essay

homework 

Technology In Different Places

“We All Live In A Small Village.” This is an Arabic saying that likens how people closely connected with each other all around the world to living in a small place where everyone can communicate with others so easily. This saying became very common after the technology became a huge and an important part in people’s lives. Most people agree that technology can help make the lives of all individuals easier and more interesting. In addition to that, a great number of electronics and technology companies have been established. These companies are discovering and modernizing many different types of technology devices everyday.

“Apple Inc. (Apple), incorporated on January 3, 1977, along with its subsidiaries, is engaged in designing, manufacturing and marketing mobile communication and media devices, personal computers, and portable digital music players”(Apple Inc. (AAPL.O)). Apple has become one of the most famous companies in the world. Many people became fully addicted to its products as soon as they use one of them and they always look forward to what the next new Apple device is going to be. Furthermore, all Apple new products being introduced are covered, broadcasted and marketed by many different types of media and marketing companies all around the world. Since there are many differences between cultures and humanity needs in any particular part of the world, the way of reporting and broadcasting the news must be different as well and these differences are going to be shown in the comparison below.

Comparing two articles in two different languages that talked about iPad Mini, which launched with fanfare since it is the most recent Apple product, one can see how differently and widely technology advertising is around the world. First of all, the first iPad that was designed by Apple Inc. was released on April 3, 2010 and after it was succeeded, they started developing it, upgrading it, making it smaller and thinner. Moreover, a survey by Business Insider revealed that 23 percent of respondents even had more than one iPad at home. (Steele, Chandra). The previous reconnaissance leads us to know how important and popular the iPad became, which is a really surprising thing. However, after all of these developing and upgrading processes for the iPad, they recently came up with iPad Mini, which was released on November 2, 2012 and considered the latest apple product so far.
“Living with the iPad Mini: Three weeks and counting” is an article written by Scott Stein and posted on Cnet web site. Stein chose a really interesting title to get the reader’s attention. He started his article with a story about his experience with having the new iPad Mini, which was a great experience as he described. “OK, I’ll admit it. The iPad Mini hasn’t left my hands in the last three weeks” (Stein). He complimented the new iPad’s size by saying “it might be the best gaming handheld Apple’s ever made, based on the sheer size of the screen and its thin, two-hand-friendly frame” (Stein). The smaller size of iPad made it very handy and people may take it wherever they want, which is a really great advantage. Stein started doing some comparison between iPad2 and iPad Mini and he showed the advantages that made iPad Mini special. “The first iPad didn’t have a FaceTime camera — or any camera at all. It was a buzz kill because the iPad seemed ideal for casual video chat. The iPad Mini lacks a higher-definition Retina Display, which is frustrating because the Mini is perfect for reading, and deserves the best display tech possible to improve that experience” (Stein). At the end, Stein mentioned the purposes that he used the iPad Mini for and how helpful it is.
In the same manner, looking at “Apple Reveals iPad Mini, The Smaller and The Least Expensive,” an Arabian article posted on a web site called Radio Sawa, written by Marwan Sadik and Leena Malkawi, helps to see how different do Arabian writers usually write and report the news to market a particular product. In this article, Malkawi and Sadik had listed a lot of information about iPad Mini included its advantages and disadvantages. The writers started their article with very basic facts about the product that tell when the product had been introduced and this kind of information. Then, they began listing the iPad Mini specifications and compared it with iPad2 to show what makes this product so special. Moreover, the selling facts could be interesting to some people whom judge the products by the number of the selling and how high is it. Malkawi and Sadik did talk about that as well. They recorded how many iPads been sold and how much did Apple Company earned from selling it before coming out with iPad Mini. Even though iPad is not very expensive compared with its advantages, “Apple Company had sold around 100 million iPad in the two past years, which is an unbelievable number” (Malkawi). In short, it is obvious how did the Arabian writers use the facts about iPad Mini to market it more than just talking about it in general as what Stein, the American writer, did.
Overall, as it can be seen in these two articles, the way of writing that the writers use to report this kind of news, which considered marketing in some ways, is entirely affected by the languages and the cultures. On the one hand, the way of writing that Stein used in his article was so interesting and attractive. He used informal way of writing in some places and he was serious in other places as well. In addition, the way of writing that Stein had used in his article is so common in the United States and also, that could be the reason why most American writers use it. On the other hand, it is not so common to see Arabian writers use this kind of writing. They simply go ahead to discuss the topic without taking the readers off the topic. To illustrate, as it can be seen in the title in the title of the Arabian article, which is “Apple Reveals iPad Mini, The Smaller and The Least Expensive,” the title tells exactly what the writer is going to talk about and this is one of the most important rules of the Arabian writing. Arabs most likely read what they really want to know and this type of writing does not have as many enthusiasts as it has in the United States. For the most part, writers mainly know the type of writing that attracts the readers or the consumers the most in the country that he or she report the news for. In other words, the way of advertising usually focus on what the people in this specific country really want to know and what they are really interested in, so they can get their attention and give more value to their news.
Focusing on the way of writing of each article not only leads to find out the differences in writing styles between these two articles, but also it helps to know how do these writers, whom originally are from different counties and different cultures, are advertising the same product in two different ways. According to research titled “The Role of the Advertising Agency in the Cultural Message Content of Advertisements: A Comparison of the Middle East and the United States,” which made by Morris Kalliny and Salma Ghanem, the cultures strongly influence the advertisement all around the world. “The cultural values conveyed through advertising messages are considered powerful forces shaping consumers’ motivations, lifestyles, and product choice. Marketers must understand cultural values of a given society to be able to select effective and appropriate advertising messages (Kalliny and Ghanem, 313).
Additionally, knowing the factors that made the cultures so different is so important for marketers to sell their products. “The understanding of cultural differences is often considered a prerequisite for successful international advertising because consumers grow up in a particular culture and become aligned with that culture’s value system, beliefs and perception processes” (Kalliny, 95). These factors are a lot, starting with the localization, languages, religions and many other things.

“Apple Inc. (AAPL.O)).” Reuters. Thomson Reuter, Inc., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012.
Steele, Chandra. “History of the iPad” March 12, 2012. PCMAG. Web. 28 Nov. 2012.
Stein, Scott. “Living with the iPad Mini: Three weeks and counting” November 13, 2012. Cnet. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. 
Sadik, Marwan. Malkawi, Leena. “Apple Reveals iPad Mini, The Smaller and The Least Expensive” October 23, 2012. Radio Sawa. Web. December 2, 2012.
Kalliny, Morris. Ghanem, Salma. “The Role of the Advertising Agency in the Cultural Message Content of Advertisements: A Comparison of the Middle East and the United States.” Journal Of Global Marketing 22.4 (2009): 313-328. Academic Search Complete. Web. 1 December. 2012.
Kalliny, Morris. “Are They Really Different From Us: A Comparison Of Arab American Newspaper Advertising.” Journal Of Current Issues & Research In Advertising (CTC Press) 32.1 (2010): 95-108. Communication & Mass Media Complete. Web. 1 December. 2012.

Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising,
Volume 32, Number 1 (Spring 2010).

