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In your own words, contrast translational exposure to transactional exposure.
Your response should be at least 200 words in length. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Moffett, M. H., Stonehill, A. I., & Eiteman, D. K. (2012). Fundamentals of multinational finance. (IV ed., pp.263-264). New York: Pearson.
In-text citation
(Moffett, Stonehill & Eiteman, 2012)
No Wiki, no dictionary.com, please cite all work.
Foreign Exchange
Rate Deterrntnatt
o
n
and Forecastlng
The herd instinct among forecasters makes sheep
look like
independent thinkets- -Edgar R Fiedler’
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
S
*E,xaminehowthesupplyanddemandforanycunencycanbeviewedaSanassetchoice
issue within the portfolio of investors’
{& -bxplore how the three malor approaches to excnange rate determlnatron-pailty con-
ditioot, the balance of payments, and the asset approach-combine to explain
the
numerous emerging market currency crises experienced in recent yeals.
* Observe how forecasters combine technical analysis with the three major theoretical
approaches to forecasting exchange rates’
What determines the exchange rate between currencies
?
This has proven to be a very diffi-
cult question to answer. Companies and agents need foreign currency for buying imports, or
*uy
“urn
foreign currency by exporting. Investors, investing in interest-bearing instruments
in ioreign
“orrntri”5
and currencies, fixed-income securities like bonds, shares in publicly
traded cimpanies, or other new types of hybrid instruments in foreign markets, all need for-
eign currenty. Tourists, migrant workers, speculators on currency movements-all of these
ec;nomic agents buy and sell and supply and demand currencies.every day.This chapter
offers somJ basic theoretical frameworks to try to organize these elements, forces, and
principles.’
Cirapter 7 described the international parity conditions that integrate exchange rates
with inflation and interest rates and provided a theoreticai framework for both the globai
financial markets and the management of international financial business. Chapter 4 pro-
vided a detailed analysis of how an individual country’s international economic activity, its
balance of payments, can impact exchange rates. This chapter extends those discussions
o
f
exchange rate determination to the third school, the asset market approach.
gxiiOit 9.1 provides an overview of the many determinants of exchange rates. This road
map is first organized by the three major schools of thought (parity conditions, balance
of
payments appioach, asset market approach), and second by the individual drivers within
i6or” uppro*hes. At first glance the idea that there are three sets of theories may appear
daunting, but it is important to remember that these are not competing theories, but rather
contplementary theories.Without the depth and breadth of the various approaches combined-
out ubility to capture the complexity of the global market for currencies is lost. The chapter
concludes with the Mini-Case, The Japanese Yen Intervention of 2010, detailing Japan’s
return to its guidance of market value.
234
cHAPTER I Foreign Exchange Rate Determination and Forecast
ing
The Determinants of Foreign Exchange Rates
Parity Conditions
1. Reiative inflation rates
2. Relative interesl rates
3. Forward exchange rates
4. lnterest rate parity
235
ls there a well-developed
and liquid money and capital
market in that currency?
Asset Approach
Relative real interest rates
Prospects for,eeonomic growth
Supply and demand for assels
Outiook for political stability
Speculation and liquidlty
Political risks and controls
Is there a sound and secu
re
banking system in-place
to
support currency trading
activities?
Balance ol Payments
‘1. Current account balances
2, Portfolio investm
ent
3. Foreign direct investment
4. Exchange rate regimes
5. Official monetary reserves
Spot
Exchange
Rate
1,
,.2.
aU.
4.
E
r).
ifii-
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inls
icl’,
for-
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oad
eoi
thir
)ear
ther
ned.
pter
an’s
;’–‘:i,**<::r6l:.;!:r:l.d€:€:;#t=t:r-J_.!
In addition to gaining an understanding of the basic theories, it is equally important to
gain a working knowledge of how the complexities of international political
“.ono*y,
societal
and economic infrastructures, and random political, economic, or social events affect the
exchange rate markets.Here are a few exarnples:
* Infiastructttre weaknesses’ were among the major causes of the exchange rate collapses in
emerging markets in the late 1990s. On the other hand, infrastructure strengths help
explain why the U.S. dollar continued to be strong, at least until the September”11,2oo
1
terrorist attack on the United States, despite ,””oid balance of payments deficits on cur-
rent account.
* Speculatiori contributed greatly to the emerging market crises. Some characteristics of
speculation are hot money flowing into and out of currencies, securities, reai estate, and
commodities. IJncovered interest arbitrage caused by exceptionally low borrowing inter-
est rates in Japan coupled with high real interest rates in the United States was a pioblem
in much of the 1990s. Borrowing yen to invest in safe U.S. government securitieg hoping
that the exchange rate did not change, was popular.
* Cross-border foreign direct investment and. international portfotio investment into the
emerging markets dried up during the recent crises. This has proven to be a very serious
issue both for MNEs from the industrialized countries operating in emerging markets, and
even more serious for the multinationals that call these emerging market countries home.
* Foreign political rlsks were much reduced in recent years as capital markets became less
segmented from each other and more liquid. More countries adopted democratic forms of
government. However, recent occurrerlces of terrorism within the U.S. may be changing
perceptions of political risk.
236
PART 3 Foreign Exchange
Exposure
Finaliy, note that most determinants of the spot exchange rate are also in turn a.ffected bt
changes in the spot rate. In other words, they are not only tnted but also mutually d#rmined
Exchange R.ate Deterrnination:
The Theoretical Thread
Under the skin of an interncttional economist lies a deep-seated belief in sctme variant o!’the
PPP theory of the exchange rate.
-Paul Krugman, 1976.
There are basically three viev,s of the exchange rate.The first takes the exchange rate
as the
relative price of monies (the monetary approach); the seioncl, as the rel{ilive p”rice of goocls
(the purchasing-power-parity approach); and the thirct, the relative price of i:onds.
-Rudiger Dornbusch, “Exchange Rate Economics:where Do we stand’r.
B ro o kings pap ers on Econornic Activ ity 1, 19g0, pp. 143*194.
Professor Dornbusch’s tripartite categorization of exchange rate theory is a good starting
point, but in some ways not robust enough-in our humble opinion-to capture the multr-
tude of theories and approaches. So. in the spirit of both traditibn and compieteness, we have
amended Dornbusch’s three categories with several additional streams of ihought in the fol-
iowing discussion. The next section will provide a brief overview of the many lifferent, but
related, theories of exchange rate determination, and their reiative usefulnesS in forecastins
for business purposes.
Furchasing Power Farity,&pproaehes
The most widely accepted for all exchange rate determination theories, the theory of
purchasing power parity (PPP) states that the long-run equilibrium exchange rate is Oeter-
mined by the ratio of domestic prices relative to foreign prices, as explained in Chapter 7.
PPP is both the oldest and most widety followed of the exchange rate theorier, ui *ort
theories of exchange rate determination have PPP elements embedded within their
frameworks.
There are a number of different versions of PPP, the Law of One price, Absolute ptu’-
chasing Power Parity,and Relative Purchasing Power Parity (discussed in detail in Chapter 7).
The latter of the three theories, Relotive Purchasing Power Parity,is thought to be the most
relevant to possibly explaining what drives exchange rate values. In essence, it states that
changes in relative prices between countries drive the change in exchange rates over time.
If, for exampie, the current spot exchange rate between the Japanese yen and U.S. doltar
was Y90.00 : $1.00, and Japanese and U.S. prices were to change at 2o/o and 1″lo over the
coming period, respectively, the spot exchange rate next period would be y90.g9/$.
: Yeo.oo/$ . i#: yeo.Ber$.
Although PPP seems to possess a core element of common sense, it has proven to be
quite poor at forecasting exchange rates. The problems are both theoretical and empirical.
The the
other forces including investment incentives and economic growth. The empirical issues are
primariiy in deciding which measures or indexes of prices to use across countries, in addition
to the ability to provide a “predicted change in prices” with the chosen indexes.
c . ., I + AinJapaneseprices
Ji -t r), n’ l* AinU.S.prices
CHAPTERgForeignExchangeRateDeterminationandForecasting
237
a_
L-i-
r
ros:
rei:
tU,t-
,-
10!:
that
rllar
the
cbe
‘ical.
mat-
nby
i ale
ition
Balanee o? Payn:ents {Fl*ws} Approaehes
After purchasing power parity, the most frequently used theoretical approach.to.exchange
rate determination is proOaUty ihat involving the suppty and demand for currencies
in the for-
eign exchange market.These
“xchange
rute flows reflect current account and financial
account
transactions recorded in a nation’s balance of payments, as described in Chapter
4′ The basi
c
balance of payments approachargues that the equilibrium exchange rate is found
when the net
inflow ioutnow; of tor”ign exch”ange arising from current account
activities matches the net
outflow (inflow) of foreign exchange arising from financial account activities’
The balance of paynients approach continues to enjoy a wide degree of appeal
as the bal-
ance of payments transactions ui” o.t” of the most frequently captured and reported of
inter-
national economic activity. Tiade surpluses and deficits. current account growth
in service
activity, and recently the irowth and significance of international capital
flows continue to
fuel this theoretical fire’
criticisms of the balance of payments approach arise from the theory’s emphasis
on
flows ofcurrency and capitai rather inan ttot-t i of money or financial assets’
Relative stocks
tf *on”y or financial assets play no role in exchange rate determination in this theory’ a
weakness explored in the following monetary and asset m-ar
\
gt approaches’
Curiously, the balance of payments appioach is la,rgely dismissed by the academic
com-
munity today, while the practitioner public-market participants including currency
traders
themselves-still rely on different vaiiations of the thiory for much of their decision
making’
Nlanetary APPraaehes
The monetary approach in its simplest form states that the exchange rate is determined
by
the supply and demand for national monetary stocks, as well as.the expected future
levels and
rates of growth of monetary stocks. Other financial assets, such as bonds, are not
considered
relevant for exchange rate determination as both domestic and foreign bonds are
viewed
as
perfect substitutes. It is all about money stocks’
The monetary approach focuses on changes in the supply and demand for money
as the
primary determinant of inflation. Changes in”relative inflation rates in turn are expected
to
alter exchange rates through a purchasiirg power parity affect’ The monetary approach
then
. assumes that prices are fleiible in the shori ,u.t ui well as the long run, so that the transmis-
sion mechaniim of inflationary pressure is immediate in impac
t’
ln monetary models of exchange rate determination, real economic activity is relegated
to a role in which it only influences exchange rates through any alterations to the demand
for
ffi^nA\rThetheonsi.ol.n aritlaizerl.rr-rit”.ri,i””ionof anttmheroffactorswhiChgenefallV-afe
agreed by area experts as importanr to “t”ftu”g;
;;; ij;6;ltiatioii,’inctuding l) the failure
of ppp to hold in the short to medium term;2) iror”y demand appears to be
relatively unsta-
ble over rime; and :j tii”l””a of economic activity und tn” -9o”y supply appeff to be
inter-
dependent, not independent. Therefole, we will not pursue the monetary
approach {urther’
Asset fvlarket Approae h iFlelative Price ef Bond*)
The asset market approach,sometimes called the relative price of bonds
ot portfolio^balance
approach,argues that exchange rates are determined by the supply
and demand for
financial
assets of a wide variet.v. stritti in the supplv and demand for financial assets
alter exchange
rates. Changes in monetary and fiscal poliry alter expected returns and
perceived relative
risks of financial assets, which in turn alter rates’
Many of the macroeconomic theoretical developments in the 1980s and
1990s focused on
how monetary and fiscal policy changes altered the relative perceptions
of return and risk to
the stocks of financial assets driving exchange rate changei. Th” ft”q,rentiy
cited. w.orks of
Mundell-Fleming are in this genre. Theories 3f ,u,'””y sibstitLttion’the ability of individual
PART 3 Foreign Exchange Exposure
and commercial investors to alter the composition of their monetary holdings in their portfo-
lios, follow the same basic premises of the portfolio balance and re-balance framework.
