be highly
flexible. They have to be able to roll with the ups and downs. They need to be able to group or organization when they find that something doesn’t-work’ They have to encourage
!*perimentaiion. This is what Vtirk Cuban, presideni and co-founder of Broadcast.com. to’say about the importance of being flexible. “When we started, we thought advertising be the core of our business. We were wrong. We thought that the way to define our to distribute servers all over the country. We were *tong. We’ve had to recalibrate again and
MANAGEMENT FOCUS
Leadership in a Digital World
ne {ired,iiskinE shame. Not so amazingly, resistance to the change vanished ffiM.coulter,Managemeni,7thed.(Upper5addleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall,
again-and we’ll have to keep doing it in the future'” in a hyperspeeJ environment, people require more irom their leaders. The rules, lations that characterize more iraditional organizations provide direction and reduce “*ptoyees. i.rponui5itiry of the leadeii to”proviOe direction-through their vision. For instance, co-CEO o{ Chartes ScfrwJ, gatfrered nearly 100 of the company’s senior managers at end of the Golden Cut” Aiiig*. He handei each a jacket inscribed with the phrase Chasm,, and led them across ihe bridge in a symbolii march to kick off his a futt-+teOged lnternet Urolerug”. Getiing people to buy into the vision may require cal actions. For instance, whei tsao Okiwa, chairman-of Sega Enterprises, decided to ;;p;;y into an e-business, his management team resisted-that is, until he defied Japan’s consen- the change would
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XXl”ttglT ‘t 1-5 Culturally Contingent Eeliefs Regarding Effective Leadership Styles6e
Country N Charisma Tbam Self-Protective ParticiPative llumane Autonomous
Australia India Mexico 345 160
32’l 234 543 327
419 283
301
224 370 449 6.09 6.01
6.16
5,57
6.01 5.5’7
6.01 6.02 5.81
6.17 5.57
5.70 6.12 s.56 3.05
3.50 3.80
2.82 3.04 3.64 3.86
3.90 3.91
3.s8 5.7r 5.0s 5.81 4.99 5.54 5.09 s,18 5.14 5.48 4.66 5.09 3.95 4.07
3.79 3.54 5cale j to 7 in order of how important those behaviors are considered for effective leadership (z = highest)’
The charismatic leader shown in this research is someone who is, for example, a visionary,
an inspiration to subordinates, and pedbrmance-oriented. A team-oriented leader is someone who
exhibits diplomatic, integrative, and collaborative behaviors toward the ieam. The self-protective
dimension describes a leader who is self’-centered, conflictual, and status conscious. The partici-
pative leader is one who delegates decision making and encourages subordinates to take responsi-
tility. Hu*une leaders arc those who are compassionate to their employees. An autonotnous to rank autonomy in leadership as relatively unimportant. In Egypt, parlicipation and autonomy
were ranked about equally.To
This broad, path-breaking research by the GLOBE researchers can be very helpful to man-
agers going abroad, enabling them to exercise culturally appropriate leadership styles. In anoth-
“i the researchers, heacled by Rotrert House, to cotrclude that the status and int’luence of leaders
vary a great deal across countries or regions according to the prevailing cultural forces. Whereas
Ameriians, Arabs, Asians, the English, Eastern Europeans, the French, Germans, Latin
Americans, and Russians tend to glorify leaders in both the political and organizational arenas;
those in the Netherlands, Scandinavia, ancl Germanic Switzerland have very difl’erent views of
leadership.Tl Following are sotne sample comments made by managers fiom various countries:
‘ Americans appreciate two kinds of leaclers. They seek empowerment from leaders grant autonomy and delegate authority to subordinates, They also respect the bold, lbrce-
iul, confldent, and risk-taking leader, as personified by John wayne in his movies. ship. Terms llke teacler and manager cany a stigma. If a father is employed as a manager, eql ‘uopaas ur sJa8Bu€Il\tr ‘aJnlcn.Ils sllslcoln€ IsLOS e qll/v\ 3lq€iloJtuoJ sJotu e.l? suelseuopul
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gxtj,BlT ‘t t-? comparative Leadership Dimensions: Participation and tnitiativeTg
Netherlands, the United States, Denmark, and Great Britain believe that empioyees should par-
ticipate in problem solving rather than simply be “fed” all the answers by managers, compared
with managers in those countries on the higher end of this scale, such as ltaly, Indonesia, and
Japan. Laurent’s l’indings about Japan, however, seem to contradict common know.ledge about
Japan’s very participative decision-making culture. In fact, research by Hampden-Turner and
Trornpenaars places Japan as second highest, after Sweden, in the extent to which leaders dele-
gate authority.TT Findings regarding the other countries are similar-shown in Exhibit 11-7′ Other classic studies indicate cross-cultuml dift’erences in the expectations of ieadership
behavior. Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter surveyed more than 3,000 nanagers in 14 countries’ They tion, those managers also had a low appreciation of the capacity and willingness of subordinates
to take an active role in the management ptocess.TS
In addition, several studies of individual countries or areas conclude that a participative
leadership style is frequently inappropriate. Managers in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the
Philippines were found to prefer autocratic leadership, whereas those in Singapore and Hong in the Middle East, in particulaq little delegation occurs. A successful company there must
have strong managers who make all the decisions and who go unquestioned. Much emphasis is
placed on the use of power thro-ugh social contacts and family influence, and the chain of com-
mand must be rigidly follorved.82 are from tive leadership to be more effective with U.S. workers than with Asian and Aiiican employees.