Morris Kalliny (Ph.D.) is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at the
Missouri University of Science and Technology. (email:
kallinym@mst.edu)

Are They Really That Different From Us: A Comparison of
Arab and American Newspaper Advertising

Morris Kalliny

This study examines cultural values reflected in U.S. and the Arab world newspaper
advertisement. A total of 1245 newspaper advertisements from Egypt, Kuwait, Lebanon,
Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and the United States were analyzed. The findings
indicate that there are some similarities between the Arab World and the U.S. that may allow
for subtle changes in cultural values and advertising strategies. The findings also indicate
that there are some cultural values that have more of a religious significance than others.

Introduction

Since the attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001,
the world has been greatly divided between the West
and the Middle East. Differences in cultural and reli-
gious values have been fiercely debated and in most
cases the differences have been magnified while the
similarities have been ignored. Although globaliza-
tion indicates that we may now have come closer than
ever to McLuhan’s (1964) vision of a global village,
the magnification of these differences and the recent
clashes may suggest otherwise.

Leung et al. (2005) argue that national culture has
become an increasingly important factor for compa-
nies engaged in business activities across country bor-
ders. Firms now must operate in an era of increasing
globalization, so understanding of national culture is
a crucial factor for success. Keegan (1989) argues that
the understanding of cultural differences is often con-
sidered a prerequisite for successful international ad-
vertising because consumers grow up in a particular
culture and become aligned with that culture’s value
system, beliefs and perception processes. Several stud-
ies have shown that consumers are more inclined to
respond to advertisements that are congruent with
their culture (Boddewyn, Soehl, and Picard 1986;
Buzzell 1986; Harris 1984).

Scholars (Durgee, O’Connor, and Veryzer 1996) ar-
gue that one of the most powerful ways to under-
stand consumers is through the study of their values
and value systems. The value system consists of sets
of beliefs, attitudes and activities to which a culture or
subculture subscribes. These cultural values are rein-
forced by rewards and punishments for those who

follow or deviate from these guidelines (Rokeach 1973).
At the personal level, values determine virtually all
types of behaviors, from simple purchasing to reli-
gious ideologies (Pollay 1983). In the marketing and
management literature, cultural values are recognized
as having influence on consumer motivations and
product choices (Tse, Wang, and Tan 1988). Several
researchers believe that values are predictors or ante-
cedents of behavior (Conner and Becker 2003; En-
gland 1967; England and Lee 1974), and aid in the
understanding of culture (Feather 1975; Rokeach 1968,
1973). Conner and Becker (2003) argued that values
influence attitudes which in turn influence behavior.
Thus, behavior is determined by values. Although
value systems are found in every society, significant
differences exist between nations. These differences
originated because each society place a different pri-
ority on each cultural value or principle. For example,
the U.S is viewed as a society that values individual-
ism while Mexico is viewed as a society that values
collectivism. These priorities contributed to the cre-
ation of cultural differences among societies that set
them apart from each other and make each society’s
culture unique. As a result, these cultural values play a
vital role in how people behave from choosing what to
or not to do and how to do it. Thus, cultural differences
can be understood by comparing the value systems of
different cultures because each culture has its own
unique set of priorities, rules and principles that facili-
tate group members and in their adaptation process to
the environment (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck 1961).

This literature review suggests that we may have a
better way of understanding cultural and even reli-
gious differences via the study of advertising content.

96 Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising

This argument is made based on the premise that if
advertising content reflects society’s cultural and reli-
gious believes, we can understand those values
through the study of advertising content.

Several scholars (Albernethy and Franke 1996; Al-
Olayan and Karande 2000) identified the need for more
studies comparing advertising content across coun-
tries, especially the neglected parts of the world such
as the Arab countries. Abernethy and Franke (1996)
pointed out that some parts of the world have been
severely neglected in advertising research such as the
Arab world. More recently, Taylor (2005) examined
international advertising papers published between
1994 and 2004 and found 44% of them were about Asia,
22% about Europe, 22% about developing countries and
12% about global in general/ multiple counties. Taylor’s
study reveals how the Arab region has been severely
neglected in international advertising research. It is prob-
ably safe to assume that the recent events of the attacks
of September 11, 2001, the Denmark newspaper publi-
cation of the cartoons depicting Prophet Mohamed as a
terrorist, the war in Iraq and its effects are all indica-
tions of a lack of understanding of the Arab culture.
Therefore, we argue that studies dealing with the Arab
(Muslim) culture are desperately needed.

The primary purpose of this study is to shed some
light on the Arab (Muslim) culture and to compare it
to that of the United States by investigating the simi-
larities and differences of the manifestation of cul-
tural values in contemporary United States and the
Arab world newspaper advertising. Specifically, this
study investigates the types of cultural values con-
veyed in newspaper advertising in a representative
sample of the Arab world, including: Egypt, Leba-
non, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emir-
ates and the United States.

Albernethy and Franke (1996) found many more
studies of magazine (56) and television (44) advertis-
ing than of newspaper (10) advertising. The study of
the newspaper media is important particularly in the
Arab world for the following reasons. Martin (1998a)
stated that newspapers have been the backbone of the
Arabic media and print media has had the dominant
share of advertising dollars. Although newspapers
have been the backbone of the Arabic media (Martin
1988a), this medium has not received as much atten-
tion in the marketing discipline as other print media
such as magazines. Most of the literature done in in-
ternational advertising focused on Europe and some
parts of Asia such as China, Japan and Korea. The
Arab world clearly has been neglected and it deserves
more attention due to the important role it plays in
the global market (Al-Olayan and Karande 2000).

The Arab Culture

In order for us to discuss the Arab culture, we must
first define what an Arab is? Ethnic terms as these are
difficult to define, and Arab is not among the easiest.
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, defines Arab as
someone who identifies as Arab on genealogical, po-
litical, and/or linguistic grounds (i.e., those who trace
their ancestral origins back to the Semitic tribes of the
Arabian Peninsula). Lewis (2002) argues that Arabs
might be defined as nation. He argues that they are
not a nationality in the legal sense. So one who calls
himself an Arab may be described in his passport as a
national of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria,
Jordan, or any other of the group of states that iden-
tify themselves as Arab. Although some states in the
Middle East have adopted the word Arab in their
nomenclature, their citizens are not designated as Ar-
abs. Examples include Arab Republic of Egypt, United
Arab Emirates, and Syrian Arab Republic. Lewis (2002)
argues that there are Arab states and a league of Arab
states but there is no single Arab state of which all
Arabs are nationals. Does this mean Arabism is not
real because it does not have a legal content? Accord-
ing to Lewis (2002), a gathering of Arab leaders many
years ago defined an Arab in these words: “Whoever
lives in our country, speaks our language, is brought
up in our culture and takes pride in our glory is one of
us.” Lewis (2002, p. 2) quotes Sir Hamilton Gibb’s
definition of an Arab as, “All those are Arabs for whom
the central fact of history is the mission of Muhammad
and the memory of the Arab Empire and who in addi-
tion cherish the Arabic tongue and its cultural heri-
tage as their common possession.” It should be noticed
here that both definitions incorporate the Arabic lan-
guage, culture and the Muslim faith (the first one
makes that implicitly by referring to it as our glory).

This “Arab” issue makes the Arab culture even more
complex. Ein-Dor et al. (1992) provided a categoriza-
tion of culture according to the degree of stability of
the individual factors. The authors argue that factors
inherent to the culture over time that dominate the
culture and very resistant to change are classified as
“constants.” Examples include language, currency, ge-
ography, social norms and traditions. Factors that can
be more easily changed include GNP, education level,
and technology and are termed “changeable.” This study
focuses on the constants parts of the Arab culture.