Unfortunately, for all of the good work and research over the past 50 years, the ability to
forecast exchange rate values in the short term to long term is-in the words of the authors
below-sorry. Although academics and practitioners alike agree that in the long-run funda-
mental principles such as purchasing power and external balances drive currency values,
none of the fundamental theories has proven that useful in the short to medium term.
. . . the case for rnacroeconomic determinants of exchange rates is in a sorry state . . . [TheJ
results indicqte that no model based on such standard fundamentals like money supplies,
real income, interest rates, inflation rates and current account balances will ever succeed in
explaining or predicting a high percentage of the variation in the exchange rate, at least at
short- or medium-term frequencies.
-Jeffrey A. Frankel and Andrew K. Rose.’A Survey
of Empirical Re-searci
on Nominal Exchange Rates,” NBER Working Paper no.4865,1994.
Teehni*al Analysis
The forecasting inadequacies of fundamental theories has led to the growth and popularity of
tecltnical analysis, the belief that the study of past price behavior provides insights into future
price movements.The primary feature of technical analysis is the assumption that exchange rates,
or for that matter any market-driven price, follows trends.And those trends may be analyzed and
projected to provide insights into short-term and medium-term price movements in the future.
Most theories of technicai analysis differentiate fair value from market value. Fair value
is the true long-term value which the price will eventually retain. The market value is subject
to a multitude of changes and behaviors arising from widespread market participant percep-
tions and beliefs.
The Asset Market Approach t* Feireeasting
The asset market approacft assumes that whether foreigners are willing to hold claims in mon-
etary form depends on an extensive set of investment considerations or drivers.These drivers,
as previously depicted in Exhibit 9.1, include the following elements:
i Relative real interest rates are a major consideration for investors in foreign bonds and
short-term money market instruments.
I Prospects for economic growth and profitability are an important determinant of cross-
border equity investment in both securities and foreign direct investment.
? Capital market liquidity is particularly important to foreign institutional investors. Cross-
border investors are not only interested in the ease ofbuying assets,but also in the ease of
selling those assets quickly for fair market value if desired.
* A country’s economic and social infrastructure is an important indicator of its ability to
survive unexpected external shocks and to prosper in a rapidly changing world economic
environment.
C, Political safety is exceptionally important to both foreign portfolio and direct investors’
The outlook for political safety is usually reflected in political risk premiums for a coun-
try’s securities and for purposes of evaluating foreign direct investment in that country.
t The credibility of corporate governance practices is important to cross-border portfolio
investors. A firm’s poor corporate governance practices can reduce foreign investors’
influence and cause subsequent loss of the firm’s focus on shareholder wealth objectives.
* Contagion is defined as the spread of a crisis in one country to its neighboring countries
and other countries with similar characteristics-at least in the eyes of cross-border
lel
;es.
‘ irt
Llt
lo-
to
)rs
la-
es.
rch
91.
of
les.
ind
rIe.
lue
ect
-P-
to
nic
lrs.
un-
)ho
lrs’
ves.
ries
‘der
C ii A P T E l-l I Foreign Exchange Rate Determination and Forecasting 239
investors. Contagion can cause an “innocent” country to experience capital flight with a
resulting depreciation of its currency.
* Speculation can both cause a foreign exchange crisis or make an existing crisis worse. We
will observe this effect through the three illustrative cases that follow shortly.
Foreign investors are willing to hold securities and undertake foreign direct investment
in highly developed countries based primarily on relative real interest rates and the outlook
for economic growth and profitability. All the other drivers described in Exhibit 9.1 are
assumed to be satisfied.
For example, during the 1981-1985 period, the U.S. dollar strengthened despite growing
current account deficits. This strength was due partly to relatively high real interest rates in
the United States. Another factor, however, was the heavy inflow of foreign capital into the
U.S. stock market and real estate, motivated by good long-run prospects for growlh and prof-
itability in the United States.
The same cycle was repeated in the United States in the period between 1990 and 2000.
Despite continued rvorsening balances on current account, the U.S. dollar strengthened in
both nominal and real terms due to foreign capital inflow motivated by rising stock and
real estate prices, a low rate of inflation, high real interest returns, and a seemingly endless
“irrational exuberance” about future economic prospects. This time the “bubbie” burst follow-
ing the September 11,2001terrorist attacks on the United States.The attack and its aftermath
caused a negative reassessment of long-term growth and profitability prospects in the United
States (as well as a newly formed level of political risk for the United States itself). This neg-
ative outlook was reinforced by a very sharp drop in the U.S. stock markets based on lower
expected earnings. Further damage to the economy was caused by a series of revelations
about failures in corporate governance of several large corporations (including overstate-
ment of earnings, insider lrading, and self-serving executives).
Loss oT contrdence’rn the-US. economy-leil to a’Iarge wttnbrandi tfr’rorergl caliltdr”rruur
U.S. security markets. As wouid be predicted by both the balance of payments and asset mar-
ket approaches, the U.S. dollar depreciated. Indeed, its nominal rate depreciated by 18%
between mid-January and mid-July 2002 relative to the euro alone.
The experience of the United States, as well as other highly developed countries, illus-
trates why some forecasters believe that exchange rates are more heavily influenced by eco-
nomic prospects than by the current account. One scholar summarizes this belief using an
interesting anecdote.
Many economists reject the view that the short-term behsvior of exchange rates is determined
in flow ntarkets. Exchange rates are asset prices traded in an fficient financial market.
Incleerl, an exchange rate is the relative price of two currencies and therefore is determined by
the willingness to hold each cutency. Like other asset prices, the excliange rate is determined
by expectations about the future, not clffrent trade flows.
A paralletwith. other asset prices may illustrate the approuch. Let’s consider the stock price
of a winery traded on tlxe Bordeaux stock exchange. A {rost in late spring results in a poor
harvest, in terms of both quantity antl quality. After the harvest the wine is finally sold, snd
the inconte is much less thsn the previous year. On the duy of the final sale there is no reason
for the stock price to be influenced by this flow. First, the poor itcome has already been dis-
counterl for several months in the winery stock price. Second, the stock price is affected by
future, in addirion to current, prospects. The stock price is based on expectations of fitture
earnings, and the major cause for a change in stock price is a revision of these expectations.
A similqr reasoning applies to exchange rates: ContemporaneoL; internationsl flows
should hqve little effect on exchange rates to the extent they have already been expected.
)n-
)rs,
rnd
‘SS-:of
240 l’lriiT 3 Foreign Exchange Exposure
only news obout fiiure .economic prospects will affict excltange rcttes. since economicexpectations are potentially votatile and influenc”d i)
^nrry
variibles, especiolly varioblesof a political natltre, the short-ru, behctvior of exchaige raies is voratile.
MA : Addison wes,ey,,#llTr:iHl’,#;:::::;!,#J,’,::’#f
“:::”:till;liilillThe asset market approach to forecasting is also appiicable to emerging markets. In thiscase, however, a number of additional variables contribute to exchange rate determination.These variables. as described previously, are illiquid capital markets, weak economic andsocial infrastructure, political instability, corporate gou”rnan.”, contagion effects, and specu-lation’ These variables witl be illustrated in the sections on crises that follow.
