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Must be APA 7th edition , must be ONLY 4 pages.
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EDCO 711
Reflective Essay Assignment Instructions
Overview
The
Reflective Essay Assignment will require you to apply group theory concepts to real group scenarios, reflect on the dynamics, roles, and challenges faced in the group, and analyze your experiences through a theoretical lens. Additionally, students will evaluate their professional dispositions in the context of group work.
Instructions
Based on the introductory reading material and real-life experiences reflect on concepts related to group work including stages, theory, dynamics, leadership, ethics, and professionalism. The reflection should address the following components:
1.
Select a Group Scenario:
Reflect on a real group experience you have had as a member or that you have lead in your group work experience (e.g., a work team, study group, support group, or community organization).
2.
Theoretical Application (1 page)
Provide an overview with a brief description of the group including its purpose, members, and structure. Identify one or more group theories evident in this group experience. Reflect on key aspects such as group dynamics, roles, norms, leadership, conflict, cohesion, decision-making, and communication. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the group based on your theoretical analysis. Some questions to consider are:
How well did the group function?
What challenges did it face?
How could these have been addressed differently using theoretical insights?
3.
Personal Reflection (2 pages)
– Reflect on your role within the group. Questions to consider:
How did your actions, communication style, and behavior influence the group dynamics?
What insights have you gained about yourself through this process?
– Identify at least three areas where you believe you could improve your group facilitation or participation skills. Discuss strategies for future development as a group member or leader.
– Reflect on how your professional dispositions (e.g., ethical behavior, respect for diversity, responsibility, commitment to lifelong learning) were demonstrated or challenged in the group setting. Use specific examples to illustrate your points.
– Articulate how your actions and reflections align with the ethical standards and professional dispositions expected in your field. Consider using a relevant professional dispositions framework (e.g., from ACA, APA, NASW) to structure this reflection.
– Identify three areas where you may need to strengthen your professional dispositions in group settings. Discuss actionable steps for each area of growth that you plan to take to enhance your professionalism in this area.
Formatting and Submission Requirements
· Length: This reflection essay should be 3-4 pages and should not exceed four pages in length. It is important to learn to be concise in your professional writing.
· APA Style: Ensure that the reflection paper follows APA formatting guidelines, including proper citation of sources and formatting of references. Due to the reflective nature of this assignment, personal pronouns are acceptable.
· Scholarly Sources: Incorporate information from the textbook readings as assigned in the course as well as 1 biblical source.
Note: Your assignment will be checked for originality via the Turnitin plagiarism tool.
Read: Brown: Chapters 7, 10 – 12
Chapter 7The Group
Process and Progress
Introduction
The previous chapter had a strong focus on the instructional part of psychoeducational groups. This chapter focuses on understanding what is taking place in the group as a whole and for individual members as the session unfolds. This understanding is critical for group leaders, as they need have to be aware, understand, and respond as the session unfolds. It is easier to recognize what happened in retrospect, but the impact is lost when the leader fails to identify something significant, fails to respond appropriately, does not identify the real or underlying issue(s), or remains blissfully unaware of what is taking place. It is also possible under these circumstances for members to be wounded, discounted, or ignored. Although these acts are unintentional on the group leader’s part, they nevertheless can have a negative impact on group members and on the group.
Group leaders need to know the basics: group dynamics, group stages, and helpful group factors. These are relatively easy to define or describe in isolation, but they do not occur so clearly in the group. The difficulty is that many of these basic dynamics can be in effect at the same time, and they shift and change from moment to moment. An additional consideration is the nature of psychoeducational groups where group factors may be overlooked or minimized because of the instructional component. However, the process and progress for the group and for individual members are largely located in the group component. The instructional component is important, but the extent to which the material is incorporated and used relies heavily on the group component.
Group Dynamics
Group dynamics refers to the ongoing process in the group, both the helping and the restraining forces (Lewin, 1944). The shifting, changing, individual, and group-as-a-whole variables, including level of participation, resistance, communication patterns, relationships between members and between members and the leader, nonverbal behaviors, feeling tone, and feelings aroused and/or expressed are the major components that help the group leader to understand the group’s process.
Discussing individual dynamics does not allow the group leader to understand the range and intensity, as the dynamics do not take place in the group one at a time. Group dynamics are continually and constantly interacting throughout the session, shifting emphasis, changing even as they are being observed, and all are important in understanding what is happening in the group.
However, the dynamics do have to be individually defined and described. Following are brief descriptions to help observation of some group dynamics with an example of a group situation for illustration, along with a summary of focal dynamics for each stage of group development. The major dynamics described are level of group member participation, effective and counterproductive member behaviors, resistance, communication patterns, interpersonal relationships, nonverbal behaviors, feeling tone of the group, and aroused/expressed feelings.
Level of Participation
The extent to which group members cooperate, interact with each other and with the leader, contribute to the progress and functioning of the group, and the extent to which group members seek to gain knowledge from the experiences determines their levels of participation. How do members participate? Are they active, passive, sullen, reluctant, or withdrawn? Does their involvement change significantly at some point? For example, do they become energized or fall silent after a discussion?
Effective and Counterproductive Member
Behavior
s
Observing these kinds of behaviors helps group leaders gauge the needs of group members, the intensity of emotions aroused, and the impact of the group and of particular experiences on them. It could also be useful to observe and recognize effective and counterproductive member behaviors. Recognizing effective behaviors gives the leader an opportunity to reinforce those behaviors, members learn more effective ways to relate and communicate, and group process is enhanced. A list of some behaviors follow, and this material could be helpful to provide to group members about expected and helpful behaviors in the group.
Effective group members do the following:
Have a focus for the group and for each session.
Ask for what they want or need, rather than expecting others to guess this.
Openly and directly express feelings, thoughts, and ideas.
Experiment with new ways of behaving
in the group.
Are open to receiving feedback
.
Take personal responsibility for how much they grow and learn.
Respond directly to others, and make attempts to understand what that person intend to communicate.
Are tolerant of diverse points of view or values
.
Display a willingness to work to resolve conflicts with others.
Counterproductive behaviors restrain group process and progress, as many of them are ineffective ways to behave and relate that build meaningful relationships and promote feelings of trust and safety. In addition, many of these are social behaviors appropriate or used in other settings, but are not helpful for the group. Once members learn the value of reducing and/or eliminating these counterproductive behaviors, they can reap benefits from increased interpersonal learning. Some counterproductive behaviors are as follows:
Wait to work or become involved in the group
.
Suppress important feelings
.
Make evaluations and judgments about others
.
Give advice—either solicited or unsolicited
.
Ask questions instead of reporting their feelings
.
Rushing to Band-Aid others to keep from experiencing uncomfortable or unpleasant feelings.
Frequently engage in storytelling, and do so instead of giving empathic responses.
Make sarcastic remarks or responses
.
Ignore or deny conflicts with others
.
Engage in disruptive behavior in the group, such as side conversations.
Resistance
Group leaders should expect resistance, which will range from mild to intense. The presence of an observable resistance is a clear signal to move on to another person or topic. If the entire group is resisting, the leader may need to explore with members some of the reasons for the resistance—for example, if members do not want to do a particular activity, it could be helpful to initiate a discussion on their perception of the usefulness of the activity. Simply asking what about the activity is a turnoff can produce some valuable information. The one thing group leaders should not do however, is to try and break down the resistance. It is much more helpful to note the resistance, try to discern what that may be about, but leave it alone in most instances.
Examples for resistance are:
Avoidance, such as ignoring conflict; change of topic when intense emotions surface for oneself and for others; and suppressing open verbalization of thoughts, feelings, ideas, and/or reactions.
Over agreement with the leader, and among members.
Excessive politeness or excessive crankiness.
Constantly talking about outside-the-group topics.
Tolerating members’ counterproductive behavior.
Communication Patterns
Members will communicate primarily to and through the leader, especially in the beginning. Group leaders can facilitate member-to-member communication by suggesting that members talk to each other directly rather than through the leader. Another pattern to observe is that some members talk to and support each other, while other members are excluded. It is helpful to bring excluded members into the group by asking for their input.
How communications take place is an additional pattern to watch over time; this cannot be judged by one incident. For example, do group members communicate in a warm, caring, supportive way? Or are communications cold, hostile, or angry? Do members appear wary, aloof, or tentative when they communicate? Individual patterns as well as group patterns should be observed.
Interpersonal Relationships
It is helpful to notice how members relate to each other and to the leader. Even groups whose members are not strangers to each other may be tentative at first and focus more on differences than similarities.
The leader usually is perceived as the expert at the beginning. Members will expect the leader to provide for all their unspoken needs and expectations. Sometimes members will seek and compete for the leader’s attention and approval. The leader’s task is to help members to establish relationships with each other and empower them to take charge and contribute to their own learning instead of looking to the leader to provide everything.
Members’ patterns of relating to the leader and to other group members are very important sources of information about their manner of relating outside the group. Since the leader is usually seen as an authority figure, information about how group members relate to other authority figures in their lives can be obtained by how they relate to the leader. Group members’ other relationships can be discerned from how they relate and communicate with fellow group members. For example, when a member exhibits any of the following in the group, these can be clues to their out-of-group relationship The member is:
Very challenging or confrontational to other group members and/or to the leader.
Acquiescent and compliant and seldom or never expresses a divergent thought or opinion.
Withholds expressing feelings. Can express thoughts, but not feelings.
Overly expressive of feelings, even minor ones.
Engages in considerable attention-seeking behavior.
Seems to be overly desirable of being admired by others.
Demands that others accept and agree with his/her opinion. Has to be seen as being “right.”
Exhibits sullen and withdrawn behavior and demeanor.
Always agrees with the leader and is quick to do so.
Overly complimentary of the leader.
Seeks extra attention and time from the leader.
Nonverbal Behaviors
Postures, gestures, voice tones, and other nonverbal behaviors provide significant clues to what members are experiencing; these nonverbal signals are called metacommunication. It is generally thought to be a more accurate reflection of a person’s internal state than his or her verbal communication—for example, a person’s words and voice may sound calm, but a tense posture, narrowed eyes, and clenched fists contradict the words.
Nonverbal behaviors should be observed in clusters and not as isolated events. Examples for clues to members’ internal states include the following.
Facial expression—eye contact, position of mouth such as downturned or tightlipped, and brow such as wrinkled in thought or anger.
Body and limb positions—straight or slumped posture, legs crossed or uncrossed, arms crossed over the chest or down by the side, movement of hands and feet when seated.
Voice tone—can indicated calmness when the tone is relaxed; anxiety or tension when fast and loud, and other feelings or internal states when soft or whispery, choppy words, yelling, and so on.
Gestures—finger pointing, stroking hair or other parts of one’s body, palms up or down when speaking, waving hands when talking, constant movement.
Feeling Tone
Group leaders can get a good idea of how well the group is progressing by tuning in to the feeling tone of the group. This calls for a high level of self-awareness on the leader’s part, as they must also be able to tune in to what they are feeling as a possible reflection of what the group is feeling.
With training, experience, and a high level of self-development, group leaders can tune in to the feeling tone of the group, and that feeling tone can be a valid barometer of what group members need or are experiencing, and provide clues for interventions. This is one use for the feelings triggered or aroused for the group leader when these are not reflective of the leader’s unresolved issues or unfinished business. Effective use of the leader’s feelings is predicated on his/her understanding of him/herself, and the assurance that he/she is responding to feelings projected by group members. This is why a high level of self-development is needed, as the triggered or aroused feelings may well be the leader’s own personal material. However, if the leader is confident that his/her triggered feelings are or are most likely projections from the group, this is very valuable information and can lead to appropriate interventions. Examples for when the leader could possibly be containing members’ projected feelings are as follows.
The group is meeting for the first time, and about midway through the session, the leader becomes aware of feeling nervous, anxious, and apprehensive.
The group has met for several sessions and is making progress. However, during this session the leader notes his feelings of irritation, jumpiness, and tension.
The group will end after two more sessions. In this session the leader begins to feel sad and panicky.
Aroused/Expressed Feelings
Aroused feelings may be directly or indirectly expressed or they may be suppressed. A leader should be alert to feelings that are expressed in indirect ways, especially intense ones, as well as taking care to respond to directly expressed feelings. Suppressed feelings may be more troubling in some respects, but psychoeducational groups generally are not expected to deal with these. It is more appropriate that suppressed feelings be addressed in a counseling or therapy group.
Leaders of psychoeducational groups should be prepared to deal with group members’ feelings and there are times, and in some groups, where these feelings can be intense. For example, groups for members with medical illnesses or emotional disturbances are likely to have intense emotions appear in these groups. Intense feelings may be less likely in other types of groups, but leaders need to be prepared for their unexpected appearance. In addition, some exercises and activities can also arouse intense feelings.
On the other hand, it can be difficult sometimes to get members to express their feelings, especially to express them in the here and now. Appropriate expression of feelings in the here and now can be one thing that the group leader has to model and teach group members. It is also important that the group leader acknowledges and directly responds to members’ expressed feelings. This task is discussed in more detail in the section on repairing empathic failures in Chapter 6.
It is not unusual to find that members either do not express feelings, express them in inappropriate ways, are not aware of what they are feeling, or do not have the words to express them. Noticing the level and extent of aroused/expressed feelings provides the leader with information about interventions, when and how to respond, where members may have some sensitivities, and can also provide some clues to members’ relationship difficulties.
Group Stages
While group stages are defined somewhat differently by the experts (Bion, 1961; Yalom, 1985), it is commonly accepted that groups do move through stages. Two of these stages are obvious: beginning and termination. Others are not as easy to identify. These tend to be labeled the conflict and working stages.
Counseling and therapy groups are structured in such a way (e.g., a number of sessions held over time) that all the expected stages usually occur and are important in determining what interventions to use. These stages also occur for psychoeducational groups, although the indices of group stages are manifested in different and less intense ways.
These stages are described in the following sections, along with some primary issues for each, expected member behaviors that illustrate basic issues, and suggestions for the leader. The emphasis is on the psychoeducational group, whether it consists of one session or many. Longer-term groups—for example, skill development—also are addressed.
Stage 1: Beginning
The first stage for psychoeducational groups can be characterized by a sense of anticipation, excitement, dread, confusion, and apprehension. Even if there is to be little or no personal disclosure in the group, participants are not sure what they can expect or what is expected of them. Members want to know if they will be valued and included, or if they will be devalued and excluded. There are several steps leaders can take to reduce some of the negative feelings that members bring to the group; however, no matter what the leader does, they will not be able to eliminate negative feelings altogether, and these can be expected at the beginning of every group.
The most useful step to alleviate discomfort and uneasiness is to plan ahead carefully.
Ensure that the facilities are adequate, materials and supplies are on hand, a schedule and an agenda are prepared, and that the group begins on time.
The next step is to have an opening session that welcomes participants, introduces the leader and if needed, other personnel who will be working with the group, and thoroughly reviews the objectives and schedule.
Opening the dialogue to suggestions from participants also is useful. Leaders can ask if the stated objectives meet the participants’ expectations and needs, and if there are other topics or activities they want included.
The leader’s listening, questioning, and facilitating skills make the difference in how the group gets off the ground. These topics are covered more completely in the chapter on group facilitation skills.
Some expected group member behaviors for each dynamic or group issue are illustrated.
Level of participation—Tentative, cautious, anxious; may engage in storytelling.
Resistance—Usually high until safety is established. Members ask many questions; appear or say they are confused.
Communication patterns—Most communication is to and through the leader. Members do not talk directly to each other but to the group, to the leader, or to no one in particular. Tend not to make I statements.
Member-to-member relationships—Tentative, polite, cautious. Fear of hurting others and of being hurt, fear of being different. Tend to focus on differences but search for similarities. Try to relate through advice giving.
Member-to-leader relationships—Group members tend to see the leader as an expert or a magician. They expect the leader to anticipate and meet their unspoken needs. Seek reassurance that they are valued and accepted by the leader, and that the leader will keep them safe and take care of them.
Nonverbal behaviors—This will fluctuate for individual group members and ranges from lots of movement to no movement. There may be little eye contact among members, numerous closed body gestures such as arms folded across the chest, few attending behaviors, and speech may be rapid or slow and tentative.
Group feeling tone—The overall feeling tone from group members may range from apprehension to resentment, hostility, and despair. Usually, members leave the session with a sense of relief and hopefulness. Many feelings are experienced by group members during these first sessions, but the overall feeling tone reflects the confusion, ambiguity, and frustrations of group members whether these are voiced or not.
Aroused/expressed feelings—Members can be reluctant to openly express negative feelings, but will tend to try and suppress or deny them. Common feelings experienced during this stage are fears of rejection, engulfment, destruction, shameful secrets, confusion and frustration.
Stage 2: Conflict and Controversy
The second stage usually begins with an attack on the leader. This attack generally is so indirect that many leaders may miss it. It is not important that the leader recognize the attack as such; it is important, however, that the leader does not become defensive or retaliate. If, when you are a group leader, you find yourself feeling defensive, explaining your rationale, reiterating something you thought was understood, or feeling that participants are being unfair, you probably are being attacked. There is no need to point this out, as it is unlikely that the group has moved to the level of development where members can accept this kind of observation without feeling attacked themselves.
Another way the second stage is recognized is by the conflict that emerges between group members. If the group is on its way toward becoming more cohesive, then conflict will emerge, and how the leader deals with such conflict will determine whether the group continues to grow. Strategies for managing conflict are discussed in Chapter 11.