Because the Arab world consists of a large number
of independent countries that have their own distinct
history and experiences, it is impossible to generalize
about all or most cultural values across the Arab world.
There are, however, beliefs and attitudes that are shared

Spring 2010 97

by many Arabs that cross national and social class
boundaries (Wilson 1996). Wilson (1996, p. 69) provides
the following summary regarding the Arab culture:

Everyone loves children; that age automatically
confers wisdom; that men and women have vastly
different personalities and characteristics; that a
person’s dignity, honor, and reputation are of pri-
mary importance and must be protected at all costs;
that one must always behave in a way that will
create a good impression on others; that loyalty to
one’s family takes precedence over personal needs;
that piety is one of the most admirable traits in a
person; and that there should be no separation
between “church and state”—religion should per-
vade all aspects of life.

Without a doubt, the literature portrays Islam as
the dominant component of the Arab culture and so-
ciety because the language, social structure, and eco-
nomic philosophy are fully grounded in Islam and
Islam is considered a complete way of life (Kavoossi
2000; Lawrence 1998). Because there is a fine line be-
tween what is religious and what is cultural in the
Arab world, the two often get mixed up. Shari’a (Is-
lamic Law) is viewed as a comprehensive code gov-
erning all areas of a Muslim’s life such as duties, morals
and behavior, individually, and collectively includ-
ing commerce (Luqmani, Yavas, and Quraeshi 1987).
The Shari’a provides guidance as to the values Mus-
lims should hold, such as truth, justice, individual
freedom, honesty, social obligations, collective respon-
sibility, the roles of men and women and the role of
buying and selling. Thus, the Shari’a prescribes all
that one should do (Coulson 1964), and, therefore, the
cultural value system of the Arabs is derived from
and guided by the Islamic religious beliefs (Anastos,
Bedos and Seaman 1980).

Most Arabs are Moslem (Hofstede 1994; Kabasakal
and Bodur 2002) who are influenced by the Koran in
conducting their daily activities (Ali 1996), and reli-
gious beliefs are a constant reminder of what is con-
sidered culturally acceptable. Thus, one of the
characteristics that distinguish between the followers
of Islam from followers of some other faiths is that
religion influences every aspect of a Muslim’s life. A
survey in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which
includes Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, revealed
that most respondents were united in their belief
that Islam structures the daily life of people and
that Gulf society and identity are woven with Is-
lam (Rice and Al-Mossawi 2002). Egyptians con-
sidered religion to be the most important value
after health (Rice and Al-Mossawi 2000).

Variations in the Arab Culture

It will be naïve and misleading to assume that there
are no variations among Arab countries. Although
Arabs have many common traits, they also differ in
numerous respects such as conservatism (Nydell 1987),
wealth, and education level (Lamb 1987). Among those
significant differences that are applicable to this study:
conservatism, language, level of education, and reli-
gious affiliation. For example, dress in the Arab coun-
tries ranges from wearing a bikini to being completely
covered. This contrast can be found between Leba-
non, where about 50% of the population is Christians
and affiliate themselves with the West in several re-
spects, and Saudi Arabia, where Islamic values are
held to the highest degree. In Saudi Arabia, women
are required by the law to cover up, while in Lebanon,
Egypt, Syria and others such a requirement does not
exist. This is not to say that covered up women are not
found in those countries because this is dependent on
each family and person’s way of life, commitment to
Islam and interpretation of the teaching of Islam.

There is also a significant difference in the spoken
and written Arabic language. Although the Arabic
grammatical system and written language are uni-
form across all Arab countries (Al-Olayan and Karande
2000), there are as many as 20 different spoken dia-
lects. Almaney and Alwan (1982) argue that the Ara-
bic dialects fall into five geographical categories:

I. North African (Western Arabic): Moroccan,
Algerian, Tunisian, Libyan, Mauritanian;
these dialects have been significantly influ-
enced by Berber and by the language of the
colonists.

II. Egyptian/Sudanese: most commonly under-
stood throughout the Arabic world due to
the popularity of Egyptian movies, television
and radio programs, and musical arts.

III. Syrian or Levantine: Lebanese, Syrian, Jorda-
nian, Palestinian.

IV. Arabian Peninsular: Saudi, Yemeni, Adeni, Ku-
waiti, Gulf, Omani; considered the most pure.

V. Iraqi.

For example, it is common for Egyptians to have a
difficult time understanding the spoken Arabic of Sau-
dis, Lebanese, Bahrainis and those of many other Arab
states. Although the Arabic grammatical system and
written langue are uniform, significant differences still
exist in the spoken communication.

There is a significant difference of education level among
the Arab states. For example, the literacy rate in Egypt is
71.4% and 50.2% in Yemen compared to 86.7% in Bahrain

98 Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising

and 93.3% in Kuwait (World Fact Book 2010). Level of
education impacts the amount of written information
transferred to the public. It also impacts the level of spoken
language because the use of complex or classical Arabic
may be too difficult for illiterates to understand.

Finally, there are differences in religious affiliations.
For example, 100% of the population in Saudi Arabia
is Muslim compared to 50% in Lebanon and about
90% in Egypt. Although the Arab culture has a strong
impact on all Arabs, religious affiliation causes differ-
ences. For example, it is unlikely to find a Christian
who wears the hijab (what Muslim women use to
cover their heads and other parts of their body). It is
common that Christians associate with the West and
hold some Western values which at times may con-
flict with the Islamic values.

The above examples have been given to help the
reader understand that although there are significant
similarities among Arab states, there are also signifi-
cant differences. These differences can be attributed
to level of education, wealth, religious affiliation and
country history. It is important that these differences
be pointed out to avoid the mistake of stereotyping.
To illustrate, it is illegal to advertise condoms in
Bahrain, while it is common to do so in Lebanon (Rice
and Al-Mossawi 2002). These differences play a cen-
tral role in determining what is considered culturally
acceptable and culturally taboo. This is not limited to
what is legal and what is not. For example, although
the use of the left hand to serve someone tea in Saudi
Arabia resulted in the alienation of a tea company
(Lugmani et al. 1980), it is unlikely that such an out-
come will be obtained in Lebanon.

The American Culture

The America culture is different from the Arab cul-
ture in many ways. The American value system is
based predominantly on Christian beliefs. Specifically,
Americans can be described as informal, direct, com-
petitive, high achievers, independent and individual-
istic, questioners, and punctual (Bakhtari 1995).
Americans are a heterogeneous group who live at a
fast pace, believe in direct methods of communica-
tion, are practical and egalitarian, live as a nuclear
family, reject fatalism, and like to achieve through
their own efforts (Wilson 1996; Lee 1980).

Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts, and Earnshaw (2002) sug-
gest that the United States still bears the idealism of the
eighteenth century settlers but also modeled its demo-
cratic system on French liberalism and equity. We will not
go into greater detail about American culture due to the
familiarity that most readers likely have with the subject.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

This research effort focuses on two main research
questions. What are the types of products that are
commonly advertised in U.S. and Arab newspapers?
What are the main cultural differences and similari-
ties between the United States and the Arab World?
We selected a group of cultural values (Tradition,
Beauty Enhancement, Respect for the Elderly, Har-
mony with Others, Interdependence, Thriftiness, Com-
petitiveness, Attitude toward Nature, and Attitude
toward Enjoyment) for investigation to answer the
latter question. These cultural values were chosen
based on the preceding discussion of the cultural val-
ues and similarities between the Arab world and the
U.S. These cultural values were chosen because they
fall into the more “constant” values that are not easily
changed. These cultural values relate some more than
others, to tradition and that is the cultural value we
start with. This group of cultural values should not be
viewed as conclusive for there are many other cul-
tural values that could be investigated. Since both
Arabian and American cultures draw heavily upon
the local predominant religion, it is important to un-
derstand what the predominant local religion teaches
about the subject to better understand how it may
have influenced the local culture.

Tradition

According to Cheng and Schweitzer (1996), tradi-
tional society is static with little specialization, a low
level of urbanization, and low literacy. Traditional
society is depicted as having an authoritarian politi-
cal system, whereas modern society is characterized
by wide participation on the part of citizens. More-
over, traditional society is bound by the cultural val-
ues established by old customs and conventions, while
modern society is culturally dynamic and oriented to
change and innovate.

By this definition, Arab society is very traditional in
many respects. For centuries, Bedouin tribes have been
known for their gracious hospitality to lost desert trav-
elers. Arabs value honor and honesty and are willing
to go to great lengths to avoid losing face (Ali 1996).
As stated by Prophet Mohammad, “Whoever believes
in Allah and the Last Day should be hospitable with
his or her guests” (ipaki.com). The Institute for the
Secularization of Islamic Society reported that a num-
ber of Arab young women have been killed by their
families in Denmark to protect the honor of the fam-
ily. This illustrates how tradition in the Arab society
may take precedent over secular law and family ties.

Spring 2010 99

Although the American culture has an element simi-
lar to the Arab culture where people are proud of the
founding fathers and what they have done to build
their country, Americans tend to focus more on the
future than on the past. With lessons such as the
parables of the talents, Christians are taught to have a
strong work ethic—in fact, previous generations re-
marked upon the “Protestant work ethic”—and to
look forward to the future. Modernity and progress is
highly valued in US culture and clenching to certain
traditions merely for the sake of tradition strikes many
Americans as backward and restrictive. Therefore,

Table 1
Operational Definitions of Cultural Values

Cultural Value Operational Definition

Beauty Enhancement [a] The advertising highly suggests that the use of a product will enhance the
loveliness, attractiveness, elegance, or handsomeness of an individual.

Competition [b] This value encourages individuals to compete with others or the self. In
advertising, the emphasis is on distinguishing a product from its
counterparts by aggressive comparisons. While explicit comparisons
may mention the competitor’s name, implicit comparisons may use such
words as “number one, leader.”

Thriftiness [c] The inexpensive, affordable, and cost-saving nature of a product is
emphasized in the advertising content.

Attitude toward Enjoyment [c] This value encourages the individual to pursue temporary happiness and
to enjoy life. The advertising suggests that a product will make its user
wild with joy. Typical examples include the capital fun that beer or soda
drinkers demonstrate in some advertising.

Harmony with Others [d] This value emphasizes the importance of having good interpersonal
relationships. It also suggests that people should be in harmony with
others and avoid anything that might damage the relationship.

Independence [b] The emphasis here is on the self-sufficiency and self-reliance of an
individual. This value also addresses the self-improvement, self-freedom,
or individual accomplishment.

Interdependence [d] The emphasis of this value is on the individual in relation to others typically
in the reference group. Individuals are depicted as integral parts of the group.

Attitude toward Nature[a] This attitude reflects two distinct ways of viewing nature. Both constructs
may include a respect for nature, but oneness with nature indicates more
of an appreciation for nature as it is while mastery over nature indicates
a belief that nature needs to be managed.

Tradition [b] The experience of the past, customs, and conventions are respected. In
advertising, the qualities of being historical, time- honored and legendary
are venerated, e.g., “With eighty years of manufacturing experience”; “It
is adapted from ancient Chinese prescriptions.”

Respect for the Elderly [b] The advertising displays a respect for older people by using a model of old
age or asking for the opinions, recommendations, and advice of the elders.

[a] Adopted from Cheng and Schweitzer (1996) [c] Adapted from Pollay (1983)
[b] Adopted from Mueller (1987, 1992) [d] Adapted from Yau (1988)

H1: Arab newspaper ads will manifest more tra-
ditions compared to their U.S. counterparts.

Beauty Enhancement

One of the main cultural differences between the
United States and the Arab world is how woman
should appear in society. Support for our thesis that
this cultural difference rests upon the local predomi-
nant religion may be found in Arabia itself. For ex-
ample, dress in the Arab countries ranges from
wearing a bikini to being completely covered. This

100 Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising

contrast can be found between Lebanon where about
50% of the population is Christians and affiliate them-
selves with the West in several respects and Saudi
Arabia where Islamic values are held to the most strin-
gent interpretation. In Saudi Arabia, women are re-
quired by the law to cover up while in Lebanon, Egypt,
Syria and others such a requirement does not exist.
This is not to say that veiled women are not found in
those countries because this is dependent on each fam-
ily and person’s way of life, commitment to Islam and
interpretation of the teaching of Islam.

The cultural differences in modesty in dress reflects
both the local predominate religion as well as the
percentage of people in the country that follow it.
This Koran passage provides some guidance as to
how Islamic women should appear in the public:

And say to the believing women that they should
lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that
they should not display their beauty and orna-
ments except what ordinarily appear thereof that
they should draw their veils over their bosoms
and not display their beauty except to their hus-
bands, their fathers… (Koran 24:31).

Arab society is expected to adhere to the teachings
of Islam. (Al-Olayan and Karande 2000) and follow
its guidelines. Various scholars interpreted the pre-
ceding Koran passage differently: most scholars in-
terpret this message to mean that women may show
only their hands and face to men outside of their
immediate family. Stricter scholars interpret the mes-
sage to mean women should be completely veiled.
For example, Saudi women are not allowed to walk in
the streets with their faces uncovered.

Contrast the Koran’s commands to all Islamic
women with the Bible’s words on the subject. The
New Testament has no specific instructions on how
unmarried Christian women should dress outside of
the church. The Apostle Paul provided guidance for
how women should dress while attending church and
the Apostle Peter provided some general guidelines
for married women:

Do not let your adornment be merely outward—
arranging the hair, wearing gold, or putting on
fine apparel—rather let it be the hidden person of
the heart, with the incorruptible beauty of a gentle
and quiet spirit, which is very precious in the sight
of God … (NKJV, 1 Peter 3:3-4).

Since Muslim women have a much stronger reli-
gious command toward specific types of modesty in
dress than Christian women, one would expect this to
be reflected in advertising. Indeed, this is the case. Al-
Olayan and Karande (2000) found in 83% of Arabic
magazine advertisements showing women, women

were wearing long clothing, compared to 29% in U.S.
advertisements. It is clear that this Islamic restriction
may pose an advertising dilemma for advertisers who
would like to use female sex appeal to sell to men
(e.g., automotive ads using nubile women to sell sports
cars). It is also apparent that advertisers will have to be
more cautious in showing women using women’s prod-
ucts (e.g., American razor ads showing women how
nice their legs will look if they use the specified product
would not be culturally appropriate in Saudi Arabia).

