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As human beings, we do much of our work by cooperating with others in groups. Small face-to-face groups meet and talk in order to solve problems and make decisions. One of the essential features of a group is that its members have something in common and they believe what they have in common makes a difference, e.g., political parties.
The largest group, and also the most complex, is society. If we were to catagorize society’s groups, we would find that we have gone through four types and are in a fifth already. They are (1) Hunting and Gathering, (2) Pastoral and Horticultural, (3) Agricultural, (4) Industrial, and
(5) Post-industrial. What do you suppose the next group will be? Any guesses?
Communication scholars, social psychologists, business managers, and military leaders have conducted a lot of research on group processes. What the research shows is groups vary greatly in their effectiveness. Some produce a lot of work, others, very little. Some present creative solutions, others, make a lot of errors in what they think should be done.
What constitutes a group? We know it shares a common problem but what about the size of a group? We have said society is the largest group but does that mean a group consists of 1000’s of people? We all know the answers to these questions. But technically, a group (the smallest) can be just two people sharing the same problem and working to find a solution to it.
A group has two functions:
To perform a task
To perform group maintenance
a. Make sure the group functions together
b. Make sure the group works toward the goal (produces)
c. Maintains the status of the group
NOTE: To get the Task done takes a lot of energy. If the group is having problems with Maintenance, e.g., not functioning well together, then energy will be wasted in trying to make sure everyone is on the right chapter and same page. The Task will suffer or, in some cases, not be completed. Groups that “work well together” are said to be Cohesive, i.e., are a well-knit group, interdependent, very little or no bickering, and have “stick-to-it-ness.”
Coherence often plays a part in Cohesiveness. Coherence is “the length of time a group has been together.” It is understandable that if a group has been together for quite some time most of the “maintenance” issues have been worked out, and they can focus on the “task.” But, what if someone leaves and someone new comes in?”
I experienced this when I was asked to become the Director of the Syracuse Elementary Pumpkin Festival. The Festival had been running for three years when the Director moved to another city. All the members had been together for three years, and the group was cohesive. I anticipated having to be accepted because I knew my leadership style was quite different than the previous
Director’s. I said I would take the Directorship only on the condition that I would oversee the entire project and delegate responsibility to the chairpersons of the committees. The transition was smooth and, of course, you all know my involvement became more than just an overseer. But direct I did for five years. We kept our cohesiveness, and even today as the Festival
approaches its fifteenth year in October, some of the same members are still on the committees, and the cohesiveness remains. Something like this doesn’t usually happen because you have to bring the “new” person up-to-speed and this takes away from the task. There is also the possibility of personality clashes, etc.
A Group is a Dynamic Entity. It doesn’t start fully developed. It takes time to:
Create its identity
Decide on its direction
Decide on its ways of operating
Become a small social system in its own right
As we stated, a group is composed of people who come together for a common purpose. To function, members must communicate and interact…therefore, size is important. Five to eight members is ideal, although some authors will say up to ten is okay.
As Group Members, you must:
Be identifiable to each other
Become acquainted
Define the purpose of the group
Develop a way of interacting
Establish rules and limits, formal and informal. (Norms)
A group must be able to satisfy the needs of the individuals if it expects to hold its members. The members must become interdependent and become aware of each other. This leads to the concern and meaning members must have for each other.
A group becomes a part of each member’s life. It is one of their reference points. It provides them with a sense of “belonging.” Often times, when a group ends, it means a change in one’s life even, if initially, the member was forced to join the group, e.g. military, AA, domestic abuse, etc.
One of the things you have to beware of in a group, even though there is a common purpose, is members have “hidden agendas.” These will have to be dealt with from time to time. Struggles will ensue, and they must be reconciled. There will also be pressure from others for members to conform to the demands of the group as a whole and to reach agreement on issues that arise.
Sometimes when a problem is multifaceted or will affect other people or departments it is too much for an individual to handle. A lot of information is often needed, and there may be several solutions that can be used to resolve the problem. But it isn’t easy for one person to choose the
best one. Well, this is when small groups can be beneficial. Not only will you have many ideas or solutions provided, you also have others who will share in the decision making and the responsibilities that go with the solution. You can do more research than an individual can. You can work together to come up with the “best” solution.
With society being the biggest group we know, we also know that within this large group are several other groups of varying sizes. There are “Primary Groups”, “Secondary Groups”, and “In and Out Groups.”
A Primary group is one where you have a face-to-face relationship with others in the group. It provides emotional needs, self-esteem, knowing someone needs you and appreciates you, a sense of “belonging”, and a feeling that you are not alone and can count on others to help. We have to be careful though because Primary groups can also become Secondary groups. Then the group may not satisfy the needs of the individual and may even be detrimental to the individual.
