CJ Assignment Individual Theories DUE 8/2

Resource: pp. 47-80 of Juvenile Delinquency: The Core

Write a 500- to 750-word paper explaining why some adolescents are motivated to commit crimes while others in similar circumstances are not. Support your explanation by applying at least two of the following individual theories of delinquency:

· Routine activities theory

· General deterrence theory

· Specific deterrence theory

· Biochemical theory

· Neurological theory

· Genetic theory

· Psychodynamic theory

· Behavioral theory

· Cognitive theory

Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines.

Cite at least two sources to support your explanation.

c h a p t e r 3

Individual Views of
Delinquency: Choice and Trai

CHAPTER OUTLINE

CHOICE THEORY

THE RATIONAL DELINQUENT
Choosing Delinquent Act

Lifestyle and

Delinquency

Routine Activities
Focus on Delinquency: Does
Delinquency Pay?

CHOICE THEORY AND
DELINQUENCY PREVENTION
General Deterrence
What Does This Mean to Me? Does
Punishment Work?
Specific Deterrence
Situational Crime Preventio

Do Delinquents Choose Crime?

TRAIT THEORIES

BIOSOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWS
The Origins of Trait Theory
Contemporary Trait Theory

BIOSOCIAL THEORIES OF DELINQUENCY
Biochemical Factors
Focus on Delinquency:
Are You What You Eat?
Neurological Dysfunction
Focus on Delinquency:
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Genetic Influences

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF DELINQUENCY
Psychodynamic Theory
Behavioral Theory
Cognitive Theory
Focus on Delinquency:
The Media and Delinquency

Personality and Delinquency
Intelligence and Delinquency

CRITIQUING TRAIT THEORY VIEWS

TRAIT THEORY AND
DELINQUENCY PREVENTION

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you
should:

1. Know the difference between
choice and trait theories.

2. Understand the concept of
criminal choice.

3. Be familiar with the concept of
routine activities.

4. Be able to discuss the pros and
cons of general deterrence.

5. Recognize what is meant by the
term specific deterrence.

6. Understand the concept of
situational crime prevention.

7. Know the biochemical,
neurological, and genetic
factors linked to

delinquency.

8. Understand the psychodynamic
model of delinquency.

9. Understand why, according to the
behavioral perspective, watching
violent media causes violent
behaviors.

10. Be familiar with the term
psychopath.

11. Recognize the issues linking
intelligence to delinquency.

Co
ur

te
sy

o
f C

N
N

48 C H A P T E R 3

The Parsons case illustrates the view that many youthful offenders are not irrational
or angry, but clever, intelligent, and calculating. Some delinquency experts believe
that the decision to commit an illegal act is a product of an individual decision-
making process that may be shaped by the personal characteristics of the decision
maker. They reject the notion that delinquents are a “product of their environment.”
But if social and economic factors alone determine behavior, how is it that many
youths residing in dangerous neighborhoods live law-abiding lives? According to the
U.S. Census Bureau, more than thirty-four million Americans live in poverty yet the
vast majority do not become delinquents and criminals.1 Research indicates that
relatively few youths in any population, even the most economically disadvantaged,
actually become hard-core, chronic delinquents.2 The quality of neighborhood and
family life may have little impact on the choices individuals make.3

Considering these data, some delinquency experts believe that the root cause of
juvenile misbehavior must be found on the individual, and not the social, level.

Views of delinquency that focus on the individual can be divided into two cate-
gories. One position, referred to as choice theory, suggests that offenders are rational
decision makers who choose to engage in antisocial activity because they believe
their actions will be beneficial. Whether they join a gang, steal cars, or sell drugs,
their delinquent acts are motivated by the belief that crime can be a relatively risk-
free way to better their situation, make money, have fun. They have little fear of
getting caught. Some have fantasies of riches, and others may enjoy the excitement
produced by criminal acts such as beating up someone or stealing a car.

The second view, referred to as trait theory, suggests that delinquent acts, espe-
cially violent ones, are not rational choices but uncontrollable, irrational behaviors.
Many forms of delinquency, such as substance abuse and violence, appear more
impulsive than rational, and these behaviors may be inspired by aberrant physical or

In 2003, a Minnesota high school stu-

dent, Jeffrey Lee Parsons, was charged

in connection with spreading a version

of the “Blaster” virus. The virus targeted

a flaw in Microsoft’s Windows XP and

2000 operating systems, and infected

an estimated four hundred thousand

computers worldwide. In a twelve-page

complaint filed in federal court, Parsons

was charged with one count of “inten-

tionally causing and attempting to cause

damage to a protected computer.”

Described in the media as a heavy-

set loner who was depressed and angry,

Parsons refuted those assumptions dur-

ing a Today Show interview (accessible

on http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3078578/):

Today: In cases like this, there are a lot of

quick, simple characterizations of the

accused given to the media—for exam-

ple, he was a loner, he didn’t have

friends, he was reckless, and so on.

How would you describe yourself?

Parsons: I’m the complete opposite of

the way I’ve been portrayed in the

press. I’m not a loner. I have a very

supportive close group of friends. I’m

not reckless, I don’t do drugs, smoke,

or drink. This is the first time I have

ever had a run-in with the law. It’s

hurtful to see the accounts of me. I’m

not depressed, embarrassed about my

weight, or a misfit.

VIEW THE CNN VIDEO CLIP OF THIS

STORY AND ANSWER RELATED CRITICAL

THINKING QUESTIONS ON YOUR JUVENILE

DELINQUENCY: THE CORE 2E CD.

choice theory
Holds that youths will engage in
delinquent and criminal behavior
after weighing the consequences
and benefits of their actions;
delinquent behavior is a rational
choice made by a motivated
offender who perceives that the
chances of gain outweigh any
possible punishment or loss.

trait theory
Holds that youths engage in delin-
quent or criminal behavior due to
aberrant physical or psychological
traits that govern behavioral
choices; delinquent actions are
impulsive or instinctual rather
than rational choices.

psychological traits. Although some youths may choose to commit crime because
they desire conventional luxuries and power, others may be driven by abnormalities
such as hyperactivity, low intelligence, biochemical imbalance, or genetic defects.

Choice and trait theories are linked because they both focus on an individual’s
mental processes and behavioral reactions. They suggest that each person reacts to
environmental and social circumstances in a unique fashion. Faced with the same set
of conditions, one person will live a law-abiding life while another will use antisocial
or violent behavior to satisfy his or her needs. Choice theorists suggest that the delin-
quent freely chooses antisocial behaviors to satisfy needs, while trait theorists argue
that the choice of antisocial behavior is shaped by mental and physical traits.

CHOICE THEORY
The first formal explanations of crime held that human behavior is a matter of
choice. It was assumed that people had free will to choose their behavior and that
those who violated the law were motivated by greed, revenge, survival, or hedonism.
More than two hundred years ago, utilitarian philosophers Cesare Beccaria and
Jeremy Bentham argued that people weigh the consequences of their actions before
deciding on a course of behavior.4 Their writings formed the core of what used to be
called classical criminology and is now referred to as rational choice theory (or more
simply choice theory).

Choice theory holds that the decision to violate the law comes after a careful
weighing of the benefits and costs of criminal behaviors. Most potential law violators
would cease their actions if the pain associated with a behavior outweighed the gain;
conversely, law-violating behavior seems attractive if the rewards seem greater than
the punishment.5

According to the choice view, youths who decide to become drug dealers compare
the benefits, such as cash to buy cars and other luxury items, with the penalties, such
as arrest followed by a long stay in a juvenile facility. If they believe that drug dealers
are rarely caught, and even when caught avoid severe punishments, they are more
likely to choose to become dealers than if they believe dealers are almost always
caught and punished by lengthy prison terms. They may know or hear about crimi-
nals who make a significant income from their illegal activities and want to follow in
their footsteps.6 Put simply, to prevent crime, the pain of punishment must outweigh
the benefit of illegal gain.7

THE RATIONAL DELINQUENT
The view that delinquents choose to violate the law remains a popular approach to
the study of delinquency. According to this view, delinquency is not merely a func-
tion of social ills, such as lack of economic opportunity or family dysfunction. In
reality, many youths from affluent families choose to break the law, and most indi-
gent adolescents are law abiding. For example, at first glance drug abuse appears to
be a senseless act motivated by grinding poverty and a sense of desperation. How-
ever, economic hopelessness cannot be the motivating force behind the substance
abuse of millions of middle-class users, many of whom plan to finish high school
and go on to college. These kids are more likely to be motivated by the desire for
physical gratification, peer group acceptance, and other social benefits. They choose
to break the law because, despite the inherent risks, they believe that taking drugs
and drinking provide more pleasure than pain. Their entry into substance abuse is
facilitated by their perception that valued friends and family members endorse and
encourage drug use and abuse substances themselves.8 Subscribers to the rational
choice model believe the decision to commit a specific type of crime is a matter of
personal decision making; hence, the term rational choice.

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 49

To read a selection from
Cesare Beccaria’s On Crime
and Punishment, click on Web
Links under the Chapter Re-
sources at http://cj.wadsworth.
com/siegel_ jdcore2e.ht

tp
:

To learn more about the
causes of alcoholism, go to
the National Council on
Alcoholism and Drug Depen-
dence, Inc. (NCADD), a group
that advocates prevention,
intervention, research, and
treatment of alcoholism and
other drug addictions, by
clicking on Web Links under
the Chapter Resources at
http://cj.wadsworth.com/
siegel_jdcore2e.

ht
tp

free will
The view that youths are in charge
of their own destinies and are free
to make personal behavior choices
unencumbered by environmental
factors.

utilitarians
Those who believe that people
weigh the benefits and conse-
quences of their future actions
before deciding on a course of
behavior.

classical criminology
Holds that decisions to violate the
law are weighed against possible
punishments and to deter crime
the pain of punishment must
outweigh the benefit of illegal gain;
led to graduated

punishments

based on seriousness of the crime
(let the punishment fit the crime).

Choosing Delinquent Acts
The focus of choice theory is on the act, not on the offender. The concepts of delin-
quent and delinquency are considered separate: delinquents are youth who maintain
the propensity to commit delinquent acts; delinquency is an event during which
someone violates the criminal law.9 Even if youths have a delinquent propensity
and are motivated to commit crimes, they may not do so if the opportunity to is
restricted or absent. For example, they may want to break into a home but are fright-
ened off by a security system, guard dog, or gun-toting owner. In contrast, the least-
motivated adolescent may turn to crime if the rewards are very attractive, the chance
of apprehension small, and the punishment tolerable. Why a child has the propensity
to commit delinquent acts is an issue quite distinct from the reasons a delinquent
decides to break into a particular house one day or to sell narcotics the next.

The decision to “choose” delinquency occurs when an offender decides to take
the chance of violating the law after considering his or her situation (that is, need for
money, opportunities for conventional success), values (conscience, need for peer
approval), and situational factors (the likelihood of getting caught, the punishment
if apprehended). Conversely, the decision to forgo law-violating behavior may be
based on the perception that the benefits are no longer good or the probability of
successfully completing a crime is less than the chance of being caught. For example,
aging out may occur because as delinquents mature they begin to realize that the
risks of crime are greater than the potential profits. The solution to crime, therefore,
may be formulating policies that will cause potential delinquents to choose conven-
tional behaviors.10 The fact that delinquency can provide benefits to adolescents—
and what to do about this—is the subject of the following

Focus on Delinquency

feature.

Lifestyle and Delinquency
Lifestyle also affects the decision to engage in delinquency. For example, adolescents
who are granted a lot of time socializing with peers are more likely to engage in de-
viant behaviors, especially if their parents are not around to supervise or control
their behavior.11 Teenage boys may have the highest crime rates because they, rather
than girls, have the freedom to engage in unsupervised socialization.12 Girls who
are physically mature and have more freedom without parental supervision are the
ones most likely to have the opportunity to engage in antisocial acts.13

If lifestyle influences choice, can providing kids with “character-building” activi-
ties—such as a part-time job after school—reduce their involvement in delinquency?
Research shows that adolescent work experience may actually increase antisocial
activity rather than limit its occurrence. Kids who get jobs may be looking for an
easy opportunity to acquire cash to buy drugs and alcohol; after-school jobs may
attract teens who are more impulsive than ambitious.14 At work, the opportunity to
socialize with deviant peers combined with lack of parental supervision increases
criminal motivation.15 While some adults may think that providing teens with a job
will reduce their criminal activity (“idle hands are the devil’s workshop”) many qual-
ities of the work experience—autonomy, increased social status among peers, and
increased income—may neutralize the positive effects of working. If providing jobs
is to have any positive influence on kids, the jobs must in turn provide a learning
experience and support academic achievement.16

Gangs and Choice The emergence of gangs, and their involvement in the drug
trade shows how lifestyle can influence choice. Gang members are well-armed entre-
preneurs seeking to cash in on a lucrative, albeit illegal, “business enterprise.” Gang
leaders are surely “rational decision makers,” constantly processing information:
Who are my enemies? What are the chances of getting caught? Where can I find a
good lawyer?17 Gang members have been found to act like employers, providing

50 C H A P T E R 3

their associates with security and the know-how to conduct “business deals.” When
Steven Levitt and Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh studied the financial rewards of being in a
drug gang, they found that despite enormous risks to their health, life, and freedom,
the average gang members earned slightly more than what they could in the legiti-
mate labor market (about $6 to $11 per hour).18 Why did they stay in the gang?
They believed that there was a strong potential for future riches if they stayed in the
drug business and earned a “management” position (gang leaders earned a lot more
than the rank-and-file members). Being in a teenage drug gang was based on the
perception of the potential for future gain versus the reality of conventional alterna-
tives and opportunities.19 Teen gangs will be discussed further in chapter 8.