Level of participation—There is increasing participation by group members, some will show a willingness to explore personal issues on a deeper level, which still remains superficial, and there is more interaction among group members.
Resistance—There is still considerable resistance, especially to being and remaining present-centered. Storytelling behavior is prevalent, and members resist recognizing important commonalities. They are also resistant to group as a whole process commentary and may tend to personalize comments from the leader and other group members.
Communication patterns—Members begin to talk directly to each other sometimes. They have reduced having communications go through the leader, or to the group, or speaking for the group. They begin to make supportive statements and to challenge each other.
Member-to-member relationships—Conflict can emerge in the group. Members feel safe enough to challenge each other, and to express their feelings of anger or irritation. Past experiences with each other in the group can be revisited, and projections and transference become more apparent.
Member-to-leader relationships—The leader is attacked by members either directly or indirectly. The leader has failed to be the magician or expert and members feel the loss of that idealization. They continue to expect the leader to take care of them, but are more willing to speak of their needs and desires.
Nonverbal behaviors—Members’ postures and gestures are less studied and contrived. They appear to be willing to let their nonverbal communication be more consistent or congruent with their verbal behavior.
Group feeling tone—Members are combative and irritable producing a group feeling tone that is uncomfortable. Some members fear conflict emerging because of past experiences so that if or when conflict does emerge they may regress to old feelings associated with past conflicts. If conflicts are worked through, the feeling tone becomes one of relief, and members feel a sense of accomplishment and hopefulness.
Aroused/expressed feelings—Irritation, annoyance, anger, frustration, rage, fear, and guilt are common feelings for this stage. Some may be openly expressed.
Stage 3: Working and
Cohesion
The working stage is characterized by cooperation and cohesiveness. Members are interested in and supportive of one another. They also are willing to work on a task and not become sidetracked. Issues that emerge at this stage have more to do with working through misunderstandings and differences of opinion and maintaining relationships than with winning/losing, saving face, and avoiding conflict.
Level of participation—Members’ levels of participation are high, significant personal issues emerge, and they are more willing to work on these.
Resistance—Resistance is more openly acknowledged, understood by the group members, and some members may be willing to be work on this. Members are more accepting of comments about perceived resistance.
Communication patterns—Considerable member-to-member interactions occur. Cliques and subgroupings may be prevalent. The group functions more as a cohesive unit.
Member-to-member relationships—They are more willing to explore their relationships with each other. They work to develop and maintain relationships to the extent that conflicts may be minimized, but if conflict does emerge, they try to work through it in constructive ways.
Member-to-leader relationships—The leader is perceived as a guide and consultant instead of as an expert or magician.
Nonverbal behaviors—Members are more congruent with their verbal and nonverbal behaviors.
Group feeling tone—The group feels warm, accepting, cooperative, and there are feelings of satisfaction and excitement.
Aroused/expressed feelings—Caring, concern, liking, excitement, anticipation, shame, guilt, irritation, and annoyance. All are more likely to be openly expressed.
Stage 4: Termination
Groups, especially psychoeducational groups, do come to an end. Members who are achieving their goals are reluctant to deal with ending and may refuse to discuss it at all. It is helpful when group leaders introduce the notion of termination before it happens—for example, in a one-day workshop, termination would be introduced after lunch, or before the afternoon break.
Reminding participants of how much time is left and asking how they would like to use the time productively is one way of introducing the topic. The usual response is to change the subject or to move away from it in some way. Bring the topic up again when there is about an hour left in the workshop, and plan a summary or wrap-up session. Some groups may want to help plan how they will terminate.
One issue around termination is the leader’s response. Leaders, too, deny and avoid dealing with termination. They may end the group or session, but they do not terminate. Termination is an opportunity to tie up loose ends, reveal suppressed feelings, and work out troubling relationships. A satisfactory termination allows participants and the leader to end and leave without residual feelings of unfinished business.
Level of participation—This varies; some members reduce their participation in the anticipation of the group’s ending while others participate more to try to get their issues addressed. Some will withdraw, and some will resist bringing up new material regardless of its importance, and some will essentially stop participating before the group ends.
Resistance—There is renewed resistance, which may be the result of the group’s ending.
Communication patterns—Members talk to each other, but communication can sometimes revert to an earlier stage of communicating with and through the group leader.
Member-to-member interactions—Some members retreat from investing in relationships that will be ending. They realize on more than one level that the quality and quantity of these relationships will change after the group ends.
Member-to-leader interaction—Some members may regress to an earlier stage and relate to the leader as an authority (stage 1), some reinstitute their challenges to the leader (stage 2), and others are able to continue working as they did in stage 3 where the leader took a backseat to the group members’ working. It can be difficult to get members to relate and communicate to the leader as if the group were ending.
Nonverbal behaviors—There can be regression to the nonverbal behaviors for stage 1, such as failure to maintain eye contact, body orientation away from the speaker, and other indices of discomfort and/or disinterest.
Group feeling tone—Sadness, relief, and the like.
Aroused/expressed feelings—Appreciation, pleasure, sadness, relief, abandonment, loss, grief.
Helpful Group Factors
There are certain factors that have been found to enhance group counseling/therapy. These have been termed curative factors (Corsini & Rosenberg, 1955), therapeutic factors (Yalom, 1995), helping factors (Schulz, 1993; Schwartzberg, 1993), positive group factors (Gladding, 1999), and change factors (Brabender, 2002). Regardless of the term used, the following are generally thought to be enhancing for the group’s functioning, and for individual members’ growth.
Universality or similarities—Members recognize that others have similar problems, concerns, circumstances, and reactions as they do. This reduces the feelings of isolation and alienation.
Optimism and hope—Members see that others get better, improve, and resolve their difficulties. This can promote hope and optimism, which are shown to foster psychological and physical health (Hafen et al., 1996).
Altruism
—The unselfish giving of yourself without expecting recognition, rewards, or gratitude.
Modeling
—Members and the leader model effective and constructive behaviors.
Social skills development—The opportunity to practice new ways to communicate and relate.
Guidance
—Learning new and unfamiliar material that relates to growth and development, and solving problems.
Interpersonal feedback and learning—Increasing your awareness of your personal issues through feedback obtained from others.
Mutual attraction and interaction of members—When group members trust each other enough to engage in important and appropriate self-disclosure, care for each other, and support and encourage each other. This happens when the group becomes cohesive.
Catharsis—The release of pent up, suppressed, denied, and repressed emotions that produces relief, and leads to greater awareness and personal learning.
Family of origin—Learning how your family of origin experiences contribute to your current functioning and relating. Developing new and more constructive ways to communicate and interact with others.
Existential factors—The basic human concerns that are common to everyone, and continue to emerge at various times throughout your life. Concerns such as loneliness, despair, death, and the unfairness of the universe are some existential factors.
Many of these factors are present in psychoeducational groups and can be helpful, if not therapeutic. They manifest themselves in somewhat different ways than they do in counseling or therapy groups, and the group leader uses them in different ways. The purpose of the group makes a difference in the appearance or absence of a factor and how it may be used—for example, a discussion group may lead to exploration of existential factors, but a team development group is unlikely to explore these issues. Further, exploration of personal issues with in-depth self-disclosure is not expected in psychoeducational groups, and the appearance of these factors usually will be on a more superficial level.
However, the leader of any psychoeducational group can make effective use of these factors. The first step is to accept that they enhance the process and progress of the group. The second step is to recognize their value and to begin to identify their appearance. The third step is to openly bring attention to the factor in appropriate ways, paying attention to timing. The fourth step is promoting or introducing the factor. Factors and steps are discussed in the following sections. It is important to remember that group members may facilitate the emergence of a factor; it is not the sole responsibility of the leader.
Factors Most Likely to Appear
Universality or Similarities
This factor may be easy to identify in psychoeducational groups because members usually have several characteristics in common. They may be from the same organization, such as a school; have the same goal, such as anger management; be in the same age, racial/ethnic, or gender group; or have similar interests, as evidenced by their choice to attend the group, such as parenting classes.
Most people can easily identify the surface similarities, but a leader’s expertise is evident when he or she can identify important subtle similarities and bring them to the group’s attention. For example, it may appear that the only things a group of adolescents in an anger management group have in common are their age, their need to learn anger management, and their presence in the group. What the group leader may identify as similar to all or most members is a feeling of helplessness when they do not see how to gain or manage control of a situation; feelings that others seek to control them; and an inability to focus on and be aware of milder forms of anger. These universalities promote bonding and reduce feelings of isolation and alienation.
It is the leader’s responsibility to bring these commonalities to the attention of group members. Members seldom recognize deeper commonalities and tend to focus on differences, particularly on visible differences. The group bonds and becomes cohesive around similarities but fragments and dissolves around differences. Developing the skill of linking will help to identify and introduce the factor of universality.
Altruism
Altruism often goes unrecognized, and often what is thought to be altruism is not, because the giver expects something in return. This factor can be helpful with members who are feeling helpless, hopeless, isolated, or useless. Children, in particular, benefit from knowing that they have something to give that is of value. They usually are on the receiving end, and few adults take the time and effort to help them understand that they have something to give that is valued by others.
Recognizing altruism is difficult because motives play a part, and this is an internal event that can only be inferred. The leader can model altruism, reinforce what appears to be altruism, and, in appropriate circumstances, describe altruism. An example of why altruism is difficult to identify can be illustrated in the following scenario: Group members are discussing a problem. One member tells the group that he or she addressed the problem in a particular way that is beneficial or gives suggestions for resolutions. Even an experienced leader will not always know if the suggestions are being offered to get attention, garner admiration, show the teller’s superiority, control or manipulate in some way, or out of altruism.
The leader can assume that there is not a hidden agenda until there is more evidence. If this is the only session or there are very few sessions, the leader should acknowledge the contribution as being useful and make no determination about the giver’s motives. One of the nice things about this factor is that if it is present it can be beneficial in indirect ways, and the leader can simply allow it to emerge.
Modeling
A major task for the group leader is to model appropriate behaviors. Many psychoeducational groups are designed to teach participants different ways of behaving, relating, or communicating. One way of learning is through observing and practicing. Modeling is a powerful technique for teaching new behaviors to those who may not have a clue how to behave, relate, or communicate differently than they do now. Telling someone how to do something is not as effective as showing him or her.
The leader may recognize when group members are imitating other group members. Members do learn from each other as well as from the leader. It is helpful if the leader can recognize and reinforce desired behaviors through praise.
Guidance
Giving factual information is one of the primary tasks for a psychoeducational group. Some of the group leader’s responsibilities are teaching new and unfamiliar material and guiding the learner. However, the leader may not be the only one who has relevant information. Group members also know important pieces and should be encouraged to share and participate in imparting information. Be alert to advice giving and shoulds and oughts. These behaviors are not helpful and must be blocked or reframed into more helpful behaviors.
Imparting of information may be the easiest factor to recognize, since it is so obvious. The leader usually does not need to openly identify it. It is useful, however, to reinforce when members impart information by saying things like, “That is important to know. Thank you for bringing it to our attention.” Other members then become encouraged to share information. The primary thing to remember is that you must limit the amount of information to what participants can absorb and use—not what you think they need or what you want to give. Too much information can be overwhelming, frustrating, and confusing.
Factors Likely to Appear
Optimism and Hope
This factor is dependent on the type of group. It usually is associated with getting better, solving personal problems, and resolving personal issues. Many psychoeducational groups do not deal with these concerns; participants attend to learn more concrete and less personally related material. However, there are some groups for which personal issues, problems, or concerns are the focus; in such groups, this factor would be in the “most likely to appear” category. In these instances, the leader must take steps to introduce hope into the group.
Hope allows individuals to continue to work on and through their concerns. We have to hope that the distress or pain will end someday. Further, hope is one rationale for participating in the group in the first place. Why go through the experience if nothing will change?
Hope can be introduced by giving examples of how the group has helped others (personal experiences are particularly helpful), how group experiences are structured to address issues, and anticipated outcomes. Participants often ask, directly or indirectly, “How is this supposed to help me?” Group leaders can anticipate the question and provide the information before it is asked. By doing so, participants’ confidence that their problem will be adequately addressed in the group is increased. It is helpful if there are group members who have resolved or constructively dealt with the problem or something similar. Seeing others who have come through it gives hope to members that they, too, can achieve. Effective leaders capitalize on these success stories. They can be found by asking the group if anyone has experienced something similar and allowing members to tell how they coped. These people are valuable resources to the group and to the leader.
Social Skills Development
Socializing techniques may be relating, communicating, or social skills, but all are designed to produce better interpersonal relations, reduce feelings of isolation and alienation, and promote self-confidence. Some psychoeducational groups have this factor as a goal; others may focus on it or emphasize it without stating it as a goal. It may be incidental for other groups and for some it is unimportant. Where the factor is a goal or focus, the leader takes the responsibility for introducing the topic, attending to it, and recognizing it. When members learn a behavior and practice it in the group, the leader also provides reinforcement.
Even in groups for which development of socializing techniques is not a focus, or for which it is only incidental to the main goal, it still can be helpful. The leader needs to be alert to these opportunities and be prepared to capitalize on them. For example, the goal for the group or session may be on time management. Socializing techniques typically are not a part of the focus for this topic. However, telephone communication and manners may be on the agenda. It is then appropriate for the leader to introduce some socializing techniques and allow participants to discuss their problems or experiences. It is possible that this will build some awareness that what is learned can be transferred to other situations.
Interpersonal Feedback and Learning
Yalom and Lesczc (2005) described the interpersonal learning sequence. A behavior, usually a maladaptive or inappropriate behavior, is displayed. “Through feedback and self-observation, one (1) becomes a better observer of one’s behavior; (2) appreciates the impact of that behavior upon (a) the feelings of others, (b) the opinions that others have of one, (c) the opinion one has of oneself” (p. 62).
Thus, it is through observation and constructive feedback that interpersonal learning takes place. For some members this may be the first time they have received constructive feedback. While this may not be enough to alter behavior significantly, it is the beginning of awareness that leads to significant change.
Interpersonal learning is not the focus for many psychoeducational groups, as it has an intense affective component that may not be appropriate for the group. Groups focused on study skills, time management, and meetings may not be suitable forums for interpersonal learning to occur. While it is not impossible for this factor to emerge for some members, it is not the goal or emphasis. Other groups, such as conflict management, anger control, parenting, and support groups, may have interpersonal learning as an expectation and provide appropriate means for it to emerge, be recognized, and be capitalized upon.
Cohesion
It is not unusual for members of intact groups (e.g., a department) to be part of a psychoeducational group or to be the group. The group leader needs to be aware that some measure of cohesiveness may already be present. This may be both a plus and a minus.
Groups tend to become cohesive around perceived similarities. If group members already know their similarities, the leader does not need to point them out. The group has already moved toward cohesiveness. The negative sides are that others in the group (those not from that department) may feel excluded, and the unit may form a clique within the group. If there is tension or dissension in the unit, it also may impact the functioning of the larger group.
One major issue experienced by members of all types of groups is inclusion versus exclusion. Although not expressed openly or directly, members want to know if they will be accepted by other members and by the leader. When there is already a subgroup that knows and accepts each other, other members wonder if that subgroup will dominate, leaving them out, or if the group will be structured to include the subgroup and other group members.
Leaders who do not actively attend to this concern will not be able to develop cohesiveness, and group members will not feel positive about the group experience. An even worse possibility for the group and leader is if the unit forms a clique within the group. Not only do other members feel excluded but the leader may find that control of the group has been assumed by the clique. More time and attention may be given to dealing with the clique, which takes away time needed for the topic and for other members.
The most destructive situation is if the unit has tension or dissension among its members. Sometimes the suppression of intense negative affect will ha an effect on participants, and the leader and other members will not understand why the group is not going well. Everyone will leave feeling churned up, without a clue as to why they feel this way. Or, worse still, conflict will break out into the open and the leader’s lack of knowledge of history, people, or issues will prevent successful intervention. In this case, the entire purpose of the group will be lost.
What about groups in which members do not have working or personal relationships prior to joining the group? Can cohesiveness be developed in these groups? The answer is yes.
Some level of cohesiveness can be established even if the group life is only two to three hours. While this cohesiveness may be minimal, shared experiences in an atmosphere in which members feel safe, respected, and valued does produce cohesiveness. This is where the personal characteristics and skills of the leader are needed most; leaders will use those skills and characteristics to produce a situation in which cohesiveness (albeit minimal) can emerge.
Factors With Limited Appearance
Catharsis that includes the interpersonal learning loop, corrective recapitulation of the family of origin, and existential factors is unlikely to appear in a manner that is useful to the goals of the psychoeducational group, except for support and therapy-related groups. The very experienced leader who has training in leading counseling/therapy groups may recognize the appearance of these factors. Leaders who do not have the training and experience are less likely to do so. These factors have their therapeutic value but probably cannot be successfully incorporated into psychoeducational groups.
Catharsis With Interpersonal Learning
Emotional venting together with intrapersonal learning describes catharsis. Most psychoeducational groups are not conducted to promote this kind of response; if emotional venting occurs, it may be destructive to the goals of the group and safety concerns of the members. There are psychoeducational groups in which some level of catharsis may occur—for example, anger management or conflict mediation. In these instances, the group leader should be trained in these areas and able to use the catharsis constructively. These groups typically run for several sessions, which allows safety and trust to be developed before catharsis appears.