A Secondary group in comparison to a Primary group is usually larger, you are more likely to be known to only a few members of the group unless you are BPOD (Big Person On Display), and it will be more formal, yet impersonal. However, in Secondary groups, most often Primary groups form. From your own experiences, I know you can cite examples of secondary groups you have been in where you have formed a primary group with other members. Even if it were just two or three of you meeting for coffee, on the same committee, etc. You have formed a face-to-face relationship with other members which satisfy the needs which the secondary group has not provided you.
There are other groups, such as Reference groups, where we kind of evaluate ourselves as compared to where we stand in accordance to the standards they have to be in a specific group of people, such as upper level managers or working for EDS (GMC’s electronic data division). You have to perform to certain standards, behave in certain acceptable ways, dress a certain way,
maybe even wear your hair in a certain style. And within all of these groups, you develop a network of team members, family members, office workers, etc., and you socialize together. You “network”.
Well, all of this leads us to what is called, “The Dynamics of a Group.” Any time you have people get together for a common cause or to solve a problem, you are going to have group dynamics. Personalities, agendas, feelings, etc., are going to come into play and will have to be dealt with. We know groups are formed to satisfy security, social, esteem, group goals,
economics, etc., and we know groups just don’t start out as being a synchronized entity. Trust, which is essential to complete the task, along with anticipation, anger, acceptance, and self-confidence affect the individual member and the group as a whole. If you understand the how these all work together to develop cohesiveness, then you will have a greater chance to complete the task the group has before it.
There are four phases a group goes through.
Phase 1 – Forming
Phase 2 – Storming
Phase 3 – Norming
Phase 4 – Performing
PHASE 1 – FORMING
In this phase, the group member looks to the leader for help in defining goals and objectives. If there is no leader, the member will then look to the stronger member. In this phase, forming takes place which decides who is “in” or who is “out”. This is the INCLUSION stage. Team members want to know “What is expected of me?”, “How do I fit in?”, ” What are we supposed to
do?”, and “What are the rules?”. Anxiety quickly follows the initial excitement. But no one feels secure enough to be “real,” so you probably won’t see much open conflict. At this time, you’ll need to help the group develop operating guidelines or “ground rules” that regulate how you and the group interact.
PHASE 2 – STORMING
In this phase, the group members will maneuver for control of the group. They will either do it overtly or will sabotage the leader. Enthusiasm usually gives way to frustration and anger. Team members struggle to find ways to work together, and everything seems awkward. You’ll see mindless resistance, wrangling, hostile subgroups, jealousies, and general disgust with the whole transition to groups. Ground rules may splinter like trees in a cyclone. A southwestern oil refinery manager says, “It takes everything you’ve have just to keep plugging. You’ll be player, coach, referee, fan, and wiener vendor all at once.”
PHASE 3 – NORMING
The group gains its balance and enters the tranquil “norming” phase. It now begins to work together effectively. There is no need for strong leadership, and the members are active resources for the project. The group feels affection for each other in this phase and will attempt to articulate the norms for the group, such as feedback, decision making, conflict management,
and leadership. Also, the leader will become a group member. They will find standard ways to do routine things, and they drop the power plays and grandstanding. The main danger now is that team members hold back their good ideas for fear of further conflict. Your job is to help the group blow through their reticence – usually by increasing their responsibility and authority.
PHASE 4 – PERFORMING
In this phase, the members distribute power and influence among themselves and those who have the expertise. The team goes about its business with smooth self-confidence. By now people have learned to disagree constructively, take measured risks, make adjustments and trade-offs, and apply their full energy to a variety of challenges. It’s important to note that reaching the performing phase doesn’t mean smooth sailing forevermore. A group can experience a stormy period at any time – when it’s under unusual pressure, for example. The group can also return to its forming phase if it adds or loses members. If your group begins to recycle through earlier
phases, you again may need to take an active role in helping the team find its balance and settle down to business. The leader is participative and there is no issue over power, control, or inclusions. There is an intimacy among the members. A sharing of both personal and professional concerns with each other takes place. Members are supportive, work as a group, utilize the expertise of the group, and share the leadership role. This phase exhibits high energy and excitement, considerable constructive feedback, and no one threatens anyone else. Sometimes there is sadness when a group disbands (Terminates- another phase some authors include) after going through phase four. I usually have a party at the end of a class on small groups or group dynamics. It makes it a little easier to let go of some of the friendships that have developed. It is not unusual for the group members to continue to meet socially just to be with each other.
