Education the topic is (compare system education between Saudi Arabia and Canada). essay compare contrast. the topic is (compare system education between Saudi Arabia and Canada). you should follow all the Instructions and use three articles to support

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Education

the topic is (compare system education between Saudi Arabia and Canada).

essay compare contrast. the topic is (compare system education between Saudi Arabia and Canada). you should follow all the Instructions and use three articles to support my ideas . I Uploaded my first draft and I want you add information from my articles do not change the order or the idea. I Uploaded two article and you must add one extra. Should write agood paper and use direct quotes, and indirect in text. and add more information make my essay well.

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Teacher education in Canada

Shirley Van Nuland a
a Faculty of Education, University of Ontario Institute of
Technology, Oshawa, Canada

Available online: 21 Sep 2011

To cite this article: Shirley Van Nuland (2011): Teacher education in Canada, Journal of Education
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Teacher education in Canada

Shirley Van Nuland*

Faculty of Education, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, Canada

(Final version received 11 July 2011)

Teacher education programmes within Canada are markedly different in struc-
ture and duration across the provinces, which affects programme delivery for
teacher candidates and their opportunities for clinical practice. This paper pro-
vides a brief overview of Canadian pre-service teacher education, a summary of
new teacher induction and mentoring activities, and an outline of some issues
and factors facing and influencing these teacher education programmes, includ-
ing declining enrolment, emerging technologies and practices, and equity issues.

Keywords: emerging technologies; equitable access; pre-service teacher
education; practicum; teacher education research

Introduction to education in Canada

Responsibility for education in Canada is within a federal system of shared powers
since Canada’s Constitution Act of 1867 provides that ‘[I]n and for each province,
the legislature may exclusively make Laws in relation to Education’. In the 13 juris-
dictions (10 provinces and three territories), the responsibility to organise, deliver
and assess education at elementary, secondary and tertiary (including technical and
vocational) levels lies with departments or ministries of education. As a result, there
is no federal department of education and no integrated national system of educa-
tion. Viewed as a nation, one notes the significant differences in curriculum, assess-
ment, governance and accountability policies among the jurisdictions that express
the geography, history, language, culture and corresponding specialised needs of the
populations served (Council of Ministers of Education Canada 2008).

Within each province or territory, the many officials responsible for education
within the education department(s) and local school boards understand their roles
through statutes and regulations outlining their duties. At the provincial/territorial
level, these duties include providing curricula guidelines to school boards to
develop courses of study, setting diploma requirements, distributing funds allocated
by the legislature, and making regulations governing organisation of schools and
duties of teachers and school board officials. It is then the responsibility of district
or local school boards to build, equip and furnish schools, to employ teachers and
other staff to operate the schools, to provide special education programmes and to

*Email: shirley.vannuland@uoit.ca

Journal of Education for TeachingAquatic Insects
Vol. 37, No. 4, November 2011, 409–421

ISSN 0260-7476 print/ISSN 1360-0540 online
� 2011 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2011.611222
http://www.tandfonline.com

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ensure that within their jurisdictions schools abide by the provisions of the statutes
and regulations.

Public education at the elementary and secondary school levels is provided free
of cost to those meeting age and residency requirements. Pre-elementary education
(for four- and five-year-olds) is offered in most regions in Canada but may vary in
programme delivery, e.g. a full day programme; a combination of half day pro-
gramme with half day child care; a half day programme every day or full day every
other day. While the local school board generally determines the programme, some
programmes follow provincial curricula guidelines.

Elementary and secondary school education is compulsory, but the age varies
with the jurisdiction (i.e. six to 18 or graduation from secondary school). Elemen-
tary schooling consists of six or eight years with students progressively learning
subjects such as language, mathematics, social studies, science, health and physical
education, music and art. In recent years, additional resources and support have
been directed to literacy and numeracy initiatives to develop stronger reading, writ-
ing, and math skills for elementary age children. Secondary schooling includes the
final four or six years of compulsory education. Early in secondary school, students
take mostly compulsory courses with some optional courses, and in the later years
undertake specialised courses that lead to the job market or the tertiary level. The
specialised courses may include technical and vocational courses. It is within this
Canadian landscape that pre-service teacher education is situated.

Pre-service teacher education

Teacher education is offered in 62 institutions in Canada’s 10 provinces (a figure
confirmed by the Association of Canadian Deans of Education); no programmes are
offered in the three territories. Student enrolment ranges from fewer than 100 to
over 4000, and faculty members number from six to 150 (Crocker and Dibbon
2008). The Crocker and Dibbon study shows that teacher education programmes
are markedly different in structure and duration and that these differences have a
significant influence on delivery, time allocation and utilisation, students’ learning
experiences and students’ opportunities for clinical practice. Given the geographical,
historical, linguistic and cultural diversities in Canada, no one teacher education
model can meet the needs and interests of the jurisdictions. Where appropriate, Eng-
lish-language and French-language programmes exist. The different models of initial
teacher education are affected by curricula and pedagogies, recruitment and support
programmes for teacher candidates, and areas and levels of professional expertise of
teacher educators. This necessitates wide programme variation (Sloat, Hirschkorn,
and Colpitts 2011), as will be discussed below.

Programme structures vary ranging from eight months (typically, a post-initial
degree programme) to five years (Sloat, Hirschkorn, and Colpitts 2011). Usually,
students follow one of two structures: consecutive or concurrent. To achieve a
Bachelor of Education (BEd), consecutive students first complete an undergraduate
degree (generally a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or a Bachelor of Science (BSc) of three
or four years’ duration) followed by a two- to four-semester programme of study in
teacher education. During this time, they undertake professional and methodological
courses. In the concurrent education programme, students generally first acquire an
undergraduate degree in a particular discipline; this study includes some teacher
education courses. They then continue on to their teacher education programme in

410 S. Van Nuland

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their fourth or fifth year to attain a BEd. In another form, concurrent students take
courses in a particular discipline and education courses and clinical experiences
throughout their years of study to become a teacher.

Full-time study is the norm, with few faculties or schools of education permit-
ting part-time studies. One programme permits candidates flexibility in completing
their education requirements through three summer sessions, including the practi-
cum requirements.

Programme scope and diversity: issues of delivery

The intent of pre-service education programmes is to provide teacher candidates
with the basic knowledge, skills and experiences needed to enter teaching. Discrete
outcomes or objectives are outlined in courses to prepare teacher candidates to teach
with specific foci or for specialisation. Crocker and Dibbon, in their 2008 baseline
study, noted that programmes in ‘early childhood, adult education . . . fine arts,
music, kinesiology and other areas treated as requiring specialist teachers’ (24) were
provided by faculties of education.

While typically most faculties of education offer courses in a university setting
with school classroom experience brought into discussion, more faculties of educa-
tion are realising the value of moving offsite. A science education course is taught
in a high-school science lab at the end of the school day allowing local interested
teachers to participate. In this setting, student teachers prepare a learning activity
appropriate for the school’s students and teachers and implement the activity in the
respective classroom (MacDonald 2010). Courses taught in classrooms allow
‘course instructors and classroom teachers [to] model teaching to observing teacher
candidates, who then gradually are provided with teaching opportunities in those
classrooms’ (Falkenberg 2010, 3). By incorporating ‘school experiences into the
teaching and learning of core concepts within university courses’ (Sanford, Hopper
and McGregor 2010, 349), teacher candidates receive real-time experiences includ-
ing interaction with the classroom teachers.