0 = lnw; 100 = high 0 = low; 100 = high
Managerial Initiatlve, Managers’ Extent to Which Leaders Delegate USA Sweden Finland Sweden Norway 73.67 12.24 65.47 54.54 75.51
69.27 66.23
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Russian workers decreased, which the researchers attributed ignored by Russian managers’ as well as cultural value differences’84
As noted, leadership ref’ers not just to the manager-subordinate relationship, important task of running the whole division, or unit for which a manager is responsi-
ble. When that is a globaT responsibility, ii is vitat to be able to adapt local context on *u:ny levels. Nancy tvictcinstry, an American to that imperative. Since she moved to Europe, charged bled wolters Kluwer, the Dutch publishing g.oup, she “has had -of national and cultural differences can both [“o”uii and enliven business.”8s One ence she noticed is that she is one of few women in senior management added to the focus of the Dutch media on the executive as a ees, rather than the focus on the company as in the united States, was continues her restructuring plan, Ms. McKinstry (whose physician husband weeks between his hospitifjob in New York and his family in Amsterdam) i, a mircon”eption that slie is going to apply an American, bottom-line leadership However, she saYs:
Tltere isn,t that one-size-.ftn-atl approach, ,tot even within product or a customer pobtem in France, there might be an approach extremely well. But if yiu took that same approach and tried to solve ptoblem in Holland, you mightfail’86 Chairman and CEO, Wolters Kluwer Publishing Group’ ys. McKinsrry explains that in southern Europe, there are saylng compared t0 northern Europe and in particular-compared of the u.s. she finds that they often don’t .ounito say “No” to able to achieve what she is asking them. Her leadership are you going to go about meeting this goal?”88
CONCLUSION
Because leadership and motivation entail constant interactions peers, superiors, outside contacts), cultural influences on these rions are t;;””;. certainly, other powerful variables are intricately involved in the inter-
national management context, particuiarly those of economics carefully the entire context anideuelop sensitivity to others’ values tions regarding personal and group interactions, performance, accordinglY.
$ummarY of KeY Points
1. Motivation and leadership are factors in the successful
implementation of desired strategy’ However’ while many tt e Uasic principles are universal, much of the actual content
and process are culture-contingent-a function of an individ-
ual’s needs, value systems, and environmental context’
2. One problem in uiing content theories for cross-cultural
research, such as that created by Maslow’ is the assump-
tion of their universal application’ Because they were
developed in the United States, even the concepts’ such
as achievement or esteem, may have different meanings
in other societies, resuiting in a noncomparable basis
of research.
3. implicit in motivating an ernployee is an. understanding- cross-cultural differences.
4. A reexarnination of motivation relative to Hofstede’s ualism, and masculinity provides another perspective cultural contexts that can influence motivational stllctures’
5. Incentives and reward systems must be designed reflect the motivational structure and relative cultural
emphasis on tive categories of rewards: financial’ social
status, job content, career, and professional’ Pg._384-400 384 Part 4 ‘ Clobal Human Resources Management . High individualisrn suggests people would be motivatecl by opportunities for individual advancement and autonomy; collectivism (low individualism) suggests that motivation rvil1 more likely work through appeals to group goals and suppol’t’ al division of work and roles; in a more feminine oulture, the boundaries could be looser, motivating people through more flexible roles and wot* netrvorks. More recent research, repofied in 2008, and based on Hofstede’s dimensions of individual- ism and masculinity was conducted by Gelade, Dobson, and Auer. They compared what 50,000 workers in a global pharinaceutical company in 29 nations valued most in their jobs and that positively impacted their company. The results, based on Hofstede’s individualism dimension, iho*eci that the higher the level of national individualism (such as is typicai in the United States the more employees valued their autonomy, opportunities fbr per-sonal :’-l’::’-;:r”;- ” i!’li*i a worklif’e baiance. This compared with employees in the more collectivistic countries (sirch as in China an6 Singapore) who apparently are more motivated when they felt that their jobs 1’u111 utilized their skills, and when they i’eit that the colnpany was providing them with good rt’ot’king conditions, fringe benehts, and training.ta The findings based on the masculinity dimension were that the higherihe ievel of “masculinity” (such as in Japan and Mexico), the more motivated employees*were by being given opportunities for high pay, personal accomplishment, and iob advancernent. This cornpar”a *ittl those from more “feminine” criltures (such as in Denmark and Sweden), who ciaimed that factors relatecl to their reiationships with their managers and co-workers provided more commitment to the organization. The authors conclude that: The,se fincling,s show that the sources of organizational conwitnlent are culturally conclitioner| ctnd that their fficts are predictable fronz Hofstede’s value dimensions JounNar- oF