ilLcr”r*;-tcy &rtar3 -“Japan’s Currency Intervention:policy Issues,’, Dick K. Nanto. The value of a country’s curtency is of significant interest to an individual government,s eco- $d*tiveti**s f*r !nterv**ti*n Historically, a primary motive for a government to pursue currency value change was to Alternatively, the fall in the vaiue of the domestic currency will sharply reduce the pur- C H A. P T E F S Foreign Exchange Rate Determination and Forecasting 257
the The CollaPse of the Argentine Peso
Argentine pesos/U.S. dollar
4.00
3.50
300
RouEhly six months pass before stabilzation
250
2.00
Feb 3 the government offlciallY rpid \uez rrdo :nts. . the
IL-
,e its rmic
r the lieve te rm
1.50
Argentina:s Currency Board was an extreme systern designed to
!fii.’rin”t”ifl” ability of government to conduct independent monetary
fof i”y-it *u. m* result”of years ol disasirous inflationary sufferlng CurrencY Board fix
o so ARS1.o0 = usD 1.00
000
.-w*t*x$*’tt****t” Foreeastitlg Exr Fn”aetics by banks
and independent consultuitr. I.t addition, some multinational firms have their forecasting capabilities. Predictions can be based on elaborate econometric analysis oicttattt and trends, intuition, and a certain measure of gall’
whether any of the forecasting services are worth their cost depends partly on motive for forecasting as well as the required accuracy of the forecast’ For example’ forecasts may be motivated by a multinational firm’s desire to initiate a foreign investment Japan, or perhaps to raise long-term funds denorninated in Japanese yen. Or a portfolio ager may be considering diveisifying for the long term in Japanese securities’ The time horizon of the fore”cast, the moL inaccuratJut also the less critical the forecast is likely
to be. The forecaster will typically use annual data to display long-run trends in such eco-
nomic fundamentals as Japanese inflation, grorvth, and BOP’
Short-term forecasts are typically motiiated by a desire to hedge a receivable, payable, or
clividend for perhaps a period of three months. In this case, the long-run economic fundamen-
tals may not be as important as technical factors in the marketplace, government intervention’
news, and passing .him, of traders ancl investors. Accuracv of the forecast is critical, since may be high. forecasts, and iome base their short-term forecasts on the same basic model’ Others base
their short-term iorecasts on technicai anaiysis simiiar to that conducted itr security analysis’
They attempt to correlate exchange rate changes with various other variables, regardless of
wheiher there is any economic rationale for the correlation.’fhe chances of these forecasts
Jarr 6 devaluaiion 1.00 i) hi) i .i Foreign Exchange Exposure
being consistently useful or profitable depend on whether one believes market is efficient. The more efficient the markei is, the more likely are ..random walks,” *rft pu* price behavior providing no clues to the future’ The less cient the foreign is, the betteithe chance that forecasters may get lucky and
find a key relationship tiat holds, at least for the short run. If the relationship is realiy tent, however, others will soon discover it and the market will become efficient again respect to that piece of information’ authors’ sug-
gested methodologies. opinions, however, are subject to change without ber, if authors could predict the movement of exchange rates with regularity, we surely Tech:rieal AnalYsis and volume data to
determine past trends that are expected to continue into the future’ tant element of technical analysis is that future erchange rates are exchange rate. Exchange rate movements, similar to equily price movements, vided into three periodi: 1) day-to-day movement, which is seemingly movements extenOrnfiroin-#u”tui Olys to trends lasting several months; 3) loqg-term move-
ments, which are chaiacterized by up and down long-term trends’ Long-term technical analy-
sis has gained new popularity as i result of recent research into the possibility that long-term The longer the time horizon of the forecast, the more inaccurate the forecast is likely be. Whereas forecasting for the long run must depend on economic fundamentals of exchange
rate determination, ma’ny of the foiecast needs of the firm are short- to medium-term in tnut r3
ex{
Exchange Rate Forecasting in Practice
Beeommended Forecast Methods
Assume the {ixed rate is maintained Capital controls; black market rates
lndlcators of government’s capability to maintain fixed-rate?
Changes in official foreign currency reserves
Technical methods which capture trend
Forward rates as forecasts
Forecast Period
SHORT.RUN
LONG.RUN
Regime
Fixed-Rate
Ftoating-Rate 1. 1. (a) <30 days, assume a random walk
(b) 30-90 daYs, forward rates
3. 90-360 days, combine trend with fundamental analysis Fixed-Rate 1. Fundamentalanalysis Floating-Rate 1. Focus on inflationary fundamentals and PPP technical “waves” ;,yi 7r.r: T L:F, tt Foreign Exchange Rate Determination and Forecasting nge ug- .to rm time horizon and can be addressed with less theoretical infer no theory o’- “u.r*ii,y freely mix fundamentai urrO t”.t ni*iunufytii ftesumably because horseshoes-getting close is all that counts’ biomt Finance in analysis of how ur”urut” orr” very prestigious currency forecaster Crocs-Rat* Ccnsi*t*i1cY il”i F*re*astit”lg
International financial managels must often forecast their home the set of countries in which the firm operates, not only to decide make an investment, but also as part of preparing muiticountry home country’s currency. These are the op”ruiing U”uag”tt against foreign subsidiary -unJg”tt willbe iudgld- Ctrecting the ,*pr[it in individual forJcasts acts ai a reality check to the original forecasts.
to 9.3
JPl*leirgan Chase Foreeasi There are many different foreiQn exchange forecastlng seryices
and service providers. JPMorgan Chase (JPMC) is one of the
most prestigious and widely used.1 A review of JPMC’s fore-
iasting accuracy for the U.S. dollar/euro spot exchange rate
($le) ior the 2002 to 2005 period, ln 90-day increments’ is
presented in the exhibit’ The graph shows the aciual spot
exchange rate for the period and JPMC’s forecast for the spot
exchange rate for the same Period. news is that JPMC hit the actual spot rate dead on in both
May and November 2002. The bad news is that after that’
they missed. Somewhat worrisome is when the forecast got
the direction wrong. For example, in February 2004′ had forecast the spoi rate to move from the cunent rate $1 .27/€to $1 .32l€, but in fact, the doliar had appreciateci
dramalically in the {ollowing 3-month period to close at
$1 .19/€. ihit *ut in fact a massive difference’ Again’ in from the current spot rate of $1’30/€ to $1 ’23/€ ‘ but in fact’
the actual spot rate proved to be $1 ’32l€’ professional and prestigious a forecaster may be’ and how
accurate they may have been in the past, lorecasting the
future-by anyone for anything-is challenging to say the
least.
lThis analysis uses exchange rate data as published in the The Economist, appearing quarterly The source of the exchange casts, as notedin The Economlsf, is JPMorgan Chase’
$1.40
$1 30
$1.20
$1,10
$1.00
$0.90
138
13232 1.30 Actual SPol 1 .15.
ffi-t.ot \
1.19
102
JPMC’s forecast of the sPot 87
$0 80
*a”86″g”**E^r*Ess”ft*.*”tfst*o*t’ :he ing ign
m- ing -he
Ti’ansaction Exposure There are two times in a man’s life when he should not -“Following the Equator,” Pudd’nhead Wilson’s New Calendar, Mark Twain.
LFARNiNG 0BJICTiVES tr ans-
actiori exposure.
I Evaluate the institutional practices and concerns of conducting foreign exchange risk t) Demonstrate how translation practices result in a foreign exchange exposure for the t Explain the meaning behind the designation of a foreigrr subsidiary’s “functional currenqy.” methods of translating foreign curency denominated financial statements into the cur- t) Compare translation exposure with operating expense. Foreign exchange exposure is a measure of the potential for a firm’s profitability, net cash TVpes of Foreign Exchange Exposure ar- 3tS
na,
ing -he or- ud :al
263 264 :rA i: i .3 Foreign Exehange ExPosure
described as transaction exposure and translation exposure, arise from contracts and accounts
being denominated in foriign currency. The economic exposure, which we will describe as
opeiattng exposure,is the potential change in the value of the firm from its changing global
clmpetiliveness as determined by exchange rates. Exhibit 1.0.1 shows schematically the three
main types of foreign exchange exposure: transaction, translation, and operating.
-fi’a:-: *;l*ti** *xPq)*il4 *
Transaction exposure measures changes in the value of outstanding financial obligations rates change. Thus, it deals with changes in cash flows that result from existing contractual ‘?=ra**i*ti*fi *xP*$i.ii* occur because of the need to “translate” foreign currency financial statements of foreign
subsidiaries into a single reporting currency to prepare worldwide consolidated financial
statcments.
*p*;’*t! r: g Hr: P*s:; re ,ri”, -“u”rrrres the change in the present value of the firm resulting from any change operating cash flows oi the firm caused by an unexpected change in exchange rates’ The
“hung” prices, and costs. r ,r- _,- ^^- . future cash flows. The differen.” b”t*””n the two is that transaction exposure is concerned (not yet contracted for) futuie cash flows that might change because a change in exchange
rates has altered international competitiveness’
Corporate Foreign Exchange Exposure
Resulting from Aecounting
lmpact of setiling outstanding : : -: i
Changes in income and owners’ Resutting from Economics
Change in expected future cash Changes in future cash flows Time and Exchange Rate Changes i..i 1p,l”t l: l:l 1 {.r Transaction and Translation Exposure
Valuation of Hedging Alternatives for an Account Payable
Cost in U.S. dollars ot Trident’s g1’000’000 A/P .84
1.82
1.80
1.78
1.76
1.74
1.72
1.70
1.68 Ending SPot Exchange Rate (US$/t)
27’7
Call option strike 1e
FoMard rate Uncovered costs 186
Money market hedge Call option hedge
Forward coniract hedge S ,1
rf
Lt.
to rll 1d
1e ftlsk F,4sreages:1ent in Fract:ce A variety of
surveys of corporate risk management practi””, in l.”.”ttt years in the United States, United Kingdom, Finland, Austr”alia, und G”.-uny, indicate no real consensus exists ing the best approach. The following is our attempt to.assimilate the basic results of oe.-ys and them with our own personal experiences’
which Goals? The treasury function of most private firms, the group typically responsible.for
transaction exposure *unug”*”nt, is usually considered a cost center’ It is not *p::::1 ‘ to add value to the firm). Currency risk managers are expected to err on the conservative when managing the firm’s moneY.
Which Exposures? Tiansaction exposures exist before they are actually booked as foreign
currency-denominated receivables and payables. However, many firms do not allow hedging of quotation exposure or backlog exposure as a.matter.of policy’ The reasoning straightforward: until the transaction exists o1 ih” accounting books of the firm’ the probabil-
ity of the exposure actually occurring is considered to be less than 100%’ Conservative ing policies di”tut” that contractual hedges be placed oniy on existing exposures’
An increasing number of firms, however, are actively hedging not only backlog expo-
sures, but also selectively hedging quotation and anticipated exposures’ Anticipated exposures
are transactions for which there are-at present-no contracts or agreements between.par- Although this may appear to be overly speculative on the part of these firms, it ma-v be that
hedginf expected foi”igrr-“urr”tr”y puyuLtes and receivables for future periods is the most
conservative approach to protect the firm’s future operating revenues’
Which Contractual Hedges? As might be expected, transaction exposure management grams afe generally divided along an “option-line,” those that use options and those that do
Lre
lr- rce
lge 278 PAFT 3 Foreign Exchange ExPosure
10.1
The Credit Grisis and Option The global credit crisis had a number of lasting impacts on
corporate foreign exchange hedging practices in late 2008
and eariy 2009. Currency volatilities rose to some of the high-
est levels seen in years, and stayed there. This caused option
premiums to rise so dramatically that many companies were
much rnore selective in their use of currency options in their
risk management Programs. recently as July 2007, the implied volatility for the most widely
traded currency cross was below 7% for maturities from one
week to three years. By October 31, 2008, the implied volaiility had reached 29%. Although this was seem-
ingly the peak, l-month implied volatilities were still over 20%
on January 30, 2009.