Routine Activities
If the motivation to commit delinquent acts is a constant, why do delinquency rates
rise and fall? Why are some areas more delinquency-ridden than others? To answer
these questions, some choice theorists believe that attention must be paid to the
opportunity to commit delinquent acts.20

According to routine activities theory, developed by Lawrence Cohen and Mar-
cus Felson, the volume and distribution of predatory crimes (violent crimes against
persons and crimes in which an offender attempts to steal an object directly from its
holder) in a particular area and at a particular time is influenced by the interaction
of three variables: the availability of suitable targets (such as homes containing easily
saleable goods), the absence of capable guardians (such as homeowners, police, and
security guards), and the presence of motivated offenders (such as unemployed
teenagers)21 (see Figure 3.1 on page 54).

This approach gives equal weight to opportunity and propensity: the decision
to violate the law is influenced by opportunity and the greater the opportunity, the
greater the likelihood of delinquency.22

Lack of Capable Guardians Kids will commit crimes when they believe
their actions will go undetected by guardians such as police, security guards, neigh-
bors, teachers, or homeowners. They choose what they consider safe places to commit
crimes and to buy and sell drugs.23

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 51

According to choice theory,
juvenile offenders are rational
decision makers who choose to
engage in antisocial activity.
Whether they join a gang, steal
cars, or smoke pot, as the kids
here are doing, their delinquent
acts are motivated by the belief
that crime can be a relatively
risk-free way to better their
situation, make money, and
have fun.

ill
A

ro
n/

Ph
ot

oE
di

routine activities theory
The view that crime is a “normal”
function of the routine activities
of modern living; offenses can be
expected if there is a motivated
offender and a suitable target that
is not protected by capable
guardians.

predatory crimes
Violent crimes against persons
and crimes in which an offender
attempts to steal an object directly
from its holder.

Research does show that crime levels are relatively low in neighborhoods where
residents keep a watchful eye on their neighbors’ property.24 Delinquency rates trend
upward as the number of adult caretakers (guardians) who are at home during the
day decreases. With mothers at work and children in day care, homes are left un-
guarded, becoming vulnerable targets. In our highly transient society, the traditional
neighborhood, in which streets are monitored by familiar guardians such as family
members, neighbors, and friends, has been vanishing and replaced by anonymous
housing developments.25 Potential thieves look for these unguarded neighborhoods
in order to plan their break-ins and burglaries.26

Suitable Targets The availability of suitable targets, such as DVD and CD
players, cell phones, digital cameras, jewelry, and cash, will increase crime rates.
Research has generally supported the fact that the more wealth a home contains,
the more likely it is to be a crime target.

52 C H A P T E R 3

Does Delinquency Pay?
The delinquent lifestyle fits well with people who organize
their life around risk taking and partying. Delinquent acts
provide money for drugs and are an ideal mechanism for
displaying courage and fearlessness to one’s running mates.
What could be a better way for kids to show how tough they
are than being able to get into a gang fight with their bud-
dies? Rather than creating overwhelming social problems, a
delinquent way of life may be extremely beneficial to some
kids, helping them overcome the problems and stresses they
face in their daily lives.

According to sociologist Timothy Brezina, crime and
delinquency help some achieve a sense of control or mastery
over their environment. Adolescents in particular may find
themselves feeling “out of control” because society limits their
opportunities and resources. Antisocial behavior gives them
the opportunity to exert control over their own lives and des-
tinies by helping them to avoid situations they find uncom-
fortable or repellant (for example, cutting school, running
away from an abusive home) or obtain resources for desired
activities and commodities (for example, stealing or selling
drugs to buy stylish outfits).

Delinquent acts may help them boost their self-esteem
by attacking, symbolically or otherwise, perceived enemies
(for example, they vandalize the property of an adult who
has given them grief). Drinking and drug taking may allow
some people to ward off depression and compensate for a
lack of positive experiences; they learn how to self-medicate
themselves. Some who are angry at their mistreatment may
turn to violence to satisfy a desire for revenge or retaliation.

Brezina found a great deal of evidence that people en-
gage in antisocial acts in order to solve problems. The litera-
ture on drug and alcohol abuse is replete with examples of
research showing how people turn to substance abuse to
increase their sense of personal power, to become more
assertive, and to reduce tension and anxiety. Some kids em-
brace deviant lifestyles, such as joining a gang, in order to

offend conventional society while at the same time compen-
sating for their feelings of powerlessness or ordinariness.
Engaging in risky behavior helps them feel alive and compe-
tent. There is also evidence that antisocial acts can provide
positive solutions to problems. Violent kids, for example,
may have learned that being aggressive with others is a
good means to control the situation and get what they
want; counterattacks may be one means of controlling
people who are treating them poorly.

Why do adolescents age out of crime? Although crime as
a short-run problem-solving solution may be appealing to
adolescents, it becomes less attractive as they mature and begin
to appreciate the dangers of doing so. Going to a drunken frat
party may sound appealing to sophomores who want to im-
prove their social life, but the risks involved to safety and
reputation make them off-limits to older grads. As people
mature their thinking extends further into the future, and
risky behavior becomes a threat to long-range plans.

CRITICAL THINKING

According to Brezina, as people mature their thinking extends
further into the future and risky behavior threatens long-
range plans. Does this vision adequately explain the aging-
out process? If so, why do some people continue to commit
crime in their adulthood?

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION RESEARCH
Use “rational choice theory” as a key term on InfoTrac

College Edition in order to learn more about how kids might
use planning to commit delinquent acts.

How do people learn to solve problems? To find out, go
to InfoTrac College Edition and use “problem solving” as a
subject guide.

Sources: Timothy Brezina, “Delinquent Problem Solving: An Interpre-
tive Framework for Criminological Theory and Research,” Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency 37:3–30 (2000); Andy Hochstetler,
“Opportunities and Decisions: Interactional Dynamics in Robbery and
Burglary Groups,” Criminology 39:737–763 (2001).

Focus on Delinquency
Juvenile Delinquency: The Core COPYRIGHT © 2005 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc

Delinquents do not like to travel to commit crimes, and look for suitable targets
close to their homes.27 Familiarity with an area gives kids a ready knowledge of es-
cape routes; this is referred to as their “awareness space.”

Motivated Offenders Routine activities theory also links delinquency rates
to the number of kids in the population who are highly motivated to commit crime.
If social forces increase the motivated population, then delinquency rates may rise.
For example, if the number of teenagers in a given population exceeds the number
of available part-time and after-school jobs, the supply of motivated offenders
may increase.28 As the “crack epidemic” of the 1980s waned the delinquency rate
dropped, because crack addicts are highly motivated offenders.

CHOICE THEORY AND DELINQUENCY PREVENTION
If delinquency is a rational choice and a routine activity, then delinquency preven-
tion is a matter of convincing potential delinquents that they will be punished for
committing delinquent acts, punishing them so severely that they never again com-
mit crimes, or making it so difficult to commit crimes that the potential gain is not
worth the risk. The first of these strategies is called general deterrence, the second
specific deterrence, and the third situational crime prevention. Let’s look at each of
these strategies in more detail.

General Deterrence
The general deterrence concept holds that the choice to commit delinquent acts can
be controlled by the threat of punishment. If people believe illegal behavior will
result in severe sanctions, they will choose not to commit crimes.29 If kids believed
that their illegal behavior would result in apprehension and punishment, then only
the truly irrational would commit crime.30

A guiding principle of deterrence theory is that the more severe, certain, and swift
the punishment, the greater the deterrent effect.31 Even if a particular delinquent act
carries a very severe punishment, there will be relatively little deterrent effect if most
people do not believe they will be caught. Conversely, even a mild sanction may deter

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 53

Why are some areas more crime
ridden than others? It may be
because of variations in the
opportunity to commit crimes.
Places that are unguarded may
be more vulnerable to criminal
activities. Crime may occur not
only because a criminal decides
to break the law, but also be-
cause victims place themselves
at risk and no one is around to
protect them from harm.

ic
k

La
cy

/S
to

ck
, B

os
to

general deterrence
Crime control policies that depend
on the fear of criminal penalties,
such as long prison sentences for
violent crimes; the aim is to con-
vince law violators that the pain
outweighs the benefit of criminal
activity.

crime if people believe punishment is certain.32 So if the justice system can con-
vince would-be delinquents that they will be caught—for example, by putting more
police officers on the street—these youths may decide that delinquency simply does
not pay.33

Deterrence and Delinquency Traditionally, juvenile justice authorities
have been reluctant to incorporate deterrence-based punishments on the ground
that they interfere with the parens patriae philosophy. Children are punished less
severely than adults, limiting the power of the law to deter juvenile crime. However,
during the 1990s the increase in teenage violence, gang activity, and drug abuse
prompted a reevaluation of deterrence strategies. Some juvenile courts have shifted
from an emphasis on treatment to an emphasis on public safety.34 Police began to
focus on particular problems in their jurisdiction rather than to react after a crime
occurred.35 They began to use aggressive tactics to deter membership in drug-
trafficking gangs.36 Some police officers were sent into high schools undercover
to identify and arrest student drug dealers.37

Some juvenile court judges became more willing to waive youths to adult
courts.38 The number of offenders under age eighteen admitted to state prison more
than doubled from thirty-four hundred in 1985 to seventy-four hundred in 1997,
about 2 percent of new admissions in each of the thirteen years.39 In addition, legisla-
tors have passed more restrictive juvenile codes, and the number of incarcerated juve-
niles continues to increase. Adolescents are not even spared capital punishment; the
U.S. Supreme Court has upheld the use of the death penalty for youths sixteen years
of age.40 These efforts seemed to have a beneficial effect: the overall delinquency rate
declined as the threat of punishment increased.

Can Delinquency Be Deterred? On the surface, deterrence appears to
have benefit, but there is reason to believe that the benefit is limited. Though delin-
quency rates have declined during a period when deterrence measures are in vogue,

54 C H A P T E R 3

Figure 3.1 Routine Activities Theory Posits
the Interaction of Three Factors

Lack of capable guardians
• Police officers
• Homeowners
• Security systems

Motivated offenders
• Teenage boys
• Unemployed
• Addict population

Suitable targets
• Unlocked homes
• Expensive cars
• Easily transportable goods

Delinquency
Juvenile Delinquency: The Core COPYRIGHT © 2005 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc

that does not necessarily mean that kids were deterred from crime. As you may re-
call, other social factors in play during the same period may have explained the drop,
including lower rates of drug abuse, reduced teen pregnancy, and a strong economy.

Because deterrence strategies are based on the idea of a “rational” offender,
they may not be effective when applied to young people. It is possible that punish-
ment may bring defiance rather than deterrence in a teen population not known
for its reasonableness. Minors tend to be less capable of making mature judgments,
and many younger offenders are unaware of the content of juvenile legal codes.
A deterrence policy (for example, mandatory waiver to the adult court for violent
crimes) will have little effect on delinquency rates of kids who are not even aware
these statutes exist.41 It seems futile, therefore, to try to deter delinquency through
fear of legal punishment. Teens seem more fearful of being punished by their par-
ents or of being the target of disapproval from their friends than they are of the
police.42

It is also possible that for the highest-risk group of young offenders—teens living
in economically depressed neighborhoods—the deterrent threat of formal sanctions
may be irrelevant. Inner-city youngsters may not have internalized the norms that
hold that getting arrested is wrong. They have less to lose if arrested; they have a lim-
ited stake in society and are not worried about their future. They also may not con-
nect their illegal behavior with punishment because they see many people committing
crimes and not getting caught or being punished.

Research also shows that many juvenile offenders are under the influence of
drugs or alcohol, a condition that might impair their decision-making ability.43

Similarly, juveniles often commit crimes in groups, a process called co-offending,
and peer pressure can outweigh the deterrent effect of the law.

In summary, deterring delinquency through the fear of punishment seems to
have worked during the past decade but it is also possible that the reduction in the
delinquency rate was the result of other social factors. Deterrence may be of limited
value in controlling delinquency because children may neither fully comprehend
the seriousness of their acts nor appreciate their consequences.44

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 55

Can delinquency and drug
abuse be deterred when so
many teens consider it fun and
socially acceptable? High school
student Cathy, left, parties with
other rave fans at an abandoned
warehouse in Portland, Oregon.
Oregon’s rave scene is an es-
cape for teens, a worry for par-
ents, and a worrisome challenge
to law enforcement officials.

00
0

AP
/W

id
e

W
or

ld
P

ho
to

co-offending
Committing criminal acts in
groups.

Specific Deterrence
It stands to reason that if delinquents truly are ratio-
nal and commit crimes because they see them as ben-
eficial, they will stop offending if they are caught and
severely punished. What rational person would recidi-
vate after being exposed to an arrest, court appear-
ance, and incarceration in an unpleasant detention
facility, with the promise of more to come? According
to the concept of specific deterrence, if young offend-
ers are punished severely the experience will convince
them not to repeat their illegal acts. Juveniles are pun-
ished by state authorities with the understanding that
their ordeal will deter future misbehavior.

