module 7

Create the Communication Matrix/Receiver Based demonstrated in the book in Figure 7.1 in a Microsoft Excel format and save it to your hard or flash drive so you will have a template when you need one.

Upload your newly constructed version with “Your Name” in the Project Manager column. (Don’t forget to include the legend.)

Add in people and contact info of people you may want to contact on a project. If you don’t have enough people to populate, you can use instructors from the Cerritos College website.

CHAPTER 7

Project Communication
Management

Projects require teamwork, and team members must communicate with each other in a variety of
ways. The documents they produce must be collected, distributed, and stored in an appropriate
manner to assure timely and accurate communication between team members. This process is
often assisted by a variety of technologies and computer software products. Communication tech-
nology can facilitate faster and better communication, or it can become a barrier if the technologies
are not well understood and applied appropriately.

7.1 Project Communication Plan

Learning Objectives

1. Describe the importance of a project communication plan.

2. Identify the elements of a project communications plan.

The project communication plan defines the information that is important to project performance
and identifies the methods and processes for creating the most efficient and effective communica-
tion. Appropriate communications, as defined in the communication plan, is critical to both project
success and the perception of project success (Diallo & Thuillier 2005).[1] The information needed
on a project varies significantly depending on the project profile. Most projects will develop per-
formance reports based on cost, schedule, quality, and risk. The amount of detail and the method
of distribution will also vary depending on the complexity level of the project. The following ques-
tions provide a good basis for developing a project communication plan.

• What information needs distributing?

• Who needs the information?

• When is it needed?

• Where should the information be stored?

• What format should be used?

• How information can be retrieved.

• Time zone, cultural implications, language, etc.

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Your communication plan should consider the following:

1. Stakeholder Analysis and Management Strategy that Defines Preferred Communications
Methods

Based on the project stakeholder analysis, the communication management plan includes any
special communication needs of stakeholders with high influence.

2. Communication Matrix

The communication matrix includes the information needed by the project team to effectively
disseminate information to the appropriate project stakeholders. Below are two examples of
project communication matrices.

FIGURE 7.1 Communication Matrix/Receiver Based

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FIGURE 7.2 Communication Matrix/Object Based

Escalation Paths

Communicating to the project leaders anomalies or problems that arise on the project is essential
to making timely decisions and aggressively supporting project schedule and cost goals. Developing
an escalation path or decision-making matrix helps the project team understand and manage the
communication of issues and concerns to appropriate management of the project. Tables of this
type provide an opportunity for discussion of the project priorities, decision-making guidelines,
and the importance of quickly addressing issues or concerns that emerge on the project.

FIGURE 7.3 Communication Escalation

Constraints

Project communication constraints address any barriers to successful communication of the pro-
ject.

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Potentials constraints to project communications could include language barriers, cultural
differences, and communication technology issues. For example, on complex projects or global pro-
jects with team members representing more than one language, it is important to address the
language of important documents and procedures for translating documents and communications
as needed on the project. On a project in South America, members of the project worked in a culture
that highlighted good news and hid bad news or any information that indicated that the project
was behind schedule. The project leadership addressed this constraint to communications by con-
ducting more frequent review meetings.

Roles; Relative to Project Communications

Developing the communications roles of project team members on complex projects develops a
higher degree of confidence in the communication process. This can be added to existing roles and
responsibility charts or developed as a separate chart.

Team Directory

The development of a team directory aids in quick and accurate communications. Update the pro-
ject directory on a frequent basis.

FIGURE 7.4 Team Directory

Escalation Paths

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Key Takeaways

• Appropriate project communications is important to both project success and the perception
of project success.

• The project communication plan defined the information to be communicated and the meth-
ods and processes for communicating on a project.

• The composition of the project communication plan depends on the project profile.

• The project communication plan typically includes:

• stakeholder analysis

• communication matrix

• escalation paths

• constraints

• roles

• team directory

Exercises

1. Two examples of communication matrixes are _______________ and ________________.

2. Based on a project with which you are familiar, what would you include in the project com-
munication plan? Justify each component.

3. List three possible communications constraints.

7.2 Types of Communication
Technology

Learning Objectives

1. Identify characteristics and examples of synchronous communication.

2. Identify characteristics and examples of asynchronous communication.

3. Identify questions to answer when considering new communications technologies.

Completing a complex project successfully requires good communication among team members. If
those team members work in the same building, they can arrange regular meetings, simply stop by
each other’s office space to get a quick answer, or even discuss a project informally at other office
functions. Many projects are performed by teams that interact primarily through electronic com-
munication and are, therefore, called virtual teams.[2] To avoid miscommunication that can harm
trust and to include team members in a project culture, the project team needs a plan for com-
municating reliably and in a timely manner. This planning begins with understanding two major
categories of communication.

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FIGURE 7.5
Video conferencing by laptop.

Synchronous Communications

If all the parties to the communication are taking part in the exchange at the same time, the
communication is synchronous. A telephone conference call is an example of synchronous com-
munication. When the participants are not interacting at the same time, the communication is not
synchronous, or asynchronous.

The following are examples of synchronous communications:

• Live meeting. Gathering of team members at the same location.

• Audio conference. A telephone call between two individuals or a conference call
where several people participate.

• Computer-assisted conference. Audio conference with a connection between
computers that can display a document or spreadsheet that can be edited by
both parties.

• Video conference. Similar to an audio conference but with live images of the par-
ticipants. Some laptop computers have built-in cameras to facilitate video
conferencing, as shown in Figure 7.5.

• IM (instant messaging). Exchange of text or voice messages using pop-up win-
dows on the participants’ computer screens, as shown in Figure 7.6.

FIGURE 7.6

Instant messaging pop-up window.

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FIGURE 7.7
Texting via cell phone.

personal digital
assistant (PDA)

Device that holds a
calendar, a contact list, a
task list, and other support
programs.

• Texting. Exchange of text messages that are 160 characters or fewer between
mobile phones, pagers, or personal digital assistants (PDAs)—devices that
hold a calendar, a contact list, a task list, and other support programs. See
Figure 7.7.