What is not clear is if women who have to show more
modesty in dress in public are still as interested in beauty
enhancement as women who expect to be seen by men
in addition to their fathers and husbands. Likewise,
even if these Islamic women are as interested in beauty
enhancement, can advertisers effectively use newspa-
per ads to market their goods without the ability to
show women actually using the product? While the
first question is outside the scope of this research project,
we can more feasibly measure the relative importance
of marketing beauty enhancement goods to women
under various cultural conditions by measuring the per-
centage of television ads that attempt to sell these goods.
Given the additional complexities of advertising these
goods in an Islamic society, it is expected that

H2: The focus on women’s beauty enhancement
will be less in Arab newspaper advertising
compared to their U.S. counterparts.

H3: There will be differences among the Arab
countries regarding the cultural value
beauty enhancement.

Respect for the Elderly

Arabs have much respect for parents and elders
(Nydell 1987; Kabasakal and Bodur 2002). For example,
an Arab would never make derogatory statements
about deceased relatives or show any disrespect to
his parents because of their immense loyalty and re-
spect for parents and elders. The following Koran
verses makes it clear that respect for parents and the
elderly is strongly desired by God.

And We have enjoined man in respect of his par-
ents—his mother bears him with faintings upon
faintings and his weaning takes two years—say-
ing: Be grateful to Me and to both your parents; to
Me is the eventual coming (Koran 31:14).

And We have enjoined on man doing of good to
his parents; with trouble did his mother bear him
and with trouble did she bring him forth; and the
bearing of him and the weaning of him was thirty
months; until when he attains his maturity and
reaches forty years, he says: My Lord! grant me that

Spring 2010 101

I may give thanks for Thy favor which Thou hast
bestowed on me and on my parents, and that I may
do good which pleases Thee and do good to me in
respect of my offspring; surely I turn to Thee, and
surely I am of those who submit (Koran 46:15).

While a review of American popular television
shows may give the appearance of a significant differ-
ence between American and Arabian views on this
issue, the historical and Christian cultural norm is for
Americans to respect their parents and the elderly.
The fifth commandment states:

Honor your father and your mother, as the Lord
your God has commanded you, that your days
may be long, and that it may be well with you in
the land which the Lord your God is giving you
(NKJV, Deuteronomy 5:25).

Both Arabian and American historical and religious
cultures advocate a respect for parents and the eld-
erly. Therefore,

H4: Arab newspaper ads will manifest respect
for elders in the same proportions as their
U.S. counterparts.

Harmony with Others

Another characteristic of collectivistic societies is
that they value harmony with others. Thus, Arabs are
encouraged at an early age to learn to live in harmony
with one another. Islam stresses that people within
the Muslim faith should learn to get a long and strive
for unity and harmony. One of the many Koranic
verses stresses that people should speak well to oth-
ers, “…. and speak well to the people…” (Koran 2:83).

While the American culture is individualistic and the
focus is on the individual rather than on the group,
Jesus provided numerous examples how Christians
need to look out for others and be peacemakers. For
example, “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall
be called sons of God” (Matthew 5:9). Likewise, Jesus’
parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37) is so
integrated into American culture that most states have
“Good Samaritan” laws that protect individuals with
good intentions from legal liability. The only time Chris-
tians are expected to be “disharmonious” is when local
governments place their laws over what Christians un-
derstand to be God’s laws (for example, if the govern-
ment forbade people to be Christians on penalty of being
thrown to the lions, Christians would elect to be thrown to
the lions vs. repudiate their beliefs). While the Arabic coun-
tries see harmony with others as a group imperative and
Christians generally see harmony as an individual re-
sponsibility, the overall result is similar. Thus,

H5: The cultural value “harmony with oth-
ers” will be manifested the same in the
Arab newspaper ads as it is manifested
within U.S. ads.

Interdependence

Hosfstede (1991) reported that the United States was
the most individualistic country among the 53 coun-
tries analyzed, with a score of 91 on a 100-point scale.
The Arab world, however, scored 38 on this individu-
alistic dimension. Members of Arab culture have a
high need for affiliation and value mutual dependence
(Yousef 1974). Success is measured by what one does
for his family rather than individual earnings or
achievement. Consequentally, loyalty to one’s pri-
mary group is an integral part of Arab culture. This
sense of loyalty is exemplified by this Arab proverb:
“I against my brother; my brother and I against my
cousins; I, my brother, and my cousins against the
outsider” (Bates and Fratkin 2003, p.272). This group
loyalty can be seen in societies such as the Egyptian
society where family members are strongly encour-
aged to marry their own relatives to keep the well
being of the family intact. Hofstede (2001) argued
that the Arab culture is a collectivistic culture where
members of the Arab society tend to depend on each
other. Thus,

H6: Arab newspaper ads will manifest the cul-
tural value “interdependence” more than
their U.S. counterparts.

H7: U.S. newspaper ads will manifest the cul-
tural value “independence” more than
their Arab counterparts.

Thriftiness

Islam stresses that people be thrifty and not waste
what they have. It is stated in the Koran that God
loves not the wasters (Koran 7:31). Likewise, a com-
mon theme throughout the Bible is one of good stew-
ardship. Part of being a good steward is being
economical, and the Bible is full of examples about
the foolishness of living beyond one’s means (e.g., the
parable of the Prodigal Son in Luke 15:11-32). Thus,

H8: The cultural value “thriftiness” will be
manifested in the same proportions in the
Arab and the U.S. newspaper ads.

Competitiveness

According to Hofstede (1984), the Arab world is a
highly collectivist society. Ibn Khaldun (1967) ad-

102 Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising

dressed the concept of asabiyya in the Arab countries
as a type of solidarity among the group that is based
on blood or a strong bond of mutual affections among
the members of the group, which make them willing
to fight and die for one another. Moaddel (2002) ar-
gues that this solidarity was the key factor in the
Bedouins’ military prowess and driving force that en-
abled them to overcome city-dwellers and establish
royal authority. This illustrates how collectivism ex-
isted in the Arab world many years ago. One can
argue that the collectivist concept in the Arab world
has been strongly impacted by the teachings of Islam.

Al-Olayan and Karande (2000) argue that behavior
in the Arab world toward others is influenced by mes-
sages in the Shari’a, which encourage people not to
compete at the cost of harming others. Prophet
Muhammad stressed this issue by stating, “None of
you truly believes until he loves for his brother what
he loves for himself” and that “A Muslim is the one
who avoids harming Muslims with his tongue and
hands” (quoted in Al-Olayan and Karande 2001, p.72).
Thus, it is expected that competing advertising will
be less prevalent in the Arab world because doing so
may cause harm to a Muslim.

Similar charitable concepts are found in Christian
culture. For example, Jesus told people, “But I say to
you, love your enemies, bless those who curse you,
do good to those who hate you, and pray for those
who spitefully use you and persecute you” (NKJV,
Mathew 5:44). However, where the Arabs interpreted
their religious charge as support for collectivism,
Americans tend to treat this religious imperative as
an individual instruction. This is evident in Hofstede’s
scores that showed the United States to have the high-
est score for Individualism. The US Federal Trade
Commission even encourages the use of competing
advertising (Cutler and Javalgi 1992). Thus, while Ar-
abs are culturally conditioned to find internal compe-
tition negative, Americans may see internal
competition as a positive. This leads to,

H9: Compared to U.S. newspaper ads, Arab
newspaper ads will use fewer (competi-
tive) comparative ads.