Family of Origin
Recapitulation of the family of origin can be inferred from observation of group members’ behavior over time. Most psychoeducational groups do not last long enough for the necessary observation, nor do most leaders have the necessary training and experience. Further, this factor does not apply to the goals of most psychoeducational groups.
An additional component necessary for this to be a therapeutic factor is for the group and leader to make the recapitulation of the family of origin a corrective experience—that is, to help the member recognize his or her transferences and projections so that they will not affect relationships outside the family of origin. For example, if a group member is in conflict with authority figures or with those perceived to be authority figures, being aware of the transference of feelings about a parent onto these figures can allow that member to understand his or her conflicts better and to make changes in behavior—seeing the person as he or she is, not in terms of past family relationships.
Existential Factors
Existential factors always seem to be present in some form; however, in order to be therapeutic, they must be dealt with on some level, and it is unlikely that they will occur in a manner relevant to the goals of psychoeducational groups. Further, a leader needs training and experience to recognize existential factors and to be confident of his or her ability to effectively deal with them.
Support and therapy-related groups are the only category of groups addressed in this book in which existential factors may be therapeutic. These groups tend to be long-term, focused on a particular issue, and more personal than task oriented. They also tend not to have designated leaders, but a leader knowledgeable about existential factors can help the group make therapeutic use of such factors when they do appear.
Chapter 10
Potential Membership Problems, Concerns, and Intervention Skills
Introduction
No amount of planning and preparation will eliminate all problems, especially those provided by members. Most participants will not know good group membership behavior and skills. They will act in the group as they act in other situations. Some will view the group as another social event, others will recall their school days and act as if they were in a class, some will let personal current events influence their behavior, and some will have emotional intensity that makes it difficult for them to respond positively or appropriately to a new situation. A group leader has to be psychologically and emotionally prepared to deal with all of these circumstances.
It is helpful for group leaders to have experience as a group member as part of their education and training as a group leader. I’ve taught the graduate course in group counseling for over 15 years and find that students have difficulty as group members with expressing immediate feelings, staying present-centered, making reflective or empathic responses, and making personal statements. These membership skills enhance the group, and leaders who expect members to use them must also use them.
Effective and Counterproductive Group Member Behaviors
But, before we get into the discussion of problems and so on, let’s take a look at identifying effective member behaviors and attitudes. Table 10.1 presents a summary of positive behaviors and attitudes that contribute to the progress and process of the group, and that can promote growth and development for group members. Table 10.2 presents a list of counterproductive behaviors and attitudes.
Table 10.1 Behaviors and Attitudes of Effective Group Members
Have a focus for the group and for the session
Are flexible
Come to each session ready to work
Ask for what they want or need, rather than expecting the leader or members to read their minds
Pay attention to their feelings
Are aware of the feelings of other members
Openly express important feelings, thoughts, and ideas
Actively participate
Experiment with new ways of behaving
Are open to receiving feedback
Make their nonverbal behavior consistent with their verbal behavior
Take responsibility for how much they grow and learn
Maintain confidentiality
Give feedback to others, especially when it is solicited
Are willing to work to resolve conflicts with others
Are willing to consider that their reaction could be a projection
Use facilitative communication skills such as active listening
Speak directly to other group members
Respond directly to input from other group members
Are willing to examine their resistances
Are tolerant of diverse points of view or values
Are able to be centered on the present
Table 10.2 Counterproductive Behaviors and Attitudes
Wait to work or become involved in the group
Suppress important feelings
Expect others to take care of them
Expect others to change because they want them to
Make evaluations and judgments about others
Expect others to fully understand them
Give advice—either solicited or unsolicited
Interpret or ascribe motives to and for others
Ask questions instead of reporting their feelings
Gossip
Participate in a clique
Rush to “Band-Aid,” or soothe others to keep them from experiencing uncomfortable or unpleasant feelings,
Frequently engage in storytelling behavior
Make sarcastic remarks or responses
Make indirect expressions of hostility
Label others
Disparage input from others
Ignore or deny conflicts with others
Possible Sources for Members’ Difficult Behaviors
Groups are composed of a variety of individuals who are all unique but also similar in many ways. It can be surprising to a beginning group leader to be faced with group members who do not want to be in the group—members whose behavior is distracting, disruptive, or worse—and to realize that trying to address problems presented by one or two members leaves the other group members to flounder. There are other constraints when trying to deal with problem behaviors, such as the following:
Other members can become fearful and resistant if they feel the leader will be punitive.
The members whose behavior is addressed can feel criticized and blamed, so they stop participating.
Old family-of-origin issues can get triggered along with emotional baggage.
Group members can feel that the leader is unfair and collude on an unconscious level to let their displeasure be known in even more problematic ways.
Feelings of safety in the group can be compromised.
Trust becomes harder, or impossible, to establish.
Taking care of members’ behavior becomes more of a priority than does accomplishing the tasks and goals for the group.
There will always be some problem behaviors in groups, but the leader can understand the goal(s) for the behaviors; institute procedures to prevent, reduce, or eliminate them; learn to use these as relevant material for group consideration and exploration; and not assume a defensive, attacking, or ignoring stance.
This chapter addresses some of these issues and concerns, and involuntary members and the ethics that play a part in their participation. Also discussed are some problem behaviors with suggested strategies for constructive resolution. The final topic is on teaching group members behaviors and attitudes that will help them maximize their group experiences.
Involuntary Members
A major factor in deciding on appropriate leadership strategies is if members are voluntary or involuntary participants. This can have a significant impact on participant level, expected behavior, and group development. Involuntary members can exhibit some or all of the counterproductive group members’ behaviors in Table 10.2, and group leaders will find it beneficial to understand and anticipate these.
There are many instances in which members of a group are involuntary participants. Members may attend because they were ordered to do so by an authority (such as a court or school principal), as a condition for continued participation in a job or school, as part of a program for contained or incarcerated people (such as inpatients, felons, or juvenile group home residents), or as part of their educational training (such as groups for mental health professionals). The reasons for involuntary attendance may vary, but many of the same characteristics are shared and must be taken into account by the group leader.
Some involuntary participants will view group as an opportunity to learn, grow, and develop more effective ways of relating. Others will be defiant, resistant, or resentful about having to participate. Some will be openly hostile and others passive-aggressive. Group leaders can expect that involuntary participation will result in more barriers than voluntary participation.
It is useful to acknowledge the involuntary nature of their participation early on and give members an opportunity to express their feelings about it. This can be done during the screening interview or during the first session. Leaders may also need to be more specific about what will be done in group and what is expected of group members. These members may be more fearful, as they usually can expect unpleasant consequences for failure.
Constraints to Active Participation
Resistance and defenses are more intense for involuntary participants because they lack power and control: they do not freely choose to be in the group. Another reason for resistance is fear of the unknown. All group members share some of this fear, but it may be more intense for involuntary participants because they have been thrust into an ambiguous situation not of their choosing, and they often do not know what to expect or what is expected of them. Fear of harm plays an important role for involuntary participants as well. They may fear that disclosed information will be given to others and used against them, or that other group members will use it to further their own personal ends. They may fear they will be evaluated and found to be inadequate.
Resentment at being forced to participate may also be a part of resistance. Such resentment may be focused on the authority ordering attendance, but it is more likely to be generalized and widespread. Everyone but them is at fault for their having to be in the group. Resentment may be more openly expressed and demonstrated by some members, such as court-ordered participants, than by others; but it is present, in some degree, in all involuntary participants. Some simply mask the resentment better than others.
The Leader’s Role
Leaders of groups with involuntary participants must be prepared to deal with their fears, resistance, defenses, and resentments. Knowing that these are not only likely but are certain to be manifested in some way allows for advanced planning to better plan to address them. The leader’s primary tasks are to
Adequately address safety and trust issues
Diffuse hostility and resentment
Empower members to decide their own level of participation and disclosure
Have clear goals and objectives
Understand boundary issues and respect them
Refrain from power struggles
The first task of the group leader is to directly respond to unspoken or indirectly communicated safety and trust issues. Specific guidelines for expected participation should be provided, the extent to which confidentiality can be maintained and requirements for documentation and reporting should be provided the participants at the beginning of the group.
Group leaders can take steps to diffuse hostility, resentment, or defensiveness that may be directly or indirectly expressed. This, of course, is much easier to do in a small group, as eye contact with each member and using some nonverbal behaviors can promote trust. One way the leader can diffuse these feelings is to acknowledge that he or she knows and appreciates that members dislike being forced to attend. If the group size is manageable, have a session in which each member responds to this question: “What do you like or dislike most about having to attend this group?” Or, “What would make this group experience worthwhile for you?”
Empower members to take charge of their group experience by giving them permission to decide how much they can or will participate. Assure them that they will not be pushed to disclose, or that responses will be demanded, but they will be provided opportunities to disclose and encouraged to respond. Give them some measure of control, and follow through on it to help promote feelings of safety and trust.
Another beginning step is to have clear goals and objectives and to review them with members. Develop attainable goals and be willing to modify them if necessary. Ask if there are any goals or objectives the members wish to include, or if there are any about which they have reservations. When group leaders can be open and flexible, members can buy into the goals and objectives, which will lead to more personal involvement in the group and in achieving the task.
It is very helpful to delineate firm and permeable boundaries for involuntary participants. Take some time to discuss boundary issues such as the following:
What topics members and the leader can discuss with people not in the group and under what conditions
What material should not be discussed with people not in the group
What group content can be talked about between members in the group when they are outside the group (e.g., socializing)
What data the leader has to share with other professionals and in what form (i.e., with or without personal identifying data)
What use will be made of the information shared by the members
Talking over these issues helps members to better judge what is appropriate participation, disclosures, and the like.
One boundary that is under the leader’s control is time. Adhering to the specified schedule provides support for consistency. Many involuntary participants have not had clear and unambiguous boundaries before. Ambiguity promotes feelings of insecurity and wariness. Group leaders cannot be expected to address and allay all insecurities, but they can provide firm time boundaries so that at least one thing is consistent.
Do not engage in power struggles with members. Many members will attempt to engage the leader in them either to test them or because it is their characteristic way of behaving or relating. People who perceive themselves as having little power tend to mistrust those they perceive as having power as acting in their personal interests most often (Walton, 1987). The group leader can be seen as the high-power person, and members may fear their use or misuse of such power because of past experiences.
Group leaders are not engaging in a power struggle when they develop guidelines for expected behaviors, do not permit physical or verbal violence, or protect a member from emotional abuse or a barrage of questions. These are legitimate leader behaviors designed to protect group members and provide for effective group functioning.
Ethical Guidelines for Involuntary Participants
Ethical issues that are the most important when group members are involuntary participants include freedom of exit, confidentiality screening, orienting and providing information, coercion and pressure and dual relationships.
Freedom of exit—With the exception of students and professionals, most involuntary participants do not feel they have the freedom to exit. While it may be possible for members to physically exit or to refuse to participate, the alternatives (e.g., jail) are often worse. This promotes feelings of being trapped and forced to do things against their will. For many involuntary participants, this increases defiance and passive-aggressiveness, while others are more open in their hostility.
The group leader will receive the brunt of participants’ feelings about lack of freedom to exit. Many participants are not able to accept personal responsibility, cannot or will not express their negative feelings to the official(s) who sent them to group, and are fearful of what will happen if they stay or if they leave.
Confidentiality—Typically, there are fewer limits on what can be kept confidential with and about involuntary clients. Legal, moral, and training issues often prevent confidentiality from being complete—for example, case notes sometimes must be kept and can be read by others; consultation with supervisors may be mandated or encouraged; certain crimes (e.g., incest) must be reported to the proper officials; and participants who might harm themselves or others must be screened. Further, in a closed setting, such as a group home, hospital, or jail, there is no way to fully ensure that the content of sessions can be kept confidential.
Members must be informed at the beginning of group what cannot be kept confidential. Ideally, the issue of confidentiality and constraints should be discussed in screening or pre-group sessions as well as in the first session. However, if it is not possible to do so prior to the first session, the group leader must initiate the discussion early in the first group.
Screening—Screening of potential group members is desirable. Even when group leaders are not able to reject members because of policies or rules, it is still desirable to have an individual pre-group interview session. It may also be possible to reject those who would be disruptive to the group if officials making decisions about participants can be shown sufficient reasons. The screening interview could provide a group leader with a rationale for why a particular person would not be suitable for the group.
Orienting and providing information—When leaders cannot schedule pre-group orienting sessions, the first session can be used for this purpose. Group work is scary for many participants, and when involuntary participation with possible negative consequences is added to the usual fears about participation, the situation is greatly exacerbated. An important thing to remember is that group business—goals, process, and so on—gets accomplished during orienting sessions. Group leaders’ time will not be wasted in helping members understand what is expected of them, how they should behave, and what will be done in the group. Group participation is enhanced when there is adequate orientation.
Coercion and pressure—Although there is an element of coercion implicit for involuntary participants, group leaders must take care to ensure that neither identification with the aggressor nor displacement of feelings around the coercion has a negative impact on the group. It is not possible to prevent either of these from happening, but if it is anticipated and realized that identification and/or displacement are possible and take steps to neutralize their impact, that can help both individual members and the functioning of the group.
Identification with the aggressor produces behavior similar to that perceived by the authorities. Examples of such behavior are giving orders and expecting to be obeyed, expecting deference from others and becoming angry or enraged if it is not given, sadistic acts that are passive, and so on. While these behaviors may be characteristic for some members, others may assume them as a defense mechanism.
Displacement is a common defense mechanism used by many people for various situations. Under these circumstances it may be manifested in the group and become a barrier to progress. This is one reason it is so important to get the issue of coercion on the table early and the feelings around it expressed. Group leaders can expect to be the target of displaced feelings, but other members may also be targets.
Dual relationships—Dual relationships involve a power differential, and effects on the leader’s objectivity. It is difficult to avoid dual relationships with involuntary group participants. Even if the group leader has only arm’s-length input into an evaluation or decision, he/she cannot avoid it altogether and therefore, the leader will probably be perceived by group members as having an evaluative role and function. For example, in training groups for professionals the leader may also be the clinical supervisor. It may not be possible to separate the impact of group participation and disclosure on the perceptions of clinical behavior/expertise. The group leader/supervisor typically makes every effort to do so, but as these effects and interactions are not clearly understood, you cannot be sure that the roles and functions are kept separate.
When the group leader also has an evaluative function, no matter how slight, there is an increase in the power differential between the leader and members. Members may perceive the power differential as being greater than it actually is and relate to the leader in terms of their perception. This perception can increase mistrust, inhibit disclosure, intensify resistance and defenses, promote deference, or prevent honest participation.
Having more than one role and function has an impact on the leader. His or her objectivity can be impaired because of interactions, behaviors, and relationships resulting from group participation. Countertransference, projection, and projective identification are all possible for the leader and can lead to impaired objectivity. The leader’s objectivity is subject to manipulation by group members and can carry over into other leader roles and functions.
Problem Member Behaviors and Their Goals
Most problem behaviors in psychoeducational groups can be categorized as overly participatory or under participatory: Overly participatory includes behaviors such as monopolizing, storytelling, exhibiting distracting behaviors, acting as the leader’s assistant, attention seeking, and socializing. The goals for over participation are usually to be the center of attention, as a means for the member to substantiate their uniqueness and importance, their usual behavior in social situations, and/or to prevent silence from occurring, as that is very threatening for them. Following are a brief description for some overly participatory behaviors, possible goals, and an activity for each category of over participation.
Monopolizing—The monopolizing member wants attention from the leader and from other members. At first, the behavior may be appreciated. Having a group member respond or initiate questions can energize the group, which helps the process move along. It does not take long, however, for one member’s over involvement to become a real problem. The dilemma for the leader is how to block the monopolizing behavior without squelching the member or discounting him or her in some way.
Remember that other members will assume that how the group member is treated is also how the leader will treat them, whether or not they engage in the same type of behavior. Sometimes the group will handle the behavior by confronting the member with its impact on them. For example, if one member interrupts others frequently, at some point another member may ask the interrupter if he or she would let the speaker finish.
Activity: Ashley was very active in the first session and seemed eager to talk about her concerns. It is now the fifth session of this group of late adolescent males and females who have social competency concerns. Just as she has in the previous four sessions, Ashley is once again talking about her concerns in great detail. Other members are restless and beginning to tune out. How, or would you intervene?
Storytelling—Storytelling behavior can be the result of social convention where it is expected that the person will provide details about the event or situation. Sometimes, the storyteller thinks that others will not be able to understand if they do not know the details, and/or want the listeners to agree that he/she in in the right, and that the other is wrong. In addition, group members can encourage storytelling by asking questions or asking for more details, and giving other such encouragers. Whatever the reason for the storytelling behavior, the actions are taking the focus away from the real issue(s), consuming considerable group time with irrelevancies, and not helping the speaker to find solutions.
The task of blocking monopolizing and storytelling behavior can be a difficult one. Most often, the group has not progressed to the point where members feel safe handling the leader’s intervention. One rule of thumb is to let the storytelling or monopolizing behavior occur the first time without comment. Try to link what the person is talking about to the goals of the group. Express appreciation for the member’s input to encourage others to participate. After that, try to intervene before the storyteller gets started.