This makes options very expensive. For example, the
premium on a 1-month call option on the euro with a strike
rate forward-at-the-money at the end of January 2009 rose
from $0.0096/€ to $0.0286/€ when volatility is 2A%’ nolTa/o
For a noiional principai of €1 million, that is an increase in not. Firms that do not use culrency options rely almost exclusively on forwald contracts money market hedges. Global Finan-ce in Practice J0.7 demonstrates how market condition
may change firm hedging choices. cies which mandale proportional hedging.These policies generally require the use of contract hedges on u pir””.ttage 1e.g-., 5b, 60, ot 70″/o) of existing transaction exposures’ the maturity of tir” “”porrrr”*-i”ngtiens, The remaining portion of the expJsure is then selectively hedged on the basis of the risk tolerance, view of exchange rate movements’ and confidence level’ Although rarely
acknowledged by the firms thernselves, selective hedging is essentially speculation’ cant questi6n remains as to whether a firm or a financial manager can consistently future direction of exchange rates’
Ti’ansl ation HxPostl re financial statements of foreign subsidiaries-which are stated in foreign currency-must be restated
in the parent’s repolting currency for the firm to prepare consolidated financial statements’
Foreign subsidiarles of il.S. companies, for example, must restate local euro, statements into U.S. dollars ,o tht foreign valuis can be added to the parent’s U’S’ dollar-
denominated balance sheet and income statement. This accounting process is called
“translation .” Translation exposure is the potential for an increase or decrease net worth and reported net income caused by a change in exchange rates since the translaiion. trans- lated statements are also used by management to isseis the performance of foreign sidiaries. Although such assessment might be performed from the local culrency restatement of all subsidiary statemenis into ihe single “common denominatot” of rency facilitates management comparison’
Overviequ of Translation for consoli-
dation: Ihe irucome statement and the balance sheet. (Statements of cash flow lated from the foreign subsidiaries.) The consolidated statement of CHAPTEFI 1 0 Transaction andTranslation Exposure 279
‘I
;
1 v
from the consolidated statement of income and consolidated balance sheet’ Because consoiidated results for any multinational firm are constructed from all of its subsidiary
operations, including foreign subsidiaries, the possibility of a change in consolidated income or consolidated neiworth from period to period, as a result of a change in rates, is high. used to
remeasule each and every line item on the individuai statement, the income balance sheet, there would be no imbalances resulting from the remeasurement’ But ferent exchange rate were used for different line iteml on an individual statement, an ance would result. Differenl exchange rates are used in remeasuring different line items
because translation principles are a cJmpiex compromise b-etrveen historical ues. The question, then, is what is to be done with the imbalance?
subsidiary characterization. Most countries specify the translation method to foreign subsidiary based on its business op”ruiionr’ For example, a foreign subsidiary’s ness can be categorized as either an integrated foreign entiry’ or a s.el’f-sustaining foreign An integrated foreign entity is one which opelates as al extension of the parent company’ of the par-
ent. A self-sustaining foreign erctity is one which operates in the iocal economic independent of the parent”company. 1ihe differeniiation is important to the logic of transla-
tion. A foreign subsidiary shouid be valued principaily in terms of the currency that is the
basis of its economic viabilitY. integrated and self-sustaining. FJt “*u-pi”, assemblies in the United States which are then shipped to a Spanish subsidiary for and resale in the European union would likely characterize the Spanish subsidiary htegrated foreign entity.The dominant currency of economic lar. That same U.S. parent may also own an agricultural marketing business has few cash flows or operarions related tI tire U.S. parent company.or U’S’-dollut’..fr” bolivar’
Because the Yenezuilan subsidiary’s operations are independent of its parent’ and its
functional currency is the venezuelan bolivar, it would be classified as a self-sustaining
foreign entitY.
Functional Currency. A foreign subsidiary’s functional currency is the currency of the pri-
mary economic environmentln which the subsidiary operates and in which it generates in its
day-to-day operations. It is important to note that the geogfaphic location of a foreign sub-
sioiary uno iti functional may be different. The Singapore subsidiary of a U’S’ firm
may find thar its functional currency ii tire U.S. dollat (integrated subsidiary), the Singapore pound (also a sef as either integrated or self-sustaining, requires that the functional currency of the subsidiary
be determined. of its individual foreign sub-
sidiaries to determine the appropriate functionul “.,tt”n”y a U.S.-based company is deiermined to have the U.S. dollar as its functional currencY’ essentially an extension of the parent company (equivalent to.the integrated foreign designation used by most countiies). If, however,’the functional currency of the forelgn sidia-ry is determined to be different from the U.S. clollar, the subsidiary is considered rate entity from the parent (equivalent to the self-sustaining entity designation)’
rd ,li- rl’s :ial lnS-
ub- roli- r.’i I :j Foreign Exchange ExPosure
Tc”ensl ation lr4ethCId s temporal method. Regardless of which method is employed, a translation method must not
only designate at what exchange rate individual balance sheet and income statement items
ar”-r”*”irrrred, but also designate where any imbalance is to be recorded, either in current Current Rate Method. The current rate method is the rate with few exceptions.
most prevalent in the world todaY. * – sse/s and Liabilities. A1l assets and liabilities are translated at the current rate of * Income Statement ltems. A1l. items, including depreciation and cost of goods sold, are trans- losses were incurred oI at an appropriately weighted average exchange rate for the period’
* Distributions. Dividends paid are translated at the exchange rate in effect on the date of * EEtitv ltems. Common stock and paid-in capital accounts are translated at historical plus or minus an,v income or loss for the year’
Gains or losses caused by translation adjustments are nol included in the calculation of
consolidated net income. Rather, translation gains or losses are reported separately and accu-
mulated in a separate equity reserve account (on the consolidated balance sheet) with a title
such as ,,cumulative translaiion adjustment” (CTA), but it depends on the country. If a for- lated in the C’lA account are reported as one component of the total gain or loss on sale or
liquidation. The totai gain or lois is reported as part of the net incAme or loss for the time
period in which the sale or liquidation occurs.
Temporal Method. Under the temporai method, specific assets and liabilities are transiated at
exchange rates consistent with thatiming of the item’s creation.The temporal metltod assumes
that a n-umber of individual line item assets such as inventory and net plant and equipment restated regularly to reflect market value. If these items were not restated but were instead
carried at historical cost, the temporal method becomes the monetary/nonmonetary method translation, a form of translation that is still used by a number of countries today’ Line items
include the following:
* Monetary assefs (primarily cash, marketable securities, accounts receivable, and long-term These are translated at cuirent exchange rates. Nonmonetory assets and liabilities (prima-
rily inventory and fixed assets) are translated at historical rates.
* Inconte Statement ltems.These are translated at the avetage exchange rate for the period, with nonmonetary assets or iiabilities. These accounts are translated at their historical rate’
& Distribtttions. Dividends paid are translated at the exchange rate in effect on the date of * Equity ltems. Common stock and paid-in capital accounts are translated at historical rates’ minus any income or loss for the year, plus or minus any imbalance from translation’ + F
s ,3-
t-6
,*i
* $l ri: i: ii 4. ‘.*.
* E* tr
{1.
* {lliAP Il:lt i (i Transaction andTranslation Exposure 281,
Under the temporal method, gains of losses resulting from remeasurement are carried
directly to current Consolidated income, and not to equity reserves, Hence, foreign exchange
gains and losses arising from the translation process do introduce volatility to consolidated U.S. Translation Procedures. The United States differentiates foreign subsidiaries on the
basis of functional currency, not subsidiary characterization. A note on terminology: Under tion” while use of the temporal method is termed “remeasurement.” The primary principles
of U.S. translation are summarized as follows:
+ If the financial statements of the foreign subsidiary of a U.S. company are maintained in * If the financial statements of the foreign subsidiary are maintained in the local currency method.
If the financial statements of the foreign subsidiary are maintained in the local currency If the financial statements of foreign subsidiaries are in the local currency and neither the remeasured into the functional currency by the temporal method, and then translated into
doilars by the current rate method.
f the ent lay of rns-
rnd :of
ical rof itle lat )rm iod, eof
rtes.
sor
* U.S. translation practices have a special provision for translating statements of foreign sub- tion has been 1007″ or’more over a 3-year period. In this case, the subsidiary must use the
temporal method.
A final note:The selection of the functional currency is determined by the economic real- ferred procedures or elective outcomes. Since many U.S.-based multinationals have numerous
foreign subsidiaries, some doiiar-functional and some foreign currency-functional, currency
gains and losses may be passing through both current consolidated income and/or accruing in
equity reserves.
lnternational Translation Practices. Many of the world’s largest industrial countries use lation procedure. A foreign subsidiary is an integrated foreign entity or a self-sustaining for- rate method,also termed the closing-rate method.
-h’ielcnt Corp Each subsidiary of Tiident-the United States, Europe, and China-will have its own CHAPTFf? I0 Transaction and Translation Exposure 285
il; i;’. ;tpoi’i rtrr”t'”0 Exchange Rate Translated . P-9t:.*9″: ?::,?91.9 – )__
ioss
the ncy,
cia- are the ans- rted ,uity This Assets ln Euros {€) (US$/euro) Accounts (US$) (US$/euro)
Cash
Accounts receivable
lnventory
Net plant and equiPment
Total
Liabilities and Net Worth
Accounts payable
Shod-term bank debt
Long{erm debt
Common stock
Retained earnings
Translation gain (loss)
Toial
1,600,000
3,200,000
2,400,000
4, 800,000
1.2000
1.2000 1 .2180
1.2760
1.2000 1.2764
1.2437 (a)
$ 1,92o,ooo 2,923,204
6,124,80O
1.0000
1.0000 ‘t.2180
1.2760 1.c000
.,.2740
1.2437 (b)
c $ 1,600,000 2,923,200
6,124,800
12,000,000
800,000 1,800,000
6,200,000
$14,808,000
$ 960,000 1,920,0a0
2,296,840
7,711,200
$13,848,000
$ 800,000 1,600,000 2,296,844
7 ,711,200
$ (160,000)
12,000,000 $14,808,0c0 s13.848,000
(a) Dollar retained earnings before depreciation are the cumulative sum of addttions to reiained earnings (b) Translated into dollars at the same rate as before deprecia’tion of the euro’
(c) uncer tre temporal meihod, the translation loss of $160,000 would be closed into retained earnings separate line item as shown here. Ending retained earnings would aciually be $7,711,200 – s160 000: $z’551 ‘200’
through the income statement, reducing reported net income and reducing retained earnings’
Endirig retained earnings would in fact be $7 ,11’1’200 minus $160’000′ or $7’551’200′ Whether
gains ancl losses pass tf,rough the income statement under the temporal method depends
upon the countrY.