In addition to addressing the needs of the communities they serve, some facul-
ties offer unique programmes which, in turn, draw students to their universities or
provide needed support to teacher candidates. A sample follows.

Aboriginal programmes

Several faculties offer programmes suited to Aboriginal students who wish to obtain
teacher certification as well as non-Aboriginal students interested in or experienced
in Aboriginal education. Courses are adapted to the local context and needs (i.e.
with foundational courses specific to Aboriginal education) and student teaching
conducted in a First Nations school in a remote/isolated or urban community with a
high Aboriginal population (Lakehead University 2010). Another faculty of educa-
tion offers an Indian Teacher Education Program based in a First Nations commu-
nity setting. The same faculty programme has infused ‘First Nations and Inuit
knowledge into all K-12 and post-secondary education programmes’ (L. Lemisko,
personal communication, 24 February 2011) since 35–40% of the students in that
province have some First Nations ancestry.

The Association of Canadian Deans of Education (ACDE) has recently signed
the Accord on Indigenous Education with First Nations organisations as witnesses

Journal of Education for Teaching 411

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to ensure that the content reflects the First Nations and to provide opportunities for
First Nations teachers (ACDE 2010a; J. Greenlaw, personal communication, 26 Jan-
uary 2011). The intent is to ‘guide program review and transformation, working col-
laboratively to prioritize the educational purposes and values of Indigenous
communities and people’ (ACDE 2010a, 9). In addition, ‘the Accord calls for
respectful learning environments, inclusive curricula, culturally responsive pedago-
gies and assessment, and promotion of indigenous languages and leadership’
(Sharpe 2010, 1).

Ecology and wellness: environmental stewardship

Through the ecology and wellness model, student teachers ‘plan and implement
a number of environmental-related activities to help them better understand and
experience the transfer of theory into practice’ (Ontario College of Teachers
2010, 28).

Family of schools cohort model

In this model of delivery, a selected family of schools (i.e. schools clustered in
close geographical proximity) works with a cohort of students, generally 20 or
more and, collectively, become a concurrent teacher education site. An assigned
site faculty member works with the student teachers, teachers and students in
the school. Once the required community practicum is completed, the student
teachers may elect to return to these schools for placement in their professional
year.

One school cohort model

To provide intensive support for a group of 20 teacher education candidates, one
faculty places them in the same school and provides professional development for
the classroom teachers in that practicum experience. ‘We need to recognize that
there are realities in the classroom that we can’t ignore but we also need to rec-
ognize that if we don’t get what we need into schools then they won’t change’
(T. Goddard, personal communication, 9 March 2011). This model ensures that a
critical mass is present in the school for professional learning and support.

Jewish teacher education programme

Concurrent teacher candidates complete studies allowing them to develop a career
in Jewish schools by completing additional credits in Hebrew and Jewish studies.

Partnership with learning disabilities associations

One concurrent programme requires third year students to complete a placement
with a focus on learning disabilities after receiving 12 hours of training on learning
disabilities provided by the community partners. Each teacher candidate either
works in a school or coaches one student with identified needs for two hours per
week.

412 S. Van Nuland

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Urban education partnership

Urban realities require that student teachers know ‘theories about social difference
and second language learning and teaching in urban communities characterized by
economic disparity, as well as ethnic, cultural, religious and social diversity’
(Ontario College of Teachers 2010, 16). Specific placements in these schools allow
teacher candidates to understand that such communities have limited resources, and
lack access to opportunities to overcome their education, employment and economic
realities.

Practicum, internship or student teaching experiences

All teacher education programmes require some form of teaching experience in a
school setting (Crocker and Dibbon 2008; Falkenberg 2010), the practicum refer-
enced also as internship or student teaching. Through the practice teaching compo-
nent of their programme, teacher candidates observe and practise teaching in a
school and apply theoretical, practical and experiential knowledge to construct
understanding of professional issues. These learning opportunities allow teacher
candidates to immerse themselves in ‘the daily teaching and learning process’
(Ontario College of Teachers 2010) and to understand a classroom setting with sup-
port provided by an experienced teacher and an advisor assigned by the faculty or
school of education. The associate teacher (an experienced teacher with whom the
teacher candidate works closely during practicum, sometimes termed the ‘mentor
teacher’, ‘advising teacher’ or ‘co-operating teacher’) observes student teaching and
provides focused feedback; often the faculty advisor fulfils a similar role.

The duration of practicum varies greatly throughout Canada since it is deter-
mined by provincial teacher certification requirements. In Western Canada (British
Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) and Ontario, two or three place-
ments are the norm. Quebec requires four or more, while in Eastern Canada (New-
foundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick),
there is a more even division between one, two and three or more placements.

The schedule of practicum experiences varies among faculties and by structure
(i.e. concurrent or consecutive): in the West and East, 13–20 weeks is most com-
mon; in Ontario, 8–12 weeks is most prevalent; and in Quebec, 21 weeks or more
is required (Crocker and Dibbon 2008). The activities within the schedule also fluc-
tuate: in certain consecutive programmes, students observe in the first week of
school while, in other programmes, observation is later in the first month before
they begin to teach; and still others observe only when their first formal placement
begins.

One of three different structures for practicum blocks is generally selected by a
faculty of education. Practicum blocks extend over the course of the programme:
coursework and practicum blocks alternate, beginning with coursework. A second
option provides that observation placement begins the programme, followed by
alternate coursework and practicum blocks. A third option provides for practicum
ongoing throughout the duration of the full programme (Falkenberg 2010).

Practicum placements are most often found in elementary and secondary
schools. Student teaching responsibilities gradually increase over the time of each
practicum period, usually ending with the teacher candidate assuming full responsi-
bility for the teaching day(s). When the provincial teacher certification requirements

Journal of Education for Teaching 413

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are met, some faculties allow candidates other practicum choices, which may
include international schools, alternative schools, First Nations cultural centres,
libraries, literacy programmes, museum programmes, teaching studios (art, dance,
defence, exercise, etc.) and others as approved by faculty. One programme requires
that teacher candidates complete a supplementary alternative placement at the end
of their programme and select from a variety of ‘settings including traditional class-
room, community-based programmes, non-profit organizations, cultural institutions
and international experiences’ (Ontario College of Teachers 2010, 28) or participate
in a ‘guided alternative practicum experience’ in which teacher candidates work
with faculty on research projects or community outreach projects.

Practicum reports, outlining how the teacher candidate is developing as a tea-
cher, often describe how the teacher candidate demonstrates teaching requirements,
supports school activities, acts within the regulations, demonstrates initiative, plans
collaboratively with the associate teacher, etc. Again, these expectations vary in
both approach and emphasis depending on the individual faculty. The reports can
be in various formats: detailed checklists of expectations, anecdotal reports and
grading scales, and are frequently accompanied by oral feedback. One pre-service
programme requires that the teacher candidate and the associate teacher develop the
report together, analysing the progress made and evaluating achievements as related
to the programme goals established (Lemisko, personal communication 2011).