CRoss-CuLruRAL PsvcHol-ocv Misjuclging the importance of these cultural variables in the workplace may result not only in a failure to motivate but also in demotivation. Rieger and Wong-Rieger present the lbllowing example: In TlnilancJ, the infiocfitction of att indit,iductl rnerit borttts trtlan, u’hich runs counter to the societal rrcrm of group cooperation, ntay reswlt in a tlecline rather thcm an inctectse itt ptocluctitli4, fiom ettplol’ees |t,ha rcfuse-lo openl}| coftTpete with eaclt other.16 In considering what molivates people, we have to understand their needs, goals, value sys- tems, ancl expectations, No matter what their nationality or cultural background, people are driven to fulfiil needs and to achieve goals’ But what are those needso rvhat goais do they want to achieve, and what can motivate that drive to sal.isfy their goals? ?’*te fdEeanEnfi *f W*rrlq Because the tbcus in this text is on the needs that aft’ect the working environment, it is important to understand first what work means to people from diflerent backgrounds. Fot’most people, the basic meaning of work is tied to economic necessity (money for food, housing, and so forth) for the inrlividual and lbr society. However, the additional connotations of work are more subjective’ especially about what work provides other than money-achievement, honor, social contacts, and so on. Another way to view work, however, is through its relationship to the rest of a person’s lif’e. The Thais call work rtgan, which is the same as the Thai word for “play,” and they tend to introduce periocls of piay in their workdays. On the other hand, most people in China, Germany, uni th” United States have a more serious attitude toward work’ Especially in work- oriented China, seven-clay work weeks with long hours and ferv days off are common’ A study of average work hours in various countries conducted by Steers i’ound that Koreans worked longer hours and took fewer vacation days than worket’s in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore’ India, Japan, and Indonesia.lT The study concluded that the Koreans’ hard work was attributable to loyalty to the company, group-ot’iented achievefilent’ and enrphasis on gloup harmony and business relationshiPs. , ri ir ,tr ri :i iiti Chapter 1l ” Motivating and Leading 385 Studies on the meaning of work in eight counl.ries were caffied out by George England and a group of researchers who are calleci the It4eaning of Work (MOW) International n”t””.!fr i”u*.ts Their research sought to determine a person’s idea of the relative impor- tance of work compared to that of ieisure, community, religion, and family. They called this concept of work work centrality, defined as “the degree of general importance that working has in the life of an inclividual at any given point in time.” The results showed, lbr example’ that the Japanese hold work tn be ulry important in their lives; the Brits, on the other hand (in this uuihor’, birth country) seem io like their leisure tinte more than those in the other countries surveyed. However, given the complexity of cultural and economic variables involved in people’s attitude toward work, the results are difficult to generalize, in particular as concerns the implications of on-the-job rvork motivation. More relevant to manaSers (as an aid to understanding culture-based differences in motivation) are the specific reasons for vaiuing work. What kinds of needs does the working environment satisfy, and how does that psycho- logical contract differ among populations? The MOW research team provided some excellent insights into this question when it asked people in the eight countries what they valued about work an ureldxe {eq1 .,(ries puolluzruuSro pue sssursnq pqo16 o^?q lsntu sJapuol e l}teJJa }sql pepnls .uoc ,{eq1 .seruedruol 0E uI SJep€aI pqo13 971 pa^Io^ul qsJBeseJ J’eql :{3slg pue .uesraEa.I5 .oo,,,,oy{ ,(q punol SsnA peoJq€ SSeus^IlJoJJa dqsrepeal EurpreSer uollEtuJoJur JeqlJnd €6€ Sugpual puu Eupe’rpo6 ‘ i 1 radeq3 tr .id’ :lit ,rr r$, $t 394 Parl4 ‘ Global Human Resources Management in motivation and leadership around the world. More and more often, companies like Italtel Spa-a5 using technology such as the intranet to share knowledge and product information throughout their glob-al operations. In the case of Italtel, this required wide delegation and empoweffnent of their employees so that they could decentralize. Individual manage1s are rcalizing that the Internet is changing their leadership styles and interactions with employees, as well as their strategic leadership of their organizations. They have to adapt to the hyplrspeed environment of e-business, as well as to the need for visionaty leadership in a whole new set of competitive industry dynamics. Some of these new-age leader- ship issues are discussed in the Management Focus: Leadership in a Digital World’ What does leadership mean in a digital world in which organizations are flexible and fluid and the pace of change is extremely rapidl Whatt it like to lead in an e-business organization? Jomei if’ang of VitrL Technology iescribes it as fqllows: “Thereb no place to hide. [The lnternet] forces you t6 be on your toes ev”e’ry minute, every second. ” ierent from tiaditional organizations? Managers who’ve worked in both think it is’ How? Three differences seemio be mJst evident: the speed at which decisions must be made, the importance of being flexible, and the need to create a vision of the future’ triaking Decisions Fast. Managers