ManageriaE Implications because inventory and net plant and equipmJnt. as rvell as all monetary assets’ are deemed
exposed. When net exposed assets are lirger, gains or losses from translation are also larger’
If management expecis a foreign currency to bepreciate, it could minimize translation expo-
sule by ieducing net exposed issets. If management anticipates an appreciation of the for- Depending on the accounting method. managetnent might select different assets and lia-
bilities for reduction or increase-Thus, “real” decisions about investing and financing might
be dictated by which accounting technique is required, when in fact, the method of reporting
should be neutral in its influence on operating and financing decisions.
Managing Translatian fxposure times, some firms have attempted to hedge translition exposure in the forward market’ Such
action amounts to speculating in the forward market in the hope that a cash profit will be
realizedto offset the noncash loss from translation. Success depends on a precise prediction 286 PART 3 Foreign Exchange Exposure
of future exchange rates, for such a hedge wiil not work over a range of possible future spot Balance Sheet Hedge Defined. A balance sheet hedge requires an equal amount of exposed The cost of a balance sheet hedge depends on reiative borrowing costs. If foreign cur- crfic $aiance sheet accounis. Thus, balance sheet hedges are a compromise in which the To achieve a balance sheet hedge, Tiident Corporation must either 1) reduce exposed subsidiaries to create euro debt and exchange the proceeds for dollars.
Current Rate Method. Under the current rate method, Tiident should borrow as much as
€8,000,000. The initial effect of this first step is to increase both an exposed asset (cash) and
an exposed liability (notes payable) on the balance sheet of Tiident Europe, with no immedi- Europe could exchange the acquired euros for U.S. doliars and hoid those dollars itseif, or as repayment of intracompany debt. Tiident Corporation could then exchange the euros for
dollars. In some countries, local monetary authorities will not allow their currency to be so Another possibility would be for Tiident Corporation or a sister subsidiary to borrow the
euros, thus keeping the euro debt entirely off Tiident’s books. Howevet, the second step is
still essential to eliminate euro exposure; the borrowing entity must exchange the euros for
doilars or other unexposed assets. Any such borrowing should be coordinated with all other euros can be “borrowed,” by simply delaying repayment of existing euro debt; the goal is to
increase euro debt, not borrow in a literal sense.)
Temporal Method. If translation is by the temporal method, the much smaller amount of only acquire U.S. dollars. F{owever, Tiident Europe could also use the proceeds to acquire inven-
tory or fixed assets in Europe. Under the temporal method, these assets are not regarded as
exposed and do not drop in dollar value when the euro depreciates’
! ( t’ u
f(
n o q
iLi 1 1″
Foreeastitlg Exr Fn”aetics i) hi) i .i Foreign Exchange Exposure
CRS Report to Congress, July 13,2007. CRS-7.
nomic and political policies and objectives. Those interests sometimes eitend beyond the
individual country, but may actually reflect some form of collective country interest.
Aithough many countries have moved from fixed exchange rate values long ago, tire govern-
ments and central bank authorities of the multitude of floating rate currencies still piivaleiy
and publicly profess what value their currency “should hold” in their eyes, regaidless of
whether the market for that currency agrees at that time. Foreign currency intervention,the
active management, manipulation, or intervention in the market’s valuation of a countrv’s
currency, is a component of currency valuation and forecast that cannot be overlooked.
There is a long-standing saying that “what worries bankers is inflation, but what worries
elected officials is unemployment.” The principle is actually quite usefui in understanding the
various motives for currency market intervention. Depending upon whether a country’sien-
tral bank is an independent institution (e.g., the U.S. Federal Reserve), or a subsidiary of its
elected government (as the Bank of England was for many years), the bank’s policies may
either fight inflation or fight slow economic growth.
keep the country’s currency cheap so that foreign buyers would find its exports cheap. This
policy, long referred to as “beggar-thy-neighbor,” gave rise to several competitive devalua-
tions over the years. It has not, horvever, fallen out of fashion. The Asian financial crisis of
1997 (discussed in detail in the following section), resulted in a number of countries devalu-
ing their currency when they did not have to; they devalued their currencies intentionally to
remain competitive with neighboring countries with competing export products. The slow
econorpic growth and continuing employment problems in many countries in 2070 and 2017
led to some countries, the United States and the European Union being prime examples,
working to hold their currency values down.
chasing power of its people. If the economy is forced. for a variety of reasons, to continue to
ny’s
announces the flotation of the peso
Le la
Jent
olfo
:d it
rtin-
ern-
tces,
was
re of
was
true,
7-n8e
t the
ome
tixed
fram poor PolicY control.
Numerous foreign exchange forecasting services exist, many of which are provided
own in-house
models’ technical
our
long-run
in
man-
longer the
most of the exchange rate changes are relatively small even though the day-to-day volatiiity
Forecisting services normally undertake fundamental economic analysis for long-term
from 1.00/$ to 1.40/$ but
banks closed, so no trading
\
the foreign exchange
it is that exchange rates
effi-
“x”hunge’market
consis-
with
Exhibit 9.5 summarizes the various forecasting periods, regimes’ and the
notice! (And remem-
wouldn’t write books.)
Technical analysts, traditionally referred to as chartisfs, focus on price
The single most impor-
based on the current
can be subdi-
r-an{gp 2) short-term
“wavesl’in currency movements exist under floating exchange rates’
to
their
*f
llr:
ant
itc
lndications of stress on fixed rate?
2.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4. Fundamental analysis of inflationary concerns
5. Government declirations and agreements regarding exchange rate goals
6. Cooperative agreements with other countries
2. BOP management
3. Ability to control domestic inflation
4. Abiliti to generate hard currency reserves to use for intervention
5. AbilitY to run trade sui’Pluses
2.lndicatorsofgenerateconomichealthSuchaseconomicgrowthandstability
3. Technical anJysis of long-term trends; new research indicates possibility of long-term
253
ltes
:ffi-
and
sis-
rith
)m-
‘ely
or-
ent
,di-
rm
ve-
Lly-
approaches’ Time series techniques
Uur ri-pty predict future values from the recent past’ Forecasters
forecasting is like playing
Prsctice 9’3 provides a short
was over a3-yeat period’
culrency exchange rates for
whether to hedge or to
operating budgets in the
which the performance of
reasonableness of the cross rates
lge
eir
sf the D*llarlEuro
There is good news and there is bad news’ The good
JPMC
of
No’rernber 2004, JPMC had foreca t the spot rate to move
The lesson learned is probably that regardless of how
print edition 01
rate fore-
1.27
Ddt^ \ \\
rate 90 daYS into the future- 090
.nd
nd
/eb
lrtal,.and I ranslatton 1ntrJ
speculate: when he can’t afford it and when he can.
I Distinguish between the three major foreign exchange exposures experienced by firms.
t| Analyze the pros and cons of hedging foreign exchange transaction exposure.
I Examine the alternatives available to a firm to manage alarge and significant
management.
multinational enterprise.
I Illustrate both the theoretical and practical differences between the two primary
rency reporting of the parent company.
t} Analyze the costs and benefits of managing translation exposure.
flow and market value to change because of a change in exchange rates. An important task of
the financial manager is to measure foreign exchange exposure and to manage it so as to
maximize the profitability, net cash flow, and market value of the firm. This chapter describes
and details both types of accounting exposure: transaction exposure and translation expo-
sure. The chapter concludes with a Mini-Case, Banbury Impex (India), which involves a
recent exposure management problem in India.
What happens to a firm when foreign exchange rates change? There are two distinct cate-
gories of foreign exchange exposure for the firm, those that are based in accounting and
those that arise from economic competitiveness. The accounting exposures, specifically
er-
rrg
ral
;US
)nt
)at
at-
lar
:al.
incurred prior io a change in exchange rates but not due to be settled until after the exchange
obligations.
Translstion exposure is the potential for accounting-derived changes in owner’s equity to
Operating exposure, also called economic exposure’ competitive exposure, ot strategic expo-
in future
in value depends on the effect of the exchange rate change on future sales volume’
Tiansaction exposure and operating exposure exist because of unexpected changes tn
with future cash flows already contracted for, while operating exposure focuses on expected
obligations entered into before
change in exchange rates but to
be settled after change in
exchange rates
equity in consoiidated financial
statements caused bY a change
in exchange rates
flows arising from an unexPected
change in exchange rates
arising from firm and competitor
firm responses
.1
1.68 1]0 1.72 1.74 1 .76 1.78 1.80 1 82 1’84
price of $1.75
is $.1 .75401t
whatever lhe
ending spot rate
is in 90 days
locks in a cost o{ $1,781,294
locks in a cost of $1 .754,000o5
n
re
r’e
As many dift’erent approaches to exposure management exist as there are firms’
the
regard-
these sur-
“o*bitt”
add profit to the firm’s bottJm-hne (which is not the same thing as saying it is not expected
side
the
is
hedg-
ties, but are anticipated on the basis of hisioricai trends and continuing business relatioaships’
plo-
in-
lar
rld
or-
Volatilities in 2S09
The dollar-euro volatilit-v was a prime example’ As
.1 -month
price from $9,580 to $28,640. That will put a hole in any
treasury department’s budget.
and
Many MNEs have e”stablished rather rigid transaction exposure risk management poli-
forward
As
the percentage forward-cover required decreases’
firm’s
Signifi-
predict the
Translation exposure,the second category of accounting exposures, arises because
pound’ yen, etc”
in the pareni’s
last
Although the main purpose of translation is to prepare consolidated statements,
sub-
statements’
one cut-
There are trvo financial statements for each subsidiary which must be translated
are not trans-
cash flow is constructed
the
net
exchange
Fo, ariy individual financial statement, internally, if the same exchange rate were
statement and
if a dif-
imbal-
and current val-
be used by a
busi-
entity’
with cash flows and g”rr”rul business lines that are highly interrelated with those
environment
It is not unusual for a single company to have both types of foreign subsidiaries’
a U’S.-based manufacturer that produces sub-
finishing
as an
operation is likely the U’S’ dol’
in Venezuela that
Venezuelan subsidiary -uy ,our”” all inputs and sell a1l products in Venezuelan
cash flows. In other words, it is the dominant currency used by that foreign subsidiary
“urr”n”y
dollar {selJ’-susta-nLng subsidiary), or a third currency such as the British
sustain’ing subsidiaryi. The Uniied States, rather than distinguishing a foreign subsidiary
Management must evaiuate the nature and purpose of -each
for each’ If a foreign subsidiary of
it is
entity
sub-
a sepa-
ln
rd
As
es.
rly
ifi-
.he
ted
rts.
tc.,
lar-
led
It’s
Last
nts,
)ur-
lns-
:ted
Two basic methods for translation are employed worldwide, the current rate method and the
income or in an equity reserve account in the balance sheet.