Although the association between punishment
and desistance seems logical, there is little evidence
that punitive measures alone deter future delin-
quency. There are research studies that show that
arrest and conviction may under some circum-
stances lower the frequency of reoffending, a finding
that supports specific deterrence.45 However, other
studies indicate that punishment has little real effect
on reoffending and in some instances may actually
increase the likelihood that first-time offenders will
commit new crimes (recidivate).46 Kids who are
placed in a juvenile justice facility are just as likely to
become adult criminals as those treated with greater
leniency.47 In fact, a history of prior arrests, convic-
tions, and punishments has proven to be the best
predictor of rearrest among young offenders released
from correctional institutions. Rather than deterring
future offending, punishment may encourage it.48

Why does punishment encourage rather than reduce delinquency? According to
some experts, institutionalization cuts youths off from prosocial supports in the
community, making them more reliant on deviant peers. Incarceration may also
diminish chances for successful employment, reducing access to legitimate opportu-
nities. This might help explain why delinquency rates are increasing at the same time
that incarceration rates are at an all-time high.

The experience of punishment itself may motivate some adolescents to reoffend.
For example, the use of mandatory sentences for some crimes means that all youths
who are found to have committed those crimes must be institutionalized; first of-
fenders may then be treated the same as chronic recidivists. These novice offenders
may be packed into overcrowded facilities with experienced violent juveniles and
consequently suffer significant and irrevocable harm from their experience.

Punishment strategies may stigmatize kids and help lock offenders into a delin-
quent career. Kids who are punished may also believe that the likelihood of getting
caught twice for the same type of crime is remote: “Lightning never strikes twice
in the same spot,” they may reason; no one is that unlucky.49

Although some researchers have found that punishment may reduce the fre-
quency of future offending, the weight of the evidence suggests that time served has
little impact on recidivism.50

Situational Crime Prevention
According to choice theory, rational offenders weigh the potential gains of delin-
quent acts and balance them with the potential losses (getting arrested, getting pun-
ished). It stands to reason that if we can convince these rational decision makers that

56 C H A P T E R 3

What Does This Mean to Me?

Does Punishment Work?
To some experts and pundits, if delinquency is punished
severely kids will not risk committing delinquent acts. Con-
sider this statement by Texas congressman Lamar Smith, an
advocate of sending juveniles to adult court:

It is commonsense public policy when states pass laws that
allow or require violent juveniles to be transferred to adult
courts. I strongly believe that we can no longer tolerate
young people who commit violent crimes simply because of
their age. Young people have the ability to decide between
right and wrong, as the vast majority of us do every day. But
those youths who choose to prey on other juveniles, senior
citizens, merchants, or homeowners will be held responsible.
If that choice results in confinement in an adult prison
system, perhaps youths who have a propensity to commit
violent crimes will think twice before acting.

1. Do you think that sending kids to adult prisons will
really deter others from committing crimes?

2. What do you recommend be done to stop or deter
delinquency?

3. Do you think kids who commit crime really have the
capacity to “think twice” before they act?

4. Can you remember ever being in a situation where you
felt forced to break the law because of peer pressure, when
being afraid of the consequences had no real effect on
your behavior?

Source: Lamar Smith, “Sentencing Youths to Adult Correctional Facili-
ties Increases Public Safety,” Corrections Today 65:20 (April 2003).

specific deterrence
Sending convicted offenders to
secure incarceration facilities so
that punishment is severe enough
to convince them not to repeat
their criminal activity.

their illegal activities are risky, the potential gain is minimal, and the opportunity
for success is limited, then they will choose not to commit crime. This is the logic
behind the measures that have become known collectively as situational crime pre-
vention. These strategies are designed to make it so difficult to commit delinquent
acts that would-be offenders will be convinced the risks are greater than the re-
wards.51 Rather than deterring or punishing individuals, they aim to reduce
opportunities to commit delinquent acts. This can be accomplished by:

■ Increasing the effort to commit delinquent acts
■ Increasing the risks of delinquent activity
■ Reducing the rewards attached to delinquent acts
■ Increasing the shame of committing a delinquent act

Increasing the effort of delinquency might involve target-hardening techniques,
such as placing unbreakable glass on storefronts. Some successful target-hardening
efforts include installing a locking device on cars that prevents drunken drivers
from starting the vehicle (the Breath Analyzed Ignition Interlock Device).52 Access
can be controlled by locking gates and fencing yards.53 Facilitators of crime can be
controlled by banning the sale of spray paint to adolescents in an effort to cut down
on graffiti, or putting ID photos on credit cards to reduce their value if stolen.

Increasing the risks of delinquency might involve improving lighting, creating
neighborhood watch programs, controlling building exits, installing security systems, or
increasing the number of security officers and police patrols. The installation of street
lights may convince would-be burglars that their entries will be seen and reported.54

Closed-circuit TV cameras have been shown to reduce the amount of car theft from
parking lots while also reducing the need for higher-cost security personnel.55

Reducing the rewards of delinquency could include strategies such as making car
radios removable so they can be kept in the home at night, marking property so it is
more difficult to sell when stolen, and having gender-neutral phone listings to dis-
courage obscene phone calls. Tracking systems help police locate and return stolen
vehicles. Increasing shame might include efforts to publish the names of some
offenders in the local papers.

Hot Spots and Crackdowns One type of situational crime prevention
effort targets locales that are known to be the scene of repeated delinquent activity.
By focusing on a hot spot—for example, a shopping mall, public park, or housing
project—law enforcement efforts can be used to crack down on persistent youth
crime. For example, a police task force might target gang members who are street-
level drug dealers by using undercover agents and surveillance cameras in known
drug-dealing locales. Unfortunately, these efforts have not often proven to be suc-
cessful mechanisms for lowering crime and delinquency rates.56 Crackdowns seem
to be an effective short-term strategy, but their effect begins to decay once the initial
shock effect wears off.57 Crackdowns also may displace illegal activity to areas where
there are fewer police.

Although these results are discouraging, delinquency rates seem to be reduced
when police officers combine the use of aggressive problem solving with community
improvement techniques (increased lighting, cleaned vacant lots) to fight particular
crimes in selected places.58 For example, a recent initiative by the Dallas Police De-
partment to aggressively pursue truancy and curfew enforcement resulted in lower
rates of gang violence.59

These three methods of delinquency prevention and control are summarized in
Concept Summary 3.1.

Do Delinquents Choose Crime?
Though the logic of choice theory seems plausible, before we can accept its proposi-
tions several important questions need to be addressed. First, why do some poor and

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 57

situational crime prevention
A crime prevention method that
relies on reducing the opportunity
to commit criminal acts by making
them more difficult to perform,
reducing their reward, and increas-
ing their risks.

hot spot
A particular location or address
that is the site of repeated and
frequent criminal activity.

crackdown
A law enforcement operation that
is designed to reduce or eliminate
a particular criminal activity
through the application of aggres-
sive police tactics, usually involv-
ing a larger than usual contingent
of police officers.

desperate kids choose to break the law whereas others who live in the same neigh-
borhoods manage to live law-abiding lives? Conversely, why do affluent suburban
youths choose to break the law when they have everything to lose and little to gain?

Choice theorists also have difficulty explaining seemingly irrational crimes such
as vandalism, arson, and even drug abuse. To say a teenager painted swastikas on a
synagogue after making a “rational choice” seems inadequate. Is it possible that vio-
lent adolescents—such as Dylan Klebold and Eric Harris, who on April 20, 1999,
killed thirteen and wounded twenty-one classmates at Columbine High School—
were “rational” decision makers, or was their behavior the product of twisted minds?
To assume they made a “rational choice” to kill their classmates seems ill advised.

In summary, choice theory helps us understand criminal events and victim pat-
terns. However, the question remains, why are some adolescents motivated to com-
mit crime whereas others in similar circumstances remain law abiding? Why do
some kids choose crime over legal activities? The remaining sections of this chapter
present some possible explanations.

TRAIT THEORIES: BIOSOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWS
Choice theorists would have us believe that young people select crime after weighing the
benefits of delinquent over legal behavior. For example, teens may decide to commit a
robbery if they believe they will make a good profit, have a good chance of getting away,
and even if caught, stand little chance of being severely punished. Conversely, they will
forgo criminal activities if they see a lot of cops around and come to the conclusion they
will get caught and punished. Their choice is both rational and logical.

But a number of experts think this model is incomplete. They believe it is sim-
plistic to infer that all youths choose crime simply because the advantages outweigh
the risks. If that were the case, how could profitless crimes such as violence or van-
dalism be explained? These experts argue that behavioral choices are a function of an
individual’s mental and physical makeup. Most law-abiding youths have traits that
keep them within conventional society. In contrast, youths who choose to engage in
antisocial behavior manifest abnormal mental and physical traits that influence their
choices. When they commit crime, their behavior is shaped by these uncontrollable
mental and physical traits.

The source of behavioral control, therefore, is one of the main differences be-
tween trait and choice theories. Although both views focus on the individual, the
choice theorist views delinquents as rational and self-serving decision makers. The
trait theorist views their “decisions” as a by-product of uncontrollable personal traits.
To a choice theorist, reducing the benefits of crime by increasing the likelihood of

✔ Checkpoints

58 C H A P T E R 3

Delinquency Prevention Methods

Method Central Premise Technique
General deterrence Kids will avoid delinquency Make punishment swift,

if they fear punishment. severe, and certain.

Specific deterrence Delinquents who are punished Use harsh punishments,
severely will not repeat their such as a stay in secure
offenses. detention.

Situational crime Make delinquency more Harden targets, use
prevention difficult and less profitable. surveillance, street lighting.

Concept Summary 3.1

To get detailed information
on the Columbine tragedy,
click on Web Links under the
Chapter Resources at http://
cj.wadsworth.com/siegel_
jdcore2e.ht

tp
:

Checkpoints
✔ Choice theory maintains that

delinquency is rational and can be
prevented by punishment that is
sufficiently severe and certain.

✔ Delinquents who choose crime
must evaluate the characteristics of
a target to determine its suitability.

✔ Routine activities theory suggests
that delinquent acts are a function
of motivated offenders, lack of
capable guardians, and availability
of suitable targets.

✔ General deterrence models are
based on the fear of punishment. If
punishments are severe, swift, and
certain, then would-be delinquents
would choose not to risk breaking
the law.

✔ Specific deterrence aims at reduc-
ing crime through the application of
severe punishments. Once offend-
ers experience these punishments
they will be unwilling to repeat their
delinquent activities.

✔ Situational crime prevention efforts
are designed to reduce or redirect
crime by making it more difficult to
profit from illegal acts.

To quiz yourself on this
material, go to questions
3.1–3.10 on the Juvenile

Delinquency: The Core 2e Web site.

punishment will lower the crime rate. Because trait theorists question whether delin-
quents are rational decision makers, they focus more on the treatment of abnormal
mental and physical conditions as a method of delinquency reduction. In the next
sections, the primary components of trait theory are reviewed.

The Origins of Trait Theory
The first attempts to discover why criminal tendencies develop focused on biological
traits present at birth. This school of thought is generally believed to have originated
with the Italian physician Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909).60 Known as the father of
criminology, Lombroso developed the theory of criminal atavism.61 He found that
delinquents manifest physical anomalies that make them similar to our primitive
ancestors. These individuals are throwbacks to an earlier stage of human evolution.
Because of this link, the “born criminal” has such traits as enormous jaws, strong
canines, a flattened nose, and supernumerary teeth (double rows, as in snakes). Lom-
broso made statements such as: “[I]t was easy to understand why the span of the
arms in criminals so often exceeds the height, for this is a characteristic of apes,
whose forelimbs are used in walking and climbing.”62

Contemporaries of Lombroso refined the notion of a physical basis of crime. Raf-
faele Garofalo (1851–1934) shared Lombroso’s belief that certain physical characteristics
indicate a criminal nature.63 Enrico Ferri (1856–1929), a student of Lombroso, accepted
the biological approach to explaining criminal activity, but he attempted to interweave
social factors into his explanation.64 The English criminologist Charles Goring
(1870–1919) challenged the validity of Lombroso’s research and claimed instead that
delinquent behaviors bore a significant relationship to “defective intelligence.”65 Conse-
quently, he advocated that criminality could best be controlled by regulating the repro-
duction of families exhibiting abnormal traits such as “feeblemindedness.”66

The early views that portrayed delinquent behavior as a function of a single
biological trait had a significant impact on American criminology; biocriminolo-
gists helped develop a science of “criminal anthropology.”67 Eventually, these views
evoked criticism for their unsound methodology. Many trait studies used captive
offender populations and failed to compare experimental subjects with control
groups.68 These methodological flaws make it impossible to determine if biological

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 59

Though choice theory seems
logical, it leaves a number of
questions unanswered: Why do
some poor and desperate kids
choose to break the law when
others manage to live law-
abiding lives? Conversely, why
do affluent suburban youths,
such as those shown here,
choose to break the law when
they have everything to lose
and little to gain?

ny
F

re
em

an
/P

ho
to

Ed
it

For a complete list of the
crime-producing physical
traits identified by Lombroso,
click on Web Links under the
Chapter Resources at http://
cj.wadsworth.com/siegel_
jdcore2e.ht

tp
:

criminal atavism
The idea that delinquents manifest
physical anomalies that make them
biologically and physiologically
similar to our primitive ancestors,
savage throwbacks to an earlier
stage of human evolution.

traits produce delinquency. It is equally plausible that police are more likely to arrest
the mentally and physically abnormal. By the middle of the twentieth century, bio-
logical theories had fallen out of favor.