in all organizations never have all the data they want when makinf decisions, but the problem is multiplied in e-business..The situation is changing rapidly and tie competition is intense. For example, Meg Whitman, then president and CEO of efiay, iaid, “We’re giowing at 40 percent to 50 percent per quarter. That pace absolutely changes the’leadeiship chaiienge. Every three months we become a different company. ln one year’.we wentfrom:b employeesto 140, and from 100,000 registered usersto 2’2 million’ At Hasbro [where she was pievibusiy an executive], we would set i yearlong strategy, and then we would simply execute against it. At eBay, we constantly revisit the strategy-and revise the tactics'” Leaders in e-businesses seb themselves as sprinters and their contemporaries in traditional businesses as long-distance runners. They frequenily use the term “lnternet time,” which is a ref- erence to a rapid-ly speeded-up working environment. “Every [e-business] leader today has to unlearn one lesson that was drilled into each one of them: You gather data so that you can make considered decisions. You can’t do that on lnternet time’ ” Maintaining RexiUility. ln addition to speed, leaders in e-businesses need to be highly flexible. They have to be able to roll with the ups and downs. They need to be able to redirect their group or organization when they find that something doesn’t-work’ They have to encourage !*perimentaiion. This is what Vtirk Cuban, presideni and co-founder of Broadcast.com. had to’say about the importance of being flexible. “When we started, we thought advertising would be the core of our business. We were wrong. We thought that the way to define our network was to distribute servers all over the country. We were *tong. We’ve had to recalibrate again and MANAGEMENT FOCUS Leadership in a Digital World ne {ired,iiskinE shame. Not so amazingly, resistance to the change vanished overnight ffiM.coulter,Managemeni,7thed.(Upper5addleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall, again-and we’ll have to keep doing it in the future'” in a hyperspeeJ environment, people require more irom their leaders. The rules, policies, and reg-u- lations that characterize more iraditional organizations provide direction and reduce uncertainty for “*ptoyees. i.rponui5itiry of the leadeii to”proviOe direction-through their vision. For instance, David Pottruck, co-CEO o{ Chartes ScfrwJ, gatfrered nearly 100 of the company’s senior managers at the southern end of the Golden Cut” Aiiig*. He handei each a jacket inscribed with the phrase “Crossing the Chasm,, and led them across ihe bridge in a symbolii march to kick off his plan to turn Schwab into a futt-+teOged lnternet Urolerug”. Getiing people to buy into the vision may require even more radi- cal actions. For instance, whei tsao Okiwa, chairman-of Sega Enterprises, decided to remake his ;;p;;y into an e-business, his management team resisted-that is, until he defied Japan’s consen- sus-charged, lifetime-empioyment cult-ure by announcing that those who resisted the change would 2001), used with Permission’ ‘snourouoJne lou lnq aueulnq .(1ea’r1e1ar pue ‘e,trlednpred puu peluelJo-Iue3l ‘cll€rxsu€q3 fua,r aq o1 pelcedxe sI Jspgsl o^I133JJa u€ ]eq1 apnlcuo3 u€c auo ‘eldruexa IoJ’lIZ€Ig u1 ‘Arlunoc lEqi roJ eplo.rd e1,ts drqs:apeol o^UcoJJa ue -+o luaurdola,tep s^\oll€ suolsuotulp tt€ uo ,fulunoc J€lncIU€d e ro1 tq8p 01 l1ol ulo{ Suipte.r’uoqlppl uI ‘ocrxel4 pue ‘ursouopq ‘fiuo1 Suog ‘fd(Bg ul sl 11 u€q1 €il1snY pu€ ‘liz€Ig ‘€peu€J ul 1u€: -Jod1ur eJoru s€ popJeEer sr .rapuel o^uedr3ruud B Sureq’oldtuexe JoC ‘uolsuarup l€qt uo serrlun.’: osoql Suour€ uost.l€duloc s1r\olle uorsuourrp elSuls € uo uronoq ol do] ruo{ Sutpeer leql eli\ dyqsrapuel asoql uo Lqunor qme Jo] seloss 3qI ‘f,Iunor 1r:ql ulqllll azls sldurts aql i: ‘ ‘, J”s$! -[o3 lsJg erII’,S-II ryEqxg ur u,{1oqs aJv peqxJease’I seulunol esoq} Ja swos ‘toJ sllnseJ eI[J -ries ,paluerro-ru€ol ‘orleursrreqJ aJu lue8urluoo d11ernl1nc eq ol punoJ srol^€qeq pue soldls dqs.ie -peol ?sorll gg.lBlJol€]clp pue .ssolqlnJ ‘cutuaco8e ‘aarletedoocun Sutaq papnlcul slluJl pap.Ie83r ,{learle3eu e{t lrapynq tu?o} € pue tolecruntutuoc pu€ .Iotarlslurrup€ peilpls e ‘lauteS.teq a,u1 -“”31” un .Bur8ernocue ,dqlrorr$sn.4 Eureq se qons srol^eqeq e.ie a;eqrtrfue peldol3u f,11uraue3 s’ror -^er{oq drqs”repeal a^ttrsod aqt t€ql punoJ doql ‘dlpatcadxaun loN’luoSunuor fllu.Inllnr e-IE qrlrl^\ pue paldaccu ,(11esre,lrun eJe sJor^Er{aq drqs.repeal qclq^\ lno pu{ o} Poiu€il sJeqcJesseJ 3q} .uogep pirpn eqt ,,tpt1 .uudu1 ‘unr?1eg ‘ecuerC’,(ueureg :iseqEry oi lsa^{ol .ro.IJ ‘salJluno;6utalo11o1 aql ur snuou JnBJtolnE lo eruasald e^tlul?r aql poluuJ apelsJoH ‘qoJ€osal srq.;o ged Jaqloue uI Jo sanleA eql lou ‘soluurpJoqns io sonlpl eql s133UoJ qoJ€asoJ slq 18ql lno slulod epals.IoH pl.puodsel lsnru Jeptel eq1 q31q,{ oi drqseleutproqns leql sI }I pus’8utuotltpuor lEJntlnJ Jraql puu soleurproqns uo spuadap qcn/{ ‘llr/!\ }e sal(ts e8ueqo o1 f,1rpqe ,(ia>1qun rlsql pu? slepeoi uo qJniu oot ale.riue3uo) e,l.r sdsqrad’sprom Jeqlo q ‘(srepeal pJe^tot sopnilnu ee,{oldua) dqs -elgurp.ioqns ol luaruelduroJ e sr lr ;€ql sr ‘lno siurod eq ‘eln11no due ut dqs;cpeol lnoqP dse.I3 ot l3uJ IsrtnJJ ar{I ,t’soJnilnc umileo ur eucnpordrelunoJ aq uur s.Iatll.I?as3.I uuJLIaiuV ,tuuut dq pa -pueru1uotoJ saq”c-eorcldz luaueS€ueul e,rtludrcrgud 1?q1 sopnlcuot’1JP,J ul ‘epe1s3o11 ‘e1,(1s pql ol eJaqpg ol srotrodns lcadxa {eqt pue ‘a1,{1s dlqs.rapeoi o,’,rludrcrlrud ‘a,rt1e1lnsuoc e re;o’td ol -e{rl aro111 o;e (1eers1 puu uepamg) asuelsrp raryrod uo .ry\ol {ueJ }eql sol.llunoc ut see,(oldrug pue slageueru uaa/tueq uorlourlsrp J€o[o e qtri!