Induction and mentoring programmes for new teachers

The continuum of teacher development raises concerns whereby more support and
resources are required from all partners once new teachers are teaching. In the last
several years, school districts provide induction and mentoring programmes for new
teachers which afford valuable support as these teachers continue their learning as
teachers. Crocker and Dibbon (2008) report that more induction programmes were
provided for new teachers than new teachers were assigned mentors. These induction
programmes include formal board orientation and individual school-level orientation.
Typically, new teachers receive professional development in priority areas including
literacy and numeracy, assessment and evaluation, safe schools, student success,
classroom management, teaching students with special needs and communication
with parents, as reported by new teachers in a recent Ontario survey (Ontario Col-
lege of Teachers 2011). Glassford and Salinitri (2007) cite W. Douglas Wilson, for-
mer registrar of the Ontario College of Teachers, explaining the importance of
induction and mentoring: ‘[the] early years particularly the first two of our members’
teaching careers as a continuum of the learning process that begins in the faculty of
education classrooms, continues with practice teaching and intensifies as new teach-
ers learn on the job’ (8). School principals supporting new teachers by advising them
and conducting assessment and evaluation are also, in some school districts, consid-
ered part of the new teacher induction process.

New teachers highly regard the support of experienced mentor teachers who
provide ‘coaching, information and demonstration of teaching methods’ (Ontario
College of Teachers 2011, 14) and rate mentoring as ‘more effective’ when com-
pared to induction (Crocker and Dibbon 2008). Preference for mentoring to induc-
tion is reasonable since mentoring consists of a formal long-term relationship with
another individual while induction is often associated with orientation (Crocker and
Dibbon 2008). Areas where mentor teachers provided the greatest support included

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assistance with report-card planning, curriculum planning, finding effective teaching
resources and advice on helping individual students. New teachers found observing
teachers and receiving feedback from the mentor to be ‘very helpful’ or ‘helpful’.
The new teachers’ top dozen on mentoring support also included mentoring on
classroom management, instruction methods, student evaluation, information on
administrative matters and preparing for parent communication (Ontario College of
Teachers 2011). Some mentor teachers receive either additional pay or release from
classroom duties to perform their work as mentors (OECD 2011) since mentoring
activities most often occurred outside the classroom. Where new teachers had con-
cerns about mentoring, they centred on ‘lack of access or quality time with men-
tors’ (Ontario College of Teachers 2011, 14).

Crocker and Dibbon (2008) suggest that an extended paid internship occur
before a new teacher assumes full responsibility in teaching. In addition, the expec-
tations placed on beginning teachers are identical to those placed on very experi-
enced teachers, ‘a situation unheard of in other professions’ (117). Canadian
jurisdictions with standards of practice require the same standard of new teachers as
seasoned members, while some districts outside Canada have different standards of
practice based on the level of experience of the practitioner.

In general, the induction support for occasional teachers (i.e. teachers who
teach when called to replace a regular classroom teacher who is absent) is spo-
radic at best. Some new occasional teachers benefit from new teacher pro-
grammes through invitations of principals to attend or by requesting an
invitation to attend.

Issues and factors facing and influencing Canadian teacher education pro-
grammes

Education in Canada has changed in the past 15 years, with declining school
enrolment, teachers staying in their jobs longer, increase in the number of stu-
dents identified with special needs, students from other countries enrolling in
schools, societal issues (e.g. poverty, abuse, bullying) in classrooms, and the use
and abuse of technology and social media. Sloat, Hirschkorn, and Colpitts
(2011) determined other factors: a strong American influence on the teacher edu-
cation research and practice, certification standards and competencies which are
provincially administered, and the Federal Government’s 2009 ‘work mobility’
legislation mandating that qualified workers be given access to comparable
employment opportunities anywhere in Canada. Crocker and Dibbon (2008) iden-
tify using technology in teacher education with practical application to class-
rooms, accommodating diversity in teaching, and lack of depth of programmes
in content and length (e.g. classroom management, motivation, teaching meth-
ods), along with issues around clinical practice including length and quality of
placement, and types of placement, as concerns for teacher educators. Further
issues include accepting students into programmes when few teaching positions
are available, diversification of teacher education programmes, the urban–rural
divide, the theory–practice divide and accessibility to teacher education pro-
grammes. While faculties of education have responded to some of these changes
by offering courses that address these needs (e.g. students identified with special
needs, new-to-Canada students, societal issues), other issues still need to be
addressed.

Journal of Education for Teaching 415

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Declining school enrolment, decline in teacher retirements, students in education
programmes and diversification of teacher education programmes

Headlines such as ‘teaching grads face slim prospects in crowded job market’
(Dedyna 2011) and ‘two-thirds of new teachers can’t find full-time work’ (Dehaas
2011) underscore the concern that many more graduates are competing for jobs than
there are teaching positions. The result is unemployment or underemployment, the
outcome of fewer school-aged children, fewer teachers retiring, the end of manda-
tory retirement in several jurisdictions and, to a lesser extent, government policy
and funding decisions. Even utilising the now normal entry into teaching, that of
‘daily supply teaching’ or ‘term contract’ (i.e. a contract of less than one year), is
not available to many education graduates since these short-term opportunities are
filled by teachers who have been on the occasional teacher lists longer. The careers
of the latest graduates will be delayed further and the situation is not expected to
change until 2017–2022 (Dedyna 2011) when an anticipated gradual increase in
enrolment is expected in 2016. This experience of surplus of teachers is not new to
Canada; it has occurred in previous times (most recently in the 1980s) and is part
of the cyclic nature of teaching.

With the surplus of teachers, part-time teaching is commonplace, as is teach-
ing in two or three schools for first year graduates who have secured positions.
More first year teachers are teaching in settings outside publicly funded systems
(i.e. private or independent schools, out of their home province but in Canada,
or out of the country) than in the past. New teachers seeking positions have, as
one teacher reports, ‘volunteered, networked, canvassed schools and applied to
more than one board, private schools and still no job’ (Ontario College of
Teachers 2011, 20). These new teachers know that there are ‘too many teacher
education graduates, . . . who you know, not what you know that is considered
for hiring, and too many retired teachers in LTO (Long Term Occasional posi-
tions) and preferred daily supply opportunities’ (Ontario College of Teachers
2011, 19). Ontario’s Ministry of Education has taken the stand that it will, effec-
tive from 2012, ‘place a ‘hard cap’ on funding for newly enrolled education stu-
dents, thus decreasing enrolment in Ontario’s faculties of education by
approximately 9% (Dehaas 2011, paras 3 and 5) which, in turn, has an impact
on reduced funding of universities. To date, this action has not been followed
by other provinces’ governments. Even though some jurisdictions are limiting
how many days per year retired teachers can teach, still many are found on
occasional teacher lists and teaching in classrooms. It would seem that severely
limiting the number of days (e.g. to 10 per year) that retired teachers can teach
would ease one concern of new teachers; in most provinces, legislative action
would be required.