If several members want to speak, let others talk before the monopolizer. Call on reticent members by asking if they have comments. Do not ignore the storyteller; just try to limit the time he or she has the floor. If necessary, you can break into a story with, “I am sorry to interrupt you, but it is time for a break (or the next scheduled activity, or to move on if we are to stay on schedule). I would like to get back to you on that.”
Activity: Ray constantly says that he doesn’t want the group’s attention, but at this seventh session, he once again has the group’s attention with his strong response to a disagreement between two group members. In spite of his protestation to the contrary, most of every session is focused on him. How, or would you intervene in this session?
Leader’s assistant—It will not be unusual to find one or more group members who assume the role of leader assistant where they begin to probe and respond as would a leader. This action may be a desire to replace the leader, to assert their dominance and control, to prevent the real self from being seen by the group and leader, and/or as an attempt to demonstrate their superiority. This person may start to structure and direct sessions, suggest what the group should or ought to do, give helpful and not so helpful responses, interrupt the leader to respond to another member, and other such actions that take on the leader’s role. The leader has to judge if the person is just trying to be helpful, or if there are other reasons for becoming the leader’s assistant.
Activity: You are leading a group of young adults working on relationship issues. During the second and third sessions you find that a member is responding before you do, even when your input is directly sought. This member’s responses are generally acceptable, but you find yourself becoming annoyed that he/she seems to be assuming your role. What would you do or say when he/she jumps in again?
Physically distracting behaviors—Children and adolescents are more apt than adults to engage in physically distracting behaviors, such as pushing, getting out of their seats, and walking around. You should clearly articulate guidelines for expected group behaviors. These may be somewhat flexible but are developed to ensure smooth running of the group and focus on the task. Members who engage in distracting behaviors can be gently and tentatively confronted. The group leader might say, for example, “I am interested in what Joe is saying, but I find it hard to pay attention when you are making noise kicking the chair.” If the group has developed to a point where members can handle being reminded of the rules without feeling criticized or put down, a simple reminder of agreed-upon behavior may be adequate.
Activity: During the third session of a group of fifth-grade children, you notice that two boys are kicking and shoving each other, but always stop when they see you looking at them. How, or would, you intervene?
Attention seeking—Basically, group leaders must decide to either ignore or attend to attention-getting behavior. Sometimes ignoring the behavior causes the person to stop because it was not reinforced. Sometimes the behavior will cease or be modified if attention is received. At other times, attention simply escalates the behavior.
See previous activity.
Socializing—The socializer is having a grand old time. He or she is talkative, enjoys interacting with others, may giggle or laugh a lot, and wants to be involved with others and have them involved with him or her. In counseling/therapy groups, other members often will confront the socializer. But in short-term groups, the group usually does not take responsibility. Further, the task function of psychoeducational groups makes it less likely that personal development is a significant goal, and the group is not likely to confront the socializer.
The socializer engages in side conversations when others are talking, interacts repeatedly with the same person(s), introduces topics at variance with what is being discussed under the guise of being friendly, starts conversations instead of participating in the activity, is late coming back from breaks, and so on. The socializer does not act alone; you are likely to have two or more in the group.
Activity: Monica is telling the group about her sadness about her grandmother’s death, but two members are whispering in a side conversation. How, or would, you intervene?
Under-Participation
Under-participatory behavior will be discussed as disengagement from the group. The disengagement can be physical, mental, emotional, or any combination. Physical disengagement is seen in the following:
Absence
Tardiness
Putting or having one’s chair less than completely in the group
Lack of body orientation to speakers
Eyes focused elsewhere—for example, ceiling, floor, window
Back turned to the group or speaker
Leaning back in chair
Turning chair around and sitting with the back of the chair facing the group
Temporarily leaving the group
Premature termination
The disengaged member is present in body but not in any other aspects of his or her being. Nonparticipation is due to being emotionally or psychologically somewhere else other than in the group.
All these behaviors can be disruptive to the group’s process and progress, and are especially of concern when they appear as a change from a member’s usual behavior. Some of these behaviors are subtle, nonverbal ones that can trigger leaders’ and members’ concern just below the level of consciousness—that is, you sense something but are not consciously aware of just what you are sensing or why. Other physical disengagement behaviors are more overt (e.g., absence) and can be openly explored.
Mental disengagement cannot be observed and must be inferred, unless a member reports it. Examples for mental disengagement include:
Thinking about outside-the-group concerns
Daydreaming
Wondering how and what to talk about, or how to respond
Planning what to say or do (e.g., questions)
Mental rehearsals
Free association, stream of consciousness
Analyzing
It can be relatively easy to use mental disengagement because thinking speed is very fast, especially when compared to speaking or acting speed. This differential can make it easy to mask or deny being disengaged. Thus, someone can pretend to be attentive if challenged, because you generally say or do something, such as using the member’s name, prior to challenging him or her. This allows for just enough time for the member to snap back into the present. Free association and analysis can be tied to self-exploration—that is, the member has something triggered by an event or comment in the group and begins to follow where that leads; hence the disengagement. Sometimes new learning and understanding can emerge for that person.
However, most mental disengagement is an attempt to flee the group, get away from uncomfortable triggered feelings, and/or deny personal associations to what is taking place in the group. Leaders will want to know what the stimulus was that triggered the mental disengagement.
Emotional disengagement can be less difficult to observe for some group members than mental disengagement, because the leader has become familiar with this nonverbal attending behavior and is aware when it changes to withdrawal. The person can physically alter his or her posture, eye contact, limb positioning such as crossing arms across chest, and tone of voice. Emotional disengagement is generally the basis for the following behaviors:
Changing the topic
Moving back from the group or turning away from the speaker
Refusing to initiate or maintain eye contact
Starting side conversations
Fiddling with possessions, or self, such as hair
Trying to soothe or reassure someone by giving advice, or making comments to lessen emotional intensity
Asking questions, especially rhetorical questions
Intellectualizing
Becoming numb or confused
Monopolizing group time by telling a personal story in detail
Becoming aggressive
These behaviors and others are used to keep the person from awareness and from experiencing personal and uncomfortable feelings. The fear and dread of this personal discomfort motivates the disengagement, not the other person’s emotions. Other people’s emotions may trigger emotional detachment, but the person who uses it is trying to get away from something that is personally threatening.
The short-term nature of psychoeducational groups can make it difficult for group leaders to effectively challenge, manage, and explore these disengagements. Rather than working through the causes for the disengagement, leaders may have to be content with noting it, reflecting on what may have triggered it, and encouraging members to speak more often about their feelings, ideas, and thoughts in the here and now. In-depth exploration requires a strong therapeutic alliance and more time than is available for most psychoeducational groups.
Understanding the Goal for Under-Participation
The goals for under-participation typically are rebellion, self-protection, or revenge. Rebellion (“You cannot make me participate”) usually occurs with involuntary group participants. They did not choose to be in the group, and because they were forced or coerced in some way to attend, they will refuse to participate. The refusal may not be open and direct, but their lack of participation speaks volumes. The leader needs to go slow and not try to force participation, acknowledging that they, indeed, cannot be forced to participate.
For some, such as court-ordered participants, you may want to address the issue of involuntary participation openly and make the topic a part of the group process. Asking participants for their thoughts and feelings about the proposed group and its activities, and acknowledging that you can only encourage participation and cannot force it, will allow some members to express their resistances. Generally, many will then cooperate, if only on a superficial level. You must model genuineness by not insisting that the under- or nonparticipant become more involved. Offer opportunities to become involved in the group, but do not push.
When under- or nonparticipation has the goal of protecting the self, you are wise to let the member alone. Even in a counseling/therapy group, the member would be allowed to determine the level and extent of his or her participation. Safety and trust are critical issues, and it is unlikely that these issues can be sufficiently addressed in a psychoeducational group because of the limited time frame. You can encourage input by asking members directly from time to time if they have any comments. Acknowledge comments with a response to reinforce the positive behavior of participation. Ask nonthreatening questions that do not require self-disclosure or opinions.
The revenge goal is similar to the rebellion goal but with the added component that members are getting back at those who hurt them by trying to hurt others. These members are the sullen, hostile, silent ones. There is a kind of threat about their silence, whereas the rebellious member is not necessarily sullen and hostile. The best strategy is to leave these members alone but block attacking behavior. Extend an invitation to participate, but openly acknowledge that you cannot make them participate and that you will respect their decision. If they must be present—that is, they do not have the freedom to leave—you can try asking them what the group can do to make the experience more meaningful for them.
Activity: 1. It is near the end of the sixth session of a ten-session training group for counseling students and Lee has not said anything during the session, which is his usual behavior. In previous sessions, the leader and some other members have made efforts to draw him in, but he resists by saying he’s shy and introverted. Occasionally he will respond if called on, but he never volunteers. How, or would, you intervene?
2. During the eighth session of the previously described group, Vivian turns to Lee and tells him that she would like to hear his thoughts. His response is that he is interested, but has nothing to add. Other members begin to tell him how his silence makes them feel, but Lee does not respond to them. How, or would, you intervene?
The “Deviant” Group Member
A deviant group member can have a significant negative impact on the group and its process and progress, on individual group members, and can present a challenge to the group leader, and is not always recognized until the damage has been done. There are several definitions for the “deviant” group member; all are negative, but the concept is that the deviancy is counterproductive for the group and is not intended to pejoratively label the group member. Their behaviors suggest that they are not in an appropriate group for them at this time.
Deviant, as described in the literature, refers to a group member whose “behavior or characteristics are unambiguously undesirable” (Hutchison et al., 2013, p. 344), disliked (Marques & Paez, 1994), have a demeanor that makes them unsuitable for the group (Burlingame et al., 2011). These group members present threats to the group process (McNair & Corazzini, 1994), disagree with group norms so that the group experiences greater dissonance (Matz & Wood, 2005), are less likeable (Hichy et al., 2008; Morrison & Miller, 2008), and lead to decreased group cohesion (Burlingame et al., 2011). The deviant group member is an outlier for the group’s identity (Hutchison et al., 2013), shared norms or values (Matz & Wood, 2005), and can exhibit self-absorbed behaviors and attitudes (Kearns & Brown, 2016).
Identification of a deviant group member while important for all groups can be especially important for short-term groups and where group members are mandated to attend the group, such as court mandated groups and training groups for mental health professionals. These members cannot exit the group without major or dire consequences and the group experience then becomes less helpful or constructive, and may result in considerable conflict and discord.
Importance and Rationale for Identification of a Deviant Group Member
The concept of the deviant group member and their early identification is important because of their negative effect on the group and its members, such as, the tendency for the group to derogate the member perceived as deviant (Marques & Paez, 1994; Hutchison et al., 2013), to be psychologically isolated (Hutchison et al., 2013; Jetten et al., 2011; Eidelman et al., 2006), for the member to be scapegoated (Yalom & Lesczc, 2005), and for the group to spend time trying to isolate and preserve the group from the deviant group member.
Groups that do not or cannot use screening to ferret out the deviancy prior to composing the group can be especially vulnerable to having to manage and contain the disruptions to the group process and progress. It is also possible that the screening process when implemented will not identify the potential deviant. The use of an instrument such as the Group Selection Questionnaire’s Demeanor Scale (Burlingame et al., 2011) would be helpful to identify the deviant prior to his/her being placed in a group.
Deviant Behavior and Demeanor
Deviant in this discussion means that the person is behaving in such a way that is displeasing to the group members, out of sync, or is different in a way that could produce rejection, becoming excluded or psychologically isolated, and where the group expends considerable time and effort trying to make the group member conform to the core values of the group, and to exhibit acceptable behavior, opinions, attitudes, and the like. Deviant behavior has been described as avoiding verbal arguments, holding back from speaking in groups, avoiding sharing feelings, and as someone who does not see the group as potentially helpful. The items on Burlingame’s Demeanor Scale lists feeling left out and/or ignored, suppressing negative emotions, making inappropriate disclosures, arguing for argument sake, talking over others, and showing domineering behaviors.
Some example behaviors that can be indicative of a possible deviant group member are seen in the following:
The know-it-all group member who has an answer or solution for everything talked about in the group.
A tendency to assume a “devil’s advocate” role. They do not provide their perceptions, feelings, responses, and the like, but almost always say something like, “I’d like to play the devil’s advocate in this discussion. Not that this is my perception, but just saying.”
Is quick to give advice as to what a group member or the leader should or ought to do.
Presents his/her life experiences as justification for knowing what needs to be done, usually by others.
Will boast about accomplishments, material objects, or anything that he/she feels makes him/her feel important and superior to other group members.
Lacks insight about him/herself.
Demonstrates little or no empathy toward others, but expects it from them.
Tends to exhibit indifference to others’ concerns, and his/her impact on others.
Talks over others, finishes other members’ thoughts, and interrupts to take the conversation in a different direction.
Seeks admiration and responds favorably to flattery.
Denigrates others’ beliefs, values, actions, and the like This list contains some behaviors that can signal a deviant group member, while others can be issues that can be worked on within the group. It can be difficult to differentiate between behaviors that can be worked with and those that describe the deviant group member.
Teaching Group Membership Skills
Teaching Membership Skills
It may be helpful to plan one session that teaches group members how to be productive and constructive. Their learning, personal development, the group’s progress, and the group’s process are all facilitated when members have and use certain skills. You cannot teach all of these at one time, nor do you want to lose the primary focus or purpose for the group. It can be effective to choose a few skills you want to teach, present them in writing to members in the first meeting, and remind members to use these skills throughout the life of the group.
Do not try to teach all group membership skills at one time. These skills have to be internalized, practiced, and fed back in order for members to learn and use them. This takes time, and you do not want to give members too much new material at one time. The major group membership skills are as follows:
Speak your feelings, thoughts, and ideas out loud.
Make personal statements using I, me, and my.
Do not use the universal or general designation of we or us.
Members and the leader cannot read your mind; you must verbalize what you experience.
Do not expect your nonverbal communication to be accurately understood.
Make an effort to not suppress your feelings, and allow yourself to experience and explore them.
When you find yourself resisting, do not try to deny or repress it; accept it and let it protect you until you are ready to explore it.
Feelings, Thoughts, and Ideas
Members will have to be encouraged and reminded to speak about their thoughts, feelings, and ideas in the here and now. A major constraint for members is social convention—that is, many people are taught that speaking openly about these feelings is rude or inappropriate. However, speaking openly and directly facilitates personal development and group process. Leaders can more accurately and easily judge and evaluate members’ experiences when thought disclosure takes place. Further, the process and theme of the group is more visible.
When an extended silence becomes uncomfortable, leaders can invite members to speak of what they are experiencing at that time. This intervention also can be useful when a member makes an emotionally intense remark of disclosure. Members may be uncertain how they should respond and this reminder can direct them.
Personal Statements
The group is the one place where it is appropriate and expected that members will use personal pronouns such as I, me, and my in their comments. Culture again may work against members’ willingness and comfort with making personal statements. The one group of people that this does not apply to is the narcissist. Indeed, you may have difficulty getting narcissists to recognize that there are other people in the world, much less in the group.
Making personal statements is one form of taking personal responsibility and forces people to acknowledge that they are in charge and have some power. These are all desirable states for group members and should be encouraged.
Leaders must be judicious in reminding members to use personal statements and not remind them every time they fail to do so. It may be better to wait until you are more confident about the strength of the relationship before interjecting a reminder, as some members may take offense or be embarrassed when reminded in front of other members. After a connection is made and a therapeutic relationship is established, it becomes less threatening to remind individual members to make personal statements. It could be effective and helpful to remind the group as a whole at the beginning of each session to try to use personal statements. That way, no one is put on the spot.
General Designations Are Not Helpful
This skill is closely aligned with the previous one of making personal statements. When general designations are used (e.g., we, us, or they), it diffuses responsibility, and it is inaccurate to speak for other people. While it can be less threatening to speak as if others were in agreement or involved, it may not be reflective of others’ attitudes, thoughts, opinions, and so on. Members need to become aware of their reluctance to accept personal responsibility when they use general or universal designations.
Mind Reading Is Not Possible
It is not unusual for group members to have an unconscious expectation or need for the leader to be a fully empathic nurturer and to be able to immediately know what members want, need, mean, and desire without their having to verbalize it. This ability is called mind reading. However, it is very unlikely that leaders have this ability or are adept enough to “read” group members’ inner self. Nor should group leaders have this unrealistic expectation for themselves.
It could be helpful to tell members at the very beginning of the group about the expectation that their thoughts, feelings, ideas, wants, and so on must be spoken aloud, and that they should ask for what they want or need from each other as well as from the leader. You may need to give gentle reminders.
This expectation for mind reading may be deeply ingrained for some members because they grew up in families where this was expected. They could have had one or more parents with a destructive narcissistic pattern (Brown, 2001) who expected their children to read their minds and give them what was needed or wanted. Other members may have a deep longing for an empathic nurturer, since they did not receive this at crucial periods in their lives. Whatever the reason, this unconscious desire and expectation can lead to considerable misunderstandings, disappointments, and even resentment. Leaders need to be aware of their own needs and behaviors that are reflective of the expectation of mind reading and to stay aware of members’ expectations for it.
Identifying Feelings
Members may have a very narrow vocabulary for identifying and expressing their feelings, be reluctant or embarrassed to identify them, and/or not have much experience at doing this. It is very helpful to the group’s progress and process when members are able to identify and express what they are feeling, especially what they are feeling in the moment.