You will find even though all groups move through these phases they do not move through them same way. Some get stuck in a phase. It is possible that a group will never get out of the storming phase. In the Small Group graduate class I teach, I have seen groups wait until a member leaves to go to the bathroom or for a “smoke” and then make some decisions while s/he is gone.
If you are ever in a group like this, you might want to analyze what the leadership is. Is the leader weak or is there no leader? Perhaps everyone wants to be the leader, and a power struggle is taking place. Try to get your group moving. Point out where you are, where you need to be, how to get there.
There are some groups where they “hit” it off immediately. Just like they have been together for a period of time. They don’t stay in the forming or storming phases very long and in some cases, skip the storming phase altogether. It is all together possible they may just go straight to the
Performing Phase.
We discussed a little about new members entering a group. When this happens you usually have to go back to the Norming Phase or even the Storming Phase to bring the new member(s) up-to-speed. It is rare that a new entry just fits right in.
The titles for these phases are just that. A group doesn’t say, “Well, we have to get through this Forming Phase and then get into the Storming Phase, etc.” Groups go through these, usually in the order listed, but at different rates and, as we mentioned, may even have to repeat some of the phases to enable the group to work toward its goal. When you become a member of a group again, see if you can identify the phases your group is going through. I think you will enjoy observing the process.
Leadership. What is it? What kind of leadership is there? Are there styles of leadership? To be a leader, you have to have someone to lead, and you have to have a goal. Therefore, Leadership is a leader, members who follow the leader, and a goal. Now don’t get me wrong when I talk about
“followers.” In a strong, cohesive group, the members don’t necessarily “follow” the leader. Rather, they work with him/her to accomplish the goal. Leadership is also getting things done or making things happen that, without the leader actively pursuing the issues, would not happen. There are many definitions of leadership and kinds of leadership. Following are six
theoretical views of leadership (Napier/Gershenfeld “Groups Theory and Experience”).
Leadership as:
Power
Organization Leadership
Trait Theory
Situational Theory
Vision Theory
Ethical Assessment
POWER: The leader empowers or enables the members to take responsibility for the resulting action. But power is not universal. It is limited by the person being influenced. You have only the power that those being influenced let you have. So, don’t get too big headed because if the group feels you aren’t doing what they want you to do, you may be out of the leadership role. A powerful person has power over those s/he can influence and only in the areas and in the
parameters which the person being influenced allows.
There are several kinds of Leadership Powers.
Referent Power: A leader who has Referent Power is someone you identify with in certain areas and are influenced by them without feeling compelled or manipulated to do so.
People of high status, someone we regard as important, someone who has charisma, someone who speaks for us, represents our views, or understands our feelings and positions on certain issues are leaders who have Referent Power. But, this power is only good for as long as they represent us in the manner described above.
Think back to your childhood. Your parents had Referent Power, but when you became teenagers, did they continue to have Referent Power or did you disagree with some of the ways they tried to influence you?
Legitimate Power: A person with Legitimate Power is someone who has an authority relationship with the group members through his/her position.
They are given the authority to make decisions for others. This power may come from being a top-level manager, from appointment by a CEO, governmental agency, etc., or a congressperson who represents our voting preferences.
Expert Power: Someone with Expert Power has specialized skills, knowledge, or information about the issue or problem facing the group.
Reward Power: If you comply to this person’s rules, regulations, requests, etc., you receive some type of reward.
Think about elementary school where you received stars or check marks or some other form of reward for only talking when asked, staying in your seat, or being quiet in line. Think of the allowance you received from your parents for doing “chores” or a deduction in you allowance if you didn’t do the chore. (Negative Reward?)
Reward Power is often Situational. For example, if you are in a position of authority such as a parent or a boss, you have power to give rewards. With this type of power, you have to remember, you have a choice. If you were told you could receive $5 for each student you could get to sign up for one class at Baker, would it be enough of an incentive to get you to work
hard at this? What about when you were young? Did your parents ever say, “You finish your dinner, and I will let you have a popcicle.” But, you would rather have an ice-cream cone. Would you be compelled to finish your dinner? Sometimes the reward isn’t worth the effort for us to reach for the “carrot,” so, we choose not to.
Coercive Power: A person using this power says, “Do it or else.” You may have been told you couldn’t go to the movies unless you cleaned you room, or, if I catch you lying to me, you will be grounded for six months. You are threatened with some type of negative consequence.
A person with Coercive Power leaves you no chance of getting away from their influence. If you don’t do what they say, you pay.
Organizational Power: Depending upon where a person is on the ladder of an organization, their positional influence determines the power they have in the organization. The higher up the ladder, more apprehension and anxiety is created when a change in leadership is made. What will the new “boss” do? Will programs be cut? Will I be down-sized? What? What? What?