Contemporary Trait Theory
For most of the twentieth century, most delinquency research focused on social fac-
tors such as poverty and family life. However, a small group of researchers kept alive
the biological approach.69 Some embraced sociobiology, a perspective suggesting that
behavior will adapt to the environment in which it evolved.70 Creatures of all species
are influenced by their innate need to survive and dominate others. Sociobiology
revived interest in a biological basis for crime. If biological (genetic) and psychologi-
cal (mental) makeup controls all human behavior, it follows that a person’s genes
should determine whether he or she chooses law-violating or conventional
behavior.71

Trait theorists argue that a combination of personal traits and environmental
influences produce individual behavior patterns. People with pathological traits,
such as abnormal personality or a low IQ, may have a heightened risk for crime over
the life course.72 This risk is elevated by environmental stresses such as poor family
life, educational failure, and exposure to delinquent peers. The reverse may also
apply: a supportive environment may counteract adverse biological and psychologi-
cal traits.73

According to contemporary trait theorists, by themselves individual deficits do
not cause delinquency. However, possessing suspect individual traits may make a
child more susceptible to the delinquency-producing factors in the environment. For
example, an adolescent suffering from a learning disability may have an increased
risk of school failure; those who fail at school are at risk to commit delinquent acts.
Learning disabilities alone, therefore, are not a cause of delinquency and only present
a problem when they produce school failure. Programs to help learning-disabled
kids achieve in school will prevent later delinquent involvements.

Today trait theory can be divided into two separate branches: the first, most
often called biosocial theory, assumes that the cause of delinquency can be found in
a child’s physical or biological makeup, and the second points the finger at psycho-
logical traits and characteristics.

BIOSOCIAL THEORIES OF DELINQUENCY
The first branch of trait theory—biosocial theory—focuses on the association be-
tween biological makeup, environmental conditions, and antisocial behaviors. Most
research efforts are concentrated in three areas: biochemical factors, neurological
dysfunction, and genetic influences.

Biochemical Factors
This area of research concerns the suspected relationship between antisocial behavior
and biochemical makeup.74 One view is that body chemistry can govern behavior and
personality, including levels of aggression and depression.75 For example, exposure to
lead in the environment and subsequent lead ingestion has been linked to antisocial
behaviors.76 Exposure to the now banned PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls), a chemi-
cal once used in insulation materials, has been shown to negatively influence brain
functioning and intelligence levels.77

There is evidence that a child’s diet may influence his or her behavior through its
impact on body chemistry. For example, research shows that persistent abnormality
in the way the brain metabolizes glucose can be linked to later involvement with
substance abuse.78 The association between diet and crime is the subject of the fol-
lowing Focus on Delinquency.

60 C H A P T E R 3

biosocial theory
The view that both thought and
behavior have biological and social
bases.

Hormonal Levels Antisocial behavior allegedly peaks in the teenage years
because hormonal activity is then at its greatest level. It is possible that increased
levels of testosterone are responsible for excessive violence among teenage boys. Ado-
lescents who experience more intense moods, anxiety, and restlessness also have the
highest crime rates.79 Research has shown that hormonal sensitivity may begin very
early in life if the fetus is exposed to abnormally high levels of testosterone. This may

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 61

Are You What You Eat?
Stephen Schoenthaler has conducted a number of studies
that indicate a significant association between diet and ag-
gressive behavior patterns. In some cases, the relationship is
direct; in others, a poor diet may compromise individual
functioning, which in turn produces aggressive behavior
responses. For example, a poor diet may inhibit school per-
formance, and children who fail at school are at risk for
delinquent behavior and criminality.

In one study of 803 New York City public schools,
Schoenthaler found that the academic performance of
1.1 million schoolchildren rose 16 percent after their diets
were modified. The number of “learning disabled” children
fell from 125,000 to 74,000 in one year. No other changes in
school programs for the learning disabled were initiated
that year. In a similar experiment conducted in a correctional
institution, violent and nonviolent antisocial behavior fell an
average of 48 percent among 8,047 offenders after dietary
changes were implemented. In both these studies, the im-
provements in behavior and academic performance were
attributed to diets containing more vitamins and minerals
compared with the old diets. The greater amounts of these
essential nutrients in the new diets were believed to have
corrected impaired brain function caused by poor nutrition.

Schoenthaler also conducted three randomized con-
trolled studies in which 66 elementary school children, 62
confined teenage delinquents, and 402 confined adult felons
received dietary supplements—the equivalent of a diet pro-
viding more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. In order to
remove experimental bias, neither subjects nor researchers
knew who received the supplement and who received a
placebo. In each study, the subjects receiving the dietary
supplement demonstrated significantly less violent and
nonviolent antisocial behavior when compared with the
control subjects who received placebos. The carefully col-
lected data verified that a very good diet, as defined by the
World Health Organization, has significant behavioral bene-
fits beyond its health effects.

And in Phoenix, Arizona, Schoenthaler along with Ian
Bier experimented with 468 students ages six to twelve years
by giving one group a daily vitamin-mineral supplementa-
tion at 50 percent of the U.S. recommended daily allowance
(RDA) for four months and another group a placebo. He
found that those receiving the vitamin supplement were
involved in significantly less antisocial behavior, a finding
that convinced him that poor nutritional habits in children

that lead to low concentrations of vitamins in the blood
impair brain function and subsequently cause violence and
other serious antisocial behavior. Correction of nutrient
intake, either through a well-balanced diet or low-dose
vitamin-mineral supplementation, corrects the low concen-
trations, improves brain function, and subsequently lowers
institutional violence and antisocial behavior by almost half.

Other research findings have backed up Schoenthaler’s
claims. It is possible that vitamins, minerals, chemicals, and
other nutrients from a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and
whole grains can improve brain function, basic intelligence,
and academic performance—all variables that have been
linked to antisocial behavior.

Still, the relationship between biochemical intake and
abnormal behavior is far from settled. A number of controlled
experiments have failed to substantiate any link between the
two variables. Some research by Marcel Kinsbourne, for ex-
ample, has found that sugar may actually have a calming
effect on children rather than increase their aggressive behav-
iors. Further research is needed to fully understand the rela-
tionship between diet and delinquency.

CRITICAL THINKING
1. If Schoenthaler is correct in his assumptions, should

schools be required to provide a proper lunch for
all children?

2. How would Schoenthaler explain the aging-out process?
(Hint: Do people eat better as they mature? What about
after they get married?)

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION RESEARCH
To read more about the relationship between nutrition

and behavior, use “nutrition and behavior” as a key term
on InfoTrac College Edition.

Sources: Stephen Schoenthaler, “Intelligence, Academic Performance,
and Brain Function” (Stanislaus: California State University 2000).
See also Stephen Schoenthaler and Ian Bier, “The Effect of Vitamin–
Mineral Supplementation on Juvenile Delinquency Among American
Schoolchildren: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled
Trial,” Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine: Research on
Paradigm, Practice, and Policy 6:7–18 (2000); C. Bernard Gesch, Sean
Hammond, Sarah Hampson, Anita Eves, and Martin Crowder, “Influ-
ence of Supplementary Vitamins, Minerals, and Essential Fatty Acids
on the Antisocial Behaviour of Young Adult Prisoners: Randomized,
Placebo-Controlled Trial,” British Journal of Psychiatry 181:22–28
(2002); Marcel Kinsbourne, “Sugar and the Hyperactive Child,”
New England Journal of Medicine 330:355–356 (1994).

Focus on Delinquency
Juvenile Delinquency: The Core COPYRIGHT © 2005 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc

trigger a heightened response to the release of testosterone at puberty. Although
testosterone levels may appear normal, the young male is at risk for overly aggres-
sive behavior.80 Hormonal activity as an explanation of gender differences in delin-
quency will be discussed further in chapter 6.

Neurological Dysfunction
Another focus of biosocial theory is the neurological—or brain and nervous system—
structure of offenders. It has been suggested that children who manifest behaviorial
disturbances may have neurological deficits, such as damage to the hemispheres of
the brain; this is sometimes referred to as minimal brain dysfunction (MBD).81

Impairment in brain functioning may be present at birth, produced by factors such
as low birthweight, brain injury during pregnancy, birth complications, and inherited
abnormalities.82 Brain injuries can also occur later in life as a result of brutal beatings
or sexual abuse by a parent. According to research conducted by Dr. Martin Teicher
of the McLean Hospital in Massachusetts, emotional trauma such as child abuse can
actually cause adverse physical changes in the brain, and these deformities can lead to
depression, anxiety, and other serious emotional conditions.83

Children who suffer from measurable neurological deficits at birth are more
likely to become criminals as adults.84 Clinical analysis of death-row inmates found
that a significant number had suffered head injuries as children that resulted in neu-
rological impairment.85 Evidence has also been found linking brain damage to mental
disorders such as depression.86 In an important study by Adrian Raine, researchers
looked at the medical histories of 4,269 Danish males born between 1959 and 1961.
By age eighteen, boys whose mothers had experienced birth complications and who
had also experienced maternal rejection later in life were more than twice as likely to
commit a violent crime than boys who did not experience birth trauma and maternal
rejection. Raine concluded that birth complications and maternal rejection seemed to
predispose offenders to some kinds of criminal offenses.87

The form of brain dysfunction most often linked to delinquency is Attention
Deficit Hyperactive Disorder, the topic of the following Focus on Delinquency feature.

62 C H A P T E R 3

Early biocriminologists believed
that the physical makeup of
offenders controlled their be-
havior. Biological traits present
at birth were thought to pre-
determine whether people
would live a life of crime. Here
the skull of a criminal is mea-
sured in a study to determine if
brain size and shape are related
to violent behavior.

ol
le

ct
io

n
Vi

ol
le

t/
Ge

tty
Im

ag
es

minimal brain dysfunction
(MBD)
Damage to the brain itself that
causes antisocial behavior injuri-
ous to the individual’s lifestyle and
social adjustment.

Learning Disabilities The relationship between learning disabilities (LD)
and delinquency has been highlighted by studies showing that arrested and incarcer-
ated children have a far higher LD rate than do children in the general population.
Although approximately 10 percent of all youths have some form of learning disorder,
estimates of LD among adjudicated delinquents range from 26 to 73 percent.88 There
are two possible explanations for the link between learning disabilities and delin-
quency.89 One view, known as the susceptibility rationale, argues that the link is caused
by side effects of learning disabilities, such as impulsiveness and inability to take social
cues. In contrast, the school failure rationale assumes that the frustration caused by
poor school performance will lead to a negative self-image and acting-out behavior.

Psychologist Terrie Moffitt has evaluated the literature on the connection between
LD and delinquency and concludes that it is a significant correlate of persistent anti-
social behavior (or conduct disorders).90 She finds that neurological symptoms such
as LD and MBD correlate highly with early onset of deviance, hyperactivity, and ag-
gressiveness.91 And there is new evidence that the factors that cause learning disabili-
ties are also highly related to substance abuse, which may help explain the learning
disability–juvenile delinquency connection. The National Center on Addiction and
Substance Abuse at Columbia University recently released findings that show how
learning disabilities are linked to substance abuse:

■ Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse are very similar to the behavioral
effects of learning disabilities—reduced self-esteem, academic difficulty, loneli-
ness, depression, and the desire for social acceptance. Thus, learning disabilities
may indirectly lead to substance abuse by generating the types of behavior that
typically lead adolescents to abuse drugs.

■ A child with a learning disability is twice as likely to suffer Attention Deficit Dis-
order (ADD) as a member of the general population, and there is a high inci-
dence of ADD among individuals who abuse alcohol and drugs. It is known that
as many as half of those suffering ADD self-medicate with drugs and alcohol.

■ Children who are exposed to alcohol, tobacco, and drugs in the womb are at
higher risk for various developmental disorders, including learning disabilities.
Furthermore, a mother who uses drugs while pregnant may be a predictor that
the child will grow up in a home with a parent who is a substance abuser. This
too will increase the risk that the child will abuse drugs or alcohol himself.92

Despite this evidence, the learning disability–juvenile delinquency link has always
been controversial. It is possible that the LD child may not be more susceptible to
delinquent behavior than the non-LD child and that the link may be an artifact of bias
in the way LD children are treated at school or by the police. LD youths are more likely
to be arrested, and if petitioned to juvenile court, they bring with them a record of
school problems that may increase the likelihood of their being sent to juvenile court.

Arousal Theory It has long been suspected that adolescents may engage in
crimes such as shoplifting and vandalism because they offer the thrill of “getting
away with it.”93 Is it possible that thrill seekers have some form of abnormal brain
functioning? Arousal theorists believe that some people’s brains function differently
in response to environmental stimuli. We all seek to maintain an optimal level of
arousal: too much stimulation leaves us anxious, and too little makes us feel bored.
However, there is variation in the way children’s brains process sensory input. Some
nearly always feel comfortable with little stimulation, whereas others require a high
degree of environmental input to feel comfortable. The latter group become “sensa-
tion seekers,” who seek out stimulating activities that may include aggressive behav-
ior.94 The factors that determine a person’s level of arousal are not fully understood.
Suspected sources include brain chemistry and brain structure. Another view is that
adolescents with low heart rates are more likely to commit crimes because they seek
out stimulation to increase their arousal to normal levels.95

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 63

learning disabilities (LD)
Neurological dysfunctions that
prevent an individual from learn-
ing to his or her potential.

Genetic Influences
It has been hypothesized that some youths inherit a genetic configuration that pre-
disposes them to aggression.96 In the same way that people inherit genes that control
height and eye color, biosocial theorists believe antisocial behavior characteristics
and mental disorders also may be passed down. Early theories suggested that prone-
ness to delinquency ran in families. However, most families share a similar lifestyle as
well as a similar gene pool, making it difficult to determine whether behavior is a
function of heredity or the

environment.