Under this method, all financial statement line items are
translated at the “current” exchange
exchange; thal is, at the rate of exchange in effect on the balance sheet date.
lated at either the actual exchange rate on the dates the various revenues, expenses, gains, and
nqrrment
rates. year-end retained earnings consist of the original year-beginning retained earnings
eign subsidiary is later sold or liquidated, translation gains or losses of past years accumu-
are
of
receivables) and monetaiy tiabitities (primariiy current liabilities and long-term debt).
except for items such as depreciation and cost of goods sold that are directly associated
payment.
year-end retained earnings consisi of the original year-beginning retained earnings plus or
*
*.
:3
aa,
:s
e
;g
&
+
,1!i
F
,*.
i{
€*
*-
.k
earnings.
U.S. accounting and translation practices, use of the current rate method is termed “transla-
U.S. doliars, translation is not required.
and the local currency is the functional cltrrency, they are translated by the current rate
and the U.S. dotlar is t\te fiinctional currency, they are remeasured by the temporal method’
local currency nor the dollar is the functional currency, then the statements must first be
not
)mS
lge
od.
ngs
:cu-
,or-
nu-
)or
.me
nes
are
ead
lof
)ms
bt).
ma-
rted
ate.
sidiaries operating in hyperinftation countries. These are countries where cumulative infla-
ities of the subsidiary’s operations, and is not a discretionary management decision on pre-
International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC), and therefore the same basic trans-
eign eitity; integratecl forign entities are typically remeasured using the temporal method (or
some slight variation thereof); and self-sustaining foreign entities are translated at the current
financial statement. Each set of financials will be constructed in the local currency (yuan, dol-
lar, euro), but the subsidiary insome statements and balan9e sheets will also be translated
into U.S. dollars, the reporting currency of the company, for consolidation and reporting. As a
J31!”-lY ?12911
Accounts (US$J
Exchange Bate Translated
rsed
tive
1.10.
that
bal-
arn-
;ains
.tion
t for
pass
1.2000
1.2000
s,840,000
3,200,000
1,600,000
1,600,000
1,920,000
1,600,000
o{ all prior years, translated ai exchange rates in each year’
through the income statement rather than left as a
In the case of Tiident, the translation loss or gain u’as larger under the current rate method
eign currency, itihould increase net exposed assets to benefit from a gain.”
The main technique to minimize translation exposure is called a balance sheet hedge’ At
rates. In addition, the profit from the forward “hedge” (i.e., speculation) is taxable, but the
translation loss does not reduce taxable income.
foreign cuffency assets and liabilities on a firm’s consolidated balance sheet. If this can be
achieved for each foreign currency, net translation exposure will be zero. A change in
exchange rates will change the value of exposed liabilities in an equal amount bui in a direc-
tion opposite to the change in value of exposed assets. If a firm translates by the temporal
method, a zero net exposed position is called monetqly balance. Complete monetary balance
cannot be achieved under the current rate method because total assets would have to be
matched by an equal amount of debt, but the equity section of the balance sheet must still be
translated at historic exchange rates.
rency borrowing costs, after adjusting for foreign exchange risk, are higher than parent cur-
rency borrowing costs, the balance sheet hedge is costly, and vice versa. Normal operations,
however, aiready require decisions about the magnitude and currency denomination of spe-
denomination of balance sheet accounts is altered, perhaps at a cost in terms of interest
expense or operating elficiency, to achieve some degree of foreign exchange protection.
euro assets without simultaneously reducing euro liabilities, or 2) increase euro liabilities
without simultaneously increasing euro assets. One way to do this is to exchange existing
euro cash for dollars. IfTiident Europe does not have large euro cash balances, it can borrow
euros and exchange the borrowed euros for dollars. Another subsidiary could borrow euros
and exchange them for dollars. That is, the essence of the hedge is for the parent or any of its
ate eflect on net exposed assets. The required follow-up step can take two forms: 1) Tiident
2) it could transfer the borrowed euros to Trident Corporation, perhaps as a euro dividend or
freely exchanged.
euro borrowings to avoid the possibility that one subsidiary is borrowing euros to reduce
translation exposure at the same time as another subsidiary is repaying euro debt. (Note that
€800.000 need be borrowed. As before, Tiident Europe could use the proceeds of the loan to
1
r
r
I
I
a
tr
n
a
()!
a
?
Numerous foreign exchange forecasting services exist, many of which are provided
by banks
and independent consultuitr. I.t addition, some multinational firms have their
own in-house
forecasting capabilities. Predictions can be based on elaborate econometric
models’ technical
analysis oicttattt and trends, intuition, and a certain measure of gall’
whether any of the forecasting services are worth their cost depends partly on
our
motive for forecasting as well as the required accuracy of the forecast’ For example’
long-run
forecasts may be motivated by a multinational firm’s desire to initiate a foreign investment
in
Japan, or perhaps to raise long-term funds denorninated in Japanese yen. Or a portfolio
man-
ager may be considering diveisifying for the long term in Japanese securities’ The
longer the
time horizon of the fore”cast, the moL inaccuratJut also the less critical the forecast is likely
to be. The forecaster will typically use annual data to display long-run trends in such eco-
nomic fundamentals as Japanese inflation, grorvth, and BOP’
Short-term forecasts are typically motiiated by a desire to hedge a receivable, payable, or
clividend for perhaps a period of three months. In this case, the long-run economic fundamen-
tals may not be as important as technical factors in the marketplace, government intervention’
news, and passing .him, of traders ancl investors. Accuracv of the forecast is critical, since
most of the exchange rate changes are relatively small even though the day-to-day volatiiity
may be high.
Forecisting services normally undertake fundamental economic analysis for long-term
forecasts, and iome base their short-term forecasts on the same basic model’ Others base
their short-term iorecasts on technicai anaiysis simiiar to that conducted itr security analysis’
They attempt to correlate exchange rate changes with various other variables, regardless of
wheiher there is any economic rationale for the correlation.’fhe chances of these forecasts
Jarr 6 devaluaiion
from 1.00/$ to 1.40/$ but
banks closed, so no trading
1.00
\
being consistently useful or profitable depend on whether one believes
the foreign exchange
market is efficient. The more efficient the markei is, the more likely
it is that exchange rates
are ..random walks,” *rft pu* price behavior providing no clues to the future’ The less
effi-
cient the foreign
“x”hunge’market
is, the betteithe chance that forecasters may get lucky and
find a key relationship tiat holds, at least for the short run. If the relationship is realiy
consis-
tent, however, others will soon discover it and the market will become efficient again
with
respect to that piece of information’
Exhibit 9.5 summarizes the various forecasting periods, regimes’ and the
authors’ sug-
gested methodologies. opinions, however, are subject to change without
notice! (And remem-
ber, if authors could predict the movement of exchange rates with regularity, we surely
wouldn’t write books.)
Tech:rieal AnalYsis
Technical analysts, traditionally referred to as chartisfs, focus on price
and volume data to
determine past trends that are expected to continue into the future’
The single most impor-
tant element of technical analysis is that future erchange rates are
based on the current
exchange rate. Exchange rate movements, similar to equily price movements,
can be subdi-
vided into three periodi: 1) day-to-day movement, which is seemingly
r-an{gp 2) short-term
movements extenOrnfiroin-#u”tui Olys to trends lasting several months; 3) loqg-term move-
ments, which are chaiacterized by up and down long-term trends’ Long-term technical analy-
sis has gained new popularity as i result of recent research into the possibility that long-term
“wavesl’in currency movements exist under floating exchange rates’
The longer the time horizon of the forecast, the more inaccurate the forecast is likely
to
be. Whereas forecasting for the long run must depend on economic fundamentals of exchange
rate determination, ma’ny of the foiecast needs of the firm are short- to medium-term in
their
tnut
*f
llr:
ant
itc
r3
ex{
Exchange Rate Forecasting in Practice
Beeommended Forecast Methods
Assume the {ixed rate is maintained
lndications of stress on fixed rate?
Capital controls; black market rates
lndlcators of government’s capability to maintain fixed-rate?
Changes in official foreign currency reserves
Technical methods which capture trend
Forward rates as forecasts
Forecast Period
SHORT.RUN
LONG.RUN
Regime
Fixed-Rate
Ftoating-Rate 1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(a) <30 days, assume a random walk
(b) 30-90 daYs, forward rates
3. 90-360 days, combine trend with fundamental analysis
4. Fundamental analysis of inflationary concerns
5. Government declirations and agreements regarding exchange rate goals
6. Cooperative agreements with other countries
Fixed-Rate 1. Fundamentalanalysis
2. BOP management
3. Ability to control domestic inflation
4. Abiliti to generate hard currency reserves to use for intervention
5. AbilitY to run trade sui'Pluses
Floating-Rate 1. Focus on inflationary fundamentals and PPP
2.lndicatorsofgenerateconomichealthSuchaseconomicgrowthandstability
3. Technical anJysis of long-term trends; new research indicates possibility of long-term
technical "waves"
;,yi 7r.r: T L:F, tt Foreign Exchange Rate Determination and Forecasting
253
nge
ltes
:ffi-
and
sis-
rith
ug-
)m-
'ely
.to
or-
ent
,di-
rm
ve-
Lly-
rm
time horizon and can be addressed with less theoretical
approaches' Time series techniques
infer no theory o'- "u.r*ii,y
Uur ri-pty predict future values from the recent past' Forecasters
freely mix fundamentai urrO t".t ni*iunufytii ftesumably because
forecasting is like playing
horseshoes-getting close is all that counts' biomt Finance in
Prsctice 9'3 provides a short
analysis of how ur"urut" orr" very prestigious currency forecaster
was over a3-yeat period'
Crocs-Rat* Ccnsi*t*i1cY il"i F*re*astit"lg
International financial managels must often forecast their home
culrency exchange rates for
the set of countries in which the firm operates, not only to decide
whether to hedge or to
make an investment, but also as part of preparing muiticountry
operating budgets in the
home country's currency. These are the op"ruiing U"uag"tt against
which the performance of
foreign subsidiary -unJg"tt willbe iudgld- Ctrecting the
reasonableness of the cross rates
,*pr[it in individual forJcasts acts ai a reality check to the original forecasts.
to
lge
eir
9.3
JPl*leirgan Chase Foreeasi
sf the D*llarlEuro
There are many different foreiQn exchange forecastlng seryices
and service providers. JPMorgan Chase (JPMC) is one of the
most prestigious and widely used.1 A review of JPMC's fore-
iasting accuracy for the U.S. dollar/euro spot exchange rate
($le) ior the 2002 to 2005 period, ln 90-day increments' is
presented in the exhibit' The graph shows the aciual spot
exchange rate for the period and JPMC's forecast for the spot
exchange rate for the same Period.