Time Zones

The worldwide communication network makes it possible to assemble project
teams from anywhere in the world. Most people work during daylight hours,
which can make synchronous meetings difficult if the participants are in differ-
ent time zones, where they start, end, and take meal breaks at different times. It
can be an advantage in some circumstances. For example, if something must be
done by the start of business tomorrow, team members in Asia can work on the problem during
their normal work hours while team members in North America get some sleep.

FIGURE 7.8
World time zones.

As the earth turns, the sun appears to move across the sky from east to west. Local noon occurs
when the sun is at its highest position in the sky. Cities and countries to the north or south of each
other all observe local noon at the same time. For example, noon in New York occurs at the same
time as it does in Bogotá, Colombia, in South America. Be aware that many well-educated people
in the United States think of South America as directly south of North America. As you can see in
Figure 7.8, most of South America is one or two time zones east of the United States.

To prevent confusion between a.m. and p.m., times are given using a twenty-four-hour clock.
Noon is 12:00 and 1 p.m. is 13:00, and parts of an hour are divided by colons. For example, 13:25:21 is
thirteen hours, twenty-five minutes, and twenty-one seconds.

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Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT)

Time zone system
historically based on the
naval observatory at
Greenwich, England.

Universal Time (UT)

Time zone system that is
compatible with GMT but
without the historical
reference.

telefacsimile (fax)
machine

Device that scans a
document and converts it
to electronic signals that
can be transmitted by
telephone to another fax
machine, which can
reproduce the original
document.

facsimile

A duplicate (see
telefacsimile).

Local Time

Local time is compared to the time zone that is centered at the historically significant naval obser-
vatory at Greenwich, England. The time at that location is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). More
recent references use UT for Universal Time (UT) instead of GMT.

Conference Call between New York and Paris

A project manager in New York is five time zones west of the reference zone, so the time is given
as UT –5 (or GMT –5). If it is noon in the reference zone, it is 7 a.m. (five hours earlier) in New
York. The manager would like to contact a project team member in Paris, France. Paris is one
time zone west of the reference zone (UT +1 or GMT +1). If it is noon (12:00) in the reference
zone, it is 13:00 (1 p.m.) in Paris.

This means that there is a six-hour difference between New York and Paris. If the project manager
waits until after lunch to place the call (1 p.m. in New York), it might be too late in the day in Paris
(7 p.m.) to reach someone.

Asynchronous Communications

Getting a team together at the same time can be a challenge—especially if they are spread out
across time zones. Many types of communication do not require that the parties are present at the
same time. This type of communication is not synchronous; it is asynchronous. There are several
choices of asynchronous communications.

Mail and Package Delivery

Many companies prefer that final contracts are personally signed by an authorized representative
of each party to the agreement. If several signatures are required, this can take weeks to get all the
signatures if the contracts are transferred by the postal service. If this process is holding up the
start of the project, you can use an overnight delivery service to minimize the time spent transfer-
ring the documents.

Fax

A telefacsimile (fax) machine is a device that scans a document one narrow band at a time, con-
verting it into tones that can be conveyed over traditional telephone lines to a receiving device that
reproduces a facsimile—exact duplicate—of the document. A fax machine typically has a paper
feeder that can be used for feeding multiple-page documents, a telephone key pad and handset,
and a status display, as shown in Figure 7.9.

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Group 3 fax machine

Model of fax machine that
uses digital scanning and
data compression.

FIGURE 7.10
Multifunction printer,
scanner, fax, and copier.

FIGURE 7.9
Fax machine.

Transmission rates of fax machines are typically limited by the use of traditional telephone
lines. The data transmission uses the same method as a dial-up computer modem. A Group 3 fax
machine has a maximum data rate of 14.4 kilobits per second (Kbps), but if the phone connection is
poor, it will drop down to lower speeds automatically until it can establish a reliable connection
between machines.

The Group 3 fax machine digitizes data in a form that is compatible with computers and the
fax function is often integrated with other computer functions. A multifunction device, such as the
one shown in Figure 7.10, can scan a document and save it as an image, send it as a fax, or print mul-
tiple copies.

Fax machines have been around a long time and enjoy a high level of trust for transmitting
documents accurately. In many countries, a fax of a signed contract is legal, but a computer-
scanned image is not.

Electronic Mail

Electronic mail (e-mail) is widely used to coordinate projects and to communicate between team
members. It has several valuable characteristics for project management:

• Copies can be sent to a list of team members.

• A preconference-call e-mail can list the agenda items of the conference call.

• A postconference e-mail can summarize the results of the discussion on each topic.

• Messages can be saved to document the process in case of a misunderstanding or miscommu-
nication.

• Files can be attached and distributed.

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web log

Online personal journal.

Really Simple
Syndication (RSS)

Communications
technology that allows
news to be sent to a
computer screen.

FIGURE 7.11
Link to RSS Feed on a
Web Page
Link to RSS feed on a web
page.

Project Log and Web Log (Blog)

A web log is typically called a blog. It is an online journal that can be private, shared by invitation,
or made available to the world. Some project managers keep a journal in which they summarize the
day’s challenges and triumphs and the decisions they made. They return to this journal at a later
date to review their decision-making process after the results of those decisions are known to see if
they can learn from their mistakes. Many decisions in project management are made with incom-
plete knowledge, and reflecting on previous decisions to develop this decision-making skill is
important to growth as a project manager.

Really Simple Syndication (RSS)

Some projects are directly affected by external factors such as political elections, economic trends,
corporate mergers, technological or scientific breakthroughs, or weather. To keep informed about
these factors, you can subscribe to online news sources. A method that facilitates this process is
Really Simple Syndication (RSS). To use an RSS feed, team members download a free news reader
on the Internet. Web pages with RSS news feeds have labeled links, as shown in Figure 7.11.

If the user clicks on the RSS feed, news from the website is automatically sent to the user’s
news reader. The news reader can be set to filter the news for key words to limit the stories to those
that are relevant to the project.