Since new teachers are finding it necessary to turn to other areas for liveli-
hood, preparation for teaching in other fields could occur, such as coursework
specific to college-level teaching, work in museums, libraries and literacy coun-
cils, and corporate and/or industry training. Some teacher education programmes
have addressed this need by offering different programmes and opportunities for
alternative placements (see Programme scope and diversity, above) but additional
work needs to occur for students to understand and prepare for other applications
of their degree rather than the traditional classroom.

416 S. Van Nuland

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Emerging technologies and practices

Johnson, Adams and Haywood (2011) have determined some trends and challenges
that schools will face: digital media literacy, economic pressures and new models of
education, the demand for personalised learning and learning and education activi-
ties outside the traditional classroom (4–6). They highlight six emerging technolo-
gies they believe will affect schools over the next five years: cloud computing,
mobiles, game-based learning, open content, learning analytics and personal learn-
ing environments (10–33). Since some of these exist in schools today teacher candi-
dates must understand the trends and are competent in applying these technologies
in their teaching practice.

The cost of some programmes is no longer prohibitive as software to support
the technologies and practices can be found often at no or low cost (e.g. Jing,
ArtRage, Prezi). The new tools provide the potential to communicate, to use for
knowledge development and for alternative course delivery in online (synchronous
or asynchronous instruction; Barbour 2010) or blended-learning courses (W. Hunter,
personal communication, 27 January 2011). Given the declining enrolment in some
specialised courses in elementary and secondary schools, online or blended courses
offered through virtual schools provide a solution to learning. Teaching these
courses requires a different way of teaching, yet few faculties offer coursework in
how to develop these courses or how effectively to engage student participation in
such courses. Such a module needs to be included in the technology courses offered
as part of each faculty’s education programme.

The theory–practice divide

This divide is described by Falkenberg (2010) as ‘the divide between learning expe-
riences in university-based coursework and those in school-based field experiences’
(4). Some teacher educators have developed strategies to overcome the gap between
theory and practice. In one example, the faculty attempts to connect the experiences
found in the university-based courses and school-based practica. The practicum
occurs throughout, concurrent with the courses found in the university programme,
such that links can be established between the course and practicum. Teacher candi-
dates use issues that arise in their practicum as the basis for assignments with three
of the university courses occurring throughout the full year, thus allowing for prac-
tica topics to be examined in the same courses. University faculty members are
encouraged to be associate teachers and regular meetings are held with those
responsible for the practicum (Falkenberg 2010).

A second method for integration occurs in individual courses where courses
have been redesigned or located in placements where the direct link between the
course and field experiences can be clearly discerned. ‘In the field-based courses
teacher candidates work in schools and the content of the seminar course [univer-
sity-based coursework] is determined by those very experiences’ (Falkenberg 2010,
15).

Falkenberg explains that the third method for integration occurs in the profes-
sional development school model, whereby university-based faculty members, tea-
cher candidates and school-based teachers meet frequently to participate ‘in joint
professional learning’ (15). All three methods allow for ‘reflection-in-action’ rather
than ‘reflection-after-the-fact’ of teaching and learning. These methods encourage

Journal of Education for Teaching 417

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the view that the school becomes ‘the site of new learning, rather than a place
where the knowledge from university courses is “applied”’ (Falkenberg 2010, 16,
emphasis in original).

A practical way to connect theory and practice occurs when guided portfolios
are developed based on the programme goals and outlining progress and growth as
a teacher. This activity challenges students to analyse and reflect on what they do
in practice. They comment on what they would change or do differently and pro-
vide evidence from both placements and coursework to corroborate their reflection.
They are to ‘demonstrate growth toward teaching competencies’ (Lemisko, personal
communication 2011).

Agreement on Internal Trade

The Agreement on Internal Trade (AIT), an intergovernmental trade agreement
signed by Canadian First Ministers (provincial, territorial and federal), became
effective on 1 July 1995 (Government of Canada 2011). The purpose of this
agreement was to reduce and eliminate, as far as possible, barriers to the free
movement of persons, goods, services and investments within Canada and to
establish an open, efficient and stable Canadian market. To effect the AIT, specifi-
cally Chapter 7 on Labour Mobility, the Canadian ministers of education agreed in
principle:

. . . to reduce barriers to teacher mobility. It is intended to allow any teacher who holds
a teaching credential in one province or territory to have access to teacher certification
in any other province or territory in order to be eligible for employment opportunities
in the teaching profession. (Council of Minister of Education, n.d.)

Specifically, Chapter 7 states that:

. . . a certified, licensed, registered or officially recognized worker in one province or
territory, upon application, will be certified, licensed, registered or officially recognized
for that same occupation by any other province or territory without the worker being
required to undertake additional requirements, such as education, training or examina-
tion. (Government of Manitoba 2011)

Several concerns have arisen since this Agreement came into force because tea-
cher education programmes and teacher certification requirements for each province
differ. For example, Ontario’s consecutive teacher education students study over
two semesters to complete their programme while consecutive students in other
provinces take three or four semesters. With AIT now in force, teachers of both
longer and shorter programmes are considered equal regarding qualifications to
teach in Canada. Ontario’s deans of education have long argued for an extended
programme. By increasing their consecutive programmes to three or four semesters,
Ontario would be more in line with other provinces; the surplus of teachers (at least
in Ontario) would be reduced for one year since no consecutive teacher candidates
would graduate from faculties of education for that year; and Ontario-educated
teachers moving to other provinces would be closer in similar programme delivery
with other provinces.

This agreement has already caused two faculties of education to change their
programmes for fear that not changing would have an impact on enrolment, since

418 S. Van Nuland

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other faculties have a shorter programme length. Other faculties of education are
reviewing or intending to review their programmes. With this agreement in place,
teacher candidates ‘shopping’ for shorter education programmes can continue since
all jurisdictions must honour the certificate acquired. ACDE has also identified AIT
‘as a significant challenge to all education faculties’ (Sharpe 2010, 2).

Accord on Initial Teacher Education

The ACDE has developed and the deans individually are signatories to the Accord
on Initial Teacher Education, which ACDE describes as ‘a strong framework of nor-
mative principles for initial teacher education’ (ACDE 2006, 2). The Accord has
been used by some faculties in their programme review of goals and basis for foun-
dational principles in their own context (Lemisko, personal communication 2011;
Pitt, personal communication, 16 August 2011). While an optional document for
use by faculties of education, ‘it reveals what some faculties of education are think-
ing about. … It (the Accord) represents a commitment to thinking about the big
principles as opposed to always staying close to the local and for the big principles
to be based in a Canadian conversation’ (Pitt, personal communication).

Crocker and Dibbon (2008, 116) believe that the Accord is the ‘first effort on
the part of a nationally-representative body to develop a set of principles upon
which an initial teacher education programme might be built’. To outline a ‘blue-
print for teacher education’ as Crocker and Dibbon suggest, faculties of education
should engage in consultative manner with school systems, teacher regulatory agen-
cies and other stakeholders. It would be a large-scale ‘groundbreaking initiative’,
but could result in a more cohesive system than currently exists (Crocker and
Dibbon 2008).