Ask members to name or label what they feel, even if they can only describe body sensations. Encourage them to use metaphors—for example, lower than a snake’s belly, free as a bird, jumpy as a long-tailed cat in a room full of rocking chairs, cool as a cucumber, shy as a fawn, or uplifting as a hot-air balloon. Leaders may also want to use some exercises that expand members’ vocabulary of words to identify and express feelings.
Nonverbal Communication
Clusters of nonverbal gestures and postures form metacommunication, which carries over 90 percent of the message being sent. Attending to this metacommunication can contribute to understand the real message, which can be different from the spoken one. Some people are very adept at reading these nonverbal messages and base their responses on them rather than on the overt spoken message—for example, you may have a parent or sibling who is able to read and respond to your nonverbal message.
Group members may have an unrealistic expectation that others should be able to understand their nonverbal communication. Group leaders should make it clear from the very beginning that understanding each other’s feelings, intents, and so forth will be based more on spoken messages, because trying to read and interpretnonverbal messages is risky and subject to error. Leaders can become more experienced at understanding a member’s nonverbal communication over time, but still need to verify their perception rather than accepting their experience as valid and acting as if it were true rather than considering it a hypothesis or possibility.
Group members are often surprised when they realize that their nonverbal communication is not congruent with their verbal communication. They become aware of this through other members and the leader’s feedback and responses to them. This can be important learning for these members, as the incongruence they display in the group could be reflective of their interactions outside the group that are negatively impacted because they are sending mixed messages.
Expressing and Exploring Feelings
Encourage members to express and explore their feelings that emerge during group sessions. The group is intended to be a safe place where feelings are acceptable and new understandings and associations for these feelings are possible.
Members may fear some of their feelings, as they can be threatening to the self, uncomfortable and painful, or very shaming. These reasons for suppressing feelings are common and understandable. However, it is much more beneficial to express and/or explore these feelings in order to promote resolution for underlying issues, problems, and concerns. It is the group leader’s job to help members with this task. Willingness to express and explore feelings is facilitated by building safety and trust in the group.
Leaders can find ways to help members express feelings other than constantly asking, “How does that make you feel?” or “What are you feeling?” Members will tire of this questioning quickly and begin to resist, thus putting another barrier in front of exploration.
When leaders use empathy, or active listening and responding, they can help members express important and difficult feelings. These responses are much more helpful than asking questions about what the person is feeling because these responses convey that the leader understands what the member is experiencing.
Specific Leadership Strategies
There are three common traps that beginning and ineffective group leaders can encounter and fall into: trying to overcome resistance; asking questions as a way of showing interest, or in an attempt to guide the client down a particular road of thought; and wanting to fix the problem by giving advice. Effective group leaders, on the other hand, understand resistance and are not threatened by it; they use their active listening and responding skills to connect to and encourage the client in self-exploration; and they deeply understand that the client is in the best position to fix his/her problem, and therefore do not give advice. These traps are continually present at all times, and in all groups.
Resistance
Leaders have to be patient with resistance. It is not wrong; it is there to protect the person from threatening material. Members have to be taught the following:
They need to become aware of their personal resistance.
Defenses are ways by which resistance is manifested.
When the leader recognizes resistance and highlights it, he or she is not pointing a finger of blame or shame at the member.
Members do not have to stop resisting.
It can be helpful for growth and development to analyze the roots of the resistance and what triggered it.
Members can choose to continue to resist.
The leader will not attack resistance.
Beginning group leaders can confuse active participation with lack of resistance and think that there is no resistance because members are pleasant, verbally active, and cooperative. However, resistance is always present and is manifested in a variety of ways. Sometimes the resistance is direct and overt, such as when a member is sullen and silent. Most often resistance is indirect and covert, such as a verbally active member who is actually directing attention away from a sensitive topic. Further, considerable resistance remains on the unconscious and nonconscious levels, and group members employ their defenses to resist without being aware of what they are doing.
Leaders of short-term psychoeducational groups need to become aware of resistant behaviors, as these are clues to the members’ sensitive material. This awareness does not translate into acts to reduce, break through, or attack the resistance. It is best to leave the resistance alone. If the therapeutic relationship is developed to the point where members can tolerate being told of the resistance or defense, leaders can gently do so in a manner that does not blame or shame. It can take a long time for members to accept that resistance is not wrong, that it can be helpful to analyze it, and that the leader is not accusatory when pointing out resistant behaviors.
Feeling Responses, Not Questions
Members can be helpful to other members and to the group process when their responses focus on their personal feelings and they do not ask questions to elicit more detail or as a way of showing interest. This practice can be difficult. Social convention and cultural expectations work against open expressions of feelings as responses.
When questions are asked, it moves the interaction to the cognitive level, decreases or moderates emotional intensity, and deflects attention. Worse is when questions are asked to guide thoughts and feelings in the direction the questioner thinks they should go. These are not helpful questions at all.
Members will know how others perceive them or their situation when responses are feeling focused—for example, when a member tells of a distressing situation and members respond with their feelings that reflect the speaker’s feelings (e.g., hurt, resentment, or fear), that person may feel validated and supported. On the other hand, if members were to respond with questions, the speaker might feel misunderstood or unsupported, thus becoming resistant.
Leaders can block this questioning behavior by interjecting and telling responding members that it would be helpful to the speaker if they could verbalize their feelings that emerged as they listened. Leaders can also model this behavior and speak of their feelings as they listen to members.
Advice Giving Is Not Helpful
Advice is seldom helpful, since it is given on the basis of personal understanding and status, conveys what the advice giver thinks the other person should or ought to do, seldom fits the receiver’s situation or personality, and can be wrong. Many people are aware of the risks and dangers of giving advice, but that does not deter them from doing so. Stage 1 in group development is characterized by advice giving by members who are trying to be helpful.
There can be a strong desire or a life’s expectation for some members that leads them to rush to give others the benefit of their experiences. There are many different reasons for advice giving, but they are all for the benefit of the giver, not the receiver.
It is much more helpful for members to find their own answers and to fix things their way. This does not mean that the leader and members should refrain from giving needed information. Whenever it is evident that a member lacks essential information, is misinformed, or is not aware of changes that can affect him or her, withholding facts is inadvisable. Giving information is not the same as giving advice.
Chapter 11 Managing Conflict and Guidelines for
Confrontation
Introduction
Leaders will find it very helpful for the group and the members if they are not be afraid of conflict, and do not seek to squash it unless there is potential physical or psychological harm to members. Attaining this psychological and emotional perspective of conflict is not easy, and for some leaders who have had negative outcomes for conflict in their past, it may be extremely difficult to accept that conflict can be constructive. Groups will take their cues from the leader’s actions, words, and nonverbal communication, and will either suppress conflict if the leader is fearful of it, or try to work through it if the leader is accepting of it as a potential opportunity to strengthening relationships. The leader’s verbal and nonverbal communication about conflict can teach members new ways to perceive and behave in conflict, how to recognize mild forms of conflict, to constructively resolve conflicts, present a positive approach for confronting and for when and how to confront, the positive and negative outcomes for various kinds of behavior in conflict, how to not fear conflict, and that constructive resolution of conflict can strengthen relationships.
Conflict can emerge in a group at any time between members, between a member and the leader, or between the group and the leader. Conflict with others outside the group may be brought into the group and displaced onto members or the leader. There may be differences of opinion, personal animosities, defiance or rebellion against authority figures, or a general hostile attitude. Whatever the cause of the conflict, the leader must be prepared to handle it in ways that benefit members and facilitate the progress of the group.
In addition, members can be at various stages in their abilities to manage or tolerate conflict. The Variable Conflict Management model (discussed later on) uses a multifaceted approach, taking into account the stage of group development and the maturity level of group members. This strategy can be used for most of the conflicts that commonly emerge. Probably the most important components in managing conflict are the leader’s abilities to tolerate ambiguity and anxiety, anticipate and plan for managing conflicts, and use blocking and confrontation constructively. The leader is in control and has the responsibility for constructively managing conflicts.
Characteristic Conflict Behavior
Most discussions of conflict management list five characteristic ways people behave in conflicts: withdrawing, forcing, soothing, compromising, and confronting. The discussion that follows describes these behaviors and advantages and disadvantages of each. Leaders can and should use more than one conflict management strategy, but they also need to be aware of members’ needs, outside forces, and the stage of group development.
Withdrawing is defined as a physical or emotional retreat, a refusal to engage. The advantage of withdrawing is that the conflict ceases. The disadvantage is that the underlying issue, problem, or concern does not get addressed, and this strategy may leave residual uncomfortable feelings.
Forcing is characteristic of individuals who must win at all costs. They attack, intimidate, and generally behave in a way that forces their point of view on others. Again, conflicts do not get worked out; the conflict also may escalate if others fight back or may be suppressed if others withdraw.
When soothing is used as a management strategy it may keep the conflict from escalating or becoming more intense. The attempt to produce harmony can sometimes work if there are intensely uncomfortable feelings involved. However, this strategy can be manipulative if the soother is meeting his or her own needs to reduce tension and not taking into account the needs of others to work through the conflict. For some, even a slight hint of conflict produces strong feelings based on childhood experiences, usually in the family, which leads to soothing behavior. There are other times when soothing is appropriate—for example, when a conflict cannot be worked through because intense feelings are involved or out of control. Participants may be able to work through the conflict if they are soothed to the point where they can each hear what each other is saying.
Compromising takes place when both sides give up something to arrive at a resolution or solution. Negotiating takes skill and a willingness to meet the other person at least halfway. However, compromising assumes that both parties are willing to be involved in reaching a solution or resolution. One person in a conflict cannot compromise without the other. Some individuals perceive compromising as losing.
Confronting is a skill that can be learned. It is not easy, especially since it has come to be synonymous with attack. Confrontation is an invitation to the other person to examine his or her behavior and its impact on you. It assumes there is a relationship to be preserved and that you want to preserve it. It is not an opportunity to dump on the other person all the negative thoughts and feelings you have experienced about him or her. Further, the other person does not have to accept the invitation. Confrontations are not forced; they must be accepted. All of these characteristics limit the usefulness of confrontation as a conflict management strategy in psychoeducational groups.
Variable Conflict Management Strategies
Variable conflict management strategies (VCMS) include the five strategies from the preceding section plus four other skills: distracting, ignoring, delaying, and holding firm. Distracting involves introducing a new topic, reframing, or refocusing on some other aspect of the conflict. Distracting may be useful if the leader does not want to withdraw or ignore the conflict but, instead, redirects it to focus on something more useful. For example, the conflict may be a flare-up over some small event that does not have much to do with the task of the group. The leader can intervene and block an escalation of the conflict by introducing another topic.
Just as with children, it sometimes is better to ignore a conflict. Some people use conflict as an attention-getting mechanism, and the leader can get sucked into dealing with the conflict instead of focusing on the task at hand. Learning to recognize when to ignore it comes with experience.
A delaying intervention gives participants time to cool off. There may be times when the leader wants to teach positive conflict management skills or model them, but the intensity of feelings involved in the conflict makes it unwise at this time. Some reasons for delaying include the group may choose sides, the differences may escalate, physical violence may ensue, or the emotional fragility of members may be such that working through the conflict at that moment would produce more disturbance. Delaying does not mean withdrawing from the conflict; it is a temporary disengagement.
Holding firm
is a conflict management strategy that is somewhat authoritarian in nature. The leader takes the responsibility for blocking behaviors that contribute to the conflict, stating rules and guidelines for participation by reminding participants of them and enforcing them.
VCMS Members’ Dimensions
Variable conflict management strategies (VCMS) use the status of group members on two dimensions: responsibility and expertise. The assumption behind VCMS is that the group leader needs to respond differently to conflicts in the group depending on the responsibility levels and expertise of the group members. These dimensions may be more important than age, gender, and education. A single conflict management strategy may not fit the abilities of the group members. The expert group leader will be able to use the full range of strategies and judge when and where to use each.
An individual group member’s conflict with the leader, the group’s conflict with the leader, conflicts among members, and conflicts between groups or cliques of members all require different management strategies. The leader must deal with each of these conflicts in different ways at different stages of the group, and take into consideration the status of the members involved.
Members will vary greatly in their degrees of responsibility and levels of expertise, and these play a major role in deciding on a conflict management strategy. These dimensions may be more important in terms of conflict management than age, gender, and education.
Responsibility
Responsibility is defined from the description of class II scales for the California Psychological Inventory (Gough, 1975). The scales measure socialization, maturity, responsibility, and intrapersonal structuring of values. The functions of the scales are to identify persons of conscientious, responsible, and dependable disposition and temperament; to indicate the degree of social maturity, integrity, and rectitude the individual has attained; to assess the degree and adequacy of self-regulation and self-control and freedom from impulsivity and self-centeredness; to identify personal with permissive, accepting, and nonjudgmental social beliefs; and to identify persons capable of creating a favorable impression, and who are concerned about how others react to them (p. 10).
While age plays a role in the degree of responsibility and maturity, this dimension is not totally age related. The expectation for exhibition of responsibility is age related in that you do not expect the same manifestation of responsibility from a child or adolescent as from an adult. Instead, it is reasonable to expect children and adolescents to manifest responsible behavior appropriate for their age level.
High-responsibility descriptors include cooperative, outgoing, sociable, warm, planning, capable, conscientious, and dependable. Low-responsibility descriptors include being under controlled and impulsive in behavior, defensive, opinionated, passive and overly judgmental in attitude, wary, and overemphasizing personal pleasure and self-gain.
Expertise
The dimension of expertise is defined with descriptors of communication skills, such as attending, ability to suspend judgment and listen to the other, focusing on issues, ability to tolerate ambiguity, and personal ownership of feelings and attitudes. Expertise is the dimension that can more easily be developed and forms the focus for some skill development groups. When dealing with conflict in the group, the leader can evaluate the participants’ expertise by observing interactions.
VCMS Strategies Based on Members’
Status
The information in Table 11.1 categorizes participants’ behavior into six categories using the dimensions of responsibility and expertise. A description of some behaviors illustrates each, and the nine management strategies are associated with each category of dimensions.
Description of Categories
Low Responsibility/Low Expertise
Group members in this category can be very difficult to work with in conflict situations, especially if they are also involuntary participants. They are unwilling to trust and cooperate and unable to adequately attend to the task. The group leader may experience them as being sullen and hostile. Conflicts involving these participants need to be handled with clear, firm directions that remind them what the expected behaviors are and just what will and will not be tolerated.
Table 11.1 Strategies Based on Member Status
Status
Behavior
Strategy
Low responsibility/low expertise
Unwilling and unable (defiant, hostile)
Holding firm
Low responsibility/ moderate expertise
Tends to be unwilling, but has some skills
Ignoring, distracting, delaying, or confronting
Moderate responsibility/low expertise
Willing but not knowledgeable
Delaying (leader), soothing, or withdrawing
Moderate responsibility/moderate expertise
Willing and able with sufficient support
Compromising, confronting, or soothing
Moderate responsibility/high expertise
Knows what and how to approach conflicts; may choose not to do so
Compromising or confronting
High responsibility/high expertise
Both willing and able
Withdrawing or confronting
Low Responsibility/Moderate Expertise
This category includes group members who are not as difficult to deal with as the previous category, since they have some skills and could attend to the task, but they appear to be unwilling to do so. They would be described as immature for their age. While these group members also profit from clear, firm guidelines, their conflicts can be managed with ignoring, distracting, and delaying.
Moderate Responsibility/Low Expertise
These group members are willing to be cooperative and try to accomplish the task, but they lack the knowledge and skills that would enable them to do so. The group leader who assumes that because these members are cooperating they can do what is required to meet the group’s goals will be very disappointed when he or she realizes that they simply do not know how to accomplish what needs to be done. Conflict management strategies that are useful include confronting, delaying, and soothing.
Moderate Responsibility/Moderate Expertise
These group members are willing and have the necessary knowledge and skills but need encouragement and support to carry out the task. They need reassurance that they are doing what is needed. The group leader can use withdrawing, compromising, confronting, and soothing as conflict management strategies.
Moderate Responsibility/High Expertise
The group members in this category are very able to accomplish the task. They have the knowledge and skills, but for some reason they may choose not to use them constructively. The conflict management strategies that work best are compromising and confronting.
High Responsibility/High Expertise
These group members have both the necessary sense of responsibility and the needed expertise. The group leader may need to withdraw and let them handle the conflict or confront if they do not seem to be on the right track.
Examples of Responses
The following brief scenario shows behaviors representative of each category, along with a leader response that illustrates four of the suggested variable conflict management strategies. Two members get into a heated argument over a minor point. Their voices get louder, their fists clench, and their facial expressions are angry.
Holding Firm Response
“I am going to break into the discussion here and remind members of the agreement we all made to maintain respect for differing points of view. We can continue to discuss this point if you like. However, all group members must take part in the discussion, and respect for one another must be demonstrated. Or, I can address the point in question and make a decision. Which do you prefer?”
Distracting Response
“I wonder if you two can hold off presenting your points of view until the group deals with _____? I promise that we will get back to them.”
Soothing Response
“I can see that both of you feel strongly about this issue. It would be helpful if each of you would help me and the other members understand your point and its importance to you. If you agree, you can present your viewpoint one at a time. We’ll go in alphabetical order by last name.”