There is good news and there is bad news' The good
news is that JPMC hit the actual spot rate dead on in both
May and November 2002. The bad news is that after that'
they missed. Somewhat worrisome is when the forecast got
the direction wrong. For example, in February 2004'
JPMC
had forecast the spoi rate to move from the cunent rate
of
$1 .27/€to $1 .32l€, but in fact, the doliar had appreciateci
dramalically in the {ollowing 3-month period to close at
$1 .19/€. ihit *ut in fact a massive difference' Again' in
No'rernber 2004, JPMC had foreca t the spot rate to move
from the current spot rate of $1'30/€ to $1 '23/€ ' but in fact'
the actual spot rate proved to be $1 '32l€'
The lesson learned is probably that regardless of how
professional and prestigious a forecaster may be' and how
accurate they may have been in the past, lorecasting the
future-by anyone for anything-is challenging to say the
least.
lThis analysis uses exchange rate data as published in the
print edition 01
The Economist, appearing quarterly The source of the exchange
rate fore-
casts, as notedin The Economlsf, is JPMorgan Chase'
$1.40
$1 30
$1.20
$1,10
$1.00
$0.90
138
13232 1.30
1.27
Actual SPol
Ddt^ \ \\
1 .15.
ffi-t.ot \
1.19
102
JPMC's forecast of the sPot
rate 90 daYS into the future- 090
87
$0 80
*a"86"g"**E^r*Ess"ft*.*"tfst*o*t'
:he
.nd
ing
ign
m-
nd
/eb
ing
-he
Ti'ansaction
lrtal,.and I ranslatton 1ntrJ
Exposure
There are two times in a man's life when he should not
speculate: when he can't afford it and when he can.
-"Following the Equator," Pudd'nhead Wilson's New Calendar, Mark Twain.
LFARNiNG 0BJICTiVES
I Distinguish between the three major foreign exchange exposures experienced by firms.
t| Analyze the pros and cons of hedging foreign exchange transaction exposure.
I Examine the alternatives available to a firm to manage alarge and significant trans-
actiori exposure.
I Evaluate the institutional practices and concerns of conducting foreign exchange risk
management.
t) Demonstrate how translation practices result in a foreign exchange exposure for the
multinational enterprise.
t Explain the meaning behind the designation of a foreigrr subsidiary's "functional currenqy."
I Illustrate both the theoretical and practical differences between the two primary
methods of translating foreign curency denominated financial statements into the cur-
rency reporting of the parent company.
t) Compare translation exposure with operating expense.
t} Analyze the costs and benefits of managing translation exposure.
Foreign exchange exposure is a measure of the potential for a firm's profitability, net cash
flow and market value to change because of a change in exchange rates. An important task of
the financial manager is to measure foreign exchange exposure and to manage it so as to
maximize the profitability, net cash flow, and market value of the firm. This chapter describes
and details both types of accounting exposure: transaction exposure and translation expo-
sure. The chapter concludes with a Mini-Case, Banbury Impex (India), which involves a
recent exposure management problem in India.
TVpes of Foreign Exchange Exposure
What happens to a firm when foreign exchange rates change? There are two distinct cate-
gories of foreign exchange exposure for the firm, those that are based in accounting and
those that arise from economic competitiveness. The accounting exposures, specifically
ar-
er-
rrg
ral
3tS
na,
ing
;US
-he
or-
)nt
)at
ud
at-
lar
:al.
:al
263
264 :rA i: i .3 Foreign Exehange ExPosure
described as transaction exposure and translation exposure, arise from contracts and accounts
being denominated in foriign currency. The economic exposure, which we will describe as
opeiattng exposure,is the potential change in the value of the firm from its changing global
clmpetiliveness as determined by exchange rates. Exhibit 1.0.1 shows schematically the three
main types of foreign exchange exposure: transaction, translation, and operating.
-fi'a:-: *;l*ti** *xPq)*il4*
Transaction exposure measures changes in the value of outstanding financial obligations
incurred prior io a change in exchange rates but not due to be settled until after the exchange
rates change. Thus, it deals with changes in cash flows that result from existing contractual
obligations.
'?=ra**i*ti*fi *xP*$i.ii*
Translstion exposure is the potential for accounting-derived changes in owner's equity to
occur because of the need to "translate" foreign currency financial statements of foreign
subsidiaries into a single reporting currency to prepare worldwide consolidated financial
statcments.
*p*;'*t! r: g Hr: P*s:; re
Operating exposure, also called economic exposure' competitive exposure, ot strategic expo-
,ri", -"u"rrrres the change in the present value of the firm resulting from any change
in future
operating cash flows oi the firm caused by an unexpected change in exchange rates' The
"hung"
in value depends on the effect of the exchange rate change on future sales volume'
prices, and costs. r ,r- _,- ^^- .
Tiansaction exposure and operating exposure exist because of unexpected changes tn
future cash flows. The differen." b"t*""n the two is that transaction exposure is concerned
with future cash flows already contracted for, while operating exposure focuses on expected
(not yet contracted for) futuie cash flows that might change because a change in exchange
rates has altered international competitiveness'
Corporate Foreign Exchange Exposure
Resulting from Aecounting
lmpact of setiling outstanding
obligations entered into before
change in exchange rates but to
be settled after change in
exchange rates
: : -: i
Changes in income and owners'
equity in consoiidated financial
statements caused bY a change
in exchange rates
Resutting from Economics
Change in expected future cash
flows arising from an unexPected
change in exchange rates
Changes in future cash flows
arising from firm and competitor
firm responses
Time and Exchange Rate Changes
i..i 1p,l''t l: l:l 1 {.r Transaction and Translation Exposure
Valuation of Hedging Alternatives for an Account Payable
Cost in U.S. dollars ot Trident's g1'000'000 A/P
.1
.84
1.82
1.80
1.78
1.76
1.74
1.72
1.70
1.68
1.68 1]0 1.72 1.74 1 .76 1.78 1.80 1 82 1'84
Ending SPot Exchange Rate (US$/t)
27'7
Call option strike
price of $1.751e
FoMard rate
is $.1 .75401t
Uncovered costs
whatever lhe
ending spot rate
is in 90 days
186
Money market hedge
locks in a cost o{ $1,781,294
Call option hedge
Forward coniract hedge
locks in a cost of $1 .754,000o5
S
n
,1
rf
Lt.
to
re
rll
r'e
1d
1e
ftlsk F,4sreages:1ent in Fract:ce
As many dift'erent approaches to exposure management exist as there are firms'
A variety of
surveys of corporate risk management practi"", in l."."ttt years in the United States,
the
United Kingdom, Finland, Austr"alia, und G".-uny, indicate no real consensus exists
regard-
ing the best approach. The following is our attempt to.assimilate the basic results of
these sur-
oe.-ys and
"o*bitt"
them with our own personal experiences'
which Goals? The treasury function of most private firms, the group typically responsible.for
transaction exposure *unug"*"nt, is usually considered a cost center' It is not *p::::1 '
add profit to the firm's bottJm-hne (which is not the same thing as saying it is not expected
to
add value to the firm). Currency risk managers are expected to err on the conservative
side
when managing the firm's moneY.
Which Exposures? Tiansaction exposures exist before they are actually booked as foreign
currency-denominated receivables and payables. However, many firms do not allow
the
hedging of quotation exposure or backlog exposure as a.matter.of policy' The reasoning
is
straightforward: until the transaction exists o1 ih" accounting books of the firm' the probabil-
ity of the exposure actually occurring is considered to be less than 100%' Conservative
hedg-
ing policies di"tut" that contractual hedges be placed oniy on existing exposures'
An increasing number of firms, however, are actively hedging not only backlog expo-
sures, but also selectively hedging quotation and anticipated exposures' Anticipated exposures
are transactions for which there are-at present-no contracts or agreements between.par-
ties, but are anticipated on the basis of hisioricai trends and continuing business relatioaships'
Although this may appear to be overly speculative on the part of these firms, it ma-v be that
hedginf expected foi"igrr-"urr"tr"y puyuLtes and receivables for future periods is the most
conservative approach to protect the firm's future operating revenues'
Which Contractual Hedges? As might be expected, transaction exposure management
plo-
grams afe generally divided along an "option-line," those that use options and those that do
Lre
lr-
in-
rce
lge
lar
rld
or-
278 PAFT 3 Foreign Exchange ExPosure
10.1
The Credit Grisis and Option
Volatilities in 2S09
The global credit crisis had a number of lasting impacts on
corporate foreign exchange hedging practices in late 2008
and eariy 2009. Currency volatilities rose to some of the high-
est levels seen in years, and stayed there. This caused option
premiums to rise so dramatically that many companies were
much rnore selective in their use of currency options in their
risk management Programs.
The dollar-euro volatilit-v was a prime example' As
recently as July 2007, the implied volatility for the most widely
traded currency cross was below 7% for maturities from one
week to three years. By October 31, 2008, the
.1 -month
implied volaiility had reached 29%. Although this was seem-
ingly the peak, l-month implied volatilities were still over 20%
on January 30, 2009.
This makes options very expensive. For example, the
premium on a 1-month call option on the euro with a strike
rate forward-at-the-money at the end of January 2009 rose
from $0.0096/€ to $0.0286/€ when volatility is 2A%' nolTa/o
For a noiional principai of €1 million, that is an increase in
price from $9,580 to $28,640. That will put a hole in any
treasury department's budget.
not. Firms that do not use culrency options rely almost exclusively on forwald contracts
and
money market hedges. Global Finan-ce in Practice J0.7 demonstrates how market condition
may change firm hedging choices.