Teacher education research

Sloat, Hirschkorn, and Colpitts (2011) acknowledge the strong American influence
on Canadian teacher education research and practice and call for more Canadian-
based research. Further research is occurring, with the works of Falkenberg, Smits,
and others (2008 and 2010) with their recent volumes on teacher education and
field experience following in the footsteps of some Canadian researchers (e.g. Har-
greaves, Fullan, Leithwood, and Grimmett). But many, many questions remain
unanswered or underresearched on issues such as those cited by Grimmett: ‘profes-
sional governance of teaching, . . . policy and governance in teacher education, and
. . . policy context of teacher education’ (Falkenberg 2008, 11) and to this trio Grim-
mett adds ‘the potential of the ACDE’s Accord’ [of Initial Teacher Education]
which he believes can assist ‘teacher education institutions . . . bridge as well as
buffer external demands’ (Falkenberg 2008). To further the research agenda, the
ACDE has developed an Accord on Research in Education (ACDE 2010b).

Equity in access to teacher education

Most of Canada’s population lives within 150 kilometres of the Canadian–American
border, leaving the northern areas sparsely populated. Preparing teacher candidates
for outlying areas or rural parts of Canada requires changes in how teacher educa-
tion is delivered. For example, a two-day-per-week placement of candidates in

Journal of Education for Teaching 419

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schools is not feasible given the distances some candidates must travel, and where
candidates accept urban placements these do not prepare them for a rural setting.
Accessibility to teacher education programmes is an issue for those wanting a mid-
career change, with the requirement that these individuals must follow the prov-
ince’s requirements for teaching. It can be a great financial hardship for students
from low-income families to undertake a five- or six-year programme of study.
Internationally trained teachers are often required to complete a full teacher educa-
tion programme to be licensed to teach in Canada when they have already proven
their ability to teach in their country of origin. Some who have taken an approved
abbreviated route to certification find that it would be quicker to complete a consec-
utive programme in teacher education. Each of these four problems requires a
made-in-province or made-in-faculty solution.

Conclusion

Many challenges face teacher education programmes but solutions do exist within
the academy and outside it in order to cultivate thinking, responsive, creative and
knowledgeable teachers who in turn will ensure that future students are prepared to
receive a needed post-secondary education. Developing and providing solutions to
the challenges is not a simple task but it is a necessary task.

More Canadian-based teacher education research is a prerequisite to advance a
made-in-Canada programme responsive to regional needs. Equitable access to tea-
cher education may require that programmes expand or new programmes be insti-
tuted to guarantee well-qualified teachers in all parts of the country. Technology is
prevalent in all education programmes and its appropriate use can assist in deliver-
ing instruction to students, thus, new ways of teaching using technology require fur-
ther study. This too may address a theory-practice divide by providing links
between course work and practicum.

To date, the deans of education have developed a General Accord in which they
agree to advance Canadian education; from the General Accord flow the Accord on
Initial Teacher Education, the Accord on Educational Research and the Accord on
Indigenous Education which articulate goals, values and principles that serve to
guide a national discussion on teacher education.

Canada has a strong history of teacher education and programmes supporting
the needs of students and teachers. Great variety exists in the scope and direction of
the pre-service teacher education programmes and there are issues of delivery in
course instruction and in field placement. Matters facing faculties of education
resolved with a made-in-Canada solution will ensure a healthy future for teacher
education.

References
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http://www.csse-scee.ca/docs/acde/acde_teachereducationaccord_en
Association of Canadian Deans of Education. 2010a. Accord on indigenous education.

http://www.csse-scee.ca/docs/acde/acde_indigenouseducationaccord_en
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http://www.csse-scee.ca/docs/acde/acde_educationalresearchaccord_en
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Falkenberg, T. 2008. Introduction: Mapping teacher education research: A pan-Canadian
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Falkenberg, T., and H. Smits, eds. 2010. Field experiences in the context of reform of Cana-
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gramme: An assessment of the Ontario Experience, 2003–2006. Canadian Journal of
Educational Administration and Policy 60: 65–74.

Government of Canada. 2011. The agreement on internal trade. http://www.ait-aci.ca/
index_en.htm

Government of Manitoba. 2011. Chapter 7 (labour mobility) of the AIT. http://www.gov.mb.
ca/tce/lmi/labourmobility/index.html

Johnson, L., S. Adams, and K. Haywood. 2011. The NMC horizon report: 2011 K-12 edi-
tion. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium. www.nmc.org

MacDonald, R. 2010. Bridging the theory–practice divide: Teaching science methods off
campus. In Field experiences in the context of reform of Canadian teacher education
programmes, vol. 2, ed. T. Falkenberg and H. Smits 261–74., Winnipeg, MB: Faculty of
Education of the University of Manitoba.

Ontario College of Teachers. 2010. Contemporary practices in Ontario programmes of pro-
fessional education: Practice teaching resource 2010. http://www.oct.ca/publications/PDF/
practicum_resource_e

Ontario College of Teachers. 2011. Ontario college of teachers transitions to teaching 2010:
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PDF/transition_early-career_e

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quality teaching profession: Lessons from around the world. http://www.oecd.org/data-
oecd/62/8/47506177

Sanford, K., T. Hopper, and C. McGregor. 2010. Teacher education in situated, selected and
connected approaches to becoming students of teaching. In Field experiences in the con-
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H. Smits, 345–58., Winnipeg, MB: Faculty of Education of the University of Manitoba.

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Sloat, E., M. Hirschkorn, and J. Colpitts. 2011. Creating a framework for teacher education
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Higher Education 15 (1986) 17-23 17
© Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht – Printed in the Netherlands

Development of higher education in Saudi Arabia

M A H M O U D A B D U L L A H S A L E H
P.O. Box 2458, Dept. of Education, College of Education, King Saud University, Riyadh,
Saudi Arabia, 11451

Abstract. This article seeks to trace the development of higher education in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia from its origins to the present day. The study includes discussion of the historical roots
of education as based on Islam, Islamic philosophy of education, the aims and objectives of
higher education and modern university education. Empirical statistics are given to substantiate
the Kingdom’s rapid progress in higher education. Since 1957 when modern university education
began with a single institution with twenty-one students and a staff of nine it has grown until
twenty-five years later in 1982 higher education had grown to seven institutions with 63,563 stu-
dents and a teaching staff of 6,906. The study examines these aspects of higher education; Saudi
students studying abroad, foreign students studying in Saudi Arabia, female education, the role of

the Ministry of Higher Education and the financing of higher education.

Development of higher education in Saudi Arabia

T h e history o f higher e d u c a t i o n in Saudi Arab i a is a study o f ed u cat i o n al pro-
gress almost unparalled in history. University e d u c a t i o n as k n o w n t o d a y began
in 1957 with a single institution an enrollment o f twenty-one students an d a
s t a f f o f nine (King Saud University, 1982). By 1982 higher e d u c a t i o n h ad
grown to include seven universities with 63,563 students an d a teaching st aff
o f 6,906. Saudi A r a b i a n public expenditure for higher e d u c a t i o n per student
is one o f the highest in the world (Ministry o f E d u c a t i o n , 1980). Currently, in
Riyadh the capital, the K i n g d o m is building o n e o f the largest and m o st m o d –
ern university complexes in the world today. A l t h o u g h higher e d u c a t i o n as
k n o w n t o d a y is relatively new the roots o f higher e d u c a t i o n reach far b ack into
history.