Attitude toward Nature

Researchers have found that certain cultures tend
to value oneness with nature while others value
mastery over nature and that this cultural differ-
ence is reflected in advertising. For example, Japa-
nese (Mueller 1987) and Chinese (Chen and
Schweitzer 1996) ads have a greater tendency to
illustrate the importance of oneness with nature

when compared to U.S. ads. Both constructs may
include a respect for nature, but oneness with na-
ture indicates more of an appreciation for nature
as it is while mastery over nature indicates a belief
that nature needs to be managed.

The Koran teaches that Allah’s (God) creation is not
to be altered, which implies that man is to respect and
accept nature as it is. “Then set your face upright for
religion in the right state— the nature made by Allah
in which He has made men; there is no altering of
Allah’s creation; that is the right religion, but most
people do not know” (Koran 30:30).

The Islamic belief on this issue is much different than
the Christian worldview. In the very first chapter of the
Bible, Christians are told to manage the earth.

So God created man in His own image; in the im-
age of God He created him; male and female He
created them. Then God blessed them, and God
said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply; fill the
earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish
of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over every
living thing that moves on the earth” (NKJV, Gen-
esis 1:27-28).

The Christian theme of good stewardship strongly
influences how Christians perceive nature. Christians
believe that management of the earth is not just a
good idea, but that they are commanded to be good
stewards of the earth and to master it. Thus,

H10: Arab newspaper ads will manifest the
cultural value “oneness with nature”
more than their U.S. counterparts.

H11: U.S. newspaper ads will manifest the
cultural value “mastery over nature”
more than their Arab counterparts.

Attitude toward Enjoyment

Both religions warn people not to indulge them-
selves in the enjoyment of this life at the expense of
their afterlife. For example, the Koran states, “O my
people! this life of the world is only a (passing) enjoy-
ment, and surely the hereafter is the abode to settle”
(Koran 40:39). Likewise, Jesus taught, “For what will it
profit a man if he gains the whole world and loses his
own soul?” (NKJV, Mark 8:36). However, both religions
encourage men to take joy in life. “This is the day the
Lord has made; We will rejoice and be glad in it” (Psalm
118:24). Lin (2003) argued that some values tend to be
more universal than specific. For example, all human
beings strive for the feeling of enjoyment. So long as a
culture has progressed beyond a substance economy,
economic differences should not have an impact on the
desire for enjoyment. Thus, we hypothesize that

Spring 2010 103

H12: U.S. newspaper ads will manifest the
cultural value “enjoyment” in similar
amounts as their Arab counterparts.

Methodology

Sampling Method

Newspapers were selected based on the following
criteria. First, the newspaper needed to be either the
leading newspaper or one of the leading newspapers
in each country. Second, the newspaper had to be a
daily newspaper. Because not much information is
available to help in the evaluation of each newspaper
in the Arab countries included in the analysis, a con-
sultation with the embassy of each country was con-
ducted and the following newspapers were selected:
Al-Ahram from Egypt, Al-Nahar from Lebanon, Al-
Watan from Kuwait, Al-Watan from Saudi Arabia, Al-
Bayan from U.A.E, U.S. Today, and NY Times from the
U.S.). A total of 1245 ads are analyzed where 150 ads
were taken from each Arab country and 495 were
taken from the United States.

Coding Procedure

Three U.S. undergraduate students coded the U.S.
ads. Three bilingual Middle Eastern students, two
graduates and one undergraduate, coded the Arab
sample. All coders were trained prior to coding. The
coders were provided with a detailed guidance as to
how the coding categories should be done. Following
previous research (Al-Olayan and Karande 2000), the
percentage of agreement among the three coders was
calculated. The inter-rater reliability was calculated us-
ing the percentage of similar classifications for all ads.
Intercoder reliabilities are reported in Table 2. Dupli-
cate ads were eliminated to increase product category.

Results

Table 3 presents a detailed description of the distri-
bution of sample advertisements according to prod-
uct category. The most frequently advertised product
in the Egyptian, Kuwaiti, Lebanese and U.S.A news-
paper sample is automobiles with 18%, 16.6%, 9%
and 7.0%, respectively. The most frequently adver-
tised product in the Saudi newspaper sample is
watches with 20.6%, while the most frequently adver-
tised product in the U.A.E. is health/insurance with
14%. Alcoholic products (2%), cellular phone (9%),
and food (4%) appeared more frequently in the Egyp-
tian sample than in any other. Tobacco products (2.6%)

appeared more frequently on the Lebanese sample
than in any other, while cosmetics (7.3) appeared more
frequently on the Kuwaiti sample than any other. In
the Saudi sample, credit card (4.6%), hair care (8%)
and watches (20.6%) appeared more frequently than
in any other sample, while in the U.A.E. sample,
health/insurance (14.0%) appeared more frequently
than in any other sample. Finally, medicines (3.2%)
appeared more frequently in the U.S.A. sample than
in any other. For a detailed description of the sample
distribution, see Table 3.

To answer research question one, we used descrip-
tive statistics and MANOVA to examine the differ-
ences between the United States and the Arab world
newspaper advertisements. Table 4 provides a de-
scription of the mean averages of each cultural value.
Each cultural value was measured using a scale that
ranged from 1-3 with 1 indicating the absence of the
cultural value and 3 indicating a strong presence of
the cultural value. As Table 4 indicates, the cultural
values that had the highest manifestation in the U.S.
sample are enjoyment (mean=1.65) and beauty en-
hancement (mean=1.6). The cultural values that were
least manifested in the U.S. sample are respect for the
elderly (mean=1.05), oneness with nature (mean=1.06)
and interdependence (mean=1.07).

The cultural values that appeared most often in the
Egyptian sample are enjoyment (mean=1.67), thrifti-
ness (mean=1.44), and natural (mean=1.23). Respect for
elders (mean=1.02) and interdependence (mean=1.02)
had the least appearance. In the Lebanese sample en-
joyment (mean=2.10), interdependence (mean=1.53),
economy (mean=1.43), and beauty (mean=1.38) were
the most manifested cultural values, while respect for
the elders (mean=1.02) and competition (mean=1.05)
were the least manifested cultural values.

The sample from Kuwait contained more of beauty
(mean=1.48), mastery over nature (mean=1.39) and
enjoyment (mean=1.28), and less of harmony with
others (mean=1.00) independence (mean=1.00), inter-
dependence (mean=1.01), and competition (1.01). On
the other hand, the Saudi sample included more of
enjoyment (mean=1.53), beauty (mean=1.38), economy
(mean=1.32), and less of respect for elders (mean=1.00),
mastery over nature (mean=1.00) and oneness with
nature (mean=1.00). Finally, the United Arab Emir-
ates sample included more of thriftiness (mean=1.69),
beauty (mean=1.60), enjoyment (mean=1.22), and in-
terdependence (mean=1.20) and less of competition
(mean=1.00), natural (mean=1.00), respect for elders
(mean=1.00), and interdependence (mean=1.00).