Someone said, “The higher up the ladder you go, the more exposed your rear end becomes.” Make sure when you are climbing that ladder, you keep it covered.
Trait Theory: Are leaders born or made? If your mom or dad was a strong leader of some organization, will you be a strong leader? Can you be trained to be a good leader? This is the debate that has gone on for a long time, and a lot of different views have been projected.
Situational Theory: Simply put, this means anyone can become a leader in an area where they have mastered the content, knowledge, and skills of the specific area and have learned the techniques of leadership.
Vision Theory: This involves looking at the needs of society and making people aware of what may happen in the future, e.g., The Ozone Layer. What will happen if we don’t stop depleting the ozone layer or studying a societal issue and drawing people’s attention to it.
Ethical Assessment: Leaders here try to get the members to work on certain goals that both the leader and they, as members of the group, value. Working together on the goal(s) is the motivational factor along with satisfying their wants and needs and obtaining their expectations.
Ethical leaders respect each member, have a lot of tolerance regarding opinions of opposite views, accept all cultures in their groups and in doing so, set goals to raise both the group members and themselves to higher levels of performance and achievement.
Styles of Leadership
Autocratic
Democratic
Laissez-faire
Autocratic Style: A dictator, a coercive leader, a “You are going to do it my way” leader. And yet, an Autocratic Leader can also be a person who accepts responsibility for their decisions, will stand up for their ideas, and can be a directive type of leader rather than a dictator or coercive leader.
Democratic Style: Usually we describe this style as a person who is well liked and the group responds to positively. But is it always “paradise” in camp? Do all of the decisions have to be group decisions? Does giving up power have anything to do with being a “popular” leader? Is this what Democratic Leadership is about?
Laissez-faire Style: A hands-off style. A person who may be viewed as not knowing much, doesn’t want to make decisions because of having to take responsibility for them, is not creative, or is incompetent. A Laissez-faire Leader feels the less they rule the more creativity will be generated. The less they rule the better the group will perform.
Peer pressure, group think, styles of leadership, types of leadership theories, and a host of other issues can slow down the process of working toward the task. Yet, if the group is able to work through the various roadblocks that occur in almost all groups and not have to spend too much time on maintenance, then the task can be achieved.
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Analyze your experience in doing this final project by discussing how your group went through the phases of storming, norming etc. Then analyze your own leadership style according to the terms discussed in the lecture. Email this to me as your final paper. No one else in your group will see so be honest!
1. Define sustainability. Use at least two different resources to come up with a complete definition of the term. The definition should be written in language that is appropriate for a college class. I.e., it should be good enough to go into a textbook.
2. Show why we need sustainability. Give the statistics on at least two environmental issues that are facing us today. Draw on legitimate scientific resources for your statistics.
3. Give two examples of groups that are working for a more sustainable future.
4. Describe in detail: what they are doing; what the potential benefits are of their actions.
5. Analyze how their actions in sociological terms. For example, this group is socializing the community; this group is being deviant in this way; this group has changed the social class structure in this way etc.
6. You must use at least 10 different sociological terms for each group (a total of 20, no repeats) to describe what this group is doing for an “A”.
7. The format for your presentation of the sociological terms should be as follows (for example) .
“The sociological imagination is defined as the ability to link the story of society to individual action. This group is using the sociological imagination by seeing that using sustainable farming techniques helps to preserve the planet. Their individual actions (the way they are farming) helps to create a more healthy planet (the story of society.)
8. Your presentation should be about 40 slides in length.
9. It should be done through powerpoint. No death by powerpoint please! Each idea that you present that is not your own must be cited on the slide. You can use up to five minutes of video.
10. Make sure that it is visually as well as intellectually interesting. Do not just use clip-art as your visual source. Use pictures from the web, magazines, books etc. You must cite each picture.
11. You can use references from the web, books, magazines as long as they are academic.
12. Yes! Magazine is a great source on ideas about who and why of sustainability
13. You need a bibliography and to cite all your resources, including pictures. When you send me your paper about being in groups, you also need to send me, in the same document your grades for each other. Your grade can go down if your group rates you poorly. See the syllabus for the grading criteria.
13. Your grade will be based on your own work as well as the group work. 50% of your grade will be on your own presentation; 50% on the group presentation.
14. The following rubric will be used to grade the group.
CONTENT
Definition – 10%
Why we need it – 10%
Sociological terms – 50%
PRESENTATION
Citations – 15%
Visual interest – 15%
15. The following rubric will be used to grade you individually.
CONTENT – 100%
: did your part meet the criteria of the piece you were assigned. I.e., if you are doing the definition, how good was it? If you are presenting the sociological concepts, how accurate are you in applying them, etc?