The following are examples of asynchronous communications:

• Mail and package delivery. Transfer of objects and contracts that need signatures.

• Fax. Document transmittal over telephone. Facsimiles are accepted for some documents.

• Electronic mail (e-mail). Text messages with attachments can be distributed and managed by
computer programs.

• Web log (blog). An online journal may be used to record events, thoughts, and lessons learned.

• Really Simple Syndication (RSS). News feeds that push relevant content to a reader to keep the
manager informed of new events that could affect the project.

Assessing New Communication Technologies

New technologies for communicating electronically appear with increasing frequency. Using a new
technology that is unfamiliar to the team increases the technology complexity, which can cause
delays and increase costs. To decide if a new technology should be included in a communications
plan, seek answers to the following questions:

• Does the new communication technology provide a competitive advantage for the project by
reducing cost, saving time, or preventing mistakes?

• Does the project team have the expertise to learn the new technology quickly?

• Does the company offer support such as help desk and equipment service for new communi-
cation technology?

• What is the cost of training and implementation in terms of time as well as money?

Key Takeaways

• Synchronous communications take place when all the parties are present at the same time.
Examples are telephone calls and video conferencing.

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• Asynchronous communications take place when the parties are not present at the same
time. Examples are e-mail, fax, package delivery, blogs, and RSS feeds.

• Determine if a new technology can save time, reduce cost, or prevent mistakes and if the
increased complexity can be handled by the team and support staff for an affordable cost in
time and money.

Exercises

1. Communications methods that do not require both parties to participate at the same time
are called _______________.

2. A telephone call is an example of __________ communication.

3. An exchange of e-mail messages is an example of _______________ communication.

4. A __________ is an online journal used to share an individual’s thoughts and experiences.

5. A video conference is an example of _____________ communications.

6. What are two examples of synchronous communications technologies that you have used?

7. What are two examples of asynchronous communications technologies that you have used?

8. What is a virtual team?

9. Where is the reference time zone and why is it sometimes referred to as both GMT and UT?

10. Why are fax machines still used for legal documents?

Internalize your learning experience by preparing to discuss the following.

If you were managing a functional team that included people from three other countries, which
synchronous communications technologies would you include in your communications plan and
for what purposes? Which asynchronous technologies would you use and for what purposes?
What new technologies would you consider?

7.3 Selecting Software

Learning Objectives

1. Identify the types of software that are appropriate for projects of low complexity.

2. Identify the types of software that are appropriate for projects of medium complexity.

3. Identify the types of software that are appropriate for projects of high complexity.

4. Describe strategies for sharing documents that can be edited by a team.

Part of a communications plan is determining the type of computer software that will be used to
create documents, spreadsheets, diagrams, and reports. The choice of software is related to the com-
plexity of the project.

Simple Projects

Basic projects can be managed using some of the features available in general purpose software
that is available in most offices.

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Word Processing

Even the most basic project will generate numerous documents using word processing software.
A communications plan can specify standards for these documents that makes it easier to create,
edit, combine, store, and retrieve the documents. Document standards include the following:

• Specifying the file format

• Using templates for commonly used forms

File Format

Word processing software programs display a document on a computer’s screen and allow the user
to enter and edit text. When the file is saved to a storage device, the text and all the various format-
ting such as font and font size are converted to a code for efficient storage. The code varies from
one word processing program to another and even between releases of the same program.

The most common word processing program, by a wide margin, is Microsoft Word (MS Word).
Several releases of MS Word run on the Windows operating system and on the Macintosh operating
system. Versions of MS Word released prior to 2007 save files in a proprietary format. The format
is indicated by a period and a three-letter extension— —that is automatically attached to the
file when it is saved. Beginning with MS Word 2007 for Windows and MS Word 2008 for Macintosh,
files are saved using a different format that is indicated by a period and a four-letter exten-
sion— x—that identify the newer format.

Almost all word processing programs have the ability to save files in the file format, and
it is a common standard for word processing files. Newer versions of word processing programs,
including MS Word 2007 and MS Word for Mac 2008, can save files in the older format. There
are new features in MS Word 2007—such as the ability to format citations in a variety of styles,
including APA, MLA, and Chicago—that are lost when the file is saved in the format. Older
versions of MS Word can be adapted to read the newer x file formats by downloading and
installing a compatibility program that is available at no cost from Microsoft’s website. Display of
document file extensions is hidden by default in the Windows operating system. They can be dis-
played by turning off this feature. Instructions for displaying the file extensions are available from
the operating system’s help menu. In the Windows Vista operating system, the option is found on
the Control Panel, in Appearance and Personalization, in Folder Options, on the View tab, under
Advanced Settings, as shown in Figure 7.12.

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style

Combination of formatting,
including font, font size,
font color, shading, and
other attributes used to
display a segment of text
and to identify its level of
importance.

FIGURE 7.12 Displaying File Name Extensions

When a list of files is displayed in a dialog box, choose the Details option. In Windows Vista, the
Details option is on the View button, as shown in Figure 7.13.

FIGURE 7.13 File Extensions Displayed in Details View

Styles

The combination of formatting, including font, font size, font color, shading, and other attributes
used to display a segment of text and to identify its level of importance, is called a style. A style can
be given a name and applied repeatedly to different portions of a document. Predefined styles are
available in MS Word 2007 on the ribbon, on the Home tab, in the Styles group, as shown in Figure
7.14. Users can define their own styles and give them names. Some organizations prefer that all of
their documents have similar fonts and styles for headings, body text, and figure captions.

FIGURE 7.14 Style Choices

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template

An example document that
uses standard design
features that can be
completed to create similar
documents.

Outlines

An outline of a document consists of topic headings and subheadings, and it is useful when orga-
nizing or reorganizing a document. The Styles group in MS Word 2007 includes predefined styles
for nine levels of headings. In addition to using different fonts, each heading is assigned a level
of importance. A document that uses headings with assigned levels can be viewed in the Outline
view, such as the book outline shown in Figure 7.15. In this view, the level of detail displayed in the
outline is selected to display the first two levels of the outline. The headings and the hidden text
associated with each heading can be moved by selecting and dragging headings from one location
in the outline to another.