\ olquuoJlrIoJ e.Iotu ere ,{oql osnscag irslleu.lelud “oror ,ruotrrp Je^\ocl uo q8rq 1ue.r leql sarJlunos ur saa,(o1due luql ‘elduuxsloJ ‘etunsse uu3 adysdlqs -uo,1n1., puu suollelJedxa ateutp.loqns-.lap€al ,(pnls o1 lutod Sutuuls pooS e apltold (g retdeq3 ur passncsrp) suolsuouilp Islnlln3 ,InoJ s.ep31sJo11 ‘aldruexo .log ‘se1d1s drquepeel o’t’iledtct] -;ed snsla,r JlieJJoln€ .toJ ocua.IeJsJd;o 1e,re1 sllluisJ aql uO lqSrsur sepl,rO-td OSIB qJJ€3saJ Jsqlo L{}.&H*$aH dlqs’aaPeel la!lrs3 ,saseqluersd ur uorsueurp aflo.ic Surpuodseuo3 3r{i qlIA\ ‘9-l I llquxg uI pslsll are s8utpuq .leql’selnqLIUB ]ue$ulluoo ,(1prn11nr oq ol paJeplsuoc oJs qclq/^ puu rssauo6llcaS;e o1 slueutrpadurt lusJa^iun oq ol punoJ a.le rl3trl,4A in .1n i” u€pr^ef ,(q stlnse.r gSO.1g eql u,o{ u^leJp e.r?^\ suolsni?uoc reqilnJ ‘,(1luanbasqn5 zt’s3rluu,eq]€w :fegruSrp puu ,lsepotu .elqunq sr teqt Jeuueu e ut e^uqeq 01 sJepeol .Ileql lcodxe suuls{uley{ . iJa^\od ut aru daql se 3uo1 se-sJap€ol reql dtqs;oar’ sQuJ$ r ‘S/ :(9002) I ‘ou ’02 sanpadta4 pawa6eueyy 1o Iwapety aql ,,’l€O’19 pafo.r6 u.ro-r1 drqs.repeal ul suossal lelnlln) ssolf ilaploqe€ aql lo a^l aLl] ul” (letcgrrces-;1as :11I cneusueqc) Euqet->1s1g’ (snolcsuor-sn]€ls) snoltsuos-sn|€]$ r {snotuouolne) otlslPnPt’uPul . salnq.Ir$v Jepss’I Jo luaruosJoputr luaEupuoJ ‘{1wn1p3 (tue1o,ro1uur) e,rqe.redooc-uo1q . ssaua^llJaJJfl dgs.rapual o1 quaur;padul paraplsuo3 ,tlpsJaqun qIc{L pue sJo-IAeqafl (taPlPq rueal) el4ectuollJluoJ r (leuoqatclsut-cgutusurqc) Eutlenrlour pur leuotleltdsul’ (dtpEarul) ssaulQlroAusrul o ssaua^lpaJJg dgs.rapuel;o sJolsllllJeg pa’IaplsuoJ flpsra’r1u;1 sllElI, pu8 sJoIABqag jgll Ei i* tl ‘$ rfi ‘a i1 {1 ji’ ,iir ‘it .i.{. ,!i !.t .il ‘,$ ii: ,68 Surpeel puu Eurlu,\uol4l . I I reldeqJ ssaua^ll)aJ+l dlqslapeal Jo stnaln lernllnf 9-t I :lglt-tgx 398 Part 4 ” Global Human Resources Management gxtj,BlT ‘t t-? comparative Leadership Dimensions: Participation and tnitiativeTg Netherlands, the United States, Denmark, and Great Britain believe that empioyees should par- ticipate in problem solving rather than simply be “fed” all the answers by managers, compared with managers in those countries on the higher end of this scale, such as ltaly, Indonesia, and Japan. Laurent’s l’indings about Japan, however, seem to contradict common know.ledge about Japan’s very participative decision-making culture. In fact, research by Hampden-Turner and Trornpenaars places Japan as second highest, after Sweden, in the extent to which leaders dele- gate authority.TT Findings regarding the other countries are similar-shown in Exhibit 11-7′ Horveve1, participative leadership should not mean a lack of initiative or responsibility. Other classic studies indicate cross-cultuml dift’erences in the expectations of ieadership behavior. Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter surveyed more than 3,000 nanagers in 14 countries’ They fbund that, although managers arouncl the world consistently tavored delegation and participa- tion, those managers also had a low appreciation of the capacity and willingness of subordinates to take an active role in the management ptocess.TS In addition, several studies of individual countries or areas conclude that a participative leadership style is frequently inappropriate. Managers in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines were found to prefer autocratic leadership, whereas those in Singapore and Hong fong are less autocratic.so Similarly, the Turks have been found to prefer authoritarian leadership, as do the Thais.8l have strong managers who make all the decisions and who go unquestioned. Much emphasis is placed on the use of power thro-ugh social contacts and family influence, and the chain of com- mand must be rigidly follorved.82 The effects of participative ieadership can vary even in one location when the employees are from ism and masculinity was conducted by Gelade, Dobson, and Auer. They compared what 50,000 logical contract differ among populations? ship issues are discussed in the Management Focus: Leadership in a Digital World’ ierent from tiaditional organizations? Managers who’ve worked in both think it is’ How? Three cal actions. For instance, whei tsao Okiwa, chairman-of Sega Enterprises, decided to remake his sus-charged, lifetime-empioyment cult-ure by announcing that those who resisted the change would eq1$u!$\of\srov*qpqdrqsreQqt\eso\1e\uorur{o ottr\ \ur$\e\”asBrro lescqrre $L\-!::?i:ii: pue paldaccu ,(11esre,lrun eJe sJor^Er{aq drqs.repeal qclq^\ lno pu{ o} Poiu€il sJeqcJesseJ 3q} ‘S/ :(9002) I ‘ou ’02 sanpadta4 pawa6eueyy 1o (letcgrrces-;1as :11I cneusueqc) Euqet->1s1g’ ssaua^lpaJJg dgs.rapuel;o sJolsllllJeg pa’IaplsuoJ flpsra’r1u;1 sllElI, pu8 sJoIABqag
2. Interest and satisfaction
3. Contacts with others
4. A way to serve society
5. A means ofkeePing occuPied
6. Stalus and prestige.le
help
aspects
the manager
factor
l’actors
The broader implications oi-such comparisons about what work means to peopie are derived
status and
Mona,ltuso
Islamic Work Ethic
1. Laziness is a vice.
3. Good work benefits both one’s self and others.
4. Justice and generosity in the workplace are necessary conditions
Producing more than enough to meet one’s personal needs contributes
to the prosperity of society as a whole.
One should carry work out to the best of one,s ability.