This study also utilized the Multivariate Analysis
of Variance (MANOVA) to examine the differences of

104 Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising

Table 2
Cultural Values Intercoder Reliability

Cultural Value Newspaper

Beauty Egypt: .82 Lebanon: .80
Kuwait: .79 Saudi: .80
U.A.E.: .74 U.S.A.: .88

Competition Egypt: .90 Lebanon: .93
Kuwait: .97 Saudi: .96
U.A.E.: .99 U.S.A.: .85

Economy Egypt: .74 Lebanon: .72
Kuwait: .77 Saudi: .74
U.A.E.: .71 U.S.A.: .91

Enjoyment Egypt: .82 Lebanon: .76
Kuwait: .84 Saudi: .83
U.A.E.: .86 U.S.A.: .87

Harmony with Others Egypt: .92 Lebanon: .96
Kuwait: .99 Saudi: .95
U.A.E.: .94 U.S.A.: .93

Independence Egypt: .90 Lebanon: .98
Kuwait: .98 Saudi: .90
U.A.E.: .98 U.S.A.: .90

Interdependence Egypt: .98 Lebanon: .88
Kuwait: .96 Saudi: .97
U.A.E.: .83 U.S.A.: .96

Natural Egypt: .86 Lebanon: .97
Kuwait: .94 Saudi: .90
U.A.E.: .99 U.S.A.: .92

Tradition Egypt: .94 Lebanon: .90
Kuwait: .93 Saudi: .90
U.A.E.: .90 U.S.A.: .92

Veneration for the Elders Egypt: .97 Lebanon: .98
Kuwait: .98 Saudi: .98
U.A.E.: .99 U.S.A.: .96

cultural values manifested in the U.S. and the Arab
countries. MANOVA is deemed appropriate because
it allows for multiple comparisons and allows for post
hoc tests to be conducted avoiding the problem of
inflated alphas (Field 2000).

Hypothesis 1 postulated that Arab newspaper ad-
vertising will manifest more traditions compared to
their U.S. counterparts. To the contrary, the U.S. scored
significantly higher than all the other Arab countries
on this value. Therefore, hypothesis 1 was not sup-
ported.

H2: The focus on women’s beauty enhancement
will be less in Arab newspaper advertising compared
to their U.S. counterparts. Table 4 provides the com-
parison results between the United States and each of

the Arab countries. The U.S. is compared to each one
of the Arab countries included in the sample. Table 4
indicates that the U.S. scored significantly higher than
Egypt, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia. The U.S. also
scored higher than Kuwait, but the difference was not
significant. Therefore, hypothesis 2 was supported.

Hypothesis 3 stated that there will be differences
among the Arab countries regarding the cultural value
beauty enhancement. Saudi Arabia is probably the
most restrictive country when it comes to women ap-
pearance in public. Lebanon is on the other extreme
of the spectrum with women having a lot of freedom
to dress as they please. Comparing these 2 countries
and the rest reveals that there was no significant dif-
ference; therefore, hypothesis 3 was not supported.

Spring 2010 105

Table 3
Distribution of Newspaper Advertisements on Product Category

Product
Category Egypt Lebanon Kuwait Saudi U.A.E U.S.A

1 . Alcohol 3 (2.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.6%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 5 (1.0%)
2 . Automobiles 27 (18%) 14 (9.0%) 25 (16.6%) 10 (6.6%) 10 (6.6%) 35 (7.0%)
3 . Cellular Phone 14 (9.0%) 3 (2.0%) 2 (1.3%) 10 (6.6%) 4 (2.6%) 7 (1.4%)
4 . Coffee/Tea 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.6%) 1 (0.6%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
5 . Credit/Card Banking 4 (2.6%) 4 (2.6%) 5 (3.3%) 7 (4.6%) 0 (0.0%) 14 (2.8%)
6 . Cosmetics 2 (1.3%) 3 (2.0%) 11 (7.3%) 6 (4.0%) 3 (2.0%) 11 (2.2%)
7 . Computer/Printer/

Software/ Internet 5 (3.3%) 6 (4.0%) 0 (0.0%) 7 (4.6%) 2 (1.3%) 21 (4.2%)
8 . Hair Care 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 5 (3.3%) 12 (8.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
9. Health Insurance 2 (1.3%) 2 (1.3%) 8 (5.3%) 0 (0.0%) 21(14.0%) 5 (1.0%)
10.Laundry/Soap 1 (0.6%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
11.Medicines 2 (1.3%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 4 (2.6%) 4 (2.6%) 16 (3.2%)
12.T V / V C R 3 (2.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.6%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 10 (2.0%)
13.Tobacco 0 (0.0%) 4 (2.6%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (0.04%)
14.ToothPaste 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
15.Watches 6 (4.0%) 3 (2.0%) 1 (0.6) 31 (20.6%) 0 (0.0%) 26 (5.2%)
16.Contraceptive 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
17.Food 6 (4.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (1.3%) 4 (2.6%) 1 (0.6%) 9 (1.8%)
18.Other 78 (52%) 111 (74%) 88 (58.6%) 71 (47.3%) 111 (74%) 334 (67.4%)
Total 1 5 0 1 5 0 1 5 0 1 5 0 1 5 0 1 5 0

Table 4
MANOVA Results

Cultural USA Egypt Lebanon Kuwait Saudi U.A.E.
Values N=150 N=150 N= 150 N=150 N= 150 N=150

Beauty Enhancement 1.60 1.14** 1.38** 1.48 1.38* 1.60
Competition 1.40 1.10** 1.05 ** 1.01** 1.04** 1.00**
Thriftiness 1.17 1.44** 1.43** 1.20 1.32 1.69**
Enjoyment 1.65 1.67 2.10** 1.28** 1.53 1.22**
Harmony with Others 1.10 1.16 1.06 1.00* 1.09 1.07
Independence 1.12 1.07 1.00* 1.00** 1.11 1.01*
Interdependence 1.07 1.02 1.53** 1.01 1.05 1.20*
Attitude t. Nature 1.06 1.23** 1.05 1.04 1.10 1.00
Tradition 1.42 1.04** 1.06** 1.05** 1.06** 1.08**
Respect for Elderly 1.05 1.02 1.00 1.02 1.00 1.00
Mastery over Nature 1.17 1.31** 1.00** 1.39** 1.00** 1.00**
Oneness with 1.06 1.18** 1.00 1.05 1.00 1.00
Nature

* significant at the 0.05 level (p< .05) ** significant at the 0.01 level (p< .01)

106 Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising

Hypothesis 4 indicated that Arab newspaper ads
will manifest respect for elders in the same propor-
tions as their U.S. counterparts. There was no signifi-
cant difference between the U.S. and the Arab
countries on this cultural value. Therefore, hypoth-
esis 4 was supported.

Hypothesis 5 stated that the cultural value “har-
mony with others” will be manifested the same in the
Arab newspaper ads as it is manifested within U.S.
ads. The only Arab country that scored higher than
the U.S. was Egypt. The U.S. scored slightly higher
than the rest of the Arab countries; however, the dif-
ference was not significant. Therefore, hypothesis 5
was supported.

Hypothesis 6 stated that Arab newspaper adver-
tisements will manifest the “interdependence” cul-
tural value more than their U.S. counterparts. Data
analysis revealed that only Lebanon and U.A.E. had a
score significantly higher than the United States. Simi-
lar to the United States, Egypt, Kuwait and Saudi
Arabia scored low on this cultural value; therefore,
there is only a partial support for hypothesis 6.