FIGURE 7.15 Outline View in MS Word 2007

Templates

If a particular type of document will be used repeatedly, it might be worth the time to create an
example document—a template—that is formatted using the appropriate styles with blanks or
placeholder text where the user can insert the information that describes a particular situation. A
variety of templates are already available for download at no additional cost. For example, when a
new document is created in Microsoft Word 2007, there is an option to choose a template such as
the invoice template shown in Figure 7.16.

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FIGURE 7.16 Standardized Document Used as a Template

The template may be customized and used repeatedly for all the documents of that type, or the
organization can design its own.

Diagrams

Reporting relationships and the flow of work are often described using diagrams that consist of
boxes connected by arrows. Recent releases of popular word processing programs include drawing
tools that can be used for basic diagrams. In MS Word 2007, a variety of shapes and connectors are
available on the Insert tab, in the Illustrations group on the Shapes button, as shown in Figure 7.17.

FIGURE 7.17 Menu of Diagramming Shapes and Connectors in Word 2007

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spreadsheet

Display of data in row and
column format.

table

Group of data that is
organized in rows and
columns, where columns
are types of data and rows
are individual instances.

Adaptable connecting lines and arrows can be used that redraw automatically when the
shapes are moved. This feature facilitates rapid revisions when the shapes must be moved, because
the connecting arrows do not need to be redrawn.

A feature named SmartArt was introduced in Microsoft Office 2007 that has a variety of charts
that can be used for displaying organization and relationships that use more sophisticated and
artistic graphics, as shown in Figure 7.18.

FIGURE 7.18 SmartArt Feature in Microsoft Word

Spreadsheets

Another commonly available software creates a spreadsheet—a display of data in row and column
format—in which financial or numerical data can be manipulated. The intersection of the rows and
columns are cells into which numbers, text, dates, and formulas can be entered. The formulas can
utilize values found in other cells and display the results in the cell in place of the formula. If the
value in a cell to which the formula refers is changed, all the formulas that use that cell’s value are
immediately recalculated. This feature makes it convenient to examine several options quickly.
Spreadsheets are often used to manage data on simple projects instead of a dedicated database or
project management software.

Organizing Data in Rows and Columns

If a spreadsheet is used to store data, such as a list of project activities or a list of expenses, it is
prudent to arrange the data in some way that would be used by more sophisticated data manage-
ment software. Most data management programs arrange data in such a way that each type of data
is represented by a column with a label at the top and each row contains the specific data for one
type of item. A collection of data arranged in rows and columns is a table. For example, a list of
expenses would be arranged so that individual expenses are recorded on each row, and each col-
umn would be a type of information related to the expenses, as shown in Figure 7.19.

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filtered

Display is restricted to
data that meets criteria.

FIGURE 7.19 Expenses Arranged in a Table in a Spreadsheet

File Format

The most common spreadsheet program, by a wide margin, is Microsoft Excel (MS Excel). There
have been several releases of MS Excel that run on the Windows operating system and on the
Macintosh operating system. Versions of MS Excel released prior to 2007 save files in a proprietary
format. The format is indicated by a period and a three-letter extension—.xls—that is automatically
attached to the file when it is saved. Beginning with MS Excel 2007 for Windows and MS Excel 2008
for Macintosh, files are saved using a different format that is indicated by a period and a four-letter
extension—.xlsx—that identifies the newer format.

Almost all spreadsheet programs have the ability to save files in the .xls file format, and it is
a common standard for spreadsheet files. Newer versions of spreadsheet programs, including MS
Excel 2007 and MS Excel for Mac 2008 can save files in the older .xls format. There are a few new
basic features in MS Excel 2007 that would be lost by saving files to the older file format.

Using a Spreadsheet to Manage Project Data

If the data in the spreadsheet is arranged in simple rows of the same type of data, it can be manip-
ulated to provide reports for basic projects.

If one or more of the columns in a table contain labels, identification numbers, or other
descriptions, those labels can be used to specify sorting and filtering options. For example, if the
spreadsheet has a list of expenses, the rows of data can be sorted in decreasing or increasing value
by one of the data types such as the due date or the amount of the expense. The display can be
restricted—filtered—to display only those rows that meet criteria specified by the user. For exam-
ple, the table could be filtered to display the expenses for a particular department that were
incurred between two dates. This ability facilitates the preparation of monthly progress reports
and budgets.

In MS Excel 2007, the sorting and filtering options are on the Data tab, in the Sort and Filter
group under the Sort or Filter button. Once a filter is applied, option buttons are placed at the
top of each column to facilitate changes in the sorting or filtering options. For example, the list of
expenses shown in the previous figure can be sorted by the labels in the Category column and fil-
tered to show only costs that are more than $20, as shown in Figure 7.20.

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FIGURE 7.20 Sorting and Filtering in Microsoft Excel 2007

Subtotals

If the user wants to find a subtotal of the values that belong in a particular group, the groups must
be identified by a label in one of the columns. Finding subtotals is a two-step process. First, the table
is sorted by that column to bring all the rows in each group together. Next, the subtotal feature is
applied. In Excel 2007, the subtotal option is found on the Data tab, in the Outline group. A dialog
box allows the user to choose the columns to subtotal and the columns that contain the labels of
the groups. A subtotal is inserted below the last row for each group, as shown in Figure 7.21.

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FIGURE 7.21 Using Subtotals

In a panel at the left of the screen are lines and symbols that indicate the level of detail that is
displayed. By clicking on the boxes with minus signs, the rows containing the data can be hidden,
leaving the subtotals or grand total, as shown in Figure 7.22 and Figure 7.23. This feature allows a
manager to view summary data very quickly without the visual clutter of the details.

FIGURE 7.22 Third level details are hidden.

FIGURE 7.23 All details in rows 2–16 are hidden.