Confronting Response
“Your argument is affecting group members, and I can see that they are uncomfortable. I feel somewhat uncomfortable as well, as you both seem ready to have a physical fight. I wonder if it is possible for us to discuss the disputed point with you.”
This conflict is between group members. The specific responses would be different when dealing with other types of conflicts, such as member–leader conflict.
A
Conflict Resolution Procedure
and Script
It can be very helpful to teach and model a conflict resolution procedure when one emerges in the group. Conflicts can be very scary to many group members as these can bring up memories of destructive conflicts. However, all conflicts do not have to be destructive, and working to try and resolve these can be helpful and affirming to relationships. It may be that group members only consider battles as conflicts, and do not realize that disagreements are also conflicts but can carry much less emotional intensity. Following is a procedure and script that can be used when conflicts between group members emerge in the group. The procedure describes the tasks for the group leader, the ground rules for conflict resolution, and the debriefing for the group. The script suggests specific questions and words to use and a sequence to follow.
Group
Leader Tasks
The most important task for the group leader is to monitor their emotional intensity so as to better guide the procedure. It is essential that the group leader stay neutral no matter what their personal preferences may be. One task is to ensure that the leader is not blaming or shaming either participant in the conflict. Group leaders should adopt an understanding that they are not there to judge either good or bad, or right or wrong, they are there to guide the procedure. When the conflict emerges, the group leader should monitor the emotional intensity of all group members as well as those involved in the conflict. A calm and quiet voice tone will help to moderate and contain the group members’ emotional intensity and show that the leader is taking care of their safety. Following are some steps the leader will take to implement the conflict resolution procedure.
Announce that a conflict has emerged and it could be helpful to try a conflict resolution procedure.
Ask the members in the conflict if they are willing to participate in the procedure.
Describe the general outline of the procedure as noted in the procedure section.
Describe the ground rules for the procedure.
Ground
Rules
Group members and participants in the conflict will feel safer if there are agreed on rules for participation in conflict resolution. It is helpful to remember that there can be high emotional intensity when even thinking about a conflict much less engaging in this procedure.
Rule 1—Each person will speak in turn.
Rule 2—The speaker will be allowed to finish his/her input without interruptions.
Rule 3—Feelings will be expressed in words and not in physical actions.
Rule 4—Participants are asked to refrain from name-calling or using labels.
Rule 5—No expletives (cursing), sarcasm, taunting, teasing, or the like.
Rule 6—Each participant is free to stop the procedure at any time by saying to the leader that they wish to stop.
Conflict Resolution Procedure
Begin the procedure with an affirmation of the therapeutic relationship. If the emotional intensity is extreme, observe a moment of silence before starting the procedure by asking all group members to sit in silence and concentrate on their breathing. The general outline for the procedure is as follows.
The group leader will ask each participant in the conflict to report their level of distress on a scale of 0 (no distress) to 10 (extreme distress). This is called SUDS—subjective units of distress. Participants will be asked for this at several points in the procedure to assess if their distress is increasing or decreasing.
One participant will be asked to describe how he/she sees the conflict. (The members will go in alphabetical order by either the first or last names.)
The next participant is asked to reflect what was said before presenting his/her description.
This description will be reflected by the first participant before providing a response.
The leader will summarize the perceptions and do a check to ensure the accuracy of the summary. This is also an opportunity for the leader to guide a correction of misunderstandings and other inaccuracies.
Check participants SUDS level.
The leaders asks each participant to do each of the following allowing each participant to respond before moving to the next item: identify their feelings in the conflict; describe what they think the other person’s position is saying about them as a person, to evaluate the validity of their thoughts (i.e. is this true or false about them as a person); and what would be a satisfactory outcome. Leaders may want to check the SUDS level after each round of reporting on these items.
Repeat this procedure until the conflict feels resolved. If the group members are working through their perceptions, misunderstandings, and the like, it is more helpful if the group leader remains quiet and does not interject. However, if feelings seem to be escalating or there are errors in facts or understanding of what was said, then that is the time for an intervention by the group leader.
Options for intervention:
Move to debriefing the other group members—see debriefing procedures.
Ask each participant in the conflict is there are any associations or memories that were evoked by the conflict, or by the resolution process.
Ask each participant to give a short summary of his/her thoughts, feelings, ideas, and SUDS level at the present moment.
Use one of the visualization activities at the end of this section.
(Crucial and essential: SUDS levels should be at 4 or below for the participants in the conflict before the group ends. If the SUDS level is 4 or above, end the group on time and continue talking with the participants and use short breathing periods. Be sure to ask if they feel that their distress is or will be manageable when they leave the group.)
10. Debrief the group members using the following procedure:
Ask each group member to report what they thought and felt during the conflict resolution process.
Include all group members. If one or more members don’t volunteer their experience, call on them, but also note that they are still free to say “pass.” In this case, just let it go.
Be sure to ask group members to identify the feelings if they do not.
Ask for current feelings and SUDS levels. Tell members with SUDS at 4+ to sit quietly and breathe. Be sure to check SUDS levels before ending the group.
Visualization Activity: Begin the activity by telling the group that you want to use an activity to decrease their SUDS levels. Also tell them that they do not have to participate, or can stop the imagery at any time by opening their eyes. Ask them to sit in silence, close their eyes, and let an imagery emerge according to the directions. Use only one of the following.
1. Allow a pleasant scene to emerge. This can be a real scene in your experience, or a fantasy scene that is pleasing to you. Note as many details of the scene as possible, such as colors, people, sounds, and the like.
2. Allow a pleasant memory to emerge and note how you are feeling as it emerges. Bring as many details into the memory as you can.
3. Allow a pleasant sound or sounds to emerge, such as your favorite music, performance, a cherished person’s voice, and so on.
4. Allow a pleasant taste or smell to emerge. One that gives you a feeling of excitement, comfort, anticipation, and the like.
After a brief period for their visualization, ask them to open their eyes and come back into the room. Ask if they would like to share their images, and the impact on their SUDS level.
Confrontation
Confrontation can be negative and destructive or positive and constructive. Often it is perceived only as negative, destructive, and aggressive because the term is used improperly and the purpose is misunderstood. Confrontation is not synonymous with aggression, and it should not be used to accomplish these purposes: telling people off, attacking, browbeating others to get them to see your point or agree with you, criticizing, one-upmanship, for someone’s “own good,” to be perceived as right, or for vindication. These motives are harmful, and they will promote feelings of hostility and defensiveness in others. In order for relationships to grow, develop, and become strong, confrontation should be a positive and constructive interaction. Confrontation can be positive and constructive when phrased as an invitation and not as an imposition on the other person (Egan, 1975).
Major Types of Confrontation
Berenson et al. (1968) identified five major types of confrontation: didactic, experiential, weakness, strength, and encouragement to action. Each approaches the invitation to examine behavior in a different way, and all are constructive when used appropriately.
Didactic
Didactic confrontation assumes the receiver lacks important information or has misunderstood the information; in this case, the confrontation is used to remedy the condition. Didactic confrontation, however, involves more than simply giving information. The receiver is asked to examine his or her behavior and how it may be affecting the confronter because of faulty perceptions or ignorance. An example of didactic confrontation would be if a member insisted that the group end at 4 pm when the scheduled time for ending was 5 pm. After correcting the misinformation, the leader could explore the impact of early termination on the process.
Experiential
Experiential confrontation is so named because there is a significant difference in how the receiver’s self-perception and how you perceive him or her. This is particularly useful when the receiver has a distorted (either positive or negative) self-perception and does not see the impact of his or her behavior on others because of the misperception. The confronter shares how he or she experiences the receiver, and how this perception appears to differ from the receiver’s self-perception. For example, a group member says that he finds it difficult to express anger. Other members confront by saying that this is not how they have experienced him. They note that he has been open in expressing irritation and annoyance, and the openness has been appreciated because they did not have to try to guess his feelings.
Weakness
In weakness confrontation, the focus is on the receiver’s deceits or inadequacies. A weakness confrontation is not an attack or a put-down but an invitation to the receiver to examine these weaknesses and how they influence his or her relationships. For example, asking a member to examine how she continually interrupts others and the impact this has on communications and relationships is a weakness confrontation.
Strength
Strength confrontations, on the other hand, ask the receiver to look at underused or overlooked resources, assets, or strengths. This can be a particularly positive and powerful confrontation, as the receiver gains more awareness of previously hidden resources. For example, in a strength confrontation, the group might point out to a member that he has been persistent in the face of many obstacles and then list instances of that persistence.
Encouragement to Action
The encouragement to action confrontation supports the receiver in taking an action instead of reacting passively. Many times, individuals know what would be beneficial for them but lack the resolve to take action. Confronting them with encouragement and support can give them the confidence to move forward.
Kurtz and Jones (1973) found that strength and encouragement to action confrontations are most positively received and acted on. The least effective confrontations are didactic and weakness. Didactic confrontations can easily become lectures, and weakness confrontations can be perceived as criticizing and fault-finding. These should be used with caution.
Guidelines for Confrontation
The group leader needs to consider several things before a confrontation: the purpose of the group, the extent of safety and trust developed in the group and with members, the type of conflict, the current psychological state of members and of the group as a whole, the expectation of change in behavior, personal motives for confronting, and the rationale for confronting.
Purpose of the Group
In a skills learning group, a confrontation may be appropriate for modeling and learning. If, on the other hand, the group is more like a class, the leader may be better off not engaging in confrontation. The question to ask is: Will the confrontation help the group and its members? If the answer is not an unqualified yes, then the leader should avoid confrontation.
Established Safety and Trust
Confronting before adequate safety and trust have been established in the group produces a lot of anxiety for other group members. They may fear that they too will be confronted, and a response can be that they restrict their input. Confronting too early can put a damper on the group and produce more resistance.
Type of Conflict
The type of conflict also plays a part in deciding when or whether to confront. Is the conflict between members? Should they be given a chance to work it out before the leader intervenes? Is the conflict between the group and the leader? This is expected at some point and may not require a confrontation; instead, it might call for another kind of response. Is the conflict one in which most of the group is in agreement and in conflict with one member? Is it scapegoating?
Should it be blocked or confronted? Is the conflict between the leader and one member? Will a confrontation be perceived as a power struggle or as an attack on the member? These are not easy questions, but they should be considered before engaging in a confrontation.
Psychological States of Group Members
Group leaders must consider the psychological state of the member and of the group before embarking on a confrontation. If there is a great deal of intense emotion involved, the confrontation should be delayed or discarded. If the member or the group is in a fragile state, the confrontation may not be appropriate. The receiver of the confrontation must be able to hear what is said and meant, and also be able to use it.
Willingness to Consider Changing
Confrontations are invitations to examine behavior, and the receiver should be left free to decide whether to use the information. However, if the leader or other confronter does not have a realistic expectation that a positive behavioral change will result, the confrontation is counterproductive. The group leader must consider if the receiver is willing to change. If the answer is no, it will be best to not confront at this time.
Leader’s Motives
A leader’s motives for confronting also play a part in the decision. Indeed, they are crucial. A leader should never confront if his/her motive is to maintain control, to exert power or domination, to manipulate, to attack or take revenge, to punish, to show off one’s expertise, or as vindication.
Rationale for Confronting
All positive purposes for confronting are related to promoting development of the individual or the group. Confrontation may be aimed at giving the receiver more direct awareness of his or her behavior and its consequences. Confrontation can provide additional perspectives if validated by other group members. It can provide an opportunity for safe self-examination, self-exploration, and behavior change. Positive confrontations can strengthen relationships.
Confronter, Receiver, and
Condition Variables
In every confrontation, there are three distinct, dynamic variables: the confronter, the receiver of the confrontation, and the conditions surrounding the confrontation. Each of these variables must be examined before the confrontation if it is to be a positive experience.
Confronter Variables
Emotional state of the confronter—Confrontations are most effective if the confronter is calm, empathic, accepting, and caring.
Motives or reasons for the confrontation—The confronter must be aware of his or her rationale for the confrontation. If the confronter is unsure or confused about those reasons, the confrontation should be delayed or discarded.
Ability to distinguish clearly between facts and feelings—Confrontations are most effective when the confronter can identify feelings as feelings and facts as facts. Awareness of and sensitivity to the relationship is also a component: What kind and level of relationship exists between the confronter and receiver? Are you seeking to strengthen the relationship? Do you care about the relationship? The confronter’s feelings about and expectations for the relationship are vital components in the decision to confront.
Receiver Variables
Receiver’s emotional state—Individuals under the influence of intense emotions are less likely to be open to confrontation. It is better to wait and confront when emotions are less intense.
Receiver’s capacity for self-examination—Individuals who are closed to self-examination or who deny the need for self-examination cannot be confronted with positive results.
Degree of trust the receiver has in the confronter—If the person being confronted does not trust the confronter to be genuine or to have positive regard for him or her, the confrontation will not be perceived as justified, correct, or necessary.
Condition Variables
The circumstances surrounding the confrontation are also important. The group leader has to remain aware of the potential impact of the confrontation on the entire group as well as for the particular group member. When leaders confront, there is some effect on other members, and that should not be minimized, or overlooked.
A further consideration is the group’s stage of development. Sufficient safety and trust should be developed before using a confrontation, as these are critical in determining how the confrontation will be received. It becomes an art to know when to use confrontation so that it benefits the individual and the group.
In addition to the stage of the group, it can be important to understand what the members may be internally processing. For example, if there was a heated exchange that just took place, or a member had made an emotionally intense disclosure, the leader would need to refrain from doing a confrontation because of the timing. In other words, do not do a confrontation just because you as the leader think it is needed, or would be helpful, do so when the group is ready and able to effectively use it.
Other considerations include the following:
Audience—Who beside the confronter and the receiver is present? There are times when the support of others can be helpful, if they reinforce the confronting statements. If, however, the relationships are not trusting, accepting, or caring, then the presence of others can be perceived as ganging up.
Environmental conditions—Social gatherings, meetings, or family reunions are not appropriate venues for positive confrontations. Being sensitive to the purpose of the setting can make a difference in whether the confrontation is successful.
Fundamentals of Confronting
Once the decision to confront has been made, the confronter should keep some communication fundamentals in mind, including the following:
Use a positive approach.
Choose words that suit the receiver’s emotional state.
Be concrete; say what is on your mind.
Be aware of the impact you are having on the receiver.
Wait for a response or reaction.
Be sure of your facts.
Do not exaggerate or make broad generalizations.
Think before you speak.
Check to ensure that you are being understood accurately.
Stick to the topic; do not bring in other concerns or issues.
Try not to criticize.
Do not impose your views; just express them.
Be receptive to feedback.
Listen to the other person.
Do not interrupt.
Give people the time they need to absorb the information.
Summary of Constructive Confrontation
Group leaders should approach confrontation as they would positive feedback. They should use some of the same criteria and assumptions to promote constructive reception of the confrontation.
Make statements descriptive, not evaluative.
Describing the behavior is objective; making judgments about the behavior is subjective. The more objective the statements are, the more apt everyone is to agree that this is, in fact, the observed behavior.
Focus on a specific behavior rather than using general descriptions.
Do not use terms that are ambiguous and do not describe a specific behavior. For example, telling someone he or she is domineering is not concrete or helpful. However, telling someone that he or she has been interrupting the conversation often, then giving examples, is specific. In addition, do not infer motives for the behavior. This is speculative, making it subjective and part of one’s personal experience. It also raises the possibility that others will not agree, as their experiences may have been different.
The needs and emotional state of the receiver are as important as are the needs of the confronter.
Confrontation is a sensitive and risky undertaking that may be very threatening for the receiver especially so when the confronter is the group leader. When confronting, group leaders should remain tentative and be ready to stop at any time if the receiver appears overwhelmed.
Wait for an invitation to confront.
Confrontation is most useful and constructive if it is solicited rather than imposed. Asked-for confrontations generally mean that the receiver is willing and able to use the feedback and feels a need to get it. However, it takes a long time for relationships to develop to the point where confrontations are actively sought. Even when a group member seems receptive to the invitation, group leaders may want to be cautions and tentative.
Time your confrontations well.
Timing is critical. Feedback is most useful when given close to the time of the behavior. If it is not possible to give the feedback at that time, wait until the behavior occurs again, delay it, or discard it. If the receiver is in an emotional state that is not conducive to receiving the feedback, if other activities intervene, or if it is time to break or stop, the confrontation should be delayed or discarded.
Be prepared to listen, as confrontation involves sharing of information.
Confrontation is not telling something to the receiver; it is a dialogue. Listening also gives cues as to the emotional state of the receiver, which tells the confronter when to back off and when to continue. As part of the listening, the feedback should be checked to ensure clear communication. Did the receiver hear what was said, or was it distorted in some way? Did the confronter say what they intended to say, or was it different? It is easy for feedback under these conditions to be misunderstood because of emotional intensity.
Attend to the consequences of the feedback.
Pay attention to the impact of the words on the receiver and on other group members. Remember that the confrontation will affect all group members in some way, not just the receiver.
Discussion/Reflection Questions
Role-play a conflict, and the process of conflict resolution.
Brainstorm in a small group all the thoughts, feelings, and ideas that come to mind when you think about confrontation. List these on newsprint and post.
Practice the process of confrontation in small groups. One person will be the receiver, one the confronter, and other members the observers to give feedback on what was observed.