Parental Deviance If criminal tendencies are inherited, then the children of
criminal parents should be more likely to become law violators than the offspring of
conventional parents. A number of studies have found that parental criminality and
deviance do, in fact, powerfully influence delinquent behavior.97 Some of the most
important data on parental deviance were gathered by Donald J. West and David P.
Farrington as part of the long-term Cambridge Youth Survey. These cohort data indi-
cate that a significant number of delinquent youths have criminal fathers.98 Whereas
8 percent of the sons of noncriminal fathers eventually became chronic offenders,
about 37 percent of boys with criminal fathers were multiple offenders.99 In another
important analysis, Farrington found that one type of parental deviance—schoolyard
aggression or bullying—may be both inter- and intragenerational. Bullies have chil-
dren who bully others, and these second-generation bullies grow up to father children
who are also bullies, in a never-ending cycle.100

64 C H A P T E R 3

Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder
Many parents have noticed that their children do not pay
attention to them—they run around and do things in their
own way. Sometimes this inattention is a function of age; in
other instances it is a symptom of a common learning dis-
ability referred to as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), a condition in which a child shows a developmen-
tally inappropriate lack of attention, distractibility, impulsiv-
ity, and hyperactivity. The various symptoms of ADHD are
listed in the following lists.

Symptoms of ADHD
Lack of Attention

■ Frequently fails to finish projects.
■ Does not seem to pay attention.
■ Does not sustain interest in play activities.
■ Cannot sustain concentration on schoolwork

or related tasks.
■ Is easily distracted.

Impulsivity

■ Frequently acts without thinking.
■ Often calls out in class.
■ Does not want to wait his or her turn.
■ Shifts from activity to activity.
■ Cannot organize tasks or work.

■ Requires constant supervision in school line or while
playing games.

Hyperactivity

■ Constantly runs around and climbs on things.
■ Shows excessive motor activity while asleep.
■ Cannot sit still; is constantly fidgeting.
■ Does not remain in his or her seat in class.
■ Is constantly on the go, like a “motor.”
■ Has difficulty regulating emotions.
■ Has difficulty getting started.
■ Has difficulty staying on track.
■ Has difficulty adjusting to social demands.

No one is really sure how ADHD develops, but some
psychologists believe it is tied to dysfunction in a section of the
lower portion of the brain known as the reticular activating
system. This area keeps the higher brain centers alert and ready
for input. There is some evidence that this area is not working
properly in ADHD kids and that their behavior is really the
brain’s attempt to generate new stimulation to maintain alert-
ness. Other suspected origins are neurological damage to the
frontal lobes of the brain, prenatal stress, and even food addi-
tives and chemical allergies. Some experts suggest that the
condition might be traced to the neurological effects of abnor-
mal levels of the chemicals dopamine and norepinephrine.

Children from any background can develop ADHD, but
it is five to seven times more common in boys than girls. It
does not affect intelligence, and ADHD children often show
considerable ability with artistic endeavors. More common

Focus 0n Delinquency

Farrington’s findings are supported by some recent data from the Rochester
Youth Development Study (RYDS), a longitudinal analysis that has been monitoring
the behavior of a thousand area youths since 1988. RYDS researchers have also found
an intergenerational continuity in antisocial behavior: criminal fathers produce delin-
quent sons who grow up to have delinquent children themselves.101

In sum, there is growing evidence that crime is intergenerational: criminal fa-
thers produce criminal sons who then produce criminal grandchildren. It is possible
that at least part of the association is genetic.102

Twin Studies One method of studying the genetic basis of delinquency is to
compare twins to nontwin siblings. If crime is an inherited trait, identical twins
should be quite similar in their behavior because they share a common genetic
makeup. Because twins are usually brought up in the same household, however, any
similarity in their delinquent behavior might be a function of environmental influ-
ences and not genetics. To guard against this, biosocial theorists have compared the
behavior of identical, monozygotic (MZ) twins with fraternal, dizygotic (DZ) twins;
the former have an identical genetic makeup, whereas the latter share only about
50 percent of their genes. Studies conducted on twin behavior detected a significant
relationship between the criminal activities of MZ twins and a much lower associa-
tion between those of DZ twins.103 About 60 percent of MZ twins share criminal
behavior patterns (if one twin was criminal, so was the other), whereas only 30 per-
cent of DZ twins are similarly related.104 Although this seems to support a connec-
tion between genetic makeup and delinquency, it is also true that MZ twins are more

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 65

in the United States than elsewhere, ADHD tends to run in
families, and there is some suggestion of an association with
a family history of alcoholism or depression.

Estimates of ADHD in the general population range
from 3 to 12 percent, but it is much more prevalent in ado-
lescents, where some estimates reach as high as one-third of
the population. ADHD children are most often treated by
giving them doses of stimulants, most commonly Ritalin and
Dexedrine (or dextroamphetamine), which, ironically, help
these children control their emotional and behavioral out-
bursts. The antimanic, anticonvulsant drug Tegretol has also
been used effectively.

ADHD usually results in poor school performance,
including a high dropout rate, bullying, stubbornness, men-
tal disorder, and a lack of response to discipline; these condi-
tions are highly correlated with delinquent behavior. A series
of research studies now link ADHD to the onset and contin-
uance of a delinquent career and increased risk for antisocial
behavior and substance abuse in adulthood. Children with
ADHD are more likely to use illicit drugs, alcohol, and ciga-
rettes in adolescence and are more likely to be arrested, to be
charged with a felony, and to have multiple arrests than non-
ADHD youths. There is also evidence that ADHD youths
who also exhibit early signs of MBD and conduct disorder
(for example, fighting) are the most at risk for persistent
antisocial behaviors continuing into adulthood. Of course
many, if not most, children who are diagnosed with ADHD
do not engage in delinquent behavior, and new treatment
techniques featuring behavior modification and drug thera-

pies are constantly being developed to help children who
have attention or hyperactivity problems.

CRITICAL THINKING
Considering that many ADHD kids engage in antisocial be-
haviors, should those diagnosed with the condition be
closely monitored by the school system? Would that be fair
to the majority of ADHD kids, who never violate the law?
Would paying special attention to the ADHD population
stigmatize them and actually encourage their law-violating
behaviors?

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION RESEARCH
Use “Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder” as a key

word search on InfoTrac College Edition.

Sources: Molina Pelham, Jr., “Childhood Predictors of Adolescent
Substance Use in a Longitudinal Study of Children with ADHD,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112:497–507 (2003); Peter Muris and
Cor Meesters, “The Validity of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity and
Hyperkinetic Disorder Symptom Domains in Nonclinical Dutch
Children,” Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology
32:460–466 (2003); D. R. Blachman and S. P. Hinshaw, “Patterns of
Friendship Among Girls with and without Attention Deficit/Hyperac-
tivity Disorder,” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 30:625–640
(2002); Terrie Moffitt and Phil Silva, “Self-Reported Delinquency,
Neuropsychological Deficit, and History of Attention Deficit Disor-
der,” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 16:553–569 (1988); Karen
Harding, Richard Judah, and Charles Gant, “Outcome-Based Compar-
ison of Ritalin Versus Food Supplement–Treated Children with
AD/HD,” Alternative Medicine Review 8:319–330 (2003).

To learn more about twin
research, go to the Minnesota
Twin Family Study, “What’s
Special About Twins to
Science?” by clicking on Web
Links under the Chapter
Resources at http://cj.
wadsworth.com/siegel_
jdcore2e.

ht
tp
:
Juvenile Delinquency: The Core COPYRIGHT © 2005 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc

likely to look alike and to share physical traits than DZ twins, and they are more
likely to be treated similarly. Shared behavior patterns may therefore be a function of
socialization and not heredity.

One famous study of twin behavior still under way is the Minnesota Study of
Twins Reared Apart, which is part of the Minnesota Twin Family Study. This research
compares the behavior of MZ and DZ twin pairs who were raised together with oth-
ers who were separated at birth and in some cases did not even know of the other’s
existence. The study shows some striking similarities in behavior and ability for twin
pairs raised apart. An MZ twin reared away from a cotwin has about as good a
chance of being similar to the cotwin in terms of personality, interests, and attitudes

66 C H A P T E R 3

Arousal theorists believe that,
for a variety of genetic and
environmental reasons, some
people’s brains function differ-
ently in response to environ-
mental stimuli. All of us seek to
maintain a preferred or optimal
level of arousal. Too much stim-
ulation may leave us anxious
and stressed out; too little may
make us bored and weary.
Some kids may need the rush
that comes from getting into
scrapes and conflicts in order
to feel relaxed and at ease.

ra
nk

S
ite

m
an

/S
to
ck
, B
os
to
n

Exhibit 3.1 Findings from the Minnesota
Study of Twins Reared Apart

• If you are a DZ twin and your cotwin is
divorced, your risk of divorce is 30 per-
cent. If you are an MZ twin and your co-
twin is divorced, your risk of divorce rises
to 45 percent, which is 25 percent above
the rates for the Minnesota population.
Since this was not true for DZ twins, we
can conclude that genes do influence the
likelihood of divorce.

• MZ twins become more similar with re-
spect to abilities such as vocabularies
and arithmetic scores as they age. As DZ
(fraternal) twins get older they become
less similar in these traits.

• A P300 is a tiny electrical response (a
few millionths of a volt) that occurs in the
brain when a person detects something

that is unusual or interesting. For exam-
ple, if a person were shown nine circles
and one square, a P300 brain response
would appear after seeing the square
because it’s different. Identical (MZ) twin
children have very similar-looking P300s.
By comparison, children who are frater-
nal (DZ) twins do not show as much
similarity in their P300s. These results
indicate that the way the brain processes
information may be greatly influenced by
genes.

• An EEG is a measure of brain activity or
brain waves that can be used to monitor
a person’s state of arousal. MZ twins
tend to produce strikingly similar EEG
spectra; DZ twins show far less similarity.

Source: University of Minnesota–Twin Cities, Department of Psychology, Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart.
www.psych.umn.edu/psylabs/mtfs/special.htm.

as one who has been reared with the cotwin. The conclusion: similarities between
twins are due to genes, not to the environment.105 (See Exhibit 3.1.)

Adoption Studies Another way to determine whether delinquency is an inher-
ited trait is to compare the behavior of adopted children with that of their biological
parents. If the criminal behavior of children is more like that of their biological parents
(whom they have never met) than that of their adoptive parents (who brought them
up), it would indicate that the tendency toward delinquency is inherited.

Studies of this kind have generally supported the hypothesis that there is a link
between genetics and behavior.106 Adoptees share many of the behavioral and intel-
lectual characteristics of their biological parents despite the conditions found in their
adoptive homes. Genetic makeup is sufficient to counteract even extreme conditions
such as malnutrition and abuse.107 Some of the most influential research in this area
has been conducted by Sarnoff Mednick. In one study, Mednick and Bernard Hutch-
ings found that although only 13 percent of the adoptive fathers of a sample of delin-
quent youths had criminal records, 31 percent of their biological fathers had criminal
records.108 Analysis of a control group’s background indicated that about 11 percent
of all fathers have criminal records. Hutchings and Mednick were forced to conclude
that genetics played at least some role in creating delinquent tendencies.109

In sum, twin studies and adoption studies provide some evidence that
delinquent-producing traits may be inherited.

The biological basis of delinquency is reviewed in Concept Summary 3.2.

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF DELINQUENCY
Some experts view the cause of delinquency as psychological.110 After all, most be-
haviors labeled delinquent seem to be symptomatic of some psychological problem.
Psychologists point out that many delinquent youths have poor home lives; destruc-
tive relationships with neighbors, friends, and teachers; and conflicts with authority
figures. These relationships seem to indicate a disturbed personality. Furthermore,
studies of incarcerated youths indicate that their personalities are marked by anti-
social characteristics. And since delinquent behavior occurs among youths in every

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 67

Biological Views of Delinquency

Theory Major Premise Focus
Biochemical Delinquency, especially Explains irrational violence.

violence, is a function of diet, Shows how the environment

vitamin intake, hormonal interacts with personal traits

imbalance, or food allergies. to influence behavior.

Neurological Delinquents often suffer brain Explains the relationship

impairment, as measured by between child abuse and

the EEG. ADHD and minimal delinquency. May be used

brain dysfunction are related to to clarify the link between

antisocial behavior. school problems and

delinquency.

Genetic Criminal traits and predispositions Explains why only a small

are inherited. The criminality of percentage of youth in a

parents can predict the delinquency high-crime area become

of children. chronic offenders.

Concept Summary 3.2

racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic group, psychologists view it as a function of men-
tal disturbance rather than of social factors such as racism and poverty. Many delin-
quents do not manifest significant psychological problems, but enough do to give
clinicians a powerful influence on delinquency theory.

Because psychology is a complex discipline, more than one psychological per-
spective on crime exists. Three prominent psychological perspectives on delinquency
are psychodynamic theory, behavioral theory, and cognitive theory.111 These are
outlined in Figure 3.2.

Psychodynamic Theory
According to the psychodynamic theory, which originated with the Austrian physi-
cian Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), law violations are a product of an abnormal per-
sonality formed early in life.112 The theory argues that the personality contains three
major components. The id is the unrestrained, pleasure-seeking component with
which each child is born. The ego develops through the reality of living in the world
and helps restrain the id’s need for immediate gratification. The superego develops
through interactions with parents and others and represents the conscience and the
moral rules that are shared by most adults.