Graphics for Bar Charts and Milestones

Spreadsheets can be used for basic progress reports that show activities, dates, and horizontal bars
that represent the duration of an activity. A sequence of dates can be created as column labels by
entering the first two dates in the sequence, selecting both dates, and then dragging the fill han-
dle—a small square in the lower right corner of the selected cell, as shown in Figure 7.24—to extend
the pattern.

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FIGURE 7.24 Creating a Sequence of Dates

The program is sophisticated enough to correctly fill date sequences between months that
have a different number of days and even account for leap years in February. Because more sophis-
ticated project management software uses a table design in which the first two columns are
description and duration, a similar structure, in which those two columns are adjacent and in that
order will make it convenient to transfer the list of activities in a low-complexity project into the
project management software at a later date if the spreadsheet is not sufficient. In the duration col-
umn, use the following abbreviations:

• d for days

• wk for weeks

• mons for months

The duration of each activity and the relationships between activities can be illustrated using
the drawing shapes. In Excel 2007, the same set of shapes and connector arrows are available as
those in Word 2007. A long rectangle can represent a bar whose length represents the duration of
the activity. Events or significant dates in the project are identified with a diamond. The diamond
can be created by using a small square shape and rotating it. Arrows can be drawn between the
shapes to indicate their relationships, as shown in Figure 7.25. Unfortunately, the arrows in Excel
2007 connect to handles on the sides of the rotated squares instead of the corners. This detail may
be overlooked in a simple project diagram.

FIGURE 7.25 Diagram of Activities

This type of diagram is useful for projects with low complexity where a simple chart of a few
activities will suffice.

Software for Moderately Complex Projects

More complex projects involve more people, who are often separated geographically and who
contribute to the same documents. Complex projects have more tasks with more complex relation-

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ships. To manage those tasks and relationships, using dedicated project management software and
more sophisticated diagraming software is justified.

Sharing Team Documents

If more than one person on a team will be contributing to a document, the document must be
accessible to them. To manage documents that are created by a team, it is necessary to control the
edits so that work is not lost or confused.

Version Control

Files such as word processing documents and spreadsheets may be stored on an individual’s com-
puter and copies sent to participants who then make changes and return the revised version to the
person who is responsible for the final version of the document. If more than one person is editing
his or her own copy of a document at the same time, different versions of the document with dif-
ferent additions or corrections are created. Word processing programs such as MS Word 2007 have
a feature that can compare two documents and identify the differences to help bring the two dif-
ferent documents back together. This feature is found on the Review tab, in the Compare group, as
shown in Figure 7.26.

FIGURE 7.26 Compare Documents Feature

Most software programs make periodic backups to protect from accidental power loss. One of
the ways that a user can still lose a lot of work is by replacing a newer version of a document with
an older version. It is possible to display the date on which the file was last saved using the Details
view. If more than one version of the file exists in two different locations, the dates can be com-
pared to determine which is the most recent. These techniques are useful for simple projects with
very few participants.

File Storage and Access Control

Managing versions of documents that are edited by more than one person can be done more effec-
tively by placing the file in a location that can be accessed by all the team members. This can be a
shared drive on the company’s computer or on a document sharing service. People who need to use
the document are grouped by their need for access. Three groupings are common:

1. View only

2. Edit only

3. Ownership/administrator

The owner or administrator of the document can set the access levels. These levels of access
can be assigned to each individual, or they can be assigned to named groups, and the person can
be made a member of a group. The owner of the document can choose to accept or reject changes
made by those with edit-only permission.

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virtual private
network (VPN)

Method of connecting to a
network from the Internet
using a code to protect the
communication.

encryption

Replacing readable
content with a code.

The advantage of this method is that there is only one version of the file. If a file is being edited,
it is usually locked so that other team members may view the file but cannot edit it until the first
editor closes the file.

If the file is stored on a computer that is on a secure network within an organization, it can be
difficult for team members who do not have direct connections to the company’s network to get
access to the files. To protect the security of the company’s network, the network administrator can
grant an outside user permission to access the network from anywhere on the Internet using a
virtual private network (VPN) connection. A VPN uses encryption—replacing readable content
with a code—to protect the communication between the network and the user to make it secure.
The VPN connection gets the user onto the company network as if they were directly connected,
but they still need the appropriate passwords to access the shared documents.

Tracking Changes and Adding Comments

One of the features that is particularly useful for keeping track of the changes made to a document
by several users is called Track Changes. In Microsoft Word 2007, it is found on the Review tab, in
the Tracking group. Changes may be shown in the document or in balloons at the side.

If a team member wishes to explain a change, it is very important that they do not insert their
explanation as text into the document. Such explanations might not be deleted and would end up
in the final version of the document with potentially damaging results. Instead, team members can
use a form of electronic sticky note to make comments. This feature is found in MS Word 2007 on
the Review tab, in the Comments group. A change and a comment are shown in Figure 7.27. The
document owner must go through the document and accept or reject each change and delete all
the comments before the document is released as a finished product. The Next, Accept, and Reject
options are found in Microsoft Word 2007 on the Review tab, in the Changes group.

FIGURE 7.27 Tracking Changes and Adding Comments

Diagraming Software

The processes and relationships in medium- and high-complexity projects usually require more
sophisticated software tools for creating reporting diagrams and workflow charts. The market for
diagramming software is more diverse than for word processing and spreadsheets, and it is not as
likely that most team members will have the same programs that save files in the same formats.
Microsoft VISEO 2007 is available as a stand-alone program that sells for several hundred dollars.
For medium-complexity projects, a free alternative to VISEO is Open Office Draw. Open Office is a
free software alternative that includes a word processing, spreadsheet, presentation, and drawing
programs. The Open Office Draw program, and others like it, can create diagrams such as the one
shown in Figure 7.28.

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FIGURE 7.28 Diagram Created Using Open Office Draw

The files created by the various drawing programs might not be compatible with each other,
but all the programs can create static image files that can be pasted into word processing docu-
ments.