Work is not an end in itself but a means to lbster personal growth
and social relations.
9. More leisure time is good for society.
and encouraged.
12. Creative work is & source of happiness and accomplishment.
13. Any man who works is more likely to get ahead in life.
14. Work gives one the chance to be independent,
15. A successful man is the one who meeis deadiines at work.
16. One should constantly work hard to meet responsibilities.
17. The value of work is derived from the accompanying intention
4.62
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4.47
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4.06
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such as the reiative wealth of a countty. when people have a high standard of living, work can takeon a meaning different from simply providing the basic ecoriomic necessities of life. Ec.nomic
difTerences among countries were found to
variations in attitudes toward work in a studyby Furnham et al’ of over 12,000 young people from 41 countries on all five continents.
account when considering what needs and motivations people bring to the workplace. All in all,research shows a considerable cultural variabiiity arccunj rto* *iJ meets empioyees, needs.
Tfue l{eeds *”Ei*ranciry !n th* lnternationa! Csnt*xt
How can a manager know what motivates people in a specific country? certainly, by drawing onthe experiences of others who have worked there and aiso by inferring the likely type of motiva-
tional structure present by studying what is known about the curture ii that region.
t:.,y:ity
such as self’-actualization.26 Whatever the ,”urnn, many companies that have stafied operationsin other countries lnve experienced differences in the uppur”ir.n*”d, oi th” Iocal employees andhow rhey expect work to,be recognized. Mazda, oriapun, experienced this problem in itlMichigan plant. Japanese firms tend to confer recognition in the iorm of plaques, attention, and
Le patron, der Che.f, and the Boss.
Leaders on Leaclers hip Survq,, 2OA6s3
tions: To what extent, and how, do leadership styles and practices around the world vary? What
are the forces perpetuating that divergence? Where, and why, will that divergence continue to be
the strongest? Is there any evidence for convergence of leadership styles and practices around the
world? What are the fbrces leading to that convergence, and how and where will this conver-
gence occur in the future? What implications do these questions have for cross-cultural leaders?
of leadership. The goal of every leader is to achieve the organization’s objectives while achieving
those of each employee. Today’s global rnanagers realize that increased cnmpetition requires them
to be open to change and to rethink their old culturally conditioned modes of leadership.
global leaders. Yet this competitive challenge is not easy to meet, People tend to rise to leadership
positions by proving themselves able to lead in their home-country cor?orate culture and meeting the
generally accepted behaviors of that national culture. However, global leaders must broaden their
horizons-both strategically and cross-culturally-and develop a more flexible model of leadership
that can be applied anywhere-one that is adaptable to locational situations around the world.s4
the “Global Mindset.” Typically that mindset compares with the traditional mindset in the areas
of general perspective, organizational life, work style, view of change, and learning.55 Some of
the rypical actions and attitudes of a leader with a giobal mindset are shown in Exhibit i 1-4.
CEO of Nissan and Renault. He was born in Brazil of Lebanese parents and educated in France.
While at Renault, he was sent to Japan to turnaround the ailing auto company, Nissan, which he
did very successfully, surprising everyone that he could work so well within the intricate culture
of Japanese business. (For further details see the Part 4 Comprehensive Case Study on Carlos
Chosn.) Ghosn was voted man of the Year 2003 by Fbfiune magazine’s Asian edition, he also
sits on the boalds of Alcoa, Sony, and IBM. This global leader and multicultural manager con-
veyed his high CQ when interviewed by Newsweek:
planet. . . . You have to knaw how to tnotivate people who think very dffirently than
you, tvho have differcnt kittds of sensitivities, so I think the most important message is to
get ptepared to deal with teams who ate multiculnrul, who tlo not think the same way.s1
Open-minded and flexible
Effective cross-cultural communicator and collaborator
Team player in a global matrix
Supports global objectives and balances global with local
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year’.we
simply execute against it. At eBay, we constantly revisit the strategy-and revise the tactics'”
is a ref-
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Focusing on the Vision. Although visionary leadership is important in every organization,
policies, and reg-u-
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leader is, as expected, an individualist, so countries that ranked participation as impo$ant tended
ttuge oithis ongoing research project, interviews with managers from various countries led
who
. The Dutch place emphasis on egalitarianism and are skeptical about the value of leader-
Dutch children will not admit it to their schoolmates.
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Horveve1, participative leadership should not mean a lack of initiative or responsibility.
fbund that, although managers arouncl the world consistently tavored delegation and participa-
fong are less autocratic.so Similarly, the Turks have been found to prefer authoritarian leadership,
as do the Thais.8l
The effects of participative ieadership can vary even in one location when the employees
Sense of Drive and Responsitrility
AuthoritY
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
Singapore
Switzerland
Belgium/Luxembourg
Ireland
France
Austria
Denmark
Italy
Australia
Canada
Spain
New Zealand
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Denmark
Canada
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Netherlands
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Ireland
UK
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Austria
France
Italy
Spain
Portugal
Greece
‘t2.29
69.58
67.86
67.11
66.34
65.71
64.76
64.64
62.56
62.79
62.44
62.A4
61.56
61.55
59.46
58.50
58.25
49.74
68.50
64.38
62.92
62.24
61.33
60.85
60.54
59.53
54.55
54.29
53.62
46.80
44.31
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but also to the
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leader in Europe’ is very sensitive
with the task of turning around the tfou-
plenty
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NANCY McKIusrnY’
Hotland, JutY I 5, 200487
is far more nuance to what people
to the direct’ optimistic style
her, even though they may not be
approach is to listen hard and say “How
with others (employees’
critical management func-
“”;y
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of
of *ttict of the employee’s needs are satisfied by work’
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dimensions of power distance, uncefiainty avoidance’ individ-
on ihe
to
. High masculinity suggests that most people would be tnore comfortable with the tradition-
39, uo’ 5 (2008).t5
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‘ls leadership in e-businesses really all that dif-
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in the Middle East, in particulaq little delegation occurs. A successful company there must
. High individualisrn suggests people would be motivatecl by opportunities for individual
advancement and autonomy; collectivism (low individualism) suggests that motivation
rvil1 more likely work through appeals to group goals and suppol’t’
. High masculinity suggests that most people would be tnore comfortable with the traditional
division of work and roles; in a more feminine oulture, the boundaries could be looser,
motivating people through more flexible roles and wot* netrvorks.