All three segments of the personality operate simultaneously. The id dictates
needs and desires, the superego counteracts the id by fostering feelings of morality,
and the ego evaluates the reality of a position between these two extremes. If these
components are balanced, the individual can lead a normal life. If one aspect of the
personality becomes dominant at the expense of the others, however, the individual
exhibits abnormal personality traits. Furthermore, the theory suggests that an imbal-
ance in personality traits caused by a traumatic early childhood can result in long-
term psychological difficulties. For example, if parents fail to help the child develop
his or her superego adequately, the child’s id may become dominant. The absence of
a strong superego results in inability to distinguish clearly between right and wrong.
Later, the youth may demand immediate gratification, lack sensitivity for the needs
of others, act aggressively and impulsively, or demonstrate psychotic symptoms.
Antisocial behavior may result from conflict or trauma occurring early in a child’s
development, and delinquent activity may become an outlet for these feelings.

68 C H A P T E R 3

Figure 3.2 Psychological Perspectives of Delinquency

Psychodynamic
(Psychoanalytic)

Intrapsychic Processes
• Unconscious conflicts
• Childhood traumas
• Family abuse
• Neurosis
• Psychosis

Behavioral

Learning Processes
• Past experiences
• Stimulus
• Rewards and

punishments

Cognitive

Information Processing
• Thinking
• Problem solving
• Script
• Parental abuse
• Moral development

Perspective Cause

psychodynamic theory
Branch of psychology that holds
that the human personality is
controlled by unconscious
mental processes developed
early in childhood.

Disorders and Delinquency According to Freud’s version of psycho-
dynamic theory, people who experience anxiety and fear they are losing control
are suffering from a form of neurosis and are referred to as neurotics. People who
have lost control and are dominated by their id are known as psychotics; their be-
havior may be marked by hallucinations and inappropriate responses.

Psychosis takes many forms, the most common being schizophrenia, a condi-
tion marked by illogical thought processes, distorted perceptions, and abnormal
emotional expression. According to the classical psychoanalytic view, the most
serious types of antisocial behavior might be motivated by psychosis, whereas
neurotic feelings would be responsible for less serious delinquent acts and status
offenses.113

Contemporary psychologists no longer use the term neuroses to describe all
forms of unconscious conflict. It is more common to refer to specific types of disor-
ders, including anxiety disorder, mood disorder, sleep disorder, and so on. Among these
is bipolar disorder, in which moods alternate between periods of wild elation and
deep depression.114

The Psychodynamic Tradition and Delinquency How do psycho-
dynamic theorists explain delinquency? Erik Erikson speculated that many adoles-
cents experience a life crisis in which they feel emotional, impulsive, and uncertain
of their role and purpose.115 He coined the phrase identity crisis to denote this pe-
riod of inner turmoil. Erikson’s approach might characterize the behavior of youth-
ful drug abusers as an expression of confusion over their place in society, inability to
direct their behavior toward useful outlets, and perhaps, dependence on others to
offer solutions to their problems.

Some view youth crime as a result of unresolved internal conflict. Some chil-
dren, especially those who have been abused or mistreated, may experience uncon-
scious feelings of fear and hatred. Others are driven by an unconscious desire to be
punished for prior sins, either real or imaginary. They may violate the law to gain
attention or punish their parents. If these conflicts cannot be reconciled, regression
occurs and the id becomes dominant. This regression accounts for a great number
of mental diseases, and in many cases it may be related to criminal behavior.116

Another psychodynamic view is that delinquents are unable to control their
impulsive drives. Perhaps because they suffered unhappy experiences in childhood
or had families that could not provide proper care, they have weak egos and are un-
able to cope with conventional society.117 In its most extreme form, delinquency
may be viewed as a form of psychosis that prevents delinquent youths from appreci-
ating the feelings of victims or controlling their need for gratification.118 Research
shows that some delinquents exhibit indications of such psychological abnormalities
as schizophrenia, paranoia, and obsessive behaviors; female offenders seem to have
more serious mental health symptoms and psychological disturbances than male
offenders.119

It is also possible that antisocial behavior is a consequence of inability to cope
with feelings of oppression or depression. In this instance, delinquency actually pro-
duces positive psychic results: it helps youths feel independent; gives them the possi-
bility of excitement and the chance to use their skills and imagination; provides the
promise of gain; allows them to blame others (the police) for their predicament;
and gives them a chance to rationalize their sense of failure (“If I hadn’t gotten into
trouble, I could have been a success”).120

The psychodynamic approach places heavy emphasis on the family’s role. Anti-
social youths frequently come from families in which parents are unable to provide
the controls that allow children to develop the personal tools they need to cope with
the world.121 Their destructive behavior may actually be a call for help. In fact, some
psychoanalysts view delinquent behaviors as motivated by an unconscious urge to
be punished. These children, who feel unloved, assume the reason must be their own
inadequacy; hence, they deserve punishment.

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 69

bipolar disorder
A psychological condition
producing mood swings between
wild elation and deep depression.

identity crisis
Psychological state, identified by
Erikson, in which youth face inner
turmoil and uncertainty about
life roles.

Is There a Psychodynamic Link to Delinquency? The psychodynamic
view is supported by research that shows that a number of violent juvenile offenders
suffer from some sort of personality disturbance. Violent youths have been clinically
diagnosed as “overtly hostile,”“explosive or volatile,”“anxious,” and “depressed.”122

Research efforts have found that juvenile offenders who engage in serious violent
crimes often suffer from some sort of mental disturbance, such as depression.123

Although this evidence is persuasive, the association between mental disturbance
and delinquency is unresolved. It is possible that any link is caused by some intervening
variable or factor: troubled youth do poorly in school and school failure leads to delin-
quency; troubled youth have conflict-ridden social relationships that make them prone
to commit delinquent acts.124 It is also possible that the factors that cause mental tur-
moil also cause delinquency: kids who suffer child abuse are more likely to have mental
anguish and commit violent acts; child abuse is the actual cause of both problems.125

Further research is needed to clarify this important relationship.

Behavioral Theory
Not all psychologists agree that behavior is controlled by unconscious mental pro-
cesses determined by relationships early in childhood. Behavioral psychologists
argue that personality is learned throughout life during interaction with others.
Based primarily on the work of the American psychologist John B. Watson
(1878–1958), and popularized by Harvard professor B. F. Skinner (1904–1990),
behaviorism concerns itself with measurable events rather than unobservable psy-
chic phenomena.

Behaviorists suggest that individuals learn by observing how people react to
their behavior. Behavior is triggered initially by a stimulus or change in the environ-
ment. If a particular behavior is reinforced by some positive reaction or event, that
behavior will be continued and eventually learned. However, behaviors that are not
reinforced or are punished will be extinguished. For example, if children are given
a reward (dessert) for eating their entire dinner, eventually they will learn to eat suc-
cessfully. Conversely, if children are punished for some misbehavior, they will associ-
ate disapproval with that act and avoid that behavior.

Social Learning Theory Some behaviorists hold that learning and social
experiences, coupled with values and expectations, determine behavior. This is
known as social learning theory. The most widely read social learning theorists are
Albert Bandura, Walter Mischel, and Richard Walters.126 They hold that children will
model their behavior according to the reactions they receive from others; the behav-
ior of adults, especially parents; and the behavior they view on television and in
movies. (See Focus on Delinquency, “The Media and Delinquency.”) If children ob-
serve aggression and see that it is approved or rewarded, they will likely react vio-
lently during a similar incident. Eventually, they will master the techniques of aggres-
sion and become more confident that their behavior will bring tangible rewards.127

Social learning suggests that children who grow up in homes where violence is a
way of life may learn to believe that such behavior is acceptable. Even if parents tell
children not to be violent and punish them if they are, the children will model their
behavior on the observed violence. Thus, children are more likely to heed what par-
ents do than what they say. By middle childhood, some children have already acquired
an association between their use of aggression against others and the physical punish-
ment they receive at home. Often their aggressive responses are directed at other fam-
ily members. The family may serve as a training ground for violence because the child
perceives physical punishment as the norm during conflict situations.128

Adolescent aggression is a result of disrupted dependency relations with parents.
This refers to the frustration a child feels when parents provide poor role models
and hold back affection. Children who lack close ties to their parents may have little

70 C H A P T E R 3

behaviorism
Branch of psychology concerned
with the study of observable be-
havior rather than unconscious
processes; focuses on particular
stimuli and responses to them.

social learning theory
The view that behavior is modeled
through observation either directly
through intimate contact with
others or indirectly through
media; interactions that are re-
warded are copied, whereas those
that are punished are avoided.

opportunity or desire to model themselves after them or to internalize their standards.
In the absence of such internalized controls, the child’s frustration is likely to be ex-
pressed in a socially unacceptable fashion such as aggression.

Cognitive Theory
A third area of psychology that has received increasing recognition in recent years is
cognitive theory. Psychologists with a cognitive perspective focus on mental pro-
cesses. The pioneers of this school were Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), Edward Titch-
ener (1867–1927), and William James (1842–1920). This perspective contains several
subgroups. Perhaps the most important of these for delinquency theory is the one
that is concerned with how people morally represent and reason about the world.

Jean Piaget (1896–1980), founder of this approach, hypothesized that reasoning
processes develop in an orderly fashion, beginning at birth and continuing until age
twelve and older.129 At first, during the sensorimotor stage, children respond to the
environment in a simple manner, seeking interesting objects and developing their
reflexes. By the fourth and final stage, the formal operations stage, they have devel-
oped into mature adults who can use logic and abstract thought.

Lawrence Kohlberg applied this concept to issues in delinquency.130 He sug-
gested that there are stages of moral development during which the basis for moral
decisions changes. It is possible that serious offenders have a moral orientation that
differs from that of law-abiding citizens. Kohlberg classified people according to the
stage at which their moral development has ceased to grow. In his studies, the major-
ity of delinquents were revealed as having a lack of respect for the law and a person-
ality marked by self-interest; in contrast, nonoffenders viewed the law as something
that benefits all of society and were willing to honor the rights of others.131 Subse-
quent research has found that a significant number of nondelinquent youths dis-
played higher stages of moral reasoning than delinquents.132

Information Processing Cognitive theorists who study information process-
ing try to explain antisocial behavior in terms of perception and analysis of data. When
people make decisions, they engage in a sequence of thought processes. First, they en-
code information so it can be interpreted. Then, they search for a proper response and
decide on the most appropriate action. Finally, they act on their decision.133

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 71

cognitive theory
The branch of psychology that
studies the perception of reality
and the mental processes required
to understand the world we live in.

According to cognitive theory,
people go through stages dur-
ing which they develop into
mature adults who can use logic
and abstract thought. Some-
times they need help along the
way. Here in Stark County, Ohio,
jail inmates Scott Dishong (left)
and John Laughery (right) share
their experiences behind bars
with a 13-year-old youth. The
youth was participating in the
Turn-Around Program, a pro-
gram started by two correctional
officers at the jail.

00
3

Adolescents who use information properly and can make reasoned decisions
when facing emotion-laden events are best able to avoid antisocial behavior.134 In
contrast, delinquency-prone adolescents may have cognitive deficits and use infor-
mation incorrectly when they make decisions.135 They may misperceive behavioral
cues because their decision making was shaped by traumatic life events such as being
the victim of child abuse.136 These youths view crime as an appropriate means to
satisfy their immediate personal needs, which take precedence over more distant
social needs such as obedience to the law.137 They have difficulty making the “right”
decision while under stress.

One reason for this may be that they are relying on mental “scripts” learned in
early childhood that tell them how to interpret events, what to expect, how they
should react, and what the outcome of the interaction should be.138 Hostile children
may have learned improper scripts by observing how others react to events; their
own parents’ aggressive, inappropriate behavior would have considerable impact.

72 C H A P T E R 3

The Media and Delinquency
One aspect of social learning theory that has received a great
deal of attention is the belief that children will model their
behavior after characters they observe on TV or see in movies.
Many parents are concerned about the effects of their chil-
dren’s exposure to violence in the mass media. Often the
violence is of a sexual nature, and some experts fear there
is a link between sexual violence and viewing pornography.

Children are particularly susceptible to TV imagery. It is
believed that many children consider television images to be
real, especially if the images are authoritatively presented by
an adult (as in a commercial). Some children, especially those
considered “emotionally disturbed,” may be unable to distin-
guish between fantasy and reality when watching TV shows.
Children begin frequent TV viewing at 2.5 years of age and
continue at a high level during the preschool and early school
years. But what do they watch? Marketing research indicates
that adolescents ages eleven to fourteen rent violent horror
movies at a higher rate than any other age group; adolescents
also use older peers and siblings or apathetic parents to gain
access to R-rated films. More than 40 percent of U.S. house-
holds now have cable TV, which features violent films and
shows. Even children’s programming is saturated with vio-
lence. It is estimated that the average child views eight thou-
sand TV murders before finishing elementary school.

TV and Violence
A number of methods have been used to measure the effect
of TV viewing on violent behavior. One method is to expose
groups of people to violent TV shows in a laboratory setting
and compare them to control groups who viewed nonviolent
programming; observations have also been made at play-
grounds, athletic fields, and residences. Other experiments
require individuals to answer attitude surveys after watching
violent TV shows. Still another approach is to use aggregate
measures of TV viewing; for example, the number of violent
TV shows on the air during a given period is compared to
crime rates during the same period.