Project Management Software

The relationships between project activities can become complicated in medium- and high-com-
plexity projects. Dedicated project management software can compute the sum of activity dura-
tions along several different paths through complex relationships and recalculate them immedi-
ately if any of the durations or starting times are changed. Similarly, charts and reports are updated
automatically based on the new data. The most popular software for medium-complexity projects
is Microsoft Project. If a project manager begins work on the project in the belief that it can be man-
aged using a list of activities in a word processing program or in a spreadsheet, the list of activities
and their durations can be copied and pasted, or imported, into the project management software’s
table of activities, if the original document or spreadsheet was designed with that possibility in
mind, as shown in Figure 7.29.

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open source

Available at no cost for
individual users and with
fewer restrictions than
proprietary software.

tags

Labels that enclose text to
describe how it is
displayed or to give it
meaning as data.

extensible markup
language (XML)

Rules for defining tags that
can identify text as data or
for display purposes.

FIGURE 7.29 List of Activities Transferred to a Project Management Program

Once the data are placed in the project management software, the relationships can be defined
and reports created. Organizations on a tight budget might consider using an open source program
named OpenProject. Open source software is usually available at no cost for individual users and
with fewer restrictions than proprietary software like Microsoft Project. OpenProject is similar to
Microsoft Project, as shown in Figure 7.30, and could be used on low- and medium-complexity pro-
jects that do not need the more advanced features available in Microsoft Project.

FIGURE 7.30 Open Source Project Management Software

Software for Complex Projects

Complex projects can involve thousands of individual activities, and a company might have several
projects going at the same time. Large, complex projects are common in the construction industry.
A software that is commonly used for complex projects in construction is P3 or P6 from Primavera.
It has the ability to produce sophisticated reports that help project managers to anticipate prob-
lems and make projections.

Word processing documents often contain data that could be aggregated and analyzed. Begin-
ning with Microsoft Word 2007 and the x file format, it is possible to insert characters called
tags on either side of a particular section of a form or document and assign a data label. For exam-
ple, the name of the supplier on an invoice could be enclosed between two tags:
Thompson Hardware. These tags resemble those used in the hypertext
markup language (HTML) to identify how to display text on a web page, but instead of telling a web
browser how to display the name of the supplier, it identifies Thompson Hardware as the supplier.
These tags can be created by following a set of rules called the extensible markup language (XML).
Forms created using XML can be scanned for the content that is marked by tags. The data can be
imported into a spreadsheet or database for analysis. Creating documents that use XML to identify

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data in the forms can be done using Microsoft InfoPath. An example that identifies key facts in a
document that was prepared using InfoPath is shown in Figure 7.31. Because it takes extra effort to
learn to use InfoPath, or a similar XML authoring program, and to create the forms, this approach
is normally limited to complex and sophisticated organizations that have the need to manage large
amounts of data.

FIGURE 7.31 InfoPath Form with XML Tags

Key Takeaways

• Low-complexity projects might be managed using general purpose word processing and
spreadsheet software by using the special features for outlining, managing data, and insert-
ing graphic objects

• Medium-complexity projects need special purpose software for managing project activities,
such as Microsoft Project, and graphic software such as VISEO. Open source software such
as OpenProject and Open Office Draw may suffice.

• High-complexity projects need more sophisticated project management software like P6
from Primavera. Forms can be created using XML tags that allow data to be extracted from
the documents.

• Files can be stored at a location that is accessible by all the team members. They can be
granted different levels of access, including view only, edit only, and ownership. Features like
track changes and compare documents can help manage edits.

Exercises

1. General purpose word processing and spreadsheet software might be sufficient for manag-
ing _____ (low-, medium-, high-) complexity projects.

2. Three features that are available in spreadsheet programs such as Microsoft Excel to man-
age tables of data are subtotal, sort, and _________.

3. If outline levels are assigned in a word processing document, the outline may be _________
or expanded to hide or display different levels of detail.

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4. ______-________ (two words) software is often available at no cost, and its use is less
restricted than proprietary software.

5. A VPN connection uses ___________ to protect the content of the communication.

6. How are XML tags similar to HTML tags and how are they different?

7. How should activity information be organized in a spreadsheet to make it easier to transfer
to a project management program?

8. What are three options for creating a diagram that displays a project’s reporting hierarchy for
low- or medium-complexity projects?

9. What is an example of a software product that is commonly used for highly complex pro-
jects?

10. What are three levels of file access and editing permissions that can be assigned, and what
are examples of user groups that would be assigned to each level?

Internalize your learning experience by preparing to discuss the following.

Describe an experience you might have had with editing a word processing document and how
you managed the revisions. If you used some of the features described above, how well did they
work? What features were described that might have been helpful?

7.4 End-of-Chapter Exercises

Exercises at the end of the chapter are designed to strengthen your understanding and retention
of the information recently acquired in the chapter.

Essay Questions

Write several paragraphs to provide more in-depth analysis and consideration when answering
the following questions.

1. Assume that you are the leader of a virtual team that includes members who are in New
York, Bogotá, Honolulu, and Tokyo. You would like to choose a day and time for a weekly
conference call to keep the project on track. Choose a day and time and explain your choice
and the compromises and problems it might cause for each member. Use the term “syn-
chronous” correctly and identify the specific time zone for each participant.

2. From the list of available templates in your word processing or spreadsheet software, choose
a template and describe it. Fill it out and then describe how it could be modified to meet the
needs of a particular situation or organization.

Discussion

The exercises in this section are designed to promote exchange of information among students
in the classroom or in an online discussion. The exercises are more open ended, which means
that what you find might be completely different from what your classmates find, and you can all
benefit by sharing what you have learned.

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1. Consider the newer synchronous and asynchronous communications technologies with
which you are familiar. Describe how they might be used on projects in new and innovative
ways. Relate these ideas to what you learned about project cultures—specifically about inno-
vation on projects—and describe how the new communications technologies could be used
to innovate.

2. Describe your experience using Excel to manage data such as lists of purchases. Discuss
how the features of sorting, filtering, and subtotaling could help answer questions about that
list.

7.5 Web Exercise

Learning Objective

1. Determine the local time for team members in other time zones given GMT or UT zone des-
ignations.

Using an Online Time Zone Map

Fortunately, there are several websites that provide the information you need to schedule a confer-
ence call so that all the participants know the correct time and day of the week regardless of where
they are in the world.