Roots of Saudi higher education

If one accepts that e d u c a t i o n is a time-intensive process t h a t takes place in for-
mal and i n f o r m a l settings (Bashshur, 1973), t h e n the history o f higher educa-
t i o n in Saudi Arabia m a y be traced back in history to the advent o f Islam
a b o u t f o u r t e e n h u n d r e d years ago. Since t h a t time Mecca an d M e d i n a two o f
Islam’s H o l y cities have assumed i m p o r t a n c e as centers o f knowledge an d
places f r o m which knowledge disseminated to the world a n d particularly t o the
Islamic world.

18

For centuries each year millions of pilgrims would flock to Mecca and Medi-
na and these two cities constantly experienced an infusion of knowledge from
these visitors. There people from the world over would come together exchang-
ing ideas and knowledge. Sometimes pilgrims stayed and became teachers
spending their time writing books and learning from other scholars as well as
teaching.

As more and more students began to flock to Mecca and Medina living
quarters were given them by wealthy Muslims in the community. Schools devel-
oped in these two cities sponsored by the wealthy o f the Muslim World. Those
who built schools had to provide enough resources so that teacher and student
only concerned themselves with education. After the Ottoman conquest o f the
Arabs in 1517 (Antonius, 1965) the Ottomans built some of the most famous
schools there. Some o f the early prestigious schools were the school of the Sul-
tan Qayt Bay, Sultan o f Egypt, that of the Sultan Gheyath el Din, and the Sul-
tan of Benegal (Wahibi, 1978).

The Kutabs, ungraded Qur’anic schools that were attached to the Mosque
or were in the Mosques themselves, played an important early role in educa-
tion. They usually consisted of one teacher with an advanced student who act-
ed as helper. Studies in the Kutab centered on the Holy Qur’an with writing
and arithmetic also given. Both male and female students received instruction
in the kutabs but separately (Wahibi, 1978). The Kutabs remained popular in
Saudi Arabia until the twentieth century when modern schools were developed.

Philosophy of higher education

Underlying and permeating higher education is one’s philosophy o f education.
Saudi Arabia follows an Islamic philosophy o f education and the seed of its
educational system are founded in Islam. The word ‘Qur’an’ itself is derived
from the word ‘reading’ and the first verse o f the Qur’an is a call to read and
write. Islam dictates learning to be an obligation of every Muslim man or wom-
an. Education therefore is valued, encouraged and supported by Islam.

Islam exalts the human mind and promotes free thought and inquiry when
it commands the acquisition and propagation o f learning. The Qur’an invites
one to a profound and rational study of the universe by saying “Do they not
contemplate the Kingdom of Heaven and the things which God has Created?”
(Qur’an, VII:183). The Prophet Muhammad says, “The seeking of knowledge
is a duty incumbent on every Muslim, man and woman” (Waft, 1967) and “An
hour’s contemplation and study of God’s creation is better than a year of ado-
ration”. He is reported to have said, “Seek knowledge though it be in China”
(Pinkthall, 1961). Stress on spreading human knowledge among people is
found in the Qur’an as a cental theme in the sayings of the Prophet Muham-
mad and forms the foundation of the Islamic philosophy o f education.

19

Aims and objectives of higher education

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in its educational policy lays down the follow-
ing general aims of education: “The purpose of education is to have the stu-
dent understand Islam in a correct comprehensive manner, to plan and spread
the Islamic creed, to furnish the student with values, teachings and ideals of
Islam, to equip him with the various skills and knowledge, to develop his con-
duct in constructive directions, to develop the society economically, socially
and culturally, and to prepare the individual to become a useful member in the
building of his community” (Ministry of Education, 1980).

Since Saudi Arabia is rapidly growing, education for industrialization is
stressed as the key to modernization, a high standard of living and full employ-
ment (Duguid, 1970). Higher education is to help provide for the manpower
needs at present and in the future for qualified personnel. The Ministry of
Education (1980) gives the following objectives for higher education in the
Kingdom:

1. Developing loyalty to God and providing Islamic education which makes the
student responsible before God and puts his capacities into fruitful and use-
ful actions.

2. Preparing competent and qualified citizens to perform their duties in the
service of their country for the progress of their nation in the light of sound
Islamic principles and ideology.

3. Providing gifted students with the opportunity to continue higher educa-
tion in all the fields of academic specialization.

4. Performing activities and publications to bring sciences into the service of
the Islamic thought and enable the country to perform its leadership role
in building human civilization on Islam’s genuine principles that steer man-
kind to righteousness and spare humanity material and atheistic deviations.

5. Translating science and useful arts of knowledge to the language of the Qu-
r’an and enriching the Arabic language with new expressions to fill the need
of Arabicization, and putting knowledge at the disposal of the largest num-
ber of citizens.

6. Offering training services and reorientation courses to enable graduates who
are already working to keep pace with new developments.

Modern university education

The modern history of education in Saudi Arabia began in 1926 with the estab-
lishment of the country’s first Department of Education. From that time edu-
cation has “become one of the brightest pages in the State’s progress” (Minis-

20

try of Information, 1971). In 1953 during the reign of King Saud the
Department o f Education became a Ministry with the present King o f Saudi
Arabia King Fahd appointed Minister of Education (Wahibi, 1978).

The advent o f modern university education in Saudi Arabia began with the
creation of Riyadh University now known as King Saud University. It began
in November 1957 with 21 students (Ministry o f Higher Ed. 1982) in a building
meant to be a children’s nursery (Wahibi, 1978) and was the first university es-
tablished in Saudi Arabia. King Fahd then Minister o f Education became
Head of the new university and during this time educational advancement in
the Kingdom accelerated swiftly.

Universities have grown rapidly in the Kingdom and it now has seven univer-
sities. They are as follows:

– King Saud (Riyadh University) in Riyadh established 1957
– Islamic University in Medina established 1961
– University of Petroleum and Minerals in Dhahran in 1963
– King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah began 1967 as a private institution and

became a State institution in 1971
– Imam Muhammed Bin Saud Islamic University in Riyadh established 1974
– King Faisal University in Damman established in 1975
– Umm A1-Qura University in Mecca established in 1981

Three o f these universities specialize in religious sciences – Imam Muhammed
Bin Saud Islamic University, the Islamic University and Umm A1-Qura (Minis-
try of Higher Ed. 1982). All o f these universities since their conception have
experienced rapid growth (see Table 1).

Table 1. H i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h i n g staff, 1 9 5 7 – 1982.

S a u d i A r a b i a n 1957 – 1958 1 9 6 9 – 1970 1975 – 1976 1981 – 1982

universities

Stude nt S t a f f Stude nt S t a f f Student S t a f f S t u d e n t S t a f f

King Saud U n i v e r s i t y

21

I m a m M u h a m m e d Bin Saud

I s l a m i c U n i v e r s i t y

King A b d u l a z i z U.