In 1999, twelve-year-old Lionel Tate killed six-year-old
Tiffany Eunick, the daughter of a family friend. Lionel
claimed he was practicing wrestling moves he had
learned while watching TV. Sentenced to life in prison, he
was released in 2004 after he successfully appealed his
conviction, and in lieu of a second trial, accepted an
agreement where he was sentenced to the three years
he had already served, another year of house arrest, and
ten years probation. Could the behavior of a young boy
like Lionel be controlled by what he sees in the media, or
were his actions a matter of free will?

Some may have had early, prolonged exposure to violence (such as child abuse),
which increases their sensitivity to slights and maltreatment. Oversensitivity to rejec-
tion by their peers is a continuation of sensitivity to rejection by their parents.139

Violence becomes a stable behavior because the scripts that emphasize aggressive
responses are repeatedly rehearsed as the child matures. When they attack victims,
they may believe they are defending themselves, even though they are misreading the
situation.140 They may have a poor sense of time, leaving them incapable of dealing
with social problems in an effective manner.141

Cognitive Treatment Treatment based on information processing acknowl-
edges that people are more likely to respond aggressively to a provocation when
thoughts stir feelings of anger. Cognitive therapists attempt to teach people to control
aggressive impulses by experiencing provocations as problems demanding a solution
rather than as insults requiring retaliation. Programs teach problem-solving skills that

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 73

Most evaluations of experimental data indicate that
watching violence on TV is correlated with aggressive behav-
iors. In one of the most important recent studies, L. Rowell
Huesmann and his associates found that children ages six to
nine who watched more violent television displayed more
aggressive behavior than their peers. Brad Bushman and his
colleagues at the University of Michigan contacted 329 of
these children fifteen years after they had participated in the
Huesmann study. Now as adults, those same children who
had viewed violent shows in their adolescence continued to
behave in a violent and aggressive manner. Boys who liked
violent television shows grew into men who were significantly
more likely to have pushed, grabbed, or shoved their wives or
others whom they found insulting. They were also much
more likely to be convicted of a crime. Ironically, women who
watched violent shows as children reported being punched,
beaten, or choked as adults at a rate over four times the rate of
women who did not watch violent programs.

Rethinking the Media-Violence Link
Though this evidence is persuasive, the relationship between
TV viewing and violence is still uncertain. A number of
critics say the evidence does not support the claim that TV
viewing is related to antisocial behavior. Some assert that
experimental results are short-lived. Children may have an
immediate reaction to viewing violence on TV, but aggres-
sion is extinguished once the viewing ends. Although experi-
ments do show that children act aggressively in a laboratory
setting after watching violent TV shows, that does not mean
they will commit crimes in the real world such as rape and
assault. And while Huesmann showed that kids who watch
violent TV grow up to be violent adults, it is also possible
that they would have been violent even if they had not
watched TV at all. It is possible that violence-prone children
like to watch violent TV shows, and not that violent shows
turn previously passive children into furious aggressors.

Aggregate data are also inconclusive. Little evidence
exists that areas that have high levels of violent TV viewing
also have rates of violent crime that are above the norm.

Millions of children watch violence yet fail to become violent
criminals. And even if a violent behavior–TV link could be
established, it would be difficult to show that antisocial
people develop aggressive traits merely from watching TV.

CRITICAL THINKING

1. Should TV shows with a violent theme be prohibited
from being aired on commercial TV before 9 P.M.? If
you say yes, would you broadcast the national news?

2. Even if a violence-TV link could be established, is it not
possible that aggressive, antisocial youths may simply
enjoy watching TV shows that support their personal
behavioral orientation, in the same way that science
fiction fans flock to Star Wars and Star Trek films?

INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION RESEARCH
Use “media violence” as a key term on InfoTrac Col-

lege Edition in order to learn more about the association be-
tween observing violence on TV and in movies and personal
involvement in antisocial behaviors.

Sources: L. Rowell Huesmann, Jessica Moise-Titus, Cheryl-Lynn
Podolski, and Leonard Eron, “Longitudinal Relations Between Chil-
dren’s Exposure to TV Violence and Their Aggressive and Violent
Behavior in Young Adulthood: 1977–1992,” Developmental Psychology
39:201–221 (2003); Brad Bushman and Craig Anderson, “Media
Violence and the American Public,” American Psychologist 56:477–489
(2001); Edward Donnerstein and Daniel Linz, “The Question of
Pornography,” Psychology Today 20:56–59 (1986); Joyce Sprafkin,
Kenneth Gadow, and Monique Dussault, “Reality Perceptions of
Television: A Preliminary Comparison of Emotionally Disturbed and
Nonhandicapped Children,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
56:147–152 (1986); UCLA Center for Communication Policy, Televi-
sion Violence Monitoring Project (Los Angeles: University of California
Press, 1995); Wendy Wood, Frank Wong, and J. Gregory Chachere,
“Effects of Media Violence on Viewers’ Aggression in Unconstrained
Social Interaction,” Psychological Bulletin 109:371–383 (1991).

may include self-disclosure, listening, following instructions, and using self-control.142

Areas for improvement include (1) coping and problem-solving skills; (2) relationships
with peers, parents, and other adults; (3) conflict resolution and communication skills;
(4) decision-making abilities; (5) pro-social behaviors, including cooperation with
others and respecting others; and (6) awareness of feelings of others (empathy).143

Personality and Delinquency
Personality can be defined as the stable patterns of behavior, including thoughts and
emotions, that distinguish one person from another.144 Personality reflects charac-
teristic ways of adapting to life’s demands. The way we behave is a function of how
our personality enables us to interpret events and make appropriate choices.

More than fifty years ago, Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck identified a number
of personality traits that characterize delinquents:

self-assertiveness extraversion

defiance ambivalence

impulsiveness feeling unappreciated

narcissism distrust of authority

suspicion poor personal skills

destructiveness mental instability

sadism hostility

lack of concern for others resentment

This research is representative of the view that delinquents maintain a distinct
personality whose characteristics increase the probability that they will be antisocial
and that their actions will involve them with agents of social control, ranging from
teachers to police.145

Following the Glueck effort, researchers have continued to examine the personal-
ity traits of delinquents, finding that many are impulsive individuals with short atten-
tion spans.146 Among the most well known efforts was psychologist Hans Eysenck’s
identification of two traits he closely associates with antisocial behavior: extraversion
and neuroticism.147 Extraverts are impulsive individuals who lack the ability to ex-
amine their own motives; those high in neuroticism are anxious and emotionally
unstable.148 Youths who are both neurotic and extraverted often lack insight and are
highly impulsive. They act self-destructively, for example, by abusing drugs, and are
the type of offender who will repeat their criminal activity over and over.149

The Antisocial Personality It has also been suggested that delinquency
may result from a syndrome interchangeably referred to as the antisocial, psycho-
pathic, or sociopathic personality. Although no more than 3 percent of male of-
fenders may be classified as antisocial, it is possible that a large segment of persistent
offenders share this trait.150

Antisocial youths exhibit low levels of guilt and anxiety and persistently violate
the rights of others. Although they may exhibit charm and intelligence, these mask a
disturbed personality that makes them incapable of forming enduring relationships.
Frequently involved in such deviant behaviors as truancy, lying, and substance abuse,
antisocial people lack the ability to empathize with others. From an early age, the
antisocial person’s home life was filled with frustration and quarreling. Consequently,
throughout life the antisocial youth is unreliable, unstable, and demanding.

Youths diagnosed as being clinically antisocial are believed to be thrill seekers
who engage in destructive behavior. Some become gang members and participate in
violent sexual escapades to compensate for a fear of responsibility and an inability to
maintain relationships.151 Delinquents have been described as sensation seekers who
desire an extraverted lifestyle, including partying, drinking, and having a variety of
sexual partners.152

74 C H A P T E R 3

extraversion
Impulsive behavior without the
ability to examine motives and
behavior.

neuroticism
A personality trait marked by
unfounded anxiety, tension, and
emotional instability.

psychopathic personality (also
known as sociopathic or
antisocial personality)
A person lacking in warmth,
exhibiting inappropriate behavior
responses, and unable to learn
from experience; the condition is
defined by persistent violations of
social norms, including lying,
stealing, truancy, inconsistent
work behavior, and traffic arrests.

The Origins of Antisocial Personality A number of factors contribute
to the development of antisocial personalities. One source may be family dysfunction
and include having an emotionally disturbed parent, parental rejection during child-
hood, and inconsistent or overly abusive discipline.153 Another possibility is that
psychopaths may have brain-related physical anomalies that cause them to process
emotional input differently than nonpsychopaths.154 Another view is that antisocial
youths suffer from lower levels of arousal than the general population. Consequently,
they may need greater-than-average stimulation to bring them up to comfortable
levels.155 Psychologists have attempted to treat antisocial youths by giving them
adrenaline, which increases their arousal levels.

Intelligence and Delinquency
Early criminologists thought that if they could determine which individuals were less
intelligent, they might be able to identify potential delinquents before they commit-
ted socially harmful acts.156 Psychologists began to measure the correlation between
IQ and crime by testing adjudicated juvenile delinquents. Delinquent juveniles were
believed to be substandard in intelligence and thus inclined to commit more crimes
than more intelligent persons. Thus, juvenile delinquents were used as a test group
around which numerous theories about intelligence were built.

Nature Theory When IQ tests were administered to inmates of prisons and
juvenile training schools early in the twentieth century, a large proportion of the
inmates scored low on the tests. Henry Goddard found in 1920 that many institu-
tionalized persons were “feebleminded” and concluded that at least half of all juve-
nile delinquents were mental defectives.157 In 1926, William Healy and Augusta
Bronner tested a group of delinquents in Chicago and Boston and found that 37
percent were subnormal in intelligence.158 They concluded that delinquents were
five to ten times more likely to be mentally deficient than nondelinquent boys.
These and other early studies were embraced as proof that a correlation existed be-
tween innate low intelligence and deviant behavior. IQ tests were believed to measure
genetic makeup, and many psychologists accepted the predisposition of substan-
dard individuals toward delinquency. This view is referred to as the nature theory
of intelligence.

Nurture Theory In the 1930s, more culturally sensitive explanations of behav-
ior led to the nurture theory. Nurture theory argues that intelligence is not inherited
and that low-IQ parents do not necessarily produce low-IQ children.159 This view
holds that intelligence must be viewed as partly biological but primarily sociological.
Nurture theorists discredit the notion that people commit crimes because they have
low IQs. Instead, they postulate that environmental stimulation from parents,
schools, peer groups, and others create a child’s IQ level and that low IQs result from
an environment that also encourages delinquent behavior.160 For example, if edu-
cational environments could be improved, the result might be both an elevation in
IQ scores and a decrease in delinquency.161

Rethinking IQ and Delinquency The relationship between IQ and delin-
quency is controversial because it implies that a condition is present at birth that
accounts for delinquent behavior throughout the life cycle and that this condition is
not easily changed. Research shows that measurements of intelligence taken in in-
fancy are good predictors of later IQ.162 By implication, if delinquency is not
spread evenly through the social structure, neither is intelligence.

Some social scientists actively dispute that any association actually exists. As early
as 1931, Edwin Sutherland evaluated IQ studies of criminals and delinquents and
found evidence disputing the association between intelligence and criminality.163

His findings did much to discredit the notion that a strong relationship exists between

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 75

nature theory
The view that intelligence is inher-
ited and is a function of genetic
makeup.

nurture theory
The view that intelligence is deter-
mined by environmental stimula-
tion and socialization.

IQ and criminality, and for many years the IQ-delinquency link was ignored. Suther-
land’s research has been substantiated by a number of contemporary studies that find
that IQ has a negligible influence on behavior.164

Those who still believe in an IQ-delinquency link refer to a study by Travis
Hirschi and Michael Hindelang, who, after conducting a statistical analysis of IQ and
delinquency data, concluded that “the weight of evidence is that IQ is more impor-
tant than race and social class” for predicting delinquency.165 They argued that a low
IQ increases the likelihood of delinquent behavior through its effect on school per-
formance. Youths with low IQs do poorly in school, and school failure is highly
related to delinquency. Their conclusions have also been supported by a number
of research efforts.166

Even those experts who believe that IQ influences delinquent behavior are split
on the structure of the associations. Some believe IQ has an indirect influence on
delinquency. For example, children with low IQs are more likely to engage in delin-
quent behavior because low IQ leads to school failure, and educational under-
achievement is associated with delinquency.167 Even high-risk youths are less likely
to become delinquents if they have relatively high IQs; low IQ increases the proba-
bility of a delinquent career.168 The relationship between IQ and delinquency has
been found to be consistent after controlling for class, race, and personality
traits.169

Some experts believe IQ may have a direct influence on delinquency. The key
linkage is the ability to manipulate abstract concepts. Low intelligence limits adoles-
cents’ ability to “foresee the consequences of their offending and to appreciate the
feelings of victims.”170 Therefore, youths with limited intelligence are more likely to
misinterpret events, take risks, and engage in harmful behavior.

CRITIQUING TRAIT THEORY VIEWS
Trait theories have been criticized on a number of grounds. One view is that the re-
search methodologies they employ are invalid. Most research efforts use adjudicated
or incarcerated offenders. It is difficult to determine whether findings represent the
delinquent population or merely those most likely to be arrested. For example, some
critics have described heredity studies as “poorly designed, ambiguously reported, and
exceedingly inadequate in addressing the relevant issues.”171 Some critics also fear
that trait-theory research can be socially and politically damaging. If an above-average
number of indigent youths become delinquent offenders, can it be assumed that the
less affluent are genetically inferior? This conclusion is unacceptable to many social
scientists in light of what is known about race, gender, and class bias.