More recent research, repofied in 2008, and based on Hofstede’s dimensions of individual
workers in a global pharinaceutical company in 29 nations valued most in their jobs and that
positively impacted their company. The results, based on Hofstede’s individualism dimension,
iho*eci that the higher the level of national individualism (such as is typicai in the United States
the more employees valued their autonomy, opportunities fbr per-sonal :’-l’::’-;:r”;-” i!’li*i
a worklif’e baiance. This compared with employees in the more collectivistic countries (sirch as
in China an6 Singapore) who apparently are more motivated when they felt that their jobs 1’u111
utilized their skills, and when they i’eit that the colnpany was providing them with good rt’ot’king
conditions, fringe benehts, and training.ta The findings based on the masculinity dimension were
that the higherihe ievel of “masculinity” (such as in Japan and Mexico), the more motivated
employees*were by being given opportunities for high pay, personal accomplishment, and iob
advancernent. This cornpar”a *ittl those from more “feminine” criltures (such as in Denmark
and Sweden), who ciaimed that factors relatecl to their reiationships with their managers and
co-workers provided more commitment to the organization. The authors conclude that:
The,se fincling,s show that the sources of organizational conwitnlent are culturally
conclitioner| ctnd that their fficts are predictable fronz Hofstede’s value dimensions
JounNar-oF CRoss-CuLruRAL PsvcHol-ocv
39, uo’ 5 (2008).t5
Misjuclging the importance of these cultural variables in the workplace may result not only
in a failure to motivate but also in demotivation. Rieger and Wong-Rieger present the lbllowing
example:
In TlnilancJ, the infiocfitction of att indit,iductl rnerit borttts trtlan, u’hich runs counter to
the societal rrcrm of group cooperation, ntay reswlt in a tlecline rather thcm an inctectse
itt ptocluctitli4, fiom ettplol’ees |t,ha rcfuse-lo openl}| coftTpete with eaclt other.16
In considering what molivates people, we have to understand their needs, goals, value systems,
ancl expectations, No matter what their nationality or cultural background, people are
driven to fulfiil needs and to achieve goals’ But what are those needso rvhat goais do they want to
achieve, and what can motivate that drive to sal.isfy their goals?
?’*te fdEeanEnfi *f W*rrlq
Because the tbcus in this text is on the needs that aft’ect the working environment, it is important
to understand first what work means to people from diflerent backgrounds. Fot’most people, the
basic meaning of work is tied to economic necessity (money for food, housing, and so forth) for
the inrlividual and lbr society. However, the additional connotations of work are more subjective’
especially about what work provides other than money-achievement, honor, social contacts,
and so on.
Another way to view work, however, is through its relationship to the rest of a person’s
lif’e. The Thais call work rtgan, which is the same as the Thai word for “play,” and they tend
to introduce periocls of piay in their workdays. On the other hand, most people in China,
Germany, uni th” United States have a more serious attitude toward work’ Especially in work-
oriented China, seven-clay work weeks with long hours and ferv days off are common’ A study of
average work hours in various countries conducted by Steers i’ound that Koreans worked longer
hours and took fewer vacation days than worket’s in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore’
India, Japan, and Indonesia.lT The study concluded that the Koreans’ hard work was attributable
to loyalty to the company, group-ot’iented achievefilent’ and enrphasis on gloup harmony and
business relationshiPs.
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Chapter 1l ” Motivating and Leading 385
Studies on the meaning of work in eight counl.ries were caffied out by George England
and a group of researchers who are calleci the It4eaning of Work (MOW) International
n”t””.!fr i”u*.ts Their research sought to determine a person’s idea of the relative importance
of work compared to that of ieisure, community, religion, and family. They called this
concept of work work centrality, defined as “the degree of general importance that working
has in the life of an inclividual at any given point in time.” The results showed, lbr example’
that the Japanese hold work tn be ulry important in their lives; the Brits, on the other hand
(in this uuihor’, birth country) seem io like their leisure tinte more than those in the other
countries surveyed. However, given the complexity of cultural and economic variables
as
involved in people’s attitude toward work, the results are difficult to generalize, in particular
concerns the implications of on-the-job rvork motivation. More relevant to manaSers (as an aid
to understanding culture-based differences in motivation) are the specific reasons for vaiuing
work. What kinds of needs does the working environment satisfy, and how does that psycho
The MOW research team provided some excellent insights into this question when it asked
people in the eight countries what they valued about work an
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394 Parl4 ‘ Global Human Resources Management
in motivation and leadership around the world. More and more often, companies like Italtel Spa-a5
using technology such as the intranet to share knowledge and product information throughout their
glob-al operations. In the case of Italtel, this required wide delegation and empoweffnent of their
employees so that they could decentralize.