How to Use a Website to Help Find Local Time

1. Open a word processing document. Save it as Ch06TZStudentName . Use the file for-
mat.

2. On the first line, type Chapter 6 study documentation by and then type your name. Press Enter
to move the insertion point to the next line

3. Open a web browser and go to http://www.worldtimezone.com.

4. The map will display the world’s time zones at the time you visit the site. See Figure 7.32. The
example in Figure 7.32 was displayed on the author’s computer at 6:40 p.m. EST on Thursday,
December 18 (23:40 GMT).

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http://www.worldtimezone.com/

FIGURE 7.32 World Times Compared to 6:40 p.m. EST

5. Capture the screen that displays the World Time Zone Map with your current time and date.

6. Switch to the word processing document and paste the screen capture below the first line of
text.

7. Below the image, type The time and date in India would be and then type the time and date in
India for your current time and date.

8. Review your work and use the following rubric to determine its adequacy:

Element Best Adequate Poor

File name Ch06TZStudentName Ch06TZStudentName x Different file
name or
incompatible
format

Determine the local time
for team members in
other time zones given
GMT or UT zone
designations

Title; screen capture with
current date and time;
correctly calculated day
and time in India.

Same as Best Incomplete
or an error
in the time
or date

9. Save the file and submit it as directed by the instructor.

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7.6 Software and Technology
Exercises

Learning Objectives

1. Locate the dialing codes for making international telephone calls.

2. Identify dialing techniques used with cell phones to make international telephone calls.

3. Select the appropriate times and methods for making international calls.

4. Subscribe to a news service using a newsreader and RSS.

Placing International Calls

International Telephone Calls Using Wired Phones

The telephone may be used for two-person synchronous communication or in a multipart confer-
ence call. Using a telephone to make long-distance and international calls involves using interna-
tional telephone numbering conventions.

Calls within North America and the Caribbean

The telephone companies in North America use the North American numbering plan (NANP) that
includes the United States, its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and sixteen Caribbean nations.

Wired telephones are connected physically to a local switch that can handle up to ten thousand
connections represented by the last four-digit numbers in a telephone number from 0000 to 9999.
Each switch is identified by a three-digit number such as 555. A local telephone number consists of
the switch number and one of the ten thousand four-digit numbers such as 555 0112. This system
can provide up to ten million different unique phone numbers,[3] but it does not have the capacity
to provide service to billions of people.

Calling from North America to a Country outside the NANP

The IDD code for the United States is 011.

To make an international call from an NANP member such as the United States to another
country, you need to provide two codes: the international direct dialing (IDD) code and the country
code. The IDD code for the United States is 011. For example, if you wanted to place a call to a num-
ber in Rio de Janeiro, you would enter 011 55 21 xxx xxxx, where 011 is the IDD code for the United
States, 55 is the country code for Brazil, 21 is the area code for Rio de Janeiro, and xxx xxxx repre-
sents the final seven digits of the number.

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Calling to North America from a Country outside the NANP

The IDD and the country code are not simply reversible. The country code for the United States
is 1 (not 011).

If you traveled to Rio de Janeiro for a meeting and wanted to call back to a number in the
United States from a local phone, you would have to look up the IDD code for the local service
provider in Brazil. In Brazil, there is a different code for each of the five phone companies. The IDD
for Brasil Telecom is 0014.

The IDD and the country code are not simply reversible. The country code for the United
States is 1 (not 011), so you would enter 0014 1 xxx xxx xxxx, where the last ten digits are the area
code and telephone number in the United States.

Reading the Phone Number on a Business Card in North
America

It is commonly understood in the United States that you do not enter the hyphens, parentheses,
spaces, or periods that are used to make a telephone number more readable and that you dial 1
first—even though it is not included—for a call destined for a different area code. For example, if
the phone number on the business card shows (555) 222-1111, you know that you would enter 2221111
if you are calling from within the 555 area code[4] or 15552221111 for a call from a different area code,
but you would not attempt to enter the parentheses, space, or hyphen. Spaces are used in some
instances in the following discussion to make the numbers easier to read in this text, but it will be
understood that they are not entered when dialing the number.

Reading the Phone Number on an International Business
Card

Unlike those countries participating in the NANP, other countries use different numbers for the
national direct dialing (NDD) code and the country code. They might use a different number of dig-
its for the area or city code. A business card from a team member in Rio de Janeiro might be +55
(0)21-xxxx xxxx where 55 is the country code and 0 is the NDD code. To call this team member from
the United States on a wired telephone, you would enter 011 55 21 xxxx xxxx, where 011 is the IDD
for the United States, 55 is the country code for Brazil, and 21 is the code for Rio de Janeiro.

Notice the zero between 55 and 21 is not included when calling from outside the country. This
is the NDD code that is used for calls between areas within the country. For example, if you land
in the airport at Sao Paulo, Brazil, and want to call the person in Rio de Janeiro from a local phone,
you would enter 0 21 xxxx xxxx (without the spaces) where 0 is the NDD code—like 1 in the United
States—and 21 is the area/city code.

Finding International Telephone Codes

1. Open a word processing document. Save it as Ch06PhoneStudentName . Use the file
format.

2. On the first line, type Chapter 6 study documentation by and then type your name. Press Enter
to move the insertion point to the next line.

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3. Open a web browser and go to http://www.kropla.com. This site provides information on inter-
national dialing codes.

4. Near the middle of the page, click the International Dialing Codes link.

5. On the CountryCode.org page, in the Country column, scroll down and click Brazil. A list of
country codes and city codes is displayed next to a map of the country.

6. Use the browser’s Back button to return to the CountryCode.org web page. Add the address for
this page to the Project Management folder in your browser’s favorites or bookmarks.

7. Switch back to the browser. In the Country column, scroll down and click one of the country
names other than Brazil.

8. Capture the screen that shows the country’s code and map, paste it into a blank document, and
then save the document as Ch06Exercises6.5 .