Chapter 12 – Leading Psychoeducational Groups for Children and Adolescents
Major Topics
Types of children’s groups
Research findings
How children’s groups are different
General guidelines for leading
Sample procedures and structure for sessions
Adolescent developmental tasks and characteristics
Implications for planning
Leader tasks
General guidelines for adolescent groups
Introduction
Psychoeducational groups for children are conducted in a variety of settings, but schools provide the most extensive use for these. Schools have counseling programs designed to help students with developmental issues, life transitions, behavior problems, social skills development, and as support for crises and other difficulties.
Mental health professionals in other settings also find children’s groups to be helpful, and these have as much variety as do adult groups. Children are recognized as active participants in life events that are personal for them, and in events for others in their lives as these can have a major impact on them. This is a major shift from the time when children were viewed as passive recipients, and considerable efforts were expended to keep them from knowing what events were occurring to other family members. Much more is now known about the effect of these on children.
Types of Children’s Psychoeducational Groups
Thompson and Randolph (1983) provide a way to categorize groups for children that has implications for psychoeducational groups. They propose four categories: common problems, case centered, human potential, and skill development.
Common Problem Groups
Common problem groups are focused on an identified or potential problem. The theme or purpose for the group is narrowly focused; there is commonality around the problem for members, and they may also have other unifying characteristics; the homogeneity of the group contributes positively to developing trust and safety; and planning can be easier.
Brown (1994) describes a model for creating groups for children that uses commonality of problem as the basis for the group. This is different from using common situations as the basis in that situations may differ, but the underlying problems are similar. For example, in a group focused on grief and loss, members could have a variety of losses, such as divorce, death, or incarceration. Members need not have the same loss—for example, death of a mother.
Sheckman (2001) describes another example of a common problem group. The group was for fourth-grade students in Israel, and the purpose for the group was members’ tendencies to make aggressive responses to peers. Results indicated a positive increase in empathy and a decrease in aggressive responses for participants.
Case-Centered Groups
These are groups where members are working on different problems. Each member receives the attention, feedback, and support from other members as well as from the group leader. This type of group recognizes individuality and differences, and uses the resources of the group to help members. The underlying theme that links members can emerge, although they appear to have very different problems or situations.
The heterogeneity of case-centered groups can be a drawback at first, because members will focus more on differences than commonalities. There are two helpful factors that leaders can foster in these groups that will promote safety and trust. The first is universality—that is, the leader uses linking skills to highlight similarities that may not be readily apparent. These similarities could be feelings such as fear of abandonment, or values such as the desire for achievement, or personality characteristics such as determination.
The second helpful factor is altruism. Children are seldom given opportunities to help others where that help is recognized. Peer interaction in these groups can be guided toward understanding of others and speaking of that understanding directly, pointing out each other’s unrecognized strengths, and learning to give constructive feedback. There is a richness in heterogeneous groups that can be tapped to the benefit of all members.
Human Potential Groups
Thompson and Randolph (1983) defined human potential groups as having a purpose to provide opportunities for developing members’ positive traits and strengths. Developmental concerns are emphasized rather than remediation of existing problems. A good or extensive knowledge of human growth and development is the foundation for creating these groups. Also helpful is an understanding of life transitions and cultural factors. The two examples that follow illustrate this type of group.
Franklin and Pack-Brown (2001) conducted a group for elementary African American boys that was designed around the seven principles of Kwanzaa. The group was held for 24 sessions, and focused on awareness and skills of conflict resolution, stress management, and problem solving. Pretest and posttest teacher ratings of classroom behavior showed an increase in positive ratings. There was also a 48 percent decrease in disciplinary actions.
Garrett and Crutchfield (1997) described a seven-session “talking circle” group that was based on Native American principles for developing self-esteem, self-determination, body awareness, and self-concept. The talking circle was the forum for each member to express thoughts and feelings, and a “talking stick” was used to signal that the holder was the speaker and was to receive attention, acceptance, and respect from other members.
Skill Development Groups
Psychological groups play an important role in social skills training. Indeed, these groups are the primary mode of delivery for such training. The following is a selected overview of studies on the effectiveness of this training, with an emphasis on the group. Studies were selected as samples of social skills training models for children, adolescents, and adults with a variety of conditions.
Psychological groups play an important role in social skills training. Indeed, these groups are the primary mode of delivery for such training. The following is a selected overview of studies on the effectiveness of this training, with an emphasis on the group. Studies were selected as samples of social skills training models for children, adolescents, and adults with a variety of conditions.
In a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral outcomes for children and adolescents, Durlak et al. (1991) found that 41 percent of studies employed group sessions, and approximately 75 percent used combinations of skills training with other techniques, such as role-play. The computed normative effect size (NES), an index of the comparison of the treatment group with a normative or nonclinical group, showed that participants improved significantly. Their scores on such measures as anxiety, depression, and self-esteem not only significantly improved but rose to levels similar to those of children in the normative group.
Goldstein and Glick (1987) surveyed studies on the effectiveness of interpersonal skills training for aggressive adolescent and preadolescent subjects. The subjects were adjudicated juvenile delinquents, status offenders, or high school students with a history of aggression. Study settings included psychiatric hospitals, residential institutions, schools, group homes, and clinics. Most studies used multiple groups, with members receiving instruction, modeling, role-play, and performance feedback. The groups focused on topics such as coping with criticism, negotiating, and problem solving. The results for acquiring skills were consistently positive.
Research Finding for Children’s Groups
Psychoeducational groups for children can be found in a variety of settings, and on a variety of topics, issues, and concerns. Examples are seen in the following.
Punamaki et al. (2013) found that a psychoeducational group for depressed parents improved positive cognitive attributions for their children’s depressive and emotional symptoms.
Wu et al. (2014) used a psychoeducational group approach to improve coping and to reduce symptom severity for children undergoing treatment for cancer.
Chronis-Tuscano et al. (2015) used a psychoeducational group as part of a multimodal intervention for behaviorally inhibited preschoolers.
Fristad et al. (2009) studied the impact of multifamily psychoeducational group for children with mood disorders.
Freitag et al. (2016) found that social responsiveness improved for children and adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder after implementing a manualized psychoeducational group intervention.
Moreau (1994) described a program for third-grade students that addressed development of social and conflict resolution skills. Results indicated that the children were better able to communicate with one another and to understand options available to them to solve their problems.
Kamps et al. (1992) investigated the effect of social skills groups on three autistic boys and their classmates in an integrated first-grade classroom. Results indicated increases in the frequency and duration of social interactions.
Schulz (1993) found that low-income preschoolers who were trained to think of alternative solutions to conflicts performed significantly better than their untrained peers at controlling impulsive behaviors in the classroom.
Weist et al. (1993) described the outcomes for a group-training program for sexually abused girls, ages 8 through 11. Teachers reported improved perceived academic competence, peer functioning, appearance, and global self-concept following the training program.
How Children’s Groups Differ
Psychoeducational groups for children differ from those for adolescents and adults in several important ways: group size, length of sessions, management of content, and special facilitation skills needed by the leader. The ages and educational levels for participants are very important in groups for children, as developmental levels can make a significant difference in the amount of material presented, learned, and retained; and in the quantity and quality of participation—for example, younger children can feel intimidated by older children in the group.
Group Size
The size of the group is important even when a large group is broken down into smaller groups. Because children’s group sessions are generally of shorter duration than groups for adolescents and adults, it becomes important that each child has an opportunity to actively participate (i.e., talk). Too many members in the group can be a barrier to participation. Therefore, it is recommended that children groups be limited to five members. If the participants have significant behavior and impulse control problems, it may be necessary to limit the number of group members to three or four.
Length of Sessions
When conducting a group for a class, or other large groups, you will probably have a 50-minute class period for the session. A considerable amount of this time will be for distributing materials, breaking the large group into smaller groups, and answering questions. Thus, any planned activity should be short enough to be completed and discussed in that time frame. A general time frame for the tasks is about 30 minutes. A good rule of thumb for smaller groups is to plan for 20 to 30-minute sessions. The younger the children, the shorter their attention span, and the shorter the session should be.
Management of Content
Leaders will find it effective to plan extensively for presenting information and to prioritize what information is most important for members to learn. This is necessary because of time constraints, the limited number of sessions, and members’ attention spans. It is not helpful to present more information than members can absorb.
Attention should also be paid to how information is to be presented. It is wise to limit the length of mini-lectures, write important points for the lecture on the chalkboard, and use exercises and other activities to enhance and reinforce the learning.
Discussion and media can be helpful presentation tools when judiciously used. Do not overuse media, as this detracts from developing relationships and promoting interactions among group members. Allowing time for members to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas can be very supportive on intended learning, and this is encouraged.
Special Facilitation Skills
The leader will need to be more of a hybrid of a teacher and a facilitator. Keeping control and maintaining focus is more of a concern when leading children’s groups, as children can be impulsive, excited, and easily distracted. These states can produce behaviors that are detrimental to conducting a group. Therefore, the leader has to pay special attention to establishing a relationship with the group where each child receives some attention at every session. This is necessary even for large classroom groups. Other facilitation skills that are of special importance are
Highlighting commonalities among members
Encouraging and supporting
Blocking negative comments by members
Being patient when a member is trying to find the words to express thoughts or feelings
Accepting negative feeling expressions
Providing empathic responses
General Guidelines for Children’s Psychoeducational Groups
Group Composition
Psychoeducational groups for children will be more effective if participants are in the same age/grade group or within one or two years of each other. The younger the participants, the more homogeneous the group needs to be in terms of age and grade level. It may be more effective, in some cases, for older children to be in gender-specific groups. Group sessions should be 20 minutes of working time for children ages 7 to 9, and 30 to 40 minutes for older children. Group management becomes the primary focus instead of the psychoeducational topic when children’s attention span has been exceeded.
If there is to be more than one session around a particular topic, the number and duration of the sessions should be specified in advance—for example, there could be six 30-minute sessions held once a week over six weeks. Planning for each session should be done in advance.
Setting Goals and Objectives
Develop realistic goals and objectives. Participants’ time and attention will be limited, and what can be accomplished in the group will be limited. It is less frustrating to have a few goals and objectives that are met than to have many goals and objectives, few of which are met. For example, a series of six sessions around career education may have the overall goal of identifying personal interest related to careers. Objectives for each session would be focused around one of Holland’s (1973) interest areas. It then becomes easier to select appropriate activities and strategies.
Too often, group leaders have too many goals and objectives—for example, feeling that they must address self-confidence, self-esteem, self-awareness, and so on. These topics are too complex and involved to be primary goals and objectives. While some parts of them may be addressed or developed through the group, they will be limited and indirect. They can be secondary goals and objectives, but not the main emphases for the group.
It may be helpful to include the participants in setting goals and objectives. Getting their input promotes involvement and commitment, both of which enhance group participation. Even if you do not get anything different from what is already planned, simply asking for input helps promote participants’ feelings of being involved.
Environmental Concerns
The major environmental concerns are adequate space, appropriate furniture, and freedom from intrusion. You should provide enough room for participants to be comfortably seated without being too close to one another. Children tend to push, shove, and kick at one another when they are too close together, particularly when they do not have enough room to move around in their seats.
Most psychoeducational groups for children use exercises, games, and other active processes, and appropriate furniture contributes to the success of the group. Most desirable are tables around which five to seven participants can sit, and chairs in which participants can sit comfortably with their feet resting on the floor and not dangling. If there are multiple tables, there should be sufficient space for the leader and helpers to move between them and to allow those at one table to talk to each other without overdue intrusion of noise from another table.
Freedom from intrusion also refers to intrusive noises and people. Outside noises and other distractions can be very disruptive to the group.
Parental Consent
One of the most important considerations when planning a psychoeducational group for children is the need for parental consent. This is always necessary and must not be overlooked, as there are ethical and legal consequences. This holds true even when a school system has obtained global parental consent for the entire program, as it is prudent to keep parents fully informed. Make a practice of determining the agency, school, or site policy and procedures for obtaining parental consent prior to starting groups for children.
Limits for Confidentiality
There can be limits on what disclosures of group members can be kept confidential and what has to be reported to authorities regardless of the work setting. There are legal requirements for reporting some disclosures, such as abuse, molestation, and incest, and group leaders are expected to report their suspicions and/or actual disclosures. It is wise to check on the state’s legal requirement.
Group leaders are expected to know what limits there are on their ability to keep disclosures in the group as confidential and what they are required to report. It is important for group leaders to be knowledgeable about the policies and procedures for confidentiality wherever they work, and to know what ethical guidelines their professional organizations require.
Sample Procedures and Structure for Sessions
The following procedures and structure can be used for all types of psychoeducational groups for children: educational, social skills training, support, and therapeutic. These guidelines are presented with the following assumptions:
Some screening of participants has been used or some demographic data are known.
Goals and objectives were established in advance.
Planning for sessions was completed.
Exercises and other activities were selected with participants’ characteristics and needs as guiding principles.
Materials were developed and/or gathered prior to beginning the group.
Environmental concerns were addressed.
Rules for participation were created.
Parental consent was received.
Limits for confidentiality were established.
The following procedures and structure can be modified and adapted for a particular situation. For example, the first session calls for introducing the group leader. However, if the leader is already known to participants, such as in a school setting, he/she may need to have only a minimal introduction. If the leader is not known to participants, he/she will need to give a more extensive introduction.
Procedures for the First Session
Although the following procedure for the first session is very much the same as what would be used for adolescent and adult groups, there are some significant differences for implementation. The focus for this presentation is on groups for children.
The leader can expect to have some personal anxiety, as they can never be sure what the group will do. Their planning and experience can help reduce some of this anxiety, but it may never be completely eliminated. How the leader manages and contains this anxiety will be evident to group members on both the conscious and subconscious levels and will serve as a model for members. The sequence for the first session is as follows:
Welcome and introductions.
Purpose, goals and objectives, and limits for confidentiality are explained.
Review of rules and establishment of commitment to them.
Plan of activities for session is reviewed.
Questions and comments are solicited.
First activity is introduced. This can be an activity, a mini-lecture, a video, and so on.
Reducing members’ anxiety and ambiguity is important, as these emotional states can interfere with the ability to participate. One step toward addressing them is the welcome given members and the opportunity for introductions. Pay attention to how members enter the room and how they choose to introduce themselves. The leader usually starts off by welcoming members, and introducing him/herself. Group leaders should adopt a habit of making a professional disclosure statement as part of their introduction, even if they are confident that members know them. It can also be helpful to develop a procedure for having members’ introductions, such as names or nicknames by which members want to be called, an animal that expresses something about them, a favorite television show or favorite anything, and what they expect to get or learn from the group. If one of these is chosen, the leader will write their responses to the items as part of their introduction. This can be posted where all members can see, or write them on the chalkboard. It is hard for children to remember all items for the introduction; posting or writing them serves as a reminder.
Introductions should not be rushed or skipped. The time taken not only reduces anxiety but can also help establish trust and safety, as well as start to form interpersonal connections in the group. Even when members think they know each other prior to the group, new information can emerge. Pay attention to how members introduce themselves, because many clues to their emotional states and functioning can be present in these introductory comments.
Purpose, Goals, and Confidentiality
Prepare and make a short statement about the purpose for the group, the goals and objectives, and the limits on confidentiality. This should be relatively easy to do, since these items are a part of planning.
It could also be helpful to write the purpose, goals, and objectives on paper prior to the session and post them as each is explained. Take into account terminology and members’ reading levels. This is an opportunity to sell the group experience as beneficial to members, encourage active participation, and motivate in an indirect way.
Members need to know from the very beginning of the group what the limits are on confidentiality, as self-disclosure is expected in the group. Further, although members are asked to keep the personal material and disclosures confidential, the group leader does not have any way to enforce this, and it is ethically responsible to inform members of the limitation. Likewise, the leader is bound by laws and policies to report certain disclosures and clinical judgments to their supervisor or other authorities. It is also their ethical responsibility to let group members know this in advance.
Rules
Every group needs the structure provided by rules. These are the guidelines for expected member behaviors. Prepare the basic few needed for the group to be managed for the members’ benefit. Do not have too many rules or ones that will be impossible to enforce. Limit the rules to expected behaviors, such as no physical aggressive acts; how to participate, such as raising your hand to be recognized, or the speaker holds the scarf and other members must listen; immediacy, such as speaking your present thoughts, feelings, and ideas; freedom to not disclose by just saying “pass”; and other such guidelines. Also convey expectations for attendance, arriving on time, and active participation.
It may be appropriate for the leader to ask group members what rules they want for the group. Group leaders need to be aware that children are likely to develop a long list of rules that are unenforceable. However, member participation does promote commitment to the group. You will be the best judge of whether to open the floor up to rule setting.
This is an opportunity for leaders to listen to what members want from the leader and from other group members. For example, group members may suggest a rule of no yelling. It could be a clue that these members become fearful when someone yells, and they expect negative actions because of past experiences. That provides some insight about safety and trust needs for these participants.
Obtain members’ commitment by asking if they can abide by the rules. Tell them that they will be reminded of the rules at the beginning of each session. Children may have expectations of punishment for violating rules, and leaders must also have a suitable consequence for the violations—for example, if members miss a certain number of sessions, they are dropped from the group. Do not have punishments such as detention, writing assignments, loss of privilege, and so on. When rules are violated, much of the behavior is due to forgetting, excitement, and resistance. Learn ways to handle this in the group that are more constructive and beneficial for members.