Individual manage1s are rcalizing that the Internet is changing their leadership styles and
interactions with employees, as well as their strategic leadership of their organizations. They
have to adapt to the hyplrspeed environment of e-business, as well as to the need for visionaty
leadership in a whole new set of competitive industry dynamics. Some of these new-age leader
MANAGEMENT FOCUS
Leadership in a Digital World
What does leadership mean in a digital world in which organizations are flexible and fluid and the
pace of change is extremely rapidl Whatt it like to lead in an e-business organization? Jomei
if’ang of VitrL Technology iescribes it as fqllows: “Thereb no place to hide. [The lnternet] forces
you t6 be on your toes ev”e’ry minute, every second. ” ‘ls leadership in e-businesses really all that dif
differences seemio be mJst evident: the speed at which decisions must be made, the importance
of being flexible, and the need to create a vision of the future’
triaking Decisions Fast. Managers in all organizations never have all the data they want
when makinf decisions, but the problem is multiplied in e-business..The situation is changing
rapidly and tie competition is intense. For example, Meg Whitman, then president and CEO of
efiay, iaid, “We’re giowing at 40 percent to 50 percent per quarter. That pace absolutely changes
the’leadeiship chaiienge. Every three months we become a different company. ln one year’.we
wentfrom:b employeesto 140, and from 100,000 registered usersto 2’2 million’ At Hasbro
[where she was pievibusiy an executive], we would set i yearlong strategy, and then we would
simply execute against it. At eBay, we constantly revisit the strategy-and revise the tactics'”
Leaders in e-businesses seb themselves as sprinters and their contemporaries in traditional
use the term “lnternet time,” which is a ref-
businesses as long-distance runners. They frequenily
erence to a rapid-ly speeded-up working environment. “Every [e-business] leader today has to
unlearn one lesson that was drilled into each one of them: You gather data so that you can make
considered decisions. You can’t do that on lnternet time’ ”
Maintaining RexiUility. ln addition to speed, leaders in e-businesses need to be highly
flexible. They have to be able to roll with the ups and downs. They need to be able to redirect their
group or organization when they find that something doesn’t-work’ They have to encourage
!*perimentaiion. This is what Vtirk Cuban, presideni and co-founder of Broadcast.com. had
to’say about the importance of being flexible. “When we started, we thought advertising would
be the core of our business. We were wrong. We thought that the way to define our network was
to distribute servers all over the country. We were *tong. We’ve had to recalibrate again and
again-and we’ll have to keep doing it in the future'”
Focusing on the Vision. Although visionary leadership is important in every organization,
in a hyperspeeJ environment, people require more irom their leaders. The rules, policies, and reg-ulations
that characterize more iraditional organizations provide direction and reduce uncertainty for
Such formalized guidelines typically don’t exist in e-businesses, and it becomes the
“*ptoyees.
i.rponui5itiry of the leadeii to”proviOe direction-through their vision. For instance, David Pottruck,
co-CEO o{ Chartes ScfrwJ, gatfrered nearly 100 of the company’s senior managers at the southern
end of the Golden Cut” Aiiig*. He handei each a jacket inscribed with the phrase “Crossing the
Chasm,, and led them across ihe bridge in a symbolii march to kick off his plan to turn Schwab into
a futt-+teOged lnternet Urolerug”. Getiing people to buy into the vision may require even more radi
;;p;;y into an e-business, his management team resisted-that is, until he defied Japan’s consen
ne {ired,iiskinE shame. Not so amazingly, resistance to the change vanished overnight
ffiM.coulter,Managemeni,7thed.(Upper5addleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall,
2001), used with Permission’
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398 Part 4 ” Global Human Resources Management
gxtj,BlT ‘t t-? comparative Leadership Dimensions: Participation and tnitiativeTg
Managerial Initiatlve, Managers’ Extent to Which Leaders Delegate
Sense of Drive and Responsitrility AuthoritY
0 = lnw; 100 = high 0 = low; 100 = high
USA 73.67 Sweden 75.51
Sweden ‘t2.29 Japan 69.27
Japan 12.24 Norway 68.50
Finland 69.58 USA 66.23
Korea 67.86 Singapore 65.3′,1
Netherlands 67.11 Denmark 64.65
Singapore 66.34 Canada 64.38
Switzerland 65.71 Finland 62.92
Belgium/Luxembourg 65.47 Switzerland 62.24
Ireland 64.76 Netherlands 61.33
France 64.64 Australia 61.22
Austria 62.56 Germany 60.85
Denmark 62.79 New Zealand 60.54
Italy 62.44 Ireland 59.53
Australia 62.A4 UK 58.95
Canada 61.56 Belgium/Luxembourg 54.55
Spain 61.55 Austria 54.29
New Zealand 59.46 France 53.62
Grcece 58.50 Italy 46.80
UK 58.25 Spain 44.31
Norway 54.54 Portugal 42.56
Portugal 49.74 Greece 3″1.95
Netherlands, the United States, Denmark, and Great Britain believe that empioyees should participate
in problem solving rather than simply be “fed” all the answers by managers, compared
with managers in those countries on the higher end of this scale, such as ltaly, Indonesia, and
Japan. Laurent’s l’indings about Japan, however, seem to contradict common know.ledge about
Japan’s very participative decision-making culture. In fact, research by Hampden-Turner and
Trornpenaars places Japan as second highest, after Sweden, in the extent to which leaders delegate
authority.TT Findings regarding the other countries are similar-shown in Exhibit 11-7′
Horveve1, participative leadership should not mean a lack of initiative or responsibility.
Other classic studies indicate cross-cultuml dift’erences in the expectations of ieadership
behavior. Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter surveyed more than 3,000 nanagers in 14 countries’ They
fbund that, although managers arouncl the world consistently tavored delegation and participation,
those managers also had a low appreciation of the capacity and willingness of subordinates
to take an active role in the management ptocess.TS
In addition, several studies of individual countries or areas conclude that a participative
leadership style is frequently inappropriate. Managers in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the
Philippines were found to prefer autocratic leadership, whereas those in Singapore and Hong
fong are less autocratic.so Similarly, the Turks have been found to prefer authoritarian leadership,
as do the Thais.8l
in the Middle East, in particulaq little delegation occurs. A successful company there must
have strong managers who make all the decisions and who go unquestioned. Much emphasis is
placed on the use of power thro-ugh social contacts and family influence, and the chain of command
must be rigidly follorved.82
The effects of participative ieadership can vary even in one location when the employees
are from