Based on the individualistic nature of the American
culture, hypothesis 7 speculated that U.S. newspaper
advertisements will manifest the “independence” cul-
tural value more than their Arab counterparts. The U.S.
scored significantly higher than Lebanon, Kuwait and
UAE. Therefore, hypothesis 7 was partially supported.

Hypothesis 8 posits that the cultural value “thrifti-
ness” will be manifested in the same proportions in
the Arab and the U.S. newspaper ads. Each of the
Arab countries included in the sample had a signifi-
cant higher score than the U.S. United Arab Emirates
Therefore; hypothesis 8 was not supported.

Hypothesis 9 stated that compared to U.S. newspa-
per ads, Arab newspaper ads will use fewer (competi-
tive) comparative ads. Coders were instructed to look
for any type of comparison (direct and indirect) be-
cause previous research showed that the Arab coun-
tries tend to use indirect comparisons. This study
reveals that the use of comparative advertisements is
seldom used in the Arab countries. The United States
scored significantly higher than each of the Arab coun-
tries sampled; therefore, hypothesis 9 was supported.

Hypothesis 10 stated that Arab newspaper adver-
tisements will manifest the cultural value “oneness
with nature” more than their U.S. counterparts. The
only Arab country that scored significantly higher
than the U.S. was Egypt. The rest of the Arab coun-
tries scored similar to the U.S.; therefore, hypothesis
10 was partially supported.

Hypothesis 11 indicated that U.S. newspaper ad-
vertisements will manifest the cultural value “mas-

tery over nature” more than their Arab counterparts.
The results for this value were mixed. The U.S. scored
significantly higher than Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and
UAE. However, the U.S. scored significantly lower
than Egypt and Kuwait; therefore, hypothesis 11 was
partially supported.

Hypothesis 12 postulated that U.S. newspaper ads
will manifest the cultural value “enjoyment” in similar
amounts as their Arab counterparts. Lebanon scored
significantly higher than the U.S., while Kuwait and
United Arab Emirates scored significantly lower than
the U.S. Thus, hypothesis 12 was partially supported.

Discussion and Conclusion

This study reveals some interesting findings about
the cultural values in Arab newspaper advertising.
The general notion is that the Arab and the American
culture are vastly different from one another. How-
ever, when we look at the roots of each, we find that
they both rest on very similar religious principles.
This is not to say that they are one and the same but to
point out that there are maybe more similarities than
is ever emphasized in the media.

The Arab culture is known to be traditional and
place a great value on old traditions that have been
kept alive since the birth of Islam (Lee 1980), such as
respect for the elderly. Although most previous writ-
ings point out that the Arab culture is very tradi-
tional, this study reveals that this is not a cultural
value that is emphasized in newspaper advertising.
Cheng and Schwetzer (1996) found a similar result
between the U.S. and China (a country that is argued
to be very traditional) where there was no significant
difference between the 2 countries regarding respect
for the elderly. One possible explanation for the lack
of tradition in the Arab newspaper advertising is that
the Arab culture maybe slowly changing due to the
western and other influences. This change may be
apparent in the BBC News report (2005) of a young
man who was arrested in Saudi Arabia due to his
interaction with females in public. According to the
report, the young man who has recently won a reality
TV show “was mobbed by male and female fans want-
ing to kiss him and shake his hand in the Kingdom
Tower Mall.” This is very much against the tradi-
tional way of the Arabs who are raised not to show
affection in public even to closest family members. This
incident is an illustration of how young Arabs are devi-
ating from some of the common cultural values that
have been held by the Arab nations for many years.

On May 21, 2007, BBC reports of the music genera-
tion gap in the Middle East. Habib Battah, editor of

Spring 2010 107

the Middle East Broadcasting Journal, was quoted as
saying, “If you look at 10, 20 years ago, the Middle
East was one of those few places where parents and
children enjoyed the same music—and today there is
that generation gap that is forming for the first time in
the Middle East.” In addition, Aljazeera net (2005) re-
ported that a sociology professor in Egypt concluded
that the breaking down of family ties in the Arab World
was due to the increased number of satellite channels
and video clips, which is promoting a different life style
and culture. Another possible explanation is that the
Arab society like many other societies is now focused
on the modern and particularly technological innova-
tions. Finally, it might be that advertising agencies do
not see value in focusing on traditions.

Another surprising result in this study is the cul-
tural value “beauty enhancement” appears to be an
important one in the Arab culture. Although recent
reports by CNN (2006) indicated that the number of
women covering their heads in many Arab countries
is increasing, this does not seem to diminish the need
for women to look beautiful. This suggests that Arabs
seem to differentiate between the desire for women to
look beautiful (for those permitted to see them in Saudi
Arabia and other conservative parts of the Arab world)
and the need to dress modestly. On the surface, see-
ing all these women covered up may suggest that
beauty enhancement products may not find a good
market in the Arab world. On the contrary, this study
suggests that this is a value that Arabs care about and
it is reflected in the number of ads directed at women
for such products.

Although it is believed that respect for parents and
elders is particularly resonant in the Arab World (Al-
Hejailan 1996; Kabasakal and Bodur 2002; Nydell 1987),
this study reveals that this cultural value was not uti-
lized in newspaper advertising. On the surface, this
may be surprising, but when we look deeper into the
Arab culture and how advertising is viewed, this find-
ing may not be so surprising. It is possible that because
respect for parents and the elderly is so resonant in the
Arab World, marketers chose not to include them in
advertising to avoid risking any pretrial that may be
viewed as disrespectful. For example, an elder that is
depicted in a humorous advertisements may be viewed
as being portrayed disrespectfully because the Arab
people are not suppose to make fun of the elderly.

This study reveals that some aspects of the Arab
culture are still in existence such as not to directly
compete with others. Hill and Shao (1994, p. 352)
stated, “Historically, anthropologists note that tradi-
tional societies (notably in developing countries but
also in rural parts of advanced markets) are controlled

through religious and social conventions.” They also
noted, “in many religions (e.g., Islam, Buddhism and
Hinduism), religious and social duties are indistin-
guishable.” A company that engages in comparative
advertising in the Arab world may be taking a huge
risk because the Arabic consumer is not used to it.
The advertisement as a result may lead to confusion
between the advertised brands. This is not to say that
the Arabic consumer is not sophisticated but to say
that the Arabic consumer has not been used to seeing
comparative advertising. Although legislation is one
of the factors that can potentially influence ad con-
tent, Al-Olayan and Karande (2000) argue that legis-
lation pertaining to the regulation and censure of ads
is scarce in the Arab countries. Therefore, guidelines
for advertising have to be drawn from cultural orien-
tation. The lack of legislation was found in an earlier
study by Lugmani, Yavas and Quraeshi (1987), who
found little regulation of advertising in Saudi Arabia.
Based on our study and previous studies, international
advertisers are advised to give consideration to both
regulation and cultural influences, such as those dis-
cussed in this study, when determining ad content. It is
possible that comparative advertising might be per-
ceived as unethical or immoral in the Arab world. There-
fore, it is advised that the differences in ad content
should be considered in light of possible differences in
regulation and attitudes toward comparative ads be-
tween the United States and the Arab world, as well as
intra-Arab country differences in regulation.

Lin (2003) argued that some values tend to be more
universal than specific. This was apparent in the cul-
tural value enjoyment where it was emphasized both
in the Arab and United States newspaper ads. This is
one area that advertisers can capitalize on where they
should identify those cultural values that seem to be
more universal than specific.

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