Making International Telephone Calls Using a Mobile Phone

To place an international call to a country outside the NANP using a mobile phone, you use the
plus sign (+) instead of the IDD code. For example, the number of the British Museum is +44 (0) 20
7323 8000. To call this number from a wired phone in the United States, you would dial 011 44 20 7323
8000. If you make the call from a mobile phone, you dial +44 20 7323 8000. Notice the plus sign takes
the place of the IDD code.

Finding the Plus Sign on a Mobile Phone

Wired phones do not have a plus sign on their keypads, but recent model mobile phones include a
method to dial a plus sign. Unfortunately, the method varies by brand of telephone.

Practice Using International Dialing Codes

Selecting the appropriate numbers to use from a business card for placing an international call
requires practice. In this exercise, you practice using your knowledge of international calling codes
to compare your answers to reference answers that are hidden on a spreadsheet.

Using a Spreadsheet for Practice

1. Navigate to the location where the student files for chapter exercises are located and then open
7.3.3_PhonePractice.xls. Save the file as Ch07PhonePracticeStudentName.xls using the Excel
2003 file format.

2. Use the skills you practiced in this chapter and in previous exercises to answer the first ques-
tion in cell C2. You are allowed to open a browser and refer to websites for assistance.

3. Notice that if you type and enter the correct answer, in exactly the format indicated, the cell
background turns green, as shown in Figure 7.33.

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http://www.kropla.com/

http://www.countrycode.org/

http://www.flatworldknowledge.com/sites/all/files/6.3.3_PhonePractice.xls

FIGURE 7.33 Background Turns Green If Correct

4. Observe that column D is hidden. It contains a set of correct answers. The spreadsheet’s con-
ditional formatting feature is used to change the background color if the cell content matches
the hidden answer.

5. Use your web references and personal knowledge to answer the remaining questions. Place
the answers in column C. If some of the answers do not turn green, check your work. If you
cannot determine the error, move on to the next question. Answer all the questions, even if
some of the answers are wrong or do not match the reference answer exactly.

6. Select columns C through E. To accomplish this, you may click and drag the column headings
from C through E, or you can click the column C heading, hold the Shift key, and click the col-
umn E heading. Columns C, D, and E are selected, even though column D is hidden, as shown
in Figure 7.34.

FIGURE 7.34 Columns C, D, and E Selected

7. Move the pointer onto either column, then right-click. On the shortcut menu, click Unhide. The
answers in column D are displayed.

8. Locate any answers that are still displayed in red. Compare your answer to the reference
answer. In the Analysis column on the same row, analyze and explain why your answer did not
match the reference answer. Use this opportunity to correct misunderstandings.

9. Save the spreadsheet. Check your work to assure that it is complete using the following table:

Element Best Adequate Poor

File name Ch07PhonePracticeStudentName.xls Ch07PhonePracticeStudentName.xlsx Different file
name or
incompatible
format

Select the
appropriate
times and
methods for
making
international
calls

All incorrect answers are analyzed;
the cause of the error correctly
identified

All correct Analysis
does not
correctly
identify the
cause of the
error

10. Save the file and submit it as directed by the instructor.

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Using a Newsreader

Some projects are directly affected by external factors such as political elections, economic trends,
corporate mergers, technological or scientific breakthroughs, or weather. To keep informed about
these factors, you can subscribe to online news sources. A method that facilitates this process is
Really Simple Syndication (RSS). To use this service, you need a newsreader so you can subscribe
to RSS feeds. For this activity, you need a Google account. If you do not have one, go to Google.com
and create one for no cost.

Endnotes

1. Diallo, A., Thuillier, D. 2005, The success of international development
projects, trust and communication: an African perspective International
Journal of Project Management Volume 23, Issue 3, April 2005, Pages
237-252

2. Business Dictionary, s.v. “Virtual Team,” http://www.businessdictionary.
com/definition/virtual-team.html (accessed January 27, 2010).

3. The three-digit area code plus the next four digits make up a seven-digit
number. A seven-digit number has ten million possible combinations from
000 0000 to 999 9999. In practice, some area codes are reserved for
special purposes such as trouble-shooting, emergencies, directory assis-
tance, and maintenance, so the maximum is less than ten million per area
code. For example, numbers 555-0100 through 555-0199 are reserved for
fictional use and are not assigned to real customers.

4. Some area codes cover large geographic areas, and the NDD code is
required to dial a number from within the same area code if they are far
apart.

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232 Project Management

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Chapter 7: Project Communication Management

7.1: Project Communication Plan

Escalation Paths

Constraints

Roles; Relative to Project Communications

Team Directory

Escalation Paths

7.2: Types of Communication Technology

Synchronous Communications

Time Zones

Local Time

Asynchronous Communications

Mail and Package Delivery

Fax

Electronic Mail

Project Log and Web Log (Blog)

Really Simple Syndication (RSS)

Assessing New Communication Technologies

7.3: Selecting Software

Simple Projects

Word Processing

File Format

Styles

Outlines

Templates

Diagrams

Spreadsheets

Organizing Data in Rows and Columns

File Format

Using a Spreadsheet to Manage Project Data

Subtotals

Graphics for Bar Charts and Milestones

Software for Moderately Complex Projects

Sharing Team Documents

Version Control

File Storage and Access Control

Tracking Changes and Adding Comments

Diagraming Software

Project Management Software

Software for Complex Projects

7.4: End-of-Chapter Exercises

7.5: Web Exercise

Using an Online Time Zone Map

How to Use a Website to Help Find Local Time

7.6: Software and Technology Exercises

Placing International Calls

International Telephone Calls Using Wired Phones

Calls within North America and the Caribbean

Calling from North America to a Country outside the NANP

Calling to North America from a Country outside the NANP

Reading the Phone Number on a Business Card in North America

Reading the Phone Number on an International Business Card

Finding International Telephone Codes

Making International Telephone Calls Using a Mobile Phone

Finding the Plus Sign on a Mobile Phone

Practice Using International Dialing Codes

Using a Spreadsheet for Practice

Using a Newsreader

Endnotes

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