Defenders counter that trait theorists do not ignore environmental and social
factors.172 For example, some kids may have emotional and psychological problems
that place them at a disadvantage, limit their chances of success, and heighten their
feelings of anger and frustration. If their family is affluent, they will have the resources
available to treat these problems; a less affluent family would lack the economic
means and the institutional support needed to counteract these potentially destruc-
tive traits. Delinquency rate differences may then result from differential access to
opportunities either to commit crime or to receive the treatment needed to correct
developmental problems.

The psychological basis of delinquency is reviewed in Concept Summary 3.3.

TRAIT THEORY AND DELINQUENCY PREVENTION
Trait theory perspectives on delinquency suggest that prevention efforts should be
directed at strengthening a youth’s home life and relationships. If parents cannot
supply proper nurturing, discipline, nutrition, and so on, the child cannot develop

✔ Checkpoints

76 C H A P T E R 3

Checkpoints
✔ According to psychodynamic

theory, unconscious motivations
developed early in childhood propel
some people into destructive or
illegal behavior.

✔ Behaviorists view aggression as a
learned behavior.

✔ Some learning is direct and experi-
ential while other types are obser-
vational, such as watching TV and
movies. A link between media and
violence has not been proven.

✔ Cognitive theory stresses knowing
and perception. Some adolescents
have a warped view of the world.

✔ There is evidence that kids with
abnormal or antisocial personalities
are delinquency-prone.

✔ Although some experts find a link
between intelligence and delin-
quency, others dispute any linkage
between IQ level and law-violating
behaviors.

To quiz yourself on this
material, go to questions
3.11–3.19 on the Juvenile

properly. Whether we believe that delinquency has a biosocial basis, a psychological
basis, or a combination of both, it is evident that prevention efforts should be ori-
ented to reach children early in their development.

County welfare agencies and private treatment centers offer counseling and
other mental health services to families referred by schools, welfare agents, and court
authorities. In some instances, intervention is focused on a particular family problem
that has the potential for producing delinquent behavior—for example, alcohol and
drug problems, child abuse, or sexual abuse. In other situations, intervention is
oriented toward developing the self-image of parents and children or improving
discipline in the family.

Some programs utilize treatment regimens based on specific theories (such as
behavioral modification therapies). For example, the Decisions to Actions program
in Kincheloe, Michigan, is organized around cognitive-behavioral restructuring of
children’s personalities. Its main focus is changing attitudes and beliefs associated
with improper feelings and behaviors. Youths are taught to identify poor decision
making and to explore the thinking behind “bad” decisions. They also are taught
relapse prevention techniques that enable them to manage their emotions and be-
havior better. The ten-week program includes an assessment, meetings between the
youths and mentors, victim empathy sessions where convicted felons speak with
the youths, and team-building exercises.173

In addition, individual approaches have been used to prevent adjudicated youths
from engaging in further criminal activities. Incarcerated and court-adjudicated
youths are now almost universally given some form of mental and physical evalua-
tion before they begin their correctional treatment. Such rehabilitation methods as

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 77

Psychological Views

Theory Major Premise Focus
Psychodynamic The development of the Explains the onset of

unconscious personality delinquency and why crime

early in childhood and drug abuse cut across

influences behavior for the class lines.

rest of a person’s life.

Criminals have weak egos

and damaged personalities.

Behavioral People commit crime when Explains the role of

they model their behavior significant others in the

after others they see being delinquency process. Shows

rewarded for the same acts. how family life and media

Behavior is reinforced by can influence crime and

rewards and extinguished violence.

by punishment.

Cognitive Individual reasoning Shows why criminal behavior

processes influence patterns change over time as

behavior. Reasoning is people mature and develop

influenced by the way their reasoning powers. May

people perceive their explain the aging-out process.

environment.

Concept Summary 3.3

psychological counseling and psychotropic medication
(drugs like Ritalin) are often prescribed. In some
instances, rehabilitation programs are provided through
drop-in centers that service youths who are able to re-
main in their homes; more intensive programs require
residential care. The creation of such programs illustrates
that agents of the juvenile justice system believe that
many delinquent youths and status offenders have psy-
chological or physical problems and that their treatment
can help reduce repeat criminal behavior. Faith in this
approach suggests widespread agreement that
delinquency can be traced to individual pathology.

The influence of psychological theory on
delinquency prevention has been extensive, and programs
based on biosocial theory have been dormant for some
time. However, institutions are beginning to sponsor
projects designed to study the influence of diet on crime
and to determine whether regulating metabolism can
affect behavior. Such efforts are relatively new and
untested. Similarly, schools are making an effort to help
youths with learning disabilities and other developmental
problems. Delinquency prevention efforts based on
biocriminological theory are still in their infancy.

Some questions remain about the effectiveness of
individual treatment as a delinquency prevention tech-
nique. Little hard evidence exists that clinical treatment
alone can prevent delinquency or rehabilitate delinquents.
Critics still point to the failure of the Cambridge-
Somerville Youth Study as evidence that clinical treatment
has little value. In that effort, 325 high-risk youths were
given intensive counseling, and their progress was com-
pared with a control group that received no special atten-
tion. An evaluation of the project by Joan and William
McCord found that the treated youths were more likely to
become involved in law violation than the untreated con-
trols.174 By implication, the danger is that the efforts
designed to help youths may actually stigmatize them,
hindering their efforts to live conventional lives.

Critics argue that the more we try to help youths, the
more likely they will be to see themselves as different, or
as troublemakers.175 Such questions have led to preven-
tion efforts designed to influence the social as well as the
psychological world of youths (see chapters 4 and 5).

Both choice and trait theories have been embraced by conservatives because they
focus on personal characteristics and traits rather than on the social environment.
Both theoretical positions agree that delinquency can be prevented by dealing with
the youths who engage in crime, not by transforming the social conditions associ-
ated with youth crime. In contrast, more liberal delinquency experts view the envi-
ronment as the main source of delinquency.

78 C H A P T E R 3

Trait theory suggests that prevention efforts should be di-
rected at strengthening a youth’s mental and physical well-
being. If parents cannot supply proper nurturing, discipline,
nutrition, and so on, the child cannot develop properly; con-
sequently, the juvenile justice system is required to provide
assistance. Here Lonnie Kelly climbs the rock wall at Pied-
mont Wilderness Institute in Clinton, S.C. Looking on are
Duprie Owens, 17, Martez Rodgers, 16, and Eddie Outing
(no helmet), 15. At the institute the boys learn to trust their
ability to overcome limits that they put on themselves. The
young men in the program were at various state detention
centers for nonviolent felonies before the Juvenile Justice
Department assigned them to the institute.

P/
W

I N D I V I D U A L V I E W S O F D E L I N Q U E N C Y : C H O I C E A N D T R A I T 79

• Criminological theories that focus on the individual
can be classified in two groups: choice theories and
trait theories.

• Choice theory holds that people have free will to con-
trol their actions. Delinquency is a product of weigh-
ing the risks of crime against its benefits. If the risk is
greater than the gain, people will choose not to com-
mit crimes.

• One way of creating a greater risk is to make sure that
the punishments associated with delinquency are
severe, certain, and fast.

• Routine activities theory maintains that a pool of
motivated offenders exists and that these offenders will
take advantage of suitable targets unless they are heav-
ily guarded.

• General deterrence theory holds that if delinquents are
rational, an inverse relationship should exist between
punishment and crime. The harsher, more certain, and
swifter the punishment, the more likely it will deter
delinquency.

• General deterrence assumes that delinquents make a
rational choice before committing delinquent acts.

• Research has not indicated that deterrent measures
actually reduce the delinquency rate.

• Specific deterrence theory holds that the delinquency
rate can be reduced if offenders are punished so se-
verely that they never commit crimes again.

• There is little evidence that harsh punishments reduce
the delinquency rate, perhaps because most delin-
quents are not severely punished.

• Choice theorists agree that if the punishment for delin-
quency could be increased, the delinquency rate might
fall. One method is to transfer youths to the criminal
courts or to grant the adult justice system jurisdiction
over serious juvenile cases. Similarly, some experts ad-
vocate incapacitation for serious juvenile offenders—for
example, long-term sentences for chronic delinquents.

• Situational crime prevention strategies aim to reduce
opportunities for crime to take place. By imposing
obstacles that make it difficult to offend, such strat-
egies strive to dissuade would-be offenders.

• Trait theories hold that delinquents do not choose
to commit crimes freely but are influenced by forces
beyond their control.

• The two types of current trait theory are biosocial and
psychological.

• One of the earliest branches of biosocial theory was
biological theory, formulated by Cesare Lombroso,
who linked delinquency to inborn traits. Following his
lead were theories based on genetic inheritance and
body build. Although biological theory was in dis-
repute for many years, it has recently reemerged.

• Biochemical factors linked to delinquency include
diet, hormones, and blood chemistry.

• Neurological factors include brain damage and ADHD.
• Some experts believe that delinquent tendencies may

be inherited. Studies use twins and adoptees to test
this theory.

• Psychological theories include the psychodynamic
model, which links antisocial behaviors to unconscious
emotions and feelings developed in early childhood.

• The behavioral perspective emphasizes that children
imitate the behavior they observe personally or view
on television or in movies. Children who are exposed
to violence and see it rewarded may become violent
as adults.

• Cognitive psychology is concerned with how people
perceive the world. Criminality is viewed as a function
of improper information processing or lack of moral
development.

• Psychopaths are people with a total lack of concern for
others. They may commit the most serious violent
crimes.

• Intelligence has also been related to delinquency. Some
studies claim to show that delinquents have lower IQs
than nondelinquents.

• Many delinquency prevention efforts are based on
psychological theory. Judges commonly order delin-
quent youths to receive counseling. Recently, some
delinquent offenders have been given biochemical
therapy.

SUMMARY

choice theory, p. 48
trait theory, p. 48
free will, p. 48
utilitarians, p. 49
classical criminology, p. 49
routine activities theory, p. 51
predatory crimes, p. 51

general deterrence, p. 53
co-offending, p. 55
specific deterrence, p. 56
situational crime prevention, p. 57
hot spot, p. 57
crackdown, p. 57
criminal atavism, p. 59

biosocial theory, p. 60
minimal brain dysfunction (MBD),

p. 62
learning disabilities (LD), p. 63
psychodynamic theory, p. 68
bipolar disorder, p. 69
identity crisis, p. 69

KEY TERMS

80 C H A P T E R 3

behaviorism, p. 70
social learning theory, p. 70
cognitive theory, p. 72
extraversion, p. 74

neuroticism, p. 74
psychopathic personality, sociopathic

personality, antisocial personality,
p. 74

nature theory, p. 75
nurture theory, p. 75

1. Are all delinquent acts psychologically abnormal? Can
there be “normal” crimes?

2. How would you apply psychodynamic theory to de-
linquent acts such as shoplifting and breaking-and-
entering a house?

3. Can delinquent behavior be deterred by the threat of
punishment? If not, how can it be controlled?

4. Do you think that watching violence on TV and in
films encourage youths to be aggressive and antisocial?

5. Do beer advertisements that feature attractive, scantily
dressed young men and women encourage drinking?
If they do not encourage people to drink, why bother
advertising? If suggestive advertising works in getting
people to buy beer, then why shouldn’t suggestive
violence encourage kids to be violent?

6. Discuss the characteristics of psychopaths. Do you
know anyone who fits the description?

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

You are a state legislator who is a member of the subcom-
mittee on juvenile justice. Your committee has been asked
to redesign the state’s juvenile code because of public out-
rage over serious juvenile crime.

At an open hearing, a professor from the local university
testifies that she has devised a surefire test to predict violence-
prone delinquents. The procedure involves brain scans, DNA
testing, and blood analysis. Used with samples of incarcerated
adolescents, her procedure has been able to distinguish with
90 percent accuracy between youths with a history of violence
and those who are exclusively property offenders. The profes-
sor testifies that, if each juvenile offender were tested with her
techniques, the violence-prone career offender could easily be
identified and given special treatment. Their scores could be
kept on a registry and law enforcement agencies notified of
the offenders’ whereabouts.

Opponents argue that this type of testing is unconstitu-
tional because it violates the Fifth Amendment protection

against self-incrimination and can unjustly label non-
violent offenders. Any attempt to base policy on biosocial
makeup seems inherently wrong and unfair. Those who
favor the professor’s approach maintain that it is not un-
common to single out the insane or mentally incompetent
for special treatment and that these conditions often have
a biological basis. It is better that a few delinquents be
unfairly labeled than have seriously violent offenders be
ignored until it is too late.

• Is it possible that some kids are born to be delin-
quents? Or do kids “choose” crime?

• Is it fair to test kids to see if they have biological traits
related to crime even if they have never committed a
single offense?

• Should special laws be created to deal with the “poten-
tially” dangerous offender?

• Should offenders be typed on the basis of their biolog-
ical characteristics?

APPLYING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED

To get more information on DNA testing, the American
Civil Liberties Union’s stance on personal privacy rights of
Americans in the age of technology, and the DNA registry
now operated by Alaska, click on Web Links under the
Chapter Resources at http://cj.wadsworth.com/siegel_
jdcore2e and go to the federal sites for the National Crimi-

nal Justice Reference Service and the Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Pro/Con discussions and Viewpoint Essays on some of the topics in
this chapter may be found at the Opposing Viewpoints Resource
Center: www.gale.com/OpposingViewpoints.

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