Plan for Activities
Describe what the plan is for each session at the beginning of the session as this will help to reduce ambiguity and uncertainty. It does not take long to give a short description of planned activities. It is also helpful to ask for comments and agreements to participate. Doing so can help the group leader determine if there are any objections and reluctance to become involved.
Describe what the plan is for each session at the beginning of the session as this will help to reduce ambiguity and uncertainty. It does not take long to give a short description of planned activities. It is also helpful to ask for comments and agreements to participate. Doing so can help the group leader determine if there are any objections and reluctance to become involved.
After the group has met for a few sessions, the group leader may find that what was planned does not meet members’ needs. A review of how members are perceiving the group at this point can give them an opportunity to let the leader know how well things are going, if changes are needed, and shows that the leader is open to change and are flexible. The leader may have done an excellent job of planning the group, but what was planned does not fit this particular group. It may not be necessary to make major changes; most often what is called for are minor adjustments to what was already planned. For example, the leader may have expected that members would grasp the material faster. After a few sessions, the leader realizes that the material needs to be presented slower and can then break the material down into smaller units, eliminate some pieces, or make other modifications. If members are resisting what was planned, it is time for the group leader to reflect on possible causes and make some adjustments.
Questions and Comments
Children like to be asked for their comments. Questions can reveal confusion, anxiety, and/or frustrations, and can reveal much hidden information. Take some time to listen to comments and questions, as this can encourage participation. For some children, this experience may be one of the few times where an adult conveys respect and interest.
Even a comment or question that seems unrelated to the group experience can be revealing for that member. Do not immediately assume that the question or comment does not relate to the group. It may relate in an indirect way. Leaders will have to listen and understand group dynamics and group stage development in order to discern the relation of the comment or question.
Listen to each question and comment, and try to make a direct response. Do not infer motives or be dismissive about the importance of the question, although some may seem silly. Do not respond in a way that suggests the speaker is not valued. How you respond will be monitored by other group members who are in the process of deciding how they feel about the group.
First Activity
The first activity begins to address the purpose and goals for the group. Although you may have used an icebreaker activity earlier, it was used to reduce anxiety and tension, and to start the process of developing interactions and connections among group members. It is unlikely that the icebreaker was related to the purpose, goal, theme, or cognitive content of the group, which begins at this point.
The first activity could be a mini-lecture, discussion, exercise, or any other presentation. Regardless of the purpose for the group, it is strongly suggested that your first activity be an integration of members’ goals with the goal for the group. It should determine members’ apprehensions and expectations for the group. If the focus is on these two objectives, you will increase commitment to the group and the task, reduce expressed and unexpressed fears, start development of group norms for active participation, and encourage and support group members. Do not try to move too fast into the cognitive content for the group. One way to accomplish integration of goals and overt expressions of apprehension is through the use of the following two exercises.
Activity 12.1: My Goals
Materials: Your group goals written on paper and posted where members can see them or written on a chalkboard or other medium; a sheet of paper and a pencil for each member; a suitable writing surface for each member.
Age level: 8 years and older. If members are younger than 8, just use item 3 of the exercise.
Procedure:
Ask group members to write one or two goals they would like to accomplish in the group. For example, what would they like to learn? You can give them some suggestions—for example, my career when I grow up, or to make friends, or to learn how to control my anger. Be careful with your suggestions, as children may think you are telling them what their goals should be, and you want them to think about something that is meaningful for them.
Allow three to five minutes for them to write their goals. If a member seems stuck, reassure him or her that a goal could emerge as the other members discuss their goals.
Expansion:
Ask each member to read and explain his or her goal. Respond to each goal and ask clarifying questions when needed. Help members who could not write a goal to verbally express one.
Refer back to your posted goals and try to link members’ goals with the predetermined ones.
Activity 12.2: Apprehension
Activity 12.2: Apprehensions
Materials: A large sheet of paper and a marker, or a chalkboard and chalk.
Age Level: all ages.
Procedure:
Post the large sheet of paper on a flat surface where members can see it and you can write on it.
Introduce the exercise by saying, “It can be scary to try something new and many people, including adults, get scared and anxious about the unknown. This group is unknown to you, and may be scary or anxiety-producing for some members. Some may have some ideas about what to expect. I would like to hear what members think might happen, what members are scared will happen, and other thoughts you have about the group, the leader, and other members.”
Write all ideas, thoughts, and feelings on the paper or chalkboard. Do not try to minimize, dismiss, judge, or evaluate them. It is also not helpful to try and reassure members that their fears are groundless at this time. Just note what they are.
Expansion: Review the list and tell members what may keep these fears from being realized where possible. For example, someone may fear that other members will not listen to him or her. You could point to the rule about respectful listening and tell the group that you will listen.
Adolescent Groups
Introduction
Adolescents are not just older children, they have their own unique set of characteristics and needs that should be taken into consideration when planning and implementing groups for this audience. Doing so can make these groups more productive, help to prevent difficulties and resistance, encourage active participation, accomplish goals and objectives, and assist their growth and development. Considerations include usual adolescent developmental tasks, general characteristics and implications of these for planning, a major consideration when planning, and how general planning guidelines can be modified and adapted for adolescent groups.
Developmental Tasks
Following is a summary of the goals for adolescents from the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1995):
Become a valued member in a constructive group.
Learn how to form and maintain long-term and satisfying relationships.
Develop a sense of self-worth.
Learn a process for making appropriate choices.
Begin to tap into available support systems.
Find ways to access constructive curiosity and exploratory behavior.
Become altruistic.
Believe in a promising future.
These tasks can be daunting for adolescents who are experiencing physical, emotional, and psychological changes in addition to uncontrollable societal, community, cultural, and familial events and changes. Malekoff (1997) states, “Group work has been, for the past century, a significant protective factor for youth” (p. 16). He further reports that group work has facilitated life transitions, developmental task accomplishments, addressing special needs, preparation for democratic participation in the community and in society, and help in finding ways to cope with the various forces that impact the lives of adolescents.
Psychoeducational Groups for Adolescents
Psychoeducational groups can be effective ways to provide adolescents with skills, knowledge, understanding, guidance, and support. They are helpful for a variety of conditions and situations:
Prevent social anxiety and depression, and reduce peer victimization (LaGrecca et al. (2016)
Inpatient adolescents with schizophrenia (She et al., 2016; Restek-Petrovic et al., 2014)
CBT effectiveness with depressive symptoms for adolescents (Nardi et al., 2016)
PMS and related somatization, anxiety and hostility (Taghizadeh et al., 2013)
Medical help-seeking for cancer (Hubbard et al., 2016)
Parents with AIDS (Aronson, 1995)
Coping skills (Baker, 2001)
Depression (Beeferman & Orvaschel, 1994)
PTSD for Japanese high school students (Taku et al., 2017)
Characteristics of Adolescents
Hanna et al. (1999) present the following common characteristics for adolescents that could be influential in how you plan and facilitate these groups:
A need and insistence on immediate results and/or relief
A desire for clear and unambiguous boundaries, rules, and limits that are uniformly enforced
Intense feelings that are easily and readily accessed
The need to shock, startle, and/or surprise adults
A heightened awareness of sexuality and sexual power
Age-appropriate narcissism and underdeveloped narcissism can also be characteristics that will impact the group. Age-appropriate narcissism for adolescents can be seen in their degree of self-absorption, which can be less than what is expected for a child but more than would be characteristic of an adult with healthy adult narcissism (Brown, 1998). For example, the adult with healthy adult narcissism is able to delay gratification when needed without complaining, whining, or feeling put on. The adolescent with age-appropriate narcissism can delay gratification some of the time without complaining and so on. However, adolescents with underdeveloped narcissism and children are much less able or are unable to do this.
Underdeveloped narcissism refers to behaviors and attitudes reflective of a much younger person. These people exhibit much more self-absorption, and almost everything in their world is perceived in terms of self. There are many aspects of underdeveloped narcissism, and they will be reflected differently for each person—for example, one person may have underdeveloped narcissism in entitlement attitudes, while someone else may exhibit it in failure to recognize when he or she is violating someone’s psychological boundaries.
Adolescents are in the process of moving toward or developing healthy adult narcissism, which is described as the ability to delay gratification, empathy, creativity, the ability to reach out and care for others, an appropriate sense of humor, and the capacity to form and maintain lasting and satisfying relationships (Brown, 1998; Kohut, 1977). Thus, most adolescents will show some areas where they are growing toward healthy adult narcissism—for example, flashes or instances where they are empathic—and all will demonstrate several areas of underdeveloped narcissism, such as an entitlement attitude, excessive attention needs, and admiration seeking.
Implications of Characteristics for Planning
All of the characteristics, including underdeveloped narcissism, have implications for your planning and facilitation of psychoeducational groups for adolescents. It is recommended that you learn more about adolescent growth and development and common issues faced by this population. Some influences of these characteristics are discussed here.
The tendency to want immediate results and/or relief means that group leaders need to plan for some focused and short-term outcomes. While the condition or situation may be complex, long-term, and take time to unfold, the adolescent group members have to be motivated and convinced to stick around long enough for this to happen. Plan for some visible or readily identifiable result for each session. You may need to highlight and emphasize results so that members can be aware of their learning and progress.
Adolescents feel safer and more secure when some limits, rules, and boundaries are set for them. They can function better and understand what is expected of them. Further, they appreciate a firm, consistent, and fair enforcement of these limits.
Some leaders can make the mistake of not observing an appropriate boundary between them and members by seeking to be pals or friends with the group members. It is entirely appropriate to be friendly, but you are in a position of authority, not on their level, and they know it. You can arouse mistrust and insecurity when you fail to remember this.
Leader Tasks
A focus for many groups is on having members increase their awareness and expression of feelings. There can be considerable resistance and defenses around members’ intense feelings, and leaders work hard to help members access these feelings and appropriately express them. However, this is usually not the case with adolescents, as they can readily access their intense feelings but do not always express them in the most appropriate way. Indeed, there can be a lot of acting out for this age group.
Therefore, the leader’s tasks are to teach, guide, and model how to contain, manage, and appropriately express intense and/or uncomfortable feelings. Another task is to select activities and experiences mat will not trigger intense reactions that cannot be contained and managed by the group, individual members, and you as the leader.
One major task for adolescents is to establish their self-identity, and many work toward this by dressing, acting, and talking in a way that is designed to shock, startle, and surprise adults. They are aided by the media, which helps to set trends and standards that seem to emphasize shock value.
It is important for the group leader to see beyond the mannerisms, language, apparel, and other means used by adolescents to express their differences, and self-identity. Beneath all this is still the person who is struggling to define himself or herself, connect to others in a meaningful way, and prepare for adulthood.
The awareness of sexuality and sexual power increases to new heights during adolescence. In today’s world, this awareness is encouraged and supported wherever the adolescent turns. It is displayed in music, movies, television, clothing, and other ways, and it is the rare person who does not tune in to it.
This can have implications for the group, as members can bring erotic material to the forefront at any time, there can be considerable flirting, and there can even be sexual acting out both in and out of the group. The group leader needs to prepare for members to attempt seduction and must always remember the ethics and legal ramifications as guides for your leader behavior.
A Major Planning Consideration
One major consideration when planning groups for adolescents that is generally overlooked is to not form groups of adolescents with similar problems. At first glance, the idea of not grouping members around problems would seem to be wrong. Similarities can reduce isolation, promote cohesion, and have a number of other positive outcomes. However, for adolescents there is research that indicates this is counterproductive.
The Cambridge-Somerville Youth Study (McCord, 1992) found that the comprehensive program for high-risk male adolescents showed that the participants were more likely to have more problems with delinquency, substance abuse, and other things than the control participants who did not have access to the many constructive program activities. The activities for the program included summer camps, attention to academic problems, and groups that focused on academic or family problems.
Dishion et al. (1988) researched the effectiveness of parent skills training for the participants’ parents, peer psychoeducational groups, a volunteer self-directed change group, and combined activities for the adolescents and their families for 119 male and female high-risk adolescents. Short-term findings indicated that the combined group had positive results.
However, findings at the one-year follow-up showed that the peer group participation had negative effects—for example, increased use of tobacco, problem behaviors in school, and delinquency. These conditions persisted at the three-year follow up.
Coie et al. (1996) and Vitaro et al. (1997) found that early adolescents who had friends who were also deviant tended to engage in more serious forms of antisocial behavior, and this persisted.
Catalano and Hawkins (1996) concluded that association with deviant peers was a major factor in adolescents’ escalation of problem behaviors.
These are but a few of the studies that seem to support the idea that adolescent groups should be heterogeneous in terms of problems if “deviancy training” (Patterson et al. (1999) is not to occur. Having a mix of problems in a group may not be possible in some situations—for example, group homes, inpatient facilities, and so on. The leader should be aware, however, that there may be unintended effects with heterogeneous problem groups for adolescents.
General Guidelines for Adolescent Psychoeducational Groups
Most adolescents have sufficient attention spans to benefit from an extended psychoeducational group. A two to three-hour group provides more time to cover a topic in depth but is not usually so long as to produce boredom. A day-long (eight hours) group may be too long for younger adolescents, but a well-planned one may be effective for older ones. If the group is to be longer than 50 to 60 minutes, you should have a variety of activities that require active participation and provide for small-group interaction. It is also advisable to have a helper for more than ten participants.
Group Composition
Restrict the range of ages and grade levels to no more than two years or grades. For example, it would not be productive to have 13- and 17-year-olds in the same group. For some topics, such as health education, it may be advisable to have same-gender groups to reduce embarrassment and promote interaction on sensitive topics.
There may be little or no opportunity for you to screen group members, but simply knowing who has difficulty paying attention, who is inclined to be disruptive or aggressive, and who is shy can help in your planning. Consult with teachers, counselors, and others who work or interact frequently with proposed participants.
Group Size
Leaders should plan to divide larger groups into small ones of five to seven members, with a helper for every two to three small groups. The helper can move between the groups to distribute materials, answer questions, and manage behavior. The helper’s presence is often enough to reduce disruptive behavior and keep arguments from escalating. Organizing the group in this way enables you to present to larger groups.
Length/Duration/Number of Sessions
Adolescents can tolerate more in-depth sessions than children. They also remember more over time, even with intervening events. Therefore, psychoeducational groups for adolescents can be longer, greater in number, and held over a longer time period. Sometimes the setting, such as a school, church, or club, will dictate the length, duration, and number of sessions. The topic also plays a part, as some topics require more sessions than others—for example, career education covers more extensive material and requires more sessions than test-taking skills.
Setting Goals and Objectives
As with children, it is useful to set limited, realistic goals and objectives for adolescent psychoeducational groups. There may be a need for extensive information on the part of the participants, but there also is a limit to how much they can absorb and learn. Some topics may have an extensive emotional component that also limits how much can be taken in. Give participants as much information as they can use but not so much that they tune it out.
It is useful to elicit participants’ input into the goal and objectives of the group. Whenever possible, incorporate their suggestions and point out how you have done so. Share your developed goal and objectives and ask if these seem to meet their expectations and needs. Participants are likely to be more active when they have some personal interest.
Environmental Concerns
The same concerns listed for groups with children (for adequate space, furniture, and freedom from intrusion) apply to adolescent groups. Physically, adolescents are much larger, and many (especially younger ones) have not adjusted to their bodies—for example, they may not realize that being five inches taller means they take up more space. Adequate space is important to provide comfort and sufficient personal space.
Tables and chairs should be adequate for all planned activities. When attached seats and desks must be used, they should be formed into a circle for the small groups.
Freedom from intrusion is important for adolescent groups. This is not so much to preserve confidentiality, but adolescents typically do not want adults to hear what they are saying. While they do not become as easily distracted, interruptions can be bothersome enough to get them off the subject, making it difficult to maintain the group mood.
Considerations for the Group Leader
MacLennan and Dies (1992) asserted that working with adolescents is difficult, and it is essential for group leaders to have an understanding of self and to have worked through their personal adolescent issues. Katz (1990) noted that understanding, knowledge, empathy, warmth, and positive regard are essential when working with adolescents. He also pointed out that adolescents want a relationship with an adult who can be emotionally available, accepting and approving, nonjudgmental, and who has faith in the adolescent’s potential.
Horton-Parker and Brown (2002) said the following characteristics and attitudes are helpful when working with adolescents. These are applicable for both individual and group work.
Respect, genuineness, and honesty
Clear about his or her personal standards
A desire to work with adolescents
Sensitivity to adolescents’ moods and feelings
Energy, vitality, and a sense of humor
Willing to admit errors
Nondefensiveness
Open and willing to consider different perspectives
Adolescents’ developmental tasks and characteristics in general require a different approach to psychoeducational groups than those for children and adults. Group leaders who attend to these differences for planning adolescent groups will find facilitation easier and more rewarding for the leader and for the group.
Discussion Questions
Reflect on your early adolescent years (13 to 15) and generate a list of your characteristics, feelings, interests, and the like that could have played roles if you had participated in a psychoeducational group at that time. Share these lists in small groups and develop a list of commonalties that could impact adolescent groups for this age range.
Use the same process as described in question 1 and generate a similar list for your later adolescent years (16 to 19). Share this list in a small group and develop a list of commonalties that could impact adolescent groups of this age range.