Many MNEs have e"stablished rather rigid transaction exposure risk management poli-
cies which mandale proportional hedging.These policies generally require the use of
forward
contract hedges on u pir"".ttage 1e.g-., 5b, 60, ot 70"/o) of existing transaction exposures'
As
the maturity of tir" ""porrrr"*-i"ngtiens,
the percentage forward-cover required decreases'
The remaining portion of the expJsure is then selectively hedged on the basis of the
firm's
risk tolerance, view of exchange rate movements' and confidence level' Although rarely
acknowledged by the firms thernselves, selective hedging is essentially speculation'
Signifi-
cant questi6n remains as to whether a firm or a financial manager can consistently
predict the
future direction of exchange rates'
Ti'ansl ation HxPostl re
Translation exposure,the second category of accounting exposures, arises because
financial
statements of foreign subsidiaries-which are stated in foreign currency-must be restated
in the parent's repolting currency for the firm to prepare consolidated financial statements'
Foreign subsidiarles of il.S. companies, for example, must restate local euro,
pound' yen, etc''
statements into U.S. dollars ,o tht foreign valuis can be added to the parent's U'S' dollar-
denominated balance sheet and income statement. This accounting process is called
"translation ." Translation exposure is the potential for an increase or decrease
in the pareni's
net worth and reported net income caused by a change in exchange rates since the
last
translaiion.
Although the main purpose of translation is to prepare consolidated statements,
trans-
lated statements are also used by management to isseis the performance of foreign
sub-
sidiaries. Although such assessment might be performed from the local culrency
statements'
restatement of all subsidiary statemenis into ihe single "common denominatot" of
one cut-
rency facilitates management comparison'
Overviequ of Translation
There are trvo financial statements for each subsidiary which must be translated
for consoli-
dation: Ihe irucome statement and the balance sheet. (Statements of cash flow
are not trans-
lated from the foreign subsidiaries.) The consolidated statement of
cash flow is constructed
CHAPTEFI 1 0 Transaction andTranslation Exposure 279
'I
;
1
v
from the consolidated statement of income and consolidated balance sheet' Because
the
consoiidated results for any multinational firm are constructed from all of its subsidiary
operations, including foreign subsidiaries, the possibility of a change in consolidated
net
income or consolidated neiworth from period to period, as a result of a change in
exchange
rates, is high.
Fo, ariy individual financial statement, internally, if the same exchange rate were
used to
remeasule each and every line item on the individuai statement, the income
statement and
balance sheet, there would be no imbalances resulting from the remeasurement' But
if a dif-
ferent exchange rate were used for different line iteml on an individual statement, an
imbal-
ance would result. Differenl exchange rates are used in remeasuring different line items
because translation principles are a cJmpiex compromise b-etrveen historical
and current val-
ues. The question, then, is what is to be done with the imbalance?
subsidiary characterization. Most countries specify the translation method to
be used by a
foreign subsidiary based on its business op"ruiionr' For example, a foreign subsidiary's
busi-
ness can be categorized as either an integrated foreign entiry' or a s.el'f-sustaining foreign
entity'
An integrated foreign entity is one which opelates as al extension of the parent company'
with cash flows and g"rr"rul business lines that are highly interrelated with those
of the par-
ent. A self-sustaining foreign erctity is one which operates in the iocal economic
environment
independent of the parent"company. 1ihe differeniiation is important to the logic of transla-
tion. A foreign subsidiary shouid be valued principaily in terms of the currency that is the
basis of its economic viabilitY.
It is not unusual for a single company to have both types of foreign subsidiaries'
integrated and self-sustaining. FJt "*u-pi",
a U'S.-based manufacturer that produces sub-
assemblies in the United States which are then shipped to a Spanish subsidiary for
finishing
and resale in the European union would likely characterize the Spanish subsidiary
as an
htegrated foreign entity.The dominant currency of economic
operation is likely the U'S' dol'
lar. That same U.S. parent may also own an agricultural marketing business
in Venezuela that
has few cash flows or operarions related tI tire U.S. parent company.or U'S'-dollut'..fr"
Venezuelan subsidiary -uy ,our"" all inputs and sell a1l products in Venezuelan
bolivar'
Because the Yenezuilan subsidiary's operations are independent of its parent' and its
functional currency is the venezuelan bolivar, it would be classified as a self-sustaining
foreign entitY.
Functional Currency. A foreign subsidiary's functional currency is the currency of the pri-
mary economic environmentln which the subsidiary operates and in which it generates
cash flows. In other words, it is the dominant currency used by that foreign subsidiary
in its
day-to-day operations. It is important to note that the geogfaphic location of a foreign sub-
sioiary uno iti functional
"urr"n"y
may be different. The Singapore subsidiary of a U'S' firm
may find thar its functional currency ii tire U.S. dollat (integrated subsidiary), the Singapore
dollar {selJ'-susta-nLng subsidiary), or a third currency such as the British
pound (also a sef
sustain'ing subsidiaryi. The Uniied States, rather than distinguishing a foreign subsidiary
as
either integrated or self-sustaining, requires that the functional currency of the subsidiary
be determined.
Management must evaiuate the nature and purpose of -each
of its individual foreign sub-
sidiaries to determine the appropriate functionul ".,tt"n"y
for each' If a foreign subsidiary of
a U.S.-based company is deiermined to have the U.S. dollar as its functional currencY'
it is
essentially an extension of the parent company (equivalent to.the integrated foreign
entity
designation used by most countiies). If, however,'the functional currency of the forelgn
sub-
sidia-ry is determined to be different from the U.S. clollar, the subsidiary is considered
a sepa-
rate entity from the parent (equivalent to the self-sustaining entity designation)'
rd
ln
,li-
rd
As
es.
rl's
rly
ifi-
.he
:ial
ted
rts.
tc.,
lar-
led
It's
Last
lnS-
ub-
nts,
)ur-
roli-
lns-
:ted
r.'i I :j Foreign Exchange ExPosure
Tc"ensl ation lr4ethCId s
Two basic methods for translation are employed worldwide, the current rate method and the
temporal method. Regardless of which method is employed, a translation method must not
only designate at what exchange rate individual balance sheet and income statement items
ar"-r"*"irrrred, but also designate where any imbalance is to be recorded, either in current
income or in an equity reserve account in the balance sheet.
Current Rate Method. The current rate method is the
Under this method, all financial statement line items are
rate with few exceptions.
most prevalent in the world todaY.
translated at the "current" exchange
* - sse/s and Liabilities. A1l assets and liabilities are translated at the current rate of
exchange; thal is, at the rate of exchange in effect on the balance sheet date.
* Income Statement ltems. A1l. items, including depreciation and cost of goods sold, are trans-
lated at either the actual exchange rate on the dates the various revenues, expenses, gains, and
losses were incurred oI at an appropriately weighted average exchange rate for the period'
* Distributions. Dividends paid are translated at the exchange rate in effect on the date of
nqrrment
* EEtitv ltems. Common stock and paid-in capital accounts are translated at historical
rates. year-end retained earnings consist of the original year-beginning retained earnings
plus or minus an,v income or loss for the year'
Gains or losses caused by translation adjustments are nol included in the calculation of
consolidated net income. Rather, translation gains or losses are reported separately and accu-
mulated in a separate equity reserve account (on the consolidated balance sheet) with a title
such as ,,cumulative translaiion adjustment" (CTA), but it depends on the country. If a for-
eign subsidiary is later sold or liquidated, translation gains or losses of past years accumu-
lated in the C'lA account are reported as one component of the total gain or loss on sale or
liquidation. The totai gain or lois is reported as part of the net incAme or loss for the time
period in which the sale or liquidation occurs.
Temporal Method. Under the temporai method, specific assets and liabilities are transiated at
exchange rates consistent with thatiming of the item's creation.The temporal metltod assumes
that a n-umber of individual line item assets such as inventory and net plant and equipment
are
restated regularly to reflect market value. If these items were not restated but were instead
carried at historical cost, the temporal method becomes the monetary/nonmonetary method
of
translation, a form of translation that is still used by a number of countries today' Line items
include the following:
* Monetary assefs (primarily cash, marketable securities, accounts receivable, and long-term
receivables) and monetaiy tiabitities (primariiy current liabilities and long-term debt).
These are translated at cuirent exchange rates. Nonmonetory assets and liabilities (prima-
rily inventory and fixed assets) are translated at historical rates.
* Inconte Statement ltems.These are translated at the avetage exchange rate for the period,
except for items such as depreciation and cost of goods sold that are directly associated
with nonmonetary assets or iiabilities. These accounts are translated at their historical rate'
& Distribtttions. Dividends paid are translated at the exchange rate in effect on the date of
payment.
* Equity ltems. Common stock and paid-in capital accounts are translated at historical rates'
year-end retained earnings consisi of the original year-beginning retained earnings plus or
minus any income or loss for the year, plus or minus any imbalance from translation'
+
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{lliAP Il:lt i (i Transaction andTranslation Exposure 281,
Under the temporal method, gains of losses resulting from remeasurement are carried
directly to current Consolidated income, and not to equity reserves, Hence, foreign exchange
gains and losses arising from the translation process do introduce volatility to consolidated
earnings.
U.S. Translation Procedures. The United States differentiates foreign subsidiaries on the
basis of functional currency, not subsidiary characterization. A note on terminology: Under
U.S. accounting and translation practices, use of the current rate method is termed "transla-
tion" while use of the temporal method is termed "remeasurement." The primary principles
of U.S. translation are summarized as follows:
+ If the financial statements of the foreign subsidiary of a U.S. company are maintained in
U.S. doliars, translation is not required.
* If the financial statements of the foreign subsidiary are maintained in the local currency
and the local currency is the functional cltrrency, they are translated by the current rate
method.
If the financial statements of the foreign subsidiary are maintained in the local currency
and the U.S. dotlar is t\te fiinctional currency, they are remeasured by the temporal method'
If the financial statements of foreign subsidiaries are in the local currency and neither the
local currency nor the dollar is the functional currency, then the statements must first be
remeasured into the functional currency by the temporal method, and then translated into
doilars by the current rate method.
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* U.S. translation practices have a special provision for translating statements of foreign sub-
sidiaries operating in hyperinftation countries. These are countries where cumulative infla-
tion has been 1007" or'more over a 3-year period. In this case, the subsidiary must use the
temporal method.
A final note:The selection of the functional currency is determined by the economic real-
ities of the subsidiary's operations, and is not a discretionary management decision on pre-
ferred procedures or elective outcomes. Since many U.S.-based multinationals have numerous
foreign subsidiaries, some doiiar-functional and some foreign currency-functional, currency
gains and losses may be passing through both current consolidated income and/or accruing in
equity reserves.
lnternational Translation Practices. Many of the world's largest industrial countries use
International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC), and therefore the same basic trans-
lation procedure. A foreign subsidiary is an integrated foreign entity or a self-sustaining for-
eign eitity; integratecl forign entities are typically remeasured using the temporal method (or
some slight variation thereof); and self-sustaining foreign entities are translated at the current
rate method,also termed the closing-rate method.
-h'ielcnt Corp