King F a i s a l U n i v e r s i t y

U n i v e r s i t y O f P e t r o l e u m

a n d M i n e r a l s

I s l a m i c U n i v e r s i t y

Umm-A1-Qura U n i v e r s i t y

Girls Colleges

T o t a l 21

9 2899 312 7807 645 17134 1785

2009 67 4614 204 7143 758

993 105 9986 426 18028 1432

– 170 28 1814 544

450 59 1716 287 2841 594

591 30 1055 42 3271 379

– – 6278 785

– 1099 137 7054 769

9 6942 573 26437 1741 63563 6906

21

University enrollment is determined by three main factors: the demand for
higher education; the need for qualified manpower; and the capacity of the
universities. Due to the rapid economic growth o f the Kingdom the demand
for manpower has and will continue to be great. According to the Ministry of
Education (1980) “the qualified manpower needs of the Kingdom seem insatia-
ble at least for the forseeable future” and since “manpower is considered by
the State as a springboard to the utilization of all its other resources” (Educa-
tional Policy of Saudi Arabia, 1970) demand for higher education is remarka-
ble. Since the demand for higher education has been strong and the need for
manpower great, the only limiting factor has been the capacity o f the universi-
ties themselves. Therefore, according to the Ministry of Education (1980) “ef-
forts have been in the direction o f opening new universities and expanding ex-
isting ones”.

Education at all levels including higher education is free of charge to all stu-
dents and according to the Educational Policy of the Kingdom (1970) “educa-
tion in all its forms and stages shall be free of charge and the State will not
charge tuition fees”. During 1981-1982 a large number of Saudi citizens,
47,833 (Ministry of Higher Ed. 1982) took advantage of this opportunity to
attend institutions of higher education within Saudi Arabia.

Since 1957 when the Kingdom had one university, King Saud with 21 stu-
dents, higher education has grown to 63,563 students with a projected enroll-
ment of 69,000 for 1984-1985 (Ministry o f Higher Ed. 1982). King Saud itself
had almost 21,000 students enrolled for the 1983-1984 academic year (King
Saud University Newsletter, 1984). For the decade 1970-1980 the average an-
nual rate of increase in student enrollment was 21.3 per cent per annum (Minis-
try of Education, 1980).

Simultaneously with the tremendous growth in student enrollment has been
the growth of the teaching staff which in 1982 numbered 6,906 for the King-
dom’s universities (Ministry o f Higher Ed. 1982). This indicates a teaching
staff student ratio of 1:10, one that any nation can be proud of. The total
teaching staff for the decade 1970-1980 increased at an annual rate of 23.6
per cent per annum (Ministry o f Education, 1980).

The last few decades have seen a tremendous growth in the number of Saudi
students studying abroad. The Kingdom initiated the first educational mission
abroad in 1928 sending fourteen students to Egypt to pursue academic studies,
in 1936 they sent a similar number and in 1943 a third group o f fifteen students
were sent to Egypt (A1-Shami, 1977). In 1982 the Kingdom had 11,921 scholar-
ship students studying abroad. The Arab countries had a total of 2,056 with
the greatest concentration in Egypt with 1,390 students. Non-Arab countries
had 9,965 with the greatest concentration 8,681 studying in the United States
(Ministry of Higher Ed. 1982). The projection is for 20,114 students to be
studying abroad by 1985. In 1979-1980 about 20 per cent of the students at

22

the higher education level were studying abroad (Ministry of Education 1980).
Perhaps due to the extremely rapid progress the Kingdom has and continues
to make in higher education the number of Saudi students pursuing academic
studies abroad will sharply decrease.

Foreign students themselves are seeking higher education in Saudi Arabia to
partake of the wide offerings of higher education there. In 1970 foreign stu-
dents accounted for 18.6 per cent of the total student enrollment, in 1975 the
proportion of foreign students was 14.7 per cent and in 1980 they were 23.9
per cent of the total university enrollment (Ministry of Education, 1980). In
1982 the number of foreign students numbered 15,730 with 12,191 being male
and 3,539 being female (Ministry of Higher Education, 1982). A sizeable num-
ber crf these students were studying at Islamic universities in the study of Is-
lam.

Probably no area of higher education has grown faster in the Kingdom in
recent years than education for females. Since 1961 when King Saud admitted
4 females as external students the number of women in higher education has
grown to 19,860 in 1982 (Ministry of Higher Education, 1982). In Saudi Arabia
educational facilities, staff, teachers and students are separated along gender
lines. The only instruction received by women is through close circuit televi-
sion. This has necessitated the growth of women teaching staff which has
grown from 4.4 of the total teaching staff in 1970 to 19.2 per cent in 1980. At
the same time the women student population has increased from 5.5 per cent
of the total population in 1970 to 28.4 per cent in 1980 (Ministry of Education,
1980). Since education along with nursing is an acceptable vocation for women
in the Kingdom, a large number of female students pursue degrees in educa-
tion.

The Ministry of Education supervised higher education until 1975 when the
Ministry of Higher Education was established by Royal Decree. The Ministry
of Higher Education enforces higher education policy and places emphasis in
helping the Kingdom to fulfill its development plans. All universities in the
Kingdom are formed by Royal Decree. The Girls Education Administration
along with the Ministry of Higher Education is involved with overseeing wom-
en’s education at the higher level.

The financing of higher education in Saudi Arabia is almost entirely by the
government. Therefore, the resources available to the government determine
the funding of higher education to a large extent. According to the Education
Policy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1970) the “educational budget is in-
creased by the State in accordance with the growing needs of the country. This
growth is proportionate with the growth of the general budget”. The higher
education budget has grown from 1984 million Saudi Riyals* in 1975 – 1976 to

* 5 Saudi Riyals equal 1 British p o u n d a n d 3.52 Saudi Riyals equal 1 U.S. Dollar.

23

5539 million Saudi Riyals in 1979-1980 for an average annual rate of increase
of 29.3 per cent (Ministry o f Education, 1980). Along with the expansion o f
students and staff has occurred the expansion and improvement of existing fa-
cilities and the building o f new campuses.

In the last few decades Saudi Arabia has made tremendous progress in edu-
cation, probably unmatched during this period for any nation. Its roots and
the high esteem for education can be traced back to its Islamic heritage. The
rapid advancement in higher education can be substantiated by the phenome-
nal increase in student population, teaching staff, establishment of new univer-
sities, building of new campuses and the expansion of existing ones, and finan-
cial support made possible by the firm commitment o f the leadership of the
Kingdom. Education is playing a vital, valued and crucial role in the King-
dom’s total development. With the continued commitment of the Kingdom to
higher education it will be noteworthy to see what advancements higher educa-
tion will make in the next few decades.

References

A1-Shami, Ibrahim (1977) Tradition and Technology in the Developmental Education of Saudi
Arabia and Egypt (Michigan State, Ph.D. dissertation).

Antonius, George (1965) The Arab Awakening (New York, Capricorn).
Bashshur, Munir (1973) Education and Politics: Hypotheses and Research Themes for the Arab

Middle East”. (Unpublished paper presented at International Conference on Education and Poli-
tics Freiburg, Germany).

Duguid, Stephen (1970) A Biographical Approach to the Study of New Social Change in the
Middle East: Abdullah Rarki as a new Man. International Journal o f Middle East Studies, 1:3,
pp. 195-200.

Education Policy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1970) The Higher Committee for Education
Policy (Saudi Arabia).

King Saud University Newsletter (1984) “Facts and Numbers About the New University Cam-
pus” 9:253 pp. 10.

Ministry of Education (1979) Progress o f Education in Saudi Arabia (Riyadh, Ministry of Edu-
cation).

Ministry of Education (1982) Education Statistics in the Kingdom 1 9 8 i – 1982 (Riyadh, Ministry
of Education).

Ministry of Higher Education (1980) Progress o f Higher Education in The Kingdom o f Saudi
Arabia During Ten Years 1970-1980 (Riyadh, Ministry of Higher Education).

Riyadh University (1982) Quarter of a Century in Riyadh University Life (Riyadh, Deanship of
Librarians-King Saud University).

Pinkthall, M. N. (1961) The Cultural Side o f Islam (Lahore: Ashraf).
Wafi, All A. (1967) H u m a n Rights in Islam. The Islamic Quarterly, 11:1 & 2 ( J a n u a r y – J u n e )

pp. 6 4 – 7 5 .
Wahibi, Abdulla (1978) The Development of Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in:

Prism by the General Dept. of Foreign Cultural Relations pp. 3 9 – 48 (Ministry of Culture, Egypt).

S

y

s

tem

E

duc

a

t

i

o

n

between

Canada

and

Saudi

A

r

abia

T

h

e

school systems

Saudi

Arabia

and

Canada

are b

oth

similar

and

diff

erent

.

S

tudent’

s home

,

punishment , discussion, and extra curricular activities are

the

same f

or

both countrie

s.

A

lso,

teacher tra

in

ing is

similar

for

both countries

. h

owever,

student’s unforms,

the

way

they sit

in

class, manner they

stand up

in

class for the teacher and their rewards are

all

different .

a

nother

big

difference

is that the gender is important for teachers in the two countries.

E

ven

though the

countries have their

differences

in education, the systems are more

similar

than

different.

F

irst of al

l, there are many

similarities.

I

n

both countries ,

home

work

for

elementary

s

tudents

is very

similar. Students

have very little home

work

because they complete their

work with the teacher in the class . then for

middle

school and high school ,

students

spend

up to four hours

doing their homework, depending on the students’ abilities.

Another way

the countries’

schools

are the same in punishment.

Students

could be sent out of the class ,

lose marks, have their parents called , or the

students are

sent to the principal. Also,

when

students are

discussing

topics in class, the discussion is the same for both countries in

addition, the extra curricular programs are

equal in both countries.

B

oth Saudi Arabia and

Canadian

schools

take their st

udents on field trip.

For

example,

they have art

clubs

, drama

clubs

,invention

and technology clubs, and many different types of spo

r

t team.

F

inally,

teacher in both countries have familiar training . they finish high school, then university, and

then so

a special

year at

university to teach their specific

subjects

.

In contrast to the similarities, the school systems are also different.

In Saudi Arabia all

students wear

uniforms

,and they

are different

colors

a

cc

ording to the

different cities.

for

example, in

makkah,

elementary

students wear dark blue(navy).

U

nlike

Saudi Arabia

schools,

or private

school.

Te

colours depend on the

school. diff

erent from

Saudi

Arabian

schools is

how

students sit in the classroom.

In Canada,

students sit

together

,sometimes at tables for

group activities.

H

owever

, in

Saudi Arabia students

almost always sit in desks in rows.

Saudi Arabia

schools can be both formal when the teacher enters the class, and the students will

stand up.on the other hand, students are more informal and would never stand up when

ateacher enters the class.

Another

difference are the rewards students receive from the

teachers.

For example,in Saudi Arabia, the

teacher may give the students gifts likebooks,

watches or jewelry.in

Canada,

rewards maybe some things much more simple like spare

time

to play games or small rewards like book mark.one of the biggest differences with the two

systems in the gender of the teachers.

In Saudi Arabia,

boys

are always

taught

by men and

the

girls

are always taught

by women in all the level

s.

however

, in Canada

in elementary

school, the teachers are mostly women, and then high school there are more male teachers

but in all grads the gender does not matter.

In

conclusion, there are many

difference

and sim

ilarities in the

Saudi Arabia and Canada

education systems;however,they are mostly the same when you compare them

together.

System Education between Canada and Saudi Arabia

The school systems
Saudi

Arabia and
Canada

are both similar and different.
S
tudent’
s home,
punishment , discussion, and extra curricular activities are

the same for both countries.
A
lso,

teacher training is
similar

for both countries
. however, student’s unforms, the way they sit
in class, manner they
stand up

in

class for the teacher and their rewards are all different .
another big difference is that the gender is important for teachers in the two countries.
E
ven
though the

countries have their
differences

in education, the systems are more
similar

than
different.

First of al
l, there are many
similarities.
I
n
both countries ,
homework

for elementary
s
tudents is very
similar
.

S
tudents
have very little home
work

because they complete their
work with the teacher in the class . then for
middle

school and high school , students spend
up to four hours

doing their homework, depending on the students’ abilities.
A
nother
way
the countries’ schools are the same in punishment.
S
tudents
could be sent out of the class ,
lose marks, have their parents called , or the students are sent to the principal. Also,

when
students are
discussing

topics in class, the discussion is the same for both countries in
addition, the extra curricular programs are
equal in both countries.
B
oth
Saudi

Arabia

and
Canadian

schools

take their st
udents on field trip.
F
or
example, they have art clubs, drama
clubs

,invention

and technology clubs, and many different types of spo
r
t team.

F
inally,

teacher in both countries have familiar training . they finish high school, then university, and
then so

a special
year at

university to teach their specific
subjects
.

In contrast to the similarities, the school systems are also different.
I
n
Saudi

Arabia

all
students wear
uniforms

,and they

are different
colors

a
cc
ording to the

different cities.

for
example, in

makkah,
elementary

students wear dark blue(navy).
U
nlike

Saudi

Arabia

schools,
or private school.
T
e
colours depend on the

school.

diff
erent from
Saudi

Arabian

schools is
how
students sit in the classroom.
I
n
Canada
,
students sit together,sometimes at tables for
group activities.
H
owever,

in
Saudi

Arabia

students
almost always sit in desks in rows.
Saudi

Arabia

schools can be both formal when the teacher enters the class, and the students will
stand up.on the other hand, students are more informal and would never stand up when
ateacher enters the class.
A
nother
difference are the rewards students receive from the
teachers.
F
or
example,
i
n
Saudi

Arabia
,

the

teacher may give the students gifts likebooks,

watches or jewelry.in
Canada
,
rewards maybe some things much more simple like spare
time
to play games or small rewards like book mark.one of the biggest differences with the two
systems in the gender of the teachers.
I
n
Saudi

Arabia
,

boys are always taught by men and
the
girls

are always
taught

by women in all the level
s.
however
, in
Canada

in elementary
school, the teachers are mostly women, and then high school there are more male teachers
but in all grads the gender does not matter.

I
n
conclusion, there are many
difference

and sim
ilarities in the
Saudi

Arabia

and
Canada

education systems;however,they are mostly the same when you